The

Issue

05
Welding
Institute

2015

www.welding-and-cutting.info Technical journal for welding and allied processes

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Defects due to poor preparation Failure criteria of mechanically Brazing: When, where and
of edges prior to welding – and and corrosively loaded brazed how did it begin? –
how to avoid them joints of sheets made of stainless Part 1: Setting the scene
chromium-nickel steel
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 EDITORIAL

Her Royal Highness,

The Princess Royal opens new
buildings at TWI Granta Park
The Welding Institute was honoured to welcome Her Royal Highness, The Princess
Royal, to its headquarters on 16 September, for the official opening of its new
facilities.

During her visit, Her Royal Highness was presented with an Honorary Fellowship of
The Welding Institute. But she is not the first member of the British Royal Family to
have such an award bestowed upon her; read the editorial on page 289 to find out
who else The Welding Institute is privileged to count among its Honorary Fellows.

Lois Appleyard BA Hons MA AWeldI MInstLM MCMI

Professional Membership and Accreditation Manager
The Welding Institute

Welding and Cutting 14 (2015) No. 5 247

 CONTENTS WELDING AND CUTTING 05/2015

News 250 43rd “WorldSkills“ Competition in

São Paulo was the largest in history
251 Her Royal Highness The Princess Royal
opens new laboratories at TWI
252 2014 European Fair Statistics provide
certified figures for 23 countries
252 Manufacturing domain will witness an
upsurge in advanced machine learning
solutions
253 Preparing students for industry: the
Brunel Innovation Centre

250 Presentation of the medals in the

welding competition at the Closing
Ceremony of “WorldSkills 2015“.
254

254
Open call for applications for the “Inno-
vation Award Laser Technology 2016“
Conferences and Exhibitions

From Companies 255 New joint industry project announced

between TWI and Lloyd’s Register Energy
to advance laser additive manufacturing
255 Increasing belt life performance and
maximising production time in powdered
metal sintering operations
258 Pole position in welding technology
261 Invested in safe and clean plasma cutting
262 Short Messages
263 Products

Her Royal Highness The Princess Royal

is welcomed to TWI by Chief Executive
Dr Christoph Wiesner.
251 Welding Practice 266 Information about practical welding

Events 268 “Fabtech 2015“ in Chicago to offer more

live product demonstrations, panel and
education sessions than ever before
269 Third International Conference on
Electron Beam Welding in November in
Chicago
269 4th European Conference
“Join-Trans 2016“ – Call for Papers
270 More than 100 new exhibitors for
“Blechexpo“ and “Schweisstec“ 2015

258 KTM sold more than 150,000 motor- 270 First “Matchmaking Event“ at the
bikes in 2014, including an ever “Brazil Welding Show 2015“
increasing number of road machines
such as the “1290 Super Duke R MY
2015 Action“, the chassis and exhaust
system of which were manufactured
by WP. (Photo: KTM/R. Schedl)

248 Welding and Cutting 14 (2015) No. 5

 The
Issue

05
Welding
Institute

2015

www.welding-and-cutting.info Technical journal for welding and allied processes

Technical journal for welding and allied processes of

the DVS – German Welding Society, Düsseldorf,
the Professional Division of The Welding Institute, Cambridge,
and the Institut de Soudure, Paris

Produced in Collaboration between

261 The plasma cutting unit
provides a very high cutting
and perforation quality.

Reports 271 Brazing: When, where and how did it

begin? – Part 1: Setting the scene
274 Defects due to poor preparation of edges
prior to welding – and how to avoid them

Specialist Articles 280 Determination of failure criteria of

mechanically and corrosively loaded
brazed joints of sheets made of stainless
chromium-nickel steel

268
Ulrich Holländer, Felix Weber, Kai Möh- “Fabtech 2015“ will take place on 9 to
wald, Hans Jürgen Maier 12 November in McCormick Place,
Chicago/USA. (Photo: Fabtech)
294 Assessment of influences of the weld
quality on the fatigue strength of trans
verse stiffeners manufactured with laser
beam welding and hybrid laser beam /
GMA welding
Christoph Robert, Wolfgang Fricke

301 Editorial Preview

302 Books
302 Imprint/Ad Index

National Pages 278 Information from the DVS – German

Welding Society
289 The Welding Institute News
274 Cutting pipes with
a grinding wheel.
(Photo: Protem)

Welding and Cutting 14 (2015) No. 5 249

 NEWS

43rd “WorldSkills“ Competition in São Paulo was the

largest in history
In his remarks at the 16 August 2015
Closing Ceremony of “WorldSkills São Paulo
2015“, Simon Bartley, President of World-
Skills, paraphrased the legendary former
British Prime Minister Winston Churchill by
stating that the conclusion of the competi-
tion was not an end. Rather, he referred to
the ceremony as “merely the end of the be-
ginning”. Bartley continued, “I give you my
pledge that we in WorldSkills will continue
to improve our world with the power of
skills.” For the over 9,000 in the audience,
this was a celebratory, forward-looking sen-
timent, and one that was affirming for all
the organisations and individuals involved
in this history-making competition.
The 43rd WorldSkills Competition was
the largest in history and the first-ever held
Presentation of the
in Latin America. The sheer size of the com-
medals in the welding
petition venue, Anhembi Park, the com- competition at the
bined number of competitors, experts and Closing Ceremony.
volunteers, and the visitor count of 250,000
added up to a distinctive moment in World- The 43rd WorldSkills
Skills history. The competition was intense Competition took
among competitors and fully supported by place from 11 to 16
experts, delegates, sponsors and partners, August in 2015 in São
families and friends as well as visitors who Paulo/Brazil. (Photos:
now have a greater appreciation of the ways WorldSkills)
in which skills keep the world working to-
day and secure our economic and social
future.
The Competition began with the Open-
ing Ceremony held on Tuesday, 11 August their heads held high – demonstrating their with a colourful, carnival-like samba cele-
at the Ibirapuera Gymnasium in São Paulo, personal pride in the opportunity to com- bration bringing the audience to their feet.
Brazil. The official start of the Competition pete in their skill on the world-class World- Then, following four days of Competi-
kicked off with the Parade of Nations – in- Skills stage. The night featured sophisticated tion, WorldSkills Conference Programme
cluding 59 countries and regions represent- performances representing the best of sessions, networking opportunities and spe-
ed by competitors with their flags flying and Brazil’s heritage, arts and culture, and ended cial events, on 16 August 2015 “WorldSkills
São Paulo 2015“ came to an exciting con-
clusion, topped by the presentation of Gold,

Professional S4
Silver and Bronze Medals, the Medallions
for Excellence, the Best of Nation medals,
The new low-cost welding table series. and the Albert Vidal Award – which was pre-
sented to three competitors, for the first time
Visit us on the in history.
trade show: There were 37 participants from all over
Blechexpo Stuttgart
03.11. - 06.11.2015 the world in the welding competition.
Hall 6, Stand 6322 Zhengchao Zeng from China and Jack-
ielyson Alves from Brazil won the Gold Metal
while the Bronze Medal went to Suparat Rat-
tanapan from Thailand. All results of the
competition can be found at www.world-
Bernd Siegmund GmbH | Aehrenstrasse 29 | 86845 Grossaitingen
skills.org/results/. (According to press infor-
Tel.: +49 82 03 - 96 07 - 0 | Fax: +49 82 03 - 96 07 -33 | info@siegmund.com | www.siegmund.com mation from WorldSkills)

250 Welding and Cutting 14 (2015) No. 5

Her Royal Highness The Princess
Royal opens new laboratories at TWI
TWI is delighted to announce that HRH
The Princess Royal has visited its Cambridge
headquarters at Granta Park on 16 Septem-
ber 2015 to open three new buildings dedi-
cated to the advancement of engineering.
During the morning, TWI Chief Executive
Christoph Wiesner also presented Her Royal
Highness with the Royal Fellowship of The
Welding Institute.
The Princess Royal’s visit marks the
completion of a large-scale construction
programme supported by government,
which will allow TWI to extend the scope
and scale of work it carries out for its indus-
try partners in workspace specifically de-
signed for research and education in mate-
rials science, joining technologies and en-
gineering processes.
The opening is also the official launch
for TWI’s pioneering educational establish-
ment, the National Structural Integrity Re-
search Centre (NSIRC), which provides post-
graduate engineering students with the op-
portunity to qualify with direct industry ex-
perience. The buildings provide a location
and state-of-the-art equipment for use by
NSIRC students as they complete study pro-
grammes designed by industry partners and
awarded by UK universities.
The
Her Royal Highness spent almost an hour is leading
and a half touring the laboratories and meet-
ing some of the 600 engineers, apprentices
the cladding
and students that work on site. The tour route
took in demonstrations of laser welding, fa-
industry
tigue testing of steel mooring chains, linear
friction welding of components for the aero-
space industry, pipeline inspection and X-
ray imaging, as well as welding with chocolate
in a demonstration manned by pupils from
nearby Great Abington Primary School.
Christoph Wiesner said: ‚It is a great ho-
nour for us to be able to show Her Royal
Highness The Princess Royal a little of what
we do here at TWI. We welcome The
Princess Royal’s interest in materials join-
ing and engineering and hope we have
demonstrated how our new research capa-
bilities will enhance our work with industry
on the key issues affecting the everyday use
of welded products and structures.‘
The Royal visit culminated in the un-
veiling of a commemorative stone outside
the new entrance and a further presenta-
tion to the Princess of a bouquet by TWI
advanced engineering apprentice Mr Alex
Russell. (According to press information
from TWI)

UNIT
TION
ODUC
DARD PR
ER STAN
TIG

Her Royal Highness

The Princess Royal is
welcomed to TWI by
Chief Executive Dr
Christoph Wiesner.
LESS
S S O LD IN
IT
Her Royal Highness
V E R 50 UN 2 YEARS
is shown a demon-
O THAN
stration of welding
with chocolate by
children from Great
Abington Primary
School.

Welding and Cutting 14 (2015) No. 5 www.polysoude.com

 NEWS
2014 European Fair Statistics provide certified figures
for 23 countries
The latest edition of the Euro Fair Sta-
tistics report, published in August 2015, con-
tains the certified statistics of 2,321 exhibi-
tions from 23 European countries for 2014.
Compiled by UFI – The Global Association
of the Exhibition Industry, Paris/France,
these statistics were collected by fourteen
official national bodies and include exhibi-
Manufacturing domain will witness an upsurge in
advanced machine learning solutions
The Internet of Industrial Things (IoIT),
a concept derived from the ability to connect
assets, business processes and people across
the enterprise, has transformed the plant
floor into a state of hyper-connectivity. How-
ever, with greater connectivity comes a dras-
tic increase in the inflow of data. In addition
to traditional structured data, the manufac-
turing sector is facing a spike in semi-struc-
tured and unstructured data from sensors,
machines, Web and social media. In the cur-
rent setup, it is therefore imperative for end
users to append new data management tools
to store and process the large influx of data
as well as utilise state-of-the-art analytical
platforms to derive actionable insights for
core operations in the facility.
New analysis from global research and
consulting organisation Frost & Sullivan,
“Investing in the Currency of the Future: Big
Data for the Manufacturing Domain“, finds
that discrete industries such as life sciences,
automotive, aerospace, food and beverage,
hi-tech and general manufacturing account
for 14% of global stored data and hold
252
tions covering over 24,7 million square me-
tres of registered rented space.
Paul Woodward, UFI Managing Director,
stated that, „we are pleased to have been
able to draw together this certified data from
most of the big exhibition markets in Europe.
We estimate that the trade fairs included in
this report represents around half of the Eu-
ropean exhibition market in terms of net
rented space and this good quality, reliable
data is aimed at helping marketers ensure
that their budgets are spent effectively.“
In 2014, the events covered in this report
had 659,335 exhibitors and registered a total
attendance of 64,6 million visitors. 39% of
the exhibitions were targeted at trade visi-
tors, 28% at public visitors and 33% at both
target groups. Trends at both regional and
global levels are examined using the data
from this report. In addition to expanding
tremendous promise for big data and ana-
lytic solutions. Additionally, emerging ap-
plications like energy management offer
substantial opportunities for end users to
benchmark and optimise their energy con-
sumption rates.
“With respect to data storage and inte-
gration, cloud-based systems are most fea-
sible for small and medium enterprises with
fewer customisation requirements and dis-
tributed user locations,” said Frost & Sullivan
Industrial Automation and Process Control
Senior Research Analyst Rahul Vijayaragha-
van. “Businesses are also turning to hybrid
solutions, which enable the storage and in-
tegration of specific data in public and pri-
vate clouds depending on sensitivity and se-
curity.”
Post data capture and collation, the need
to derive value from the data will push for
advancements in analytical platforms.
Proactive improvement in asset uptime and
streamlining maintenance activities will par-
ticularly generate intense interest in predic-
tive and prescriptive analytics. The demand
geographic coverage, UFI will use this data
to further develop metrics for various indus-
try sectors. The complete 2014 Euro Fair Sta-
tistics study and other UFI studies may be
downloaded at no cost on the UFI website
at www.ufi.org/research.
UFI is the association of the world’s lead-
ing tradeshow organisers and exhibition
centre operators, as well as the major na-
tional and international exhibition associa-
tions, and selected partners of the exhibition
industry. UFI’s main goal is to represent,
promote and support the business interests
of its members and the exhibition industry.
UFI represents over 650 member organisa-
tions in 83 countries around the world. Over
900 international trade fairs bear the UFI ap-
proved label, a quality guarantee for visitors
and exhibitors alike. (According to press in-
formation from UFI)
for predictive and prescriptive solutions is
expected to record a compound annual
growth rate of 56.9% from 2014 to 2021.
“The current reactive approach recog-
nises the cause of a failure post a break-
down,” explained Rahul Vijayaraghavan. “In
contrast, applying complex statistical algo-
rithms and machine learning techniques to
evaluate historical and real-time sensor data
will help end users identify potential equip-
ment malfunctions well in advance.”
In terms of the visualisation of these
metrics, customisation is paramount. The
creation of user-friendly, highly intuitive in-
terfaces to analyse critical data based on in-
dividual personnel requirements is central
to any successful big data deployment. Thus,
strengthening the ability to seamlessly store,
centrally integrate, proactively analyse, and
effectively depict end user critical data will
continue to open doors for big data
providers in the manufacturing industry.
(According to press information from Frost
& Sullivan; www.frost.com)
Welding and Cutting 14 (2015) No. 5
Preparing students for industry: the The
Brunel Innovation Centre
Longstanding partners TWI, Cam- tract with BIC as project technical assistants,
bridge/UK, and Brunel University London and then have the opportunity to work on leaps
have together helped more than 50 students
begin their careers with leading science and
BIC, Plant Integrity or TWI research projects,
determined by the needs of industry. They
ahead
technology companies. Through the ground- work alongside a project team, where they
breaking Brunel Innovation Centre (BIC), es- are immediately given responsibilities and
tablished in 2009, the two organisations have assume a key role.
been able to forge a conduit between acade- In addition to working in a professional,
mia and industry. Work placements give stu- corporate environment, where they experi-
dents real-world experience that enables ence office culture, attend meetings, present
them to make the transition from able re- results and run experiments in state-of-the-
searchers and investigators into young pro- art lab facilities, students get to contribute to
fessionals, who have been sought out by top research output through industrial and aca-
organisations including Rolls-Royce and demic publications, giving them credibility
QinetiQ. and valuable experience at a very early stage
Unsurprisingly, given TWI’s focus, stu- of their professional development.
dents at BIC predominantly come from en- At the end of their one-year work place-
gineering disciplines. Most come from ment, students return to university to finish
Brunel, with a handful from the University of their undergraduate programme. When they
Surrey, as well as a small number of intern- graduate, they are ready to face the challenges
ship students from mainland Europe. of industry, and already have a better idea of
Students at BIC spend their placement what they would like to do next. ER RIG
IG
year at TWI’s Cambridge headquarters, where An industrial placement with BIC pres- TW IN-T
they often closely collaborate with Plant In- ents students with options for career devel- ER 12M
T EV
tegrity, a subsidiary of TWI and specialist in opment and enhances their employability, FIRS
long-range ultrasonic guided wave testing. equipping them with many of the skills they
They have been instrumental in industrialis- will need in the workplace. For more infor-
ing the award-winning guided wave technol- mation on BIC and potential industrial place-
ogy used by the company, which has seen ment projects at TWI, phone +44 (0)1223
ECTOR
applications across industry sectors including 899000, visit www.brunel.ac.uk/bic or e-mail ER COLL
IG
PX-TD
oil and gas, power generation and transport. bic@brunel.ac.uk (According to press infor-
E R S
Students typically enter a one-year con- mation from TWI)
T EV HEA
FIRS
BIC Project Tech-
nical Assistant Ro-
drigue Lumembo
supervised by BIC
LAD DING
Research Assistant
ER BE ND-C
Ignacio Garcia de
R T IG IT
Carellan, during
T EVE UN
experiments as FIRS
part of EU project
CleanShip at TWI.

BIC Project Tech-

E
nical Assistant
OFT WAR
Habiba Lais with TIVE S
A DAP
NCED
Stuart Jackman of
A
Jackweld Ltd,
ADV
Cleanmine Inno-
vate UK project
partner, upon visit
to see BIC work
progress at TWI.

Welding and Cutting 14 (2015) No. 5 www.polysoude.com

 NEWS

Open call for applications for the “Innovation Award

Laser Technology 2016“
The “Innovation Award Laser Technol-
ogy“ is a European research and technology
prize provided with 10.000 Euro prize mon-
ey and awarded at two-yearly intervals joint-
ly by the associations Arbeitskreis Laser-
technik e.V. and the European Laser Insti-
tute ELI in recognition of outstandingly
innovative work in the field of laser tech-
nology.
The Innovation Award addresses laser
manufacturers, laser users and researchers
who have successfully conceived and im-
plemented an innovative idea relating to
laser technology, following the project
through from application-oriented research
to ultimate industrial application. The
closed scientific and technological projects
in question must center on the use of laser
light in materials processing and the meth-
ods of producing such light, and must fur-
thermore be in their practical implementa-
tion of demonstrable commercial value to
industry.
The award can be conferred on an indi-
vidual researcher or on an entire project
group. Eligible are only applicants working
in industry, at universities or independent
research centers established in Europe. The
range of possible fields extends from the de-
velopment of new laser beam sources and
systems for use in laser materials processing
to the qualification of innovative laser man-
ufacturing processes for use in an industrial
production environment.
The best three applicants will be award-
ed with the 1st, 2nd and 3rd prizes. The
prize-winner will receive furthermore the
sum of 10,000 euros and be awarded the
title of “AKL fellow“ and “ELI fellow“. The
official presentation of the award will take
place at the “International Laser Technology
Congress AKL’14“ (www.lasercongress.org)
on 27 April 2016 in Aachen. The closing date
for applications will be 15 January 2016. Ap-
plication documents and further informa-
tion are available at www.innovation-
award-laser.org. (According to press infor-
mation from ELI / AKL)

Conferences and Exhibitions

Date Place Event/Information
20.10.-23.10.2015 Sao Paulo/ Brazil Welding Show
Brazil Information: Messe Essen, Internet: www.brazil-welding-show.com
28.10.-30.10.2015 Limburg/ 5th IIW Welding Research & Collaboration Colloquium
Germany Information: SLV Munich, Internet: www.slv-muenchen.de
29.10.-30.10.2015 Erding near Munich/ 10th Colloquium “High Velocity Oxy-Fuel Flame Spraying“
Germany Information: GTS, Internet: www.hvof.gts-ev.de
02.11.-05.11.2015 Luxor/ 3rd International Conference “Welding and Failure Analysis of Engineering Materials (WAFA-2015)“
Egypt Information: CMRDI, Internet: www.wafa-egypt2015.org
03.11.-06.11.2015 Stuttgart/ 12th International Trade Fair for Sheet Metal Processing “Blechexpo“ and 5th International Trade Fair “Schweisstec“
Germany Information: P. E. Schall GmbH & Co. KG, Internet: www.schweisstec-messe.de/en, www.blechexpo-messen.de/en
04.11.-06.11.2015 Saltillo/ 5th International Welding, Industrial Engineering and Manufacturing Congress
Mexico Information: COMIMSA, Internet: www.comimsa.edu.mx/wiem
09.11.-12.11.2015 Chicago/ Fabtech 2015 – North America’s largest metal forming, fabricating, welding and finishing event
USA Information: AWS, Internet: www.fabtechexpo.com
10.11.-11.11.2015 Chicago/ IEBW 2015 – International Electron Beam Welding Conference
USA Information: AWS, Internet: http://awo.aws.org/resource-library/electron-beam-conference-abstract-form/
06.04.-08.04.2016 Tokyo/ 3rd Metal Japan – Highly-functional Metal Expo
Japan Information: Reed Exhibitions Japan, Internet: www.metal-japan.jp/en
19.04.-21.04.2016 Düsseldorf/ 9th International Congress and Exhibition “Aluminium Brazing 2016“
Germany Information: DVS, Internet: www.dvs-ev.de/call4papers/index.cfm?vid=82
20.04.-21.04.2016 Halle (Saale)/ 10th International Conference Beam Technology
Germany Information: SLV Halle, Internet: www.beamtec-conf.com
22.04.-23.04.2016 Hyderabad/ 6th IIW Welding Research and Collaboration Colloquium
India Information: Indian Institute of Welding, Internet: www. iiwindia.com
25.04.-27.04.2016 New Orleans/ 2016 Conference on Thermoplastics Welding & Joining
USA Information: TWI and AWS, Internet: http://awo.aws.org/plastic-welding-and-joining
27.04.-29.04.2016 Aachen/ AKL ’16 – International Laser Technology Congress
Germany Information: Fraunhofer ILT, Internet: www.lasercongress.org
10.05.-12.05.2016 Shanghai/ ITSC 2016 – International Thermal Spray Conference and Exposition
China Information: DVS, Internet: http://www.dvs-ev.de/itsc2016/
11.05.-12.05.2016 Halle (Saale)/ 4th European Conference “Join-Trans 2016 – Joining and Construction of Railway Vehicles“
Germany Information: SLV Halle, Internet: www.jointrans.eu
17.05.-19.05.2016 Cambridge/ 11th International Friction Stir Welding Symposium 2016
UK Information: TWI, Internet: www.fswsymposium.co.uk
07.06.-09.06.2016 Aachen/ LÖT 2016 – 11th International Conference on Brazing, High Temperature Brazing and Diffusion Bonding
Germany Information: DVS, Internet: www.dvs-ev.de/call4papers/index.cfm?vid=79

254 Welding and Cutting 14 (2015) No. 5

 FROM COMPANIES

New joint industry project announced between TWI

and Lloyd’s Register Energy to advance laser additive
manufacturing
TWI and Lloyd’s Register Energy were
set to launch a joint industry project, on 29
September 2015 in the UK, titled ‘Certifica-
tion of laser powder additive manufactured
components for industrial adoption in the
energy and offshore sectors’. The event was
expected to attract considerable interest
from companies worldwide wanting to col-
laborate as sponsors of the 18-month pro-
ject, which will enable sponsors to gain early
adoption of ‘approved’ additive manufac-
turing practices for their products – a com-
petitive advantage in today’s price sensitive
market.
Additive manufacturing, also referred to
as 3D printing, is widely adopted by the
aerospace industry, where its ability to cre-
ate complex metal parts with a high level of
precision, with reduced weight and high ma-
terial utilisation, makes it a viable method
of constructing components for turbines and
engines.
Global trends indicate that the additive
manufacturing market is set to grow by 390%
in the next seven years, with Lloyd’s Register
Energy’s 2014 Technology Radar survey sug-
gesting that additive manufacturing will
have a major impact in the oil and gas in-
dustry in the next five years.
However, its application in the energy,
offshore and marine sectors is still at a rela-
tively nascent stage. This project, to be op-
erated jointly by TWI and Lloyd’s Register
Energy, will bring together research and de-
velopment efforts with real-world additive
manufacturing practices to create new in-
dustry product certification guidelines –
paving the way for more widespread adop-
tion of additive manufacturing technology
and assisting industry in determining how
best to tap in to its potential.
TWI and Lloyd’s Register Energy are
members of an ISO working group currently
developing standards for additive manufac-
ture; however these standards are still sev-
eral years away from the adoption stage, and
there is no provision in existing standards
for the certification of parts produced using
this technology. The joint industry project
from TWI and Lloyd’s Register Energy will
aim to deliver evidence-based certification
guidelines for laser powder additive manu-
factured parts within 18 months.
Each sponsor on the project will be in-
vited to contribute a detailed component
design to form the subject of a case study.
Each component will be taken from concept
through to completion, ultimately providing
the sponsor with a conditionally certified
part that meets industrial requirements for
quality, safety and consistency, and which
is qualified ready for market introduction.
Sponsors will also benefit from greatly
improved knowledge of laser powder addi-
Complex-geometry component manufactured
using additive manufacture.
tive manufacturing processes and practices,
and a reduced cost of certification thanks to
the combined processing and manufactur-
ing certification expertise of both TWI and
Lloyd’s Register Energy.
TWI has considerable experience in ad-
ditive manufacturing, having progressed the
development of selective laser melting and
laser metal deposition processes for many
years. With the addition of Lloyd’s Register
Energy’s expertise in product certification
to achieve compliance with global codes,
standards and regulations, this major project
will have a significant impact on the energy,
offshore and marine industries. For more
information about this project, contact
TWI’s joint industry project coordinator
Kirsty Jones via www.twi-global.com. (Ac-
cording to press information from TWI)

Increasing belt life performance and maximising

production time in powdered metal sintering operations
Woven wire mesh belts are an ongoing
cost associated with the operation of a con-
tinuous powdered metal sintering furnace.
The life of a T314 stainless steel belt operat-
ing in one of these units is typically meas-
ured in months. A belt pretreatment to ex-
tend the life of the belt and address one fail-
ure mechanism has been developed and
tested. Initial results have demonstrated a
25% increase in belt life and an overall re-
duction in downtime that is typically in ex-
cess of 18%. The mechanism associated with
this failure, the belt pretreatment, and sub-
sequent test results are described and re-
viewed.
Introduction and statement of the
problem
Type 314 stainless steel woven wire belts
are widely used to convey products through
the final sintering stage in powdered metal
production lines. Although the life of a wire
mesh belt is very dependent on the loading, Fig. 1 • T314 Stainless Steel woven wire belt
furnace conditions, furnace atmosphere, with frayed edges.

Welding and Cutting 14 (2015) No. 5 255

 FROM COMPANIES
and temperature, it is not uncommon to
measure the life of a belt in months. As a re-
sult, facilities that regularly work with the
woven wire mesh belts in these applications
have become quite proficient at replacing
belts with minimal cool-down of the furnace
and subsequent lost production time. Unit
temperatures are typically reduced to below
815°C (1,500°F), and the new belt is fed into
the unit as the old belt is being removed.
Once completely installed, the temperature
is ramped-up as quickly as possible and the
unit is restored to service. This process is re-
peated as necessary throughout the many
production lines of today’s PM production
facilities. Over the years, belt designs have
steadily improved to permit higher produc-
tion rates with less downtime for mainte-
nance and overall longer belt life.
Recent belt designs such as “Knuckle-
back” by Cambridge Engineered Solutions
have been shown to allow higher product
throughput rate by utilising a flattened spiral
wire and a reverse bend knuckled and weld-
ed edge. Following extensive tests, we have
seen favourable results that show improve-
ments of over 50% increased production.
While “Knuckleback” offers significant im-
provement in throughput and value in opti-
mal furnace conditions, there is still a need
for additional improvements. From the
standpoint of the belt, there have been and
remain typically two problems associated
with the frequent installation and use of new
belts in the sintering furnace units: absence
of a proper break-in period for the belt, and
lack of sufficient de-lubing of the products.
It can be shown that these two problems are
closely related.
It is generally accepted that for woven
metal mesh belts to perform optimally, they
should be subjected to a break-in period that
could span up to 1 to 3 days. During that
time, the belt is allowed to ‘soak’ while mov-
ing slowly through the conveyor as the tem-
perature within the unit is gradually and in-
crementally increased. This is thought to be
an advantage both from a mechanical and
metallurgical standpoint. Dimensionally,
the belt can slowly adjust to maintain proper
seating of the mesh and crimp wires, which
promotes more even loading across the belt
width along with improved articulation. But
perhaps more importantly, free of any spe-
cial atmosphere, a slower controlled break-
in period can be used to promote the for-
mation and growth of an oxidation layer on
the belt surface that can provide an impor-
tant means of surface protection for the belt.
256
Conversely, without the proper belt break-
in period for a new belt, the result can be
and often is a reduced service life. PM pro-
duction facilities generally accept this as a
“fact of life” in their industry as typically
none can really afford the extended produc-
tion line downtime associated with a lengthy
break-in period for a new belt after it has
been installed.
Closely associated with a lack of a proper
belt break-in for a new belt are the issues
associated with incomplete removal of the
lubricant from the parts. Again, for reasons
tied to increased production rates, many PM
parts are not fully de-lubed prior to the sin-
tering stage of the overall process. If the lu-
bricant exits the parts at a temperature
above 550°C (1,020°F), soot (carbon) from
the lubricants naturally develops and col-
lects inside the sintering furnace. A portion
of the soot is carried out of the unit as a result
of the motion of the belt. However, a signif-
icant percentage of that material is known
to collect along the edges of the furnace
where it will reside until some steps are tak-
en to physically remove it. This is not
thought to impair the process or detrimen-
tally affect the product. However, the pres-
ence of this additional carbon positioned
along the edges of the belt is believed to
cause weld embrittlement to the belt, even-
tually resulting in broken welds and frayed
belt edges (Fig. 1). Once this starts to occur,
the belt will naturally develop excessive
camber and/or uneven stretch across the
width which creates difficulty in articulation
around the support and drive rollers. Addi-
tional credibility is given to this line of think-
ing from experience that indicates that most
belts of this type generally begin to fail along
the edges first, the result of broken welds.
Fig. 2 • Belt inside
of a treating oven.
In this whitepaper, we intend to show
that by subjecting the T314 woven wire mesh
belt to a simulated break-in period under
specifically controlled parameters, a mea-
sureable increase in the typical service life
of the belt in a sintering furnace can be re-
alised. Increased belt life is directly trans-
latable into reduced downtime, increased
production, and belt cost savings.
Discussion of proposed solution
Based on the premise that neither ade-
quate belt break-in nor de-lubing of the PM
products prior to the sintering stage of the
process will typically take place, the step of
subjecting new belts to a type of controlled
break-in process has been taken prior to
shipping them to the customer. This product
variation has been named the “Platinum”
belt. Under a tightly controlled and propri-
etary process, each belt is essentially pre-
oxidised before being installed. The process
is carried out in an electric furnace with no
artificial atmosphere. Belt sections are sub-
jected to a specifically defined set of tem-
perature ‘soaks’ in order to build a protective
layer of natural oxidation on the surface of
the wires. This oxidation layer is most im-
portant along the belt edges where the welds
are located (and also correspondingly where
the highest concentration of free carbon is
located). Due to the presence of an artificial
atmosphere within the sintering furnace,
this oxidation is not able to completely and
adequately form; therefore, the belt never
gains the benefit of that protection.
The metallurgical argument behind this
is fairly straightforward. T314 stainless steel
wire in an un-oxidised state operating in a
high-heat environment along with excess
carbon from heating petroleum-based lu-
Welding and Cutting 14 (2015) No. 5
bricants experiences a certain amount of
carbon diffusion into the surface. This effect
is concentrated along the edges of a welded
belt where it seems that much of the excess
carbon is allowed to collect within the fur-
nace unit. At temperatures between 340°C
and 435°C (650°F to 815°F) , carbon is known
to diffuse into the welds (areas of the belt
within the heat-affected zone created during
welding), and bind with chromium to form
chromium carbides (Cr23C6) creating an em-
brittled structure. In high nitrogen furnace
atmospheres, it is thought that chromium
carbonitrides (CrCN) also form in addition
to chromium carbides. Both act to constrain
grain movement, some of which is necessary
for normal belt operation, though clearly the
biggest detrimental impact is from the
chromium carbides. Under normal circum-
stances, the formation of chromium car-
bides and resulting weld sensitivity can and
will cause intergranular corrosion of the ma-
terial; however, in high-temperature and re-
ducing furnace atmosphere applications
such as the sintering furnaces, restricted
grain movement (essentially material em-
brittlement) can lead to grain separation (lo-
calised cracks) and the eventual breaking of
the welds. This then becomes the major con-
cern. Broken welds quickly lead to frayed
belt edges, and thus it only a matter of time
before the belt must be replaced.
By subjecting the belt to series of heat
‘soaks’ under controlled conditions in an ox-
idising atmosphere, a protective layer of
chromium oxide (Cr2O3) forms on the sur-
face of the wire and welds. This is referred
to as a pre-oxidation step in the belt manu-
facture (Fig. 2).
This chromium oxide layer sufficiently
binds the chromium on the surface of the
wire effectively prohibiting it from interact-
ing with the available free carbon typically
found inside the sintering furnaces. It is crit-
ical to perform the pre-oxidation process
within a furnace that is clean from carbon
in order to avoid the unintended forming of
chromium carbides in the material. This is
especially critical at the temperature soaks
at or near 650°C (1,200°F). Also, temperature
soaks near 815°C (1,500°F) must be avoided
so as not to subject the material to the for-
mation of ‘green rot’ oxidation on the surface
of the wires.
Results
Field test results in actual PM sintering
furnace operations have shown a significant
increase in average belt life for pre-oxidised
Welding and Cutting 14 (2015) No. 5
belts as compared to those that have not un-
dergone that process. As shown in Fig. 3, a
typical T314 belt service life will average
some 60 days. But results from using pre-
oxidised belts within the same furnaces and
process indicate an extended belt service
life of 75+ days, or about a 25% increase in
belt life. Results have also shown a decrease
in production downtime of more than 18%
attributable not only to fewer belt replace-
ments, but also reduced belt and conveyor
maintenance.
The belts that undergo this step prior to
installation often still fail in a manner not
unlike those that have not been pre-oxi-
dised. During operation, the belt typically
sustains some damage to the oxide layer
from which it does not recover. As a result,
it is expected that some sections of belting
will still develop broken welds, which begins
the process by which the belt becomes un-
usable. However, the effect of the applied
oxide layer seems to be sufficient in delaying
the onset of the inevitable.
It should be noted that the additional
costs associated with the pre-oxidation
process essentially limit its cost-effective ap-
plication to wider belts only. Due to the low-
er purchase cost point for narrower belts,
Average Days Service Life
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Standard Mesh Belt Pre-Oxidized Belt – Platinum
Belt Pre-Oxidation Breakeven Analysis
40%
35%
% Cost increase
30%
25%
20%
15%
10%
12“ 18“ 24“
Nominal Belt Width
an overall 25% increase in belt life does not
sufficiently offset the added costs for pre-
oxidising the belts prior to installation. The
chart (Fig. 4) indicates a cost benefit for belts
that are approximately 24” wide and wider.
However, it should be stated that this
breakeven analysis does not include any cost
savings associated with reduced production
downtime as has been previously discussed.
Summary
Pre-oxidising the belts effectively re-
places the desired break-in period which is
not typically practical for any company op-
erating a powdered metal sintering furnace
line. Yet this step still provides the benefits
normally associated with that process, es-
pecially for units that must operate without
sufficient de-lubing of the PM parts. The ad-
ditional life gained by using a pre-treated
belt can mean an additional $15-20k in pro-
duction uptime for a single sintering line
without making any other changes in the
equipment or the process of today’s typical
high production line.
Cory J. Bloodsworth, Cambridge Engi-
neered Solutions, Cambridge, MD/USA;
Stephen L. Feldbauer, Ph.D.
Abbott Furnace Co., St. Marys, PA/USA
Fig. 3 • Comparison of
belt service life for
treated vs. un-treated
belts.
Fig. 4 • Breakeven
analysis for pre-oxi-
dised belts.
36“
257
 FROM COMPANIES
Pole position in welding technology
For the management of WP Perform-
ance Systems GmbH, Munderfing/Ger-
many, success on the racetrack and the use
of the most modern motorbike production
methods go hand-in-hand. It was therefore
no surprise that the company, one of Eu-
rope’s largest manufacturers of motorbike
chassis components, was among the first to
test the MIG/MAG “TPS/i“ power source
from welding technology specialist Fronius,
Wels/Austria. In view of the huge success,
epitomised by significant increases in pro-
ductivity, WP is now using more than a
dozen devices from the “TPS/i“ series for
frame construction and exhaust manufac-
turing – and more are expected.
“The TPS/i is not just a development; it
represents a quantum leap in all the areas
that are important to us”, is how Josef Baier,
production manager at WP Performance
Systems GmbH, summarises his experiences
of working with the latest welding power
source from Fronius. The manufacturing
specialist bases his opinion not just on the
welds he has carried out himself, but also
on the results of the widespread use of the
devices in frame and exhaust manufactur-
ing. “There is currently no comparable de-
vice on the market. That is why we always
turn to the ‘TPS/i’ when we need to satisfy a
requirement such as guaranteed penetra-
tion, high welding speed or a totally spat-
ter-free weld seam.”
98% of the seams of a WP motorbike frame are
welded by robots. (Photo: Fronius)
258
KTM sold more than 150,000 motorbikes in 2014, including an ever increasing number of road
machines such as the “1290 Super Duke R MY 2015 Action“, the chassis and exhaust system of
which were manufactured by WP. (Photo: KTM/R. Schedl)
Guaranteed penetration if stick out
fluctuates
WP deems reliable penetration to be es-
sential in the manufacture of motorbike
frames. 98% of all the chassis welding is car-
ried out by robots using 25CrMo4 steel.
However, robots cannot carry out the re-
maining 2%, as they are unable to access the
relevant locations on the tube intersections.
These locations therefore have to be welded
by hand. “It is imperative that the required
penetration is achieved reliably, even in out-
of-position welding or in the case of longer
stick outs”, explains Josef Baier. “This is
A small number of welds on the frame have to
be done manually, as the robots are unable to
access them. The challenges here are stick out
fluctuations and the appearance of the weld
seam. (Photo: Fronius)
News 4/2015
www.dvstv.de/international
where the penetration stabiliser of the
‘TPS/i’ comes into its own.” This innovative
feature regulates the arc extremely quickly
and precisely to ensure that the penetration
remains constant whenever the stick out
may fluctuate.
The company places another require-
ment on the quality of the weld seam, even
though the “TPS/i“ maintains the penetra-
tion at a constant level in the case of very
long stick outs, a feature that in itself fulfils
to previously unattainable levels one of the
most important demands of WP regarding
the weld seam. “It is only a few years ago
that small amounts of spatter on the frame
were considered acceptable by our internal
quality control team. Today, that is no longer
the case”, emphasises the WP production
manager. “We now expect even those areas
that will later be completely invisible be-
cause, for example, they will be covered by
the casing to be spatter-free.”
The first totally spatter-free weld
seams
Up to now, spatter has been almost un-
avoidable when welding manually, even in
situations where the most advanced
MIG/MAG devices were employed. “Some
spatter always seemed to occur, particularly
during the start and stop phases”, reminisces
Josef Baier. As the seams welded manually
by WP during frame construction are very
short, the company used to have to invest
quite a bit of effort into cleaning them.
A fundamental change took place fol-
lowing the switch to “TPS/i“, as Josef Baier
Welding and Cutting 14 (2015) No. 5

WP uses the “TPS/i“ MIG/MAG power source on
its exhaust production lines and is therefore
able to weld thin sheets extremely quickly and
easily without generating any spatter at all.
(Photo: Fronius)
said: “Now that we carry out the manual
welding of the tubular sections of the mo-
torbike frame exclusively with the ‘TPS/i’, we
can say without any embellishment or ex-
aggeration that the weld seams are spatter-
free.” A significant factor behind this
achievement are the new LSC (Low Spatter
Control) dip transfer arc characteristics spe-
cially developed by Fronius, which, as they
exhibit extremely high levels of arc stability,
are mainly used by WP to weld the frame.
High gap-bridging ability on thin
sheets
LSC Root was specially developed for
root passes. Its unique current profile en-
sures excellent root fusion and gap-bridging
ability. The gap-bridging ability of the
„TPS/i“ is especially welcome when it comes
to exhausts, as the stainless steel, structural
Welding and Cutting 14 (2015) No. 5
The production manager of WP Performance Sys-
tems GmbH, Josef Baier, is impressed by the
“TPS/i“ from Fronius: “The ‘TPS/i’ is not just a de-
velopment; it represents a quantum leap in all the
areas that are important to us.” (Photo: Fronius)
steel or titanium sheets used at WP are usu-
ally only a mm thick. “With sheets this thin,
there is always a danger that the weld seam
will drop through”, notes Josef Baier. “Thanks
to LSC Root, however, this is not a problem
that we face.”
As with frame construction, WP is totally
uncompromising in terms of quality in the
production of its exhaust systems. Josef Baier
has therefore ensured that the many weld
seams that are visible on the exhaust are al-
ways welded using a “TPS/i“ device.
As there are many more manually weld-
ed seams, not to mention some long ones,
in an exhaust system compared with the
frame of a motorbike, the welding speed that
can be achieved in this application has a
marked impact on productivity. This is an-
other area where the “TPS/i“ and LSC show
their combined strengths. The new Fronius
offering, with its higher root arc pressure
and deposition rate compared with the pre-
viously available and implemented solu-
tions, is again to the fore in terms of welding
speed, as Baier can confirm from practical
experience: “With the ‘TPS/i’, our welders
achieve a welding speed that is about 20%
faster than before.”
Faster welding results in
significantly higher productivity
WP manufactures all its own exhaust
systems, starting with the metal sheets or 6
m long tubes made from stainless steel or
structural steel as well as titanium sheets
through to the silencers and exhaust mani-
folds. As a great deal of welding is involved
in the production of exhaust systems, pro-
ductivity since the introduction of “TPS/i“
has increased dramatically, particularly in
the manufacture of exhaust pipes. With the
production of frame and exhaust systems
running at more than 120,000 per year, the
acquisition by WP of modern welding sys-
tems like these pays for itself within a few
months as a result of the practically non-ex-
istent reworking requirement and the higher
levels of productivity.
For Josef Baier, the role that this latest
innovation from Fronius will have at WP in
the immediate future is already apparent:
“This power source will enable us to main-
tain and extend our leading position in weld-
ing technology. We have therefore decided
to install ‘TPS/i’ at every workplace where
spatter-free weld seams are required.” He
enjoys the full support of his employees in
this respect. “Once they’ve tried it, our
welders seem reluctant to use anything else”,
concludes the WP production manager.
Franz Joachim Roßmann,
Gauting/Germany
259
 FROM COMPANIES
Invested in safe and clean plasma cutting
In the course of the construction of a
cutting components centre Conferdo need-
ed a cutting and extraction system designed
for the production of complex and fastidious
components as far as welding was con-
cerned. The company from Esterwegen in
Lower Saxony/Germany is a supplier of in-
dustrial customers from the renewable en-
ergies sector around the world. The certified
specialist steel construction and welding
company founded in 2002 produces com-
ponents for wind turbine generator systems,
offshore steel constructions, tower and mast
constructions as well as special steel con-
structions. In general, in the case of project-
related work a lot of individual parts are pro-
duced. The wide range of tasks requires
highest demands on the production. In or-
der to be able to carry out the work in the
company, Conferdo maintains a big and
modern machine pool within the produc-
tion department with more than 40,000 m2.
“This is how we keep added value in the
company and we are able to supervise the
quality and adherence to delivery dates our-
selves“, explains general manager Rainer
Bach.
The latest addition to the cutting and filter
technology sector: a multifunctional plasma
cutting unit of the MG series by MicroStep
and an extraction and filter unit “ZPF 9H“
with rotary gate valve and big-bag disposal
by Teka, Velen/Germany. With the help of
these units Conferdo is able to cover a wide
range of various cutting tasks and at the same
time, to fulfil the highest demands in terms
of product quality and employee safety.
The plasma cutting unit with a working
surface of 12,000 x 4,200 mm, producing
among other things mounting systems for
wind wheels in the ocean, makes a com-
bined processing of sheets and pipes possi-
ble and is equipped with two plasma sources
of the company Kjellberg Finsterwalde, Fin-
sterwalde/Germany. It was configured
specifically for Conferdo and it covers vari-
ous cutting tasks from 3D tube and profile
machining (30 mm up to 1,000 mm), the
marking and beveling cutting to metal sheet-
ing processing. Both “HiFocus 360i“ plasma
systems are able to cut into material with a
thickness of 50 mm and thanks to the “Con-
tourCut“ technology they offer very high cut-
ting and perforation quality. The unit was
complemented by a high performance dot
peen system with a marking depth up to 0.8
mm. As a result of the use of linear guiding
on all axes and drives on both sides the unit
provides for a high dimensional accuracy
and precision on cut contours and compo-
nents.
In general, a high quantity of particu-
late substances is released during plasma
The extraction
and filter unit
“ZPF“ takes in
the polluted air
and purifies it.
cutting. Even more so when two plasma
power sources are used. A clean working
environment is an indispensable precon-
dition for an excellent quality of the pro-
duced parts and the protection of the em-
ployees inside the hall. Particular attention
to the product quality must be paid in the
cutting centre: “Accuracy and cleanliness
are required to a particular high degree
here. Because that is where the course is
set for the further internal production as
well as for the quality of the final products“,
explains Rainer Bach. Occupational safety
The rotary gate
valve continu-
ously transports
the particles
into the big-
bag.
and the protection of the employees’ health
are a high priority: “We comply with inter-
national standards for occupational safety
and health protection in accordance with
BS OHSAS 18001 (British Standard Occu-
pational Health and Safety Assessment Se-
ries) and we implement it on a daily basis.
Extraction and filter units by Teka which
we have used for more than ten years in
different business divisions perfectly fit into
our quality concept.“
Energy-saving extraction
and filtration
The plasma table at Conferdo is
equipped with a sectional, energy-saving
extraction under the working table. Along
the entire length of the table, suction chan-
nels are attached at regular distances below
the workpiece support. They are only acti-
vated where smoke is actually released. Via
a pipeline the polluted air is led to a spark
separator which eliminates glowing parts.
Then the air is led to a filter unit with a pow-
er of 15 kW and a filtering surface of 225 m2.
The cartridges of the dust category M sepa-
rate even fine dusts to a degree exceeding
99.9%. Thanks to the special geometry of
the filter cartridges the particles can be de-
dusted effectively and gently by using only
a small amount of compressed air. The ex-
traction unit is IFA certified and meets the
safety requirements for the welding fume
category “W3“, the highest welding fume
separation category for extraction units. This
means that even the air produced during
the processing of high-alloy materials which
is contaminated with harmful emissions can
be led back into the working space after the
purification in accordance with a derogation
of the Ordinance on Hazardous Substances.
In this case, up to 10,000 m3/h purified air
www.soyer.com
Schweisstec Stuttgart (Germany), 03 - 06 Nov. 2015, Hall 6 / 6501 • Fabtech Chicago (USA), 09 - 12 Nov. 2015, Booth N28035
Welding and Cutting 14 (2015) No. 5
flows steadily and silently through a textile,
9 m long air outlet back into the hall.
Due to the high quantity of dust pro-
duced during the plasma cutting, a rotary
gate valve with big-bag is installed under
the filtration chamber. This ensures that the
particles are efficiently eliminated. After
every automatic dedusting of the filter with
the help of the power-spray-system the par-
ticles fall into the housing via the intake and
get into the individual chambers of the ro-
tary gate valve. During the circulations,
varying depending on the emission level,
the dust is transported to the outlet and into
the big-bags. In the case of a manually ad-
justed circulation the operators can replace
the full repositories during operation of the
The plasma cutting unit
provides a very high
cutting and perforation
quality.
The 3D tube and
profile machining
rates among the
wide range of tasks
of the multifunc-
tional cutting unit.
cutting unit. The advantage of the self-con-
tained system: For the dust once fallen into
the storage bin through the rotary gate valve
there is no return. In case of a repeated de-
dusting by means of a compressed air blast
it cannot be aspirated again and cannot
reach the filtration chamber. The conse-
quence: The cartridges are less polluted
with dust and must be cleaned less often.
In this way not only the service life of the
filters is extended, but less compressed air
is used, thus saving energy.
Rainer Bach draws a positive conclusion:
“We got a system perfectly matched and pre-
cisely tailored to our needs. Furthermore it
offered the best value for money.“ (Accord-
ing to press information from Teka)
G
STUD WELDIN
!
AT ITS BEST
261
 FROM COMPANIES
Short Messages
Change of management
On 30 June 2015, Trumpf Haguenau in
Alsace/France was not only celebrating its
30th anniversary, but was also bidding a
fond farewell to its longtime manager,
Georges Reiss, as he enters retirement. Reiss
was involved in the development of the
Haguenau site from the very beginning; he
has done more than anyone else in shaping
it over the years. Haguenau specialises in
large-scale precision and welded assem-
blies. It makes the machine frames for laser,
punching and punch laser machines that
originate in Europe. Trumpf invested in the
site’s future just last year by constructing a
new production hall, thereby expanding the
production area by 6,500 m2. Tomas Wolf,
who has been with the company since 1996,
took over as Reiss’s successor on 1 July 2015.
Wolf spent four years as head of recruitment
and personnel support at Trumpf in Ditzin-
gen/Germany before moving to Haguenau
in 2000 to take responsibility for the com-
mercial side of the business. After progress-
ing to site manager, he then became head
of quality management for the Machine Tool
Division of the Trumpf Group.
Georges Reiss (left), former managing director
of Trumpf Haguenau, and Tomas Wolf (right),
future head of Trumpf Machines SARL.
(Photo: Trumpf)
AWD’s inaugural “Welding World
Awards“
“Welding World” announces the all new,
first of their kind “Welding World Awards”,
which aim to find and recognise the best ex-
amples of work across all aspects of the
welding industry. The award ceremony will
be held on Wednesday 13th April 2016 at
the Hilton Birmingham Metropole, Birm-
ingham/UK during MACH, a showcase for
the manufacturing and engineering indus-
tries. The night will provide a stunning
showcase for those attending and a platform
for all nominees, all of which will have the
262
opportunity to publicise on the “Welding
World Awards” website. Award winners will
have full on-going publicity following the
ceremony. The awards are international, im-
partial and independent and can be won by
anyone involved in the industry. You can
find the nominated entrants listed online at
www.welding-world.com. Once nominated,
all entrants are listed on the website with
their name subject to a public vote, which
ends on 31st October 2015. Companies are
able to nominate themselves and all nomi-
nees awarded with 20 votes or more will
then be invited to confirm their application.
Arrangements will then be made for mem-
bers of the “Welding World Awards“’ panel
of judges to visit the company between 2
January and 28 February 2016 should they
reach the shortlist within the top 10. Cate-
gories include best gas supplier, best new
welding product, best safety product sup-
plier, best welding distributor, best welding
industry training provider, best welding
product supplier, best e-commerce website
and best welding machine supplier.
£1 million investment in PTG’s
expertise
When one of the world’s leading pro-
ducers of nickel alloys required deep hole
boring expertise for its main USA-based fa-
cility, it looked across the Atlantic to the
United Kingdom and to PTG Heavy Indus-
tries, Elland/UK. The result was a £1 million
order for the West Yorkshire heavy machine
tools specialist, to design and build one of
its highly acclaimed Binns & Berry deep hole
boring machines for the drilling and trepan-
ning of solid billets weighing up to 1,000 kg
and measuring up to 1.5 m in length. “Our
customer had some quite challenging
process requirements,” comments PTG
Heavy Industries’ Sales Manager, Chris
Cheetham. “In particular, they wanted to
carry out drilling and trepanning followed
by billet nose facing on the same machine –
Proven across industry: Binns & Berry deep hole
boring from PTG Heavy Industries.
a benefit that would ensure much greater
manufacturing efficiency as well as a signif-
icant reduction in process time.” The cus-
tomer’s desire for all processes to be carried
out on one machine was achieved through
the inclusion of PTG Heavy Industries’
unique ‘X-axis’ turning slide in the Binns &
Berry machine design. This innovative fea-
ture permits the consecutive facing of each
billet following the deep hole boring cycle.
Therefore, through the inclusion of the turn-
ing slide, the need for each billet to be trans-
ferred to a separate lathe for subsequent fac-
ing is removed.
Stepping up research into safe
ways of using captured carbon
dioxide
Technology company The Linde Group,
Munich/Germany continues to focus on ad-
vanced solutions for the recycling of carbon
dioxide (CO2). As part of this commitment,
it has extended its participation in the in-
ternational research project “Impact of
Common Impurities on Carbon Dioxide
Capture, Transport and Storage” until 2017.
The aim of this project is to study the phys-
ical properties of the impure CO2 mixtures
that arise in industrial combustion process-
es and power generation. The specific
processes being examined are carbon cap-
ture and usage (CCU), enhanced oil/gas re-
covery (EOR/EGR) and CO2 liquefaction for
subsequent commercialisation. “Our objec-
tive is to further advance carbon capture
methodologies as part of a wider climate
protection agenda,” explains Jürgen Now-
icki, Spokesman for the Board of Directors
of the Linde Engineering Division. “The first
phase of the research project delivered very
promising results. By taking part in the sec-
ond phase, we expect to further strengthen
our competitive position in the processing
of CO2-rich gases – a very important activity
for many of our customers.” The research
project is being led by internationally
renowned expert in the field Professor Bah-
man Tohidi from the Institute of Petroleum
Engineering at Heriot-Watt University in Ed-
inburgh/UK. He has been at the helm of
this collaborative initiative since the first
phase got underway in 2011. Apart from
Linde, Statoil, TOTAL, Chevron, Petronas,
the UK’s National Grid and Portugal’s Galp
Energia will be participating in the second
phase. Precise measurement of the thermo-
dynamic properties of CO2 and its accom-
panying components has a direct impact
on the profitability of processes using CO2.
Welding and Cutting 14 (2015) No. 5
One of the objectives in this context is to
guarantee and improve plant operation,
safety and efficiency under all operating
conditions.
50th anniversary of Valk Welding
Belgium
This year Valk Welding Belgium cele-
brates its 50th anniversary. In 1965, the cor-
poration of ‘LAS Verkoopmaatschappij’ (lat-
er changed into Valk Welding) was founded
in Belgium. Now 50 years later Valk Welding
is a well-known company in Belgium when
it comes to robot integration and consum-
ables for the welding industry. Continuing
improvement and innovations allows the
company to offer better solutions and serv-
ice to the Belgium industry. The company
promises that at the end of 2015 they will
come up with a ground-breaking develop-
ment onto the market. The company is going
to celebrate the 50th anniversary on 21 Oc-
tober 2015 at the Welding Week in
Antwerp/Belgium which will take place from
the 20th till the 22nd of October 2015.
Smart Focus
Pure Energy
With just a few settings you will
achieve best cutting results up to
80 mm – even under challenging
conditions.
www.kjellberg.de | Made in Germany
Products
Tip for easy rework
The “Balver Tip” activator (Fig. 1) is an
easy to use tool for cleaning oxidised iron
soldering tips for SnPb and Pb-free process-
es. In the simple process, the solder tip is
dipped into the solid “Balver Tip” activator
which becomes liquid and immediately
starts removing oxides from the solder tip.
After this de-oxidation sequence, the solder
tip can be tinned easily and is ready to create
perfect solder joints. The company promises
an excellent performance, low smoke and
low odour of the lead-free activator. (Balver
Fig. 1
Precise holes 1:1
with Contour Cut
High cut quality &
contour accuracy
Zinn Group, Blintroper Weg 11, 58802
Balve/Germany; www.balverzinn.com)
High efficiency dust collector
The “Quad Pulse Package PX” (Fig. 2)
dust collector offers high performance in a
compact unit designed for pharmaceutical,
chemical and other processes that produce
hazardous dusts in high concentrations. The
collector has a cleanable filter system that
facilitates continuous manufacturing
processes and eliminates frequent costly fil-
ter replacements. Measuring 124.46 cm wide
x 106.68 cm deep x 220.98 cm high, the
space-saving unit can be conveniently po-
sitioned on the production floor; and con-
structed to provide the highest explosion
protection in accordance with ATEX stan-
dards, it can be located indoors with no need
for additional explosion safety devices.
Thanks to a segmented cleaning process
performed during operation, the “Quad
Pulse Package” requires just a single primary
filter cartridge. The high efficiency primary
pleated filter comes in a conductive (anti-
More Information
Sharp-edged cut surfaces
on the top and bottom
side of the material
Low angular deviations
& smooth surfaces
Marking
SMART FOCUS
Plasma Cutting Units
 FROM COMPANIES
Fig. 2
static) nano fibre or PTFE media and offers
exceptional dust release for extended life,
energy savings and reduced change-out
schedules. It also prolongs the service life of
the second-stage filter, a HEPA H14 filter
that provides 99.995% efficiency to capture
the finest, most harmful dust particles. Using
materials from the aerospace industry, the
HEPA filter functions as a tested flame and
contamination barrier. In addition, the pres-
sure-resistant housing maintains integrity
with no damage during an explosion event.
(Camfil Air Pollution Control (APC) Ltd.,
Unit C, Birch Business Park, Heywood, Lan-
cashire, OL10 2SX/UK; www.camfilapc.
com/europe-quadpulse)
Weld ferromagnetic materials
effortlessly
Welding ferromagnetic materials can
prove difficult at times: the arc is deflected
and the whole welding process becomes un-
stable. Inadequate welding results are the
consequence and require reworking. This
problem is often caused by magnetism in
the workpiece. The stronger the magnetic
field, the greater its influence on the arc and
the poorer the welding properties and seam
quality. If the workpiece is degaussed before
the welding process, such effects do not ap-
pear. Degaussing power source “degauss
Fig. 3
264
600” (Fig. 3, Photo: EWM AG) eliminates
the magnetic field, so that it no longer has
an adverse effect on the welding process. A
degaussed workpiece ensures a stable arc.
The outcome is an error-free, reproducible
welding result. The degaussing power source
and a load cable are the two core compo-
nents in the “degauss 600”. The system is
very easy to use: the load cable is wound
around the component on the section con-
taining the point to be welded. The more
turns there are, the more effective the de-
gaussing process is. Degaussing is automatic
and takes just little over a minute, so it is
completed extremely quickly. The subse-
quent welding process is now reliable and
there is no need for finishing work. The com-
pany also supplies an optional magnetic
field meter to measure the strength of the
magnetic field in the workpiece. (EWM AG,
Dr.-Günter-Henle-Str. 8, 56271 Münders-
bach/Germany; www.ewm-group.com)
New remote collaboration
software
“InspectionWorks Connect” is a remote
collaboration software platform for the non-
destructive testing (NDT) and inspection in-
dustry. It provides real-time access to live
inspection video and data from anywhere
in the world, which enables smarter, faster
decision-making, improves inspector pro-
ductivity and reduces training costs. The
software platform is a secure, encrypted so-
lution that is embedded on NDT devices
without the use of any additional equip-
ment. It is also zero-install, which means
that users only need a web browser to log in
remotely. “InspectionWorks Connect” pro-
vides:
• Live video streaming of inspections
• Collaboration tools, including 2-way
chat communication and telestration
• Cloud-based infrastructure
• Wireless connectivity
• Over-the-air software updates
Across the aerospace, power generation, off-
shore oil & gas, petrochemical, refining and
nuclear industries, as well as general man-
ufacturing, “InspectionWorks Connect” of-
fers a new way of improving inspection out-
comes. “InspectionWorks Connect” is cur-
rently available for use with visual inspec-
tions on the “GE XLG3” and “GE Mentor Vi-
sual iQ” Videoprobes, as well as the “Mentor
EM” eddy current portable. (GE Sensing &
Inspection Technologies GmbH, Robert-
Bosch-Str. 3, 50354 Hürth/Germany; www.
gemeasurement.com)
Sink or swim for industrial
equipment
Fig. 4
“X-Rust 7” (Fig. 4, Photo: NC23) is a
powerful rust removal solution. Designed
for the immersion of steel based plant and
machinery equipment, “X-Rust 7” elimi-
nates even the most severe rust in 24 hours.
The solution is pH neutral, effective at room
temperature and leaves a temporary pro-
tective coating after application. The highly
concentrated formula dilutes 1:10 with wa-
ter and 4 x 5 litres cases provide the equiv-
alent of 200 litres of conventional product
once diluted. Less protective PPE clothing
is required to handle and store “X-Rust 7”
and unlike many acid-based products, en-
ergy isn’t wasted in heating tanks. After
treatment, “X-Rust 7” leaves a temporary
protective coating, which prevents flash
rusting and buys the user enough time to
apply a rust prevention product, such as
“Resist X Extra” or “HyZinc Extra”. “X-Rust
7” is targeted at those industries most af-
fected by rust including construction, man-
ufacturing, petrochemical, pulp and paper
as well as rail, automotive and aerospace.
(NCH Europe, NCH House, Springvale Av-
enue, Bilston, West Midlands, WV14
0QL/UK; www.ncheurope.com/en)
CNC pipe finishing machine
The company is expanding the machine
portfolio on metal pipe finishing machinery.
The new development is the CNC pipe fin-
ishing machine (Fig. 5) with both radial and
axial feeding. Because of the feeding sys-
tems, especially tougher material like Stain-
Fig. 5
Welding and Cutting 14 (2015) No. 5
less Steel, Duplex or Super Duplex can be
easily machined because this machine is
cutting the metal from outside down to in-
side, step by step. Therefore you could also
easily machine heavy wall pipes, only the
process takes longer. This machine is capa-
ble of outside and inside machining of the
pipe, like bevelling, facing, squaring, debur-
ring, tapering and threading. All these
preparations are done without manually
changing the tools in the chuck for a differ-
ent angle or shape. The metal pipe is
clamped and the chuck with the cutting bits
is preparing all the required angles and
shapes controlled by the CNC system. These
CNC pipe finishing machines are available
in several models, up to 8”, 16”, 24”, 30” and
48”. (Copier Bevelmachines, Bedrijvenstraat
13, 4283 JJ Giessen/The Netherlands;
www.bevelmachines.com)
Ultrasonic welding with much
improved quality
With its new “Electrical Motion” (Fig. 6,
Photo: Rinco Ultrasonics AG) ultrasonic
welding machine (working frequency: 20
kHz), the Swiss specialist is treading new
ground: away from the traditional pneumatic
drive to an electrically driven welding ma-
chine. With this solution, the relevant pa-
rameters for the joining process can be reg-
ulated individually and very finely – from the
positioning of the sonotrode and the applied
welding force to the welding rate. This is re-
flected above all in considerably better re-
sults, whether in welding, punching, cutting
or sealing of moulded thermoplastic parts,
nonwovens or synthetic textiles. Another in-
novation is that the welding machine is
equipped with a high-performance indus-
try-type PC that can be comfortably operated
Welding and Cutting 14 (2015) No. 5
Fig. 6
via a 12-inch touchscreen. The welding
process is triggered via an ergonomically de-
signed two-hand operation. The “Electrical
Motion” is a further development of the “Dy-
namic 3000” ultrasonic welding machine (al-
so with a working frequency of 20 kHz),
which was designed especially for technically
demanding welding operations for medium
to large-sized thermoplastic parts. Unlike the
compressed air-driven design, in which the
feed for the sonotrode returns after every
weld cycle to the starting position in the
pneumatic cylinder, the starting position
with the “Electrical Motion” can be freely se-
lected. Consequently, the weld cycle can of-
ten be shortened, depending on the geome-
try of the object to be welded. A total of eight
modes are available for this: from time, dis-
tance and energy-related modes, to a com-
bination of time and energy and a mode for
presetting the melting rate. (Rinco Ultrason-
ics AG, Industriestraße 4, 8590 Romanshorn
1/Switzerland; www.rincoultrasonics.com)
Handy miniature stud welder
The specialist for fasteners and connec-
tion technology will be exhibiting the high-
Fig. 7
tech “BMK-12i” stud welding inverter (Fig.
7) with “SRM-Technologie” (Studwelding in
Radially Symmetrical Magnetic Field) at
“Schweisstec 2015“ in Stuttgart/Germany.
After its launch in 2011 and following years
of intensive research and development
work, the 2nd generation of stud welder in
a miniature format is now ready for the mar-
ket and series production. Thanks to the GS
mark for certified quality and safety by the
TÜV-Rheinland, it has been possible to com-
pletely fulfil the requirements of health and
safety in the workplace for this range of de-
vices. The world’s smallest, lightest and
strongest stud welder in pocket format
weighing just 6.8 kg and with a welding ca-
pacity of 800 amps is suitable for weld studs
up to a diameter of 12 mm. It does not re-
quire ceramic rings when welding and pro-
duces high-strength welded joints without
annoying flanges, welding beads or welding
splatter by using conventional inert gases
(e.g. mixed gas 82% argon/18% CO2). This
enables the user to use the stud thread right
up to the base material. (Heinz Soyer Bolzen-
schweißtechnik GmbH, Inninger Straße 14,
82237 Wörthsee/Germany; www.soyer.de)
265
 WELDING PRACTICE
Health, safety and accident prevention during welding
and cutting – Welding fume assessment
These guidelines are given on the princi-
pal health and safety considerations to ensure
safe welding practices and prevent accidents.
Health risks associated with fume and gases
generated during welding are highlighted.
What is welding fume/gases?
Welding fume is a mixture of airborne
fine particles. Toxic gases may also be gen-
erated during welding and cutting.
Fume
More than 90% of the fume arises from
vaporisation of the consumable electrode,
wire or rod as material is transferred across
the arc or flame. The range of welding fume
particle size is shown in relation to more fa-
miliar types of dust and fume. The respirable
fraction of particles (especially less than 3
μm) are potentially more harmful as they can
penetrate to the innermost parts of the lung.
Gases
Gases encountered in welding may be:
• Fuel gases which, on combustion, form
carbon dioxide and, if the flame is re-
ducing, carbon monoxide
• Shielding gases such as argon, helium
and carbon dioxide, either alone or in
mixtures with oxygen or hydrogen
• Carbon dioxide and monoxide pro-
duced by the action of heat on the weld-
ing flux or slag
• Nitric oxide, nitrogen dioxide and
ozone produced by the action of heat
or ultraviolet radiation on the atmo-
sphere surrounding the welding arc
• Gases from the degradation of solvent
vapours or surface contaminants on the
metal.
The degree of risk to the welder’s health from
fume/gases will depend on:
• composition
• concentration
• the length of time the welder is exposed
Health hazards from particulate
fume
The potential hazards from breathing in
fume are:
Irritation of the respiratory tract
Fine particles can cause dryness of the
throat, tickling, coughing and if the concen-
266
tration is particularly high, tightness of the
chest and difficulty in breathing.
Metal fume fever
Breathing in metal oxides such as zinc
and copper can lead to an acute flu-like ill-
ness called ‘metal fume fever’. It occurs most
commonly when welding galvanised steel;
symptoms usually begin several hours after
exposure with athirst, cough, headache
sweat, pain in the limbs and fever. Complete
recovery usually occurs within 1 to 2 days
of removal from the exposure, without any
lasting effects.
Longer term effects
The continued inhalation of welding
fume over long periods of time can lead to
the deposition of iron particles in the lung,
giving rise to a benign condition called
siderosis.
There is evidence that welders have a
slightly greater risk of developing lung cancer
than the general population. In certain weld-
ing situations, there is potential for the fume
to contain certain forms of chromium and/or
nickel compounds – substances which have
been associated with lung cancer in process-
es other than welding. As yet, no direct link
has been clearly established. Nevertheless,
as a sensible precaution and to minimise the
risk, special attention should be paid to con-
trolling fumes which may contain them.
Additional hazards
A number of other specific substances
known to be hazardous to health can be
found in welding fume such as barium and
fluorides which do not originate from the
metal. If the metal contains a surface coat-
ing, there will also be a potential risk from
any toxic substances generated by thermal
degradation of the coating.
Health hazards from gases
The potential hazards from breathing in
gases during welding are:
Irritation of the respiratory tract
Ozone can cause delayed irritation of
the respiratory tract which may progress to
bronchitis and occasionally pneumonia.
Nitrogen oxides can cause a dry irritating
cough and chest tightness. Symptoms usu-
ally occur after a delay of 4 to 8 hours. In se-
vere cases, death can occur from pulmonary
oedema (fluid on the lungs) or pneumonia.
Asphyxiation
Special precautions are needed when
welding in confined spaces where there is
the risk of asphyxiation due to the build up
of inert shielding gases.
Carbon monoxide, formed as a result of
incomplete combustion of fuel gases, can
also cause asphyxiation by replacing the oxy-
gen in the blood.
Establishing safe levels of fume in
the workplace
Much of the regulatory framework ap-
plied to welding and allied processes is di-
rected towards protecting the health of work-
ers by maintaining their exposure to fume
and gases within defined limits known as ex-
posure limits. In the UK these limits are
known as Workplace Exposure Limits
(WELs). They are for use with the Control of
Substances Hazardous to Health (COSHH)
Regulation and are published annually in
EH/40 from the Health and Safety Executive.
WELs are concentrations of hazardous
substances in the air, averaged over a specified
period of time referred to as a time weighted
average. Two time periods are used: long term
(8 hours) and short term (15 minutes). Short
term exposure limits (STELs) are set to prevent
effects, such as eye irritation, which may occur
following exposure for a few minutes.
Regulation 7(7) of COSHH states that
‘without prejudice to the requirement to pre-
vent exposure, control of exposure to a sub-
stance hazardous to health shall only be
treated as adequate if:
1. the principles of good practice for the
control of exposure to substances haz-
ardous to health set out in Schedule 2A
are applied;
2. any workplace exposure limit approved
for that substance is not exceeded; and
3. for a substance:
3.1. which carries the risk phrase R45,
R46 or R49, or for a substance or
process which is listed in Schedule
1; or
3.2. which carries the risk phrase R42 or
R42/43, or which is listed in Section
C of HSE publication “Asthmagen?
Welding and Cutting 14 (2015) No. 5
 Critical assessments of the evi-
dence for agents implicated in oc-
cupational asthma” as updated
from time to time, or any other sub-
stance which the risk assessment
has shown to be a potential cause
of occupational asthma, exposure
is reduced to as low a level as is rea-
sonably practicable.
The risk phrases R45, R46 and R49 refer
to substances that may cause cancer or her-
itable genetic damage. The risk phrases R42
and R42/43 refer to substances that may
cause sensitisation by inhalation or by sen-
sitisation and skin contact.
The eight principles of good practice for
control of exposure to substances hazardous
to health, as reproduced from the COSHH
Regulations 2002 (as amended), Approved
Code of Practice and guidance, are shown
below:
1. Design and operate processes and ac-
tivities to minimise emission, release
and spread of substances hazardous to provide, in combination with other If employers apply the principles cor-
health; control measures, suitable personal rectly, exposure should be below any rele-
2. Take into account all relevant routes of protective equipment; vant WEL. Control by personal protective
exposure – inhalation, skin absorption 6. Check and review regularly all elements equipment should only be used when other
and ingestion – when developing con- of control measures for their continuing measures are not reasonably practicable.
trol measures; effectiveness; The WELs of some of the substances
3. Control exposure by measures that are 7. Inform and train all employees on the found in welding fume are listed in the table;
proportionate to the health risk; hazards and risks from the substances the absence of other substances from this
4. Choose the most effective and reliable with which they work and the use of list does not indicate that they are safe.
control options which minimise the es- control measures developed to min- (Information prepared in collaboration with
cape and spread of substances haz- imise the risks; Roger Sykes, Health & Safety Executive,
ardous to health; 8. Ensure that the introduction of all con- Newcastle upon Tyne/UK and Geoff Melton,
5. Where adequate control of exposure trol measures does not increase the Chairman, BSI WEE-6 Committee. Copy-
cannot be achieved by other means, overall risk of health and safety. right TWI 2015)

EAST ENTR ANCE

NEW
PERSPECTIVES
S TA R T: S P R I N G 2 0 1 6 www.trade-shows-new-perspectives.com
 EVENTS

“Fabtech 2015“ in Chicago to offer more live

product demonstrations, panel and education
sessions than ever before

“Fabtech 2015“, North America’s largest

metal forming, fabricating, welding and fin-
ishing event, will provide more technology
and opportunity than ever before. The expo
– taking place on 9 to 12 November 2015 in
McCormick Place, Chicago/USA – will offer
more than 1,500 exhibitors and 40,000 at-
tendees full access to special events, pre-
sentations, educational sessions and an in-
dustry night.
“People will come from around the
world to hear new perspectives, gain indus-
try exposure and grow their businesses and
networks,” said John Catalano, show co-
manager of “Fabtech“. “No matter what man-
ufacturing background our attendees come
from, there is something for everyone – the
trick is planning for everything the event has
to offer.”
Attendees will find live demonstrations
of the latest technology and integrated so-
lutions, one-on-one exchanges with ex-
hibitors and industry leaders and opportu-
nities to attend keynote presentations, in-
dustry panels and educational sessions.
Speakers and panel participants come from
companies such as Dell, GE Ventures,
Siemens and more. Additionally, NASCAR
(National Association for Stock Car Auto
Racing) champion Rusty Wallace will par-
ticipate as the opening keynote speaker.
Special events
Numerous presentations, keynotes and
panel sessions will be offered at F “Fabtech“.
Topics and events will include:
• Running a winning organisation
• What additive manufacturing/3-D
printing means for the metal fabrication
industry
• Enterprise security risks: Is your com-
pany protected?
• Women of “Fabtech“ Breakfast with
Tech Tour
• Innovation and the future of work in
advanced manufacturing
• State of the industry executive outlook
• Professional welding competition
Education series and industry
night
“Fabtech 2015“ will offer more than 100
education sessions, including content for
every role within the manufacturing realm.
Sessions will provide educational and train-
ing programs targeting technical, opera-
tional, lean manufacturing, economic and
managerial segments to help attendees grow
their business and gain industry knowledge.
The event will also host an industry
night, providing attendees the opportunity
“Fabtech 2015“
will take place
on 9 to 12
November in
McCormick
Place,
Chicago/USA.
(Photos:
Fabtech)
to strike up a game of bowling or billiards
with industry partners and grow their net-
work.
“Fabtech 2015“ is made possible by its
five co-sponsors, all of whom representing
the varied and diverse makeup of the man-
ufacturing industry. They include SME –
an organisation for individuals, students,
educators and companies involved in all
facets of manufacturing –, the American
Welding Society (AWS), the Fabricators &
Manufacturers Association, International
(FMA), the Precision Metalforming Asso-
ciation (PMA), and the Chemical Coaters
Association International (CCAI). To reg-
ister to attend and find more information,
please visit www.fabtechexpo.com. (Ac-
cording to press information from
“Fabtech“)

268 Welding and Cutting 14 (2015) No. 5

Third International Conference on Electron Beam
Welding in November in Chicago
The third International Conference on
Electron Beam Welding will be held in con-
junction with the Intermediate Meeting of
IIW, Commission IV, and the “Fabtech“
Show on 10 and 11 November 2015 in
Chicago/USA. This event is co-sponsored
by the AWS – American Welding Society,
the DVS – German Welding Society and the
IIW C-IV. The conference will bring togeth-
er scientists and engineers from industry,
academia and research laboratories from
around the world to discuss current and
future trends in electron beam welding.
The format for this conference is a two-
day event beginning with a tutorial in elec-
tron beam welding following by plenary
sessions featuring four keynote speakers.
These keynote speakers will include inter-
4th European Conference “Join-Trans 2016“ –
Call for Papers
On 11 and 12 May 2016, the 4th Euro-
pean Conference “Join-Trans 2016 – Joining
and Construction of Railway Vehicles“ will
take place at SLV Halle in Halle (Saale), Ger-
many. The harmonisation of welding for
railway vehicles is proceeding, based on the
standards of EN 15085. Safe railway trans-
port is in the public interest all over Europe
– and welding plays an active role in this re-
spect.
However, a clearly-defined standard
alone does not sufficiently influence the
quality of welding on railway vehicles. There-
fore, a whole system of quality assurance is
needed. Covering this is a key task for the
ECWRV – European Committee for Welding
on Railway Vehicles. Manufacturers, opera-
tors, national safety authorities as well as
manufacturer certification bodies from more
than 16 countries are all currently members
of the ECWRV. They discuss how to organise
quality assurance on an equal level.
In this context, the Online Database EN
15085 is of central importance. The database
provides transparency regarding the validity
of certificates as well as technical informa-
tion.
Welding and Cutting 14 (2015) No. 5
nationally recognised experts who will pro-
vide important perspectives on the current
status of electron beam welding interna-
tionally and in Europe, Asia and the United
States. The afternoon events will include
two parallel sessions: “Electron Beam
Welding Research and Development
To accompany all these processes an ex-
change of experience is required with all par-
ticipants. This could be provided in the scope
of the „Join-Trans 2016“ technical conference
on the latest developments in welding tech-
nology and welded constructions as well as
standards for railway vehicles. The confer-
ence will also include a welding exhibition.
The programme committee consisting
of renowned representatives from railway
vehicle construction is calling for papers on
the proposed topics by 27 November 2015.
Conference topics include:
• Welding technologies in the manufac-
ture of railway vehicles (new manufac-
turing and repair)
• Alternative technologies (mechanical
joining processes, …)
• Materials and semi-finished materials
(steel, aluminium, plastics, composite
materials)
• Welding and construction with EN
15085 part 1-5
• Experience of certification bodies with
EN 15085-2
• Application of Online Database EN
15085
Trends“ and “Electron Beam Welding Ap-
plication Trends“.
More information: www.iiwelding.org/
Members/usa/Events/ DispForm.aspx?ID=
6. (According to press information from
DVS, AWS, IIW)
• New construction principles
• Dynamic stress of welded structures
• Corrosion protection (structural as-
pects, coatings, sealing materials, …)
• Welding technical devices, mechanisa-
tion and automation
• Quality assurance with safety-relevant
construction units
• Safety concepts in the manufacturing
of rail vehicles
• Non-destructive testing in rail vehicle
manufacturing
• Maintenance and repair
• ECM-Entity in charge of maintenance
• New guideline of ECWRV part 1 and 2
The conference language will be English.
The presentation should not be longer
than 20 minutes. After presentation there
will be a discussion of about 5 minutes.
Abstracts should be submitted by 27 No-
vember 2015 to conferences@slv-halle.de.
Authors will be notified concerning accept-
ance in January 2016. More information
about the conference is available at
www.jointrans.eu.
269
 EVENTS
More than 100 new exhibitors for “Blechexpo“ and
“Schweisstec“ 2015
At the 12th edition of the “Blechexpo“
international trade fair for sheet metal pro-
cessing and the 5th edition of the “Schweis-
stec“ international trade fair for joining tech-
nologies, the practice-oriented trade fair duo
is continuing its successful development at
a very high process-sequence level. “Blech-
expo“ and “Schweisstec“ will take place at
the Stuttgart Exhibition Centre in
Stuttgart/Germany from 3 to 6 November
2015 and are being organised by private
trade fair promoters P. E. Schall GmbH &
Co. KG.
More than 1,000 exhibitors from 35
countries have already registered. Thus, the
two fairs are able to announce a 14% in-
crease in exhibitor numbers and 21% more
exhibition floor space. This is not least due
to the more than 100 new exhibitors who
have decided to present their companies‘
products and services to national and inter-
national expert visitors for the first time. Be-
cause the steady upward trend and the in-
creasing internationalism of these events
make it clear that the comprehensive pres-
entation of the process sequences for sheet
metal, profile and pipe processing is hitting
the bull‘s eye amongst the target group and
thus reflects the interests of expert visitors
from all over the world.
First “Matchmaking Event“ at the
“Brazil Welding Show 2015“
Every two
years the “Brazil
Welding Show“ of-
fers the joining
technology indus-
try the opportunity
to develop the
growing South
American market. This year the trade fair is
taking place from 20 to 23 October in Brazil’s
most important industrial metropolis São
Paulo again. The foreign subsidiary of the
world’s leading trade fair for the joining and
cutting industry „Schweissen & Schneiden“
serves as a perfect platform for exhibitors to
present their products, processes and serv-
ices to one of the most important growth
270
Exhibitors from all sectors with
relevance for the process se-
quence
On the one hand, this development can
be assessed by the exhibitors as mark of con-
fidence and, on the other hand, it bears wit-
ness to the importance of “Blechexpo“ and
“Schweisstec“ as an annual event for the in-
ternationally successful industry sector. With
regard to the more than 100 new exhibitors,
it can be added that a large number of
renowned manufacturers and distributors
from the fields of measuring technology, im-
age processing and vision systems have reg-
istered to participate. As a result, the process
sequence goes full circle because, for exam-
ple, the digitisation of models and proto-
types as well as metrological inline quality
inspection have become indispensable
building blocks in the process sequence for
the processing of sheet metal, pipe and pro-
files – including feedback of measurement
data and thus the correction values which
have been activated for production pro-
grams.
Comprehensive presentation
A practice-oriented presentation of
hardware and software in light of new or op-
timised technologies and processes, prod-
markets and to establish new contacts.
The latter is particularly focused on at
this year’s “Brazil Welding Show“. As part of
the trade fair the first “Matchmaking Event“
in São Paulo for the industry segments weld-
ing and cutting, metalworking and tube
takes place on all three fair days. The event
is organised by Gamtek Consulting and
Aranda Eventos and offers exclusive support
in arranging suitable Brazilian business con-
tacts on-site. During the fair, companies
have the chance to talk with potential co-
operation partners and to bond with the
Brazilian joining technology branch. The
meetings will be scheduled in advance and
carried out in a separate area of the fair.
As an expert in her field Dr.-Ing. Telma
ucts and systems, as well as tools and ac-
cessories, on the other hand a dialogue be-
tween suppliers and users and, as a third
constituent, a rounding out with theoretical
and practical information at the exhibitor
forum or the “Schweisstec Conference“ –
this mix establishes a basis for more deci-
sion-making security and thus for invest-
ments of any magnitude. Suppliers and
manufacturers from domestic and export
markets present their companies to inter-
national expert visitors at “Blechexpo“ and
“Schweisstec“, with exhibitors from Ger-
many (just under 670), Italy (roughly 105),
Switzerland (36), the Netherlands (23),
Turkey (22), France (19) and China (16)
making up the largest delegations.
More information: www.schweisstec-
messe.de/en/ and www.blechexpo-messe.
de/en/. (According to press information
from P. E. Schall GmbH & Co. KG)
Dr.-Ing. Telma
Keppler
establishes
and maintains
German-
Brazilian
relationships.
Keppler will act as the companies’ contact
person. The Brazilian was born in São Paulo
herself and has been working a long time as
a manager in Germany. For more than
15 years she has been helping companies to
successfully log into the Brazilian market
and she establishes and maintains German-
Brazilian relationships.
More information is available at www.
gamtek-consulting.com and www.brazil-
welding-show.com.
Welding and Cutting 14 (2015) No. 5
 REPORTS

Brazing: When, where and how did it begin? –

Part 1: Setting the scene
In day-to-day conversations with ones is shrouding the joint during
colleagues, and when matters related to the heating process.
joining technology are being aired, someone (It is only in the past 60 years or so
often comments: “The technological point that the use of vacuum as a ‚con-
under discussion is about as old as the pyr- trolled environment‘ has come into
amids of Egypt, but now things are differ- routine use for some specific braz-
ent!” Certainly, this is true since the first ing applications).
pyramid in Egypt was constructed in However, we will not review the
Saqqara, which lies north-west of Memphis remaining attributes and method-
between 2630 and 2611 B.C.E. i.e. ,only’ ology of the brazing procedures cur-
some 4626 years ago! rently available since these are de-
Yes, that is indeed a long time ago. How- scribed in dozens of modern books,
ever, what most people involved with mod- pamphlets, and technical papers
ern joining technology are not aware is that that are concerned with the princi-
when the construction of the Saqqara Pyra- ples and practice of brazing.
mid was finished, brazing had already been
in active use for about 1380 years, a period Historical background
of time that separates those who are reading It is abundantly clear that use of Fig. 1 • The ‚cradle of the metal-based civilization‘ in the
this article today by approximately the time metals by man had pre-dated the de- Middle East showing the known locations of tin and copper
that has elapsed since the Prophet Muham- velopment of their joining by brazing deposits (Note particularly the absence of tin in Egypt).
mad died. Indeed, the reality is that brazing by many hundreds, and possibly
is almost as old as the Sphinx! thousands, of years. While there is no precise away from the use of stone implements for
It is common, though, to find people who date that can be considered to mark the for- weapons and tools to metal items was a
are newcomers to the metal-joining scene, mal closure of the Neolithic era, it is clear gradual process from about 5500 B.C.E. on-
believing that brazing is a relatively new pro- from archaeological research that the trend ward. This trend slowly gained impetus un-
cedure, and probably dates from the time
when Queen Victoria ruled in England. How- Table 1 • How brazing has developed in the approximate 5360 years that have passed since it was
ever, and as we have mentioned, brazing dates first used in Sumeria.
from about 4600 B.C.E, i.e. more than 6000
years ago and as a result is one of the earliest
methods of metal joining (see Table 1).
An essential feature of brazing, and in-
deed one of its chief advantages, is that it is
invariably performed at a temperature that
is lower than the melting point of the metals
being joined. It is also a characteristic in
many applications of the process that the
material that is to make the joint, (widely
referred to in modern literature as the ‚filler
material‘), is drawn by capillary attraction
into a well-prepared joint. In such cases the
mating surfaces of the materials that com-
prise the joint have to be chemically clean
when the parts attain brazing temperature
so that wetting and flow of the filler material
can occur, and so make the required joint.
The surface cleaning operation can be
achieved in a number of ways, and the two
most commonly used methods which have
both been in use for close to 6000 years are:
• Dissolution of the oxide by fusible
chemical fluxes
• Reaction with the oxide coating by a
controlled, reducing, atmosphere that

Welding and Cutting 14 (2015) No. 5 271

 REPORTS
til, by about 3500 B.C.E., and according to
Lucas [1], the area roughly bounded by the
rivers Tigris and Euphrates (Sumeria) and
Egypt were areas where metal-based civili-
sations were flourishing.
However, it is important to recognise that
metal-working technologies of these two re-
gions of the Middle-East in regard to the use
of brazing as a joining process followed sub-
stantially different paths until about 2000
B.C.E. This was due to the fact that while both
the Sumerians and the Egyptians had direct
access to metal-bearing ores containing gold,
silver and copper, there are no records of the
Egyptians having a local source of Tin (Fig.
1). Indeed it is widely believed that copper-
tin alloys were not worked in Egypt prior to
the twelfth Dynasty of their ruling House (i.e.
2000-1776 B.C.E,) when they were first im-
ported from Sumeria in the form of ingot.
Before we move on to discuss the prob-
able brazing techniques that were employed
from the earliest time, it is necessary to
briefly mention the fundamental technolog-
ical development that was the necessary
forerunner to the introduction of the use of
metals; namely, the forced-draft furnace
which permitted both the smelting and sub-
sequent melting of naturally occurring met-
al-bearing ores to be carried out.
It is very important to understand that
there is a fundamental difference that dis-
tinguishes smelting from melting! It is un-
fortunate that some of the authors of early
archaeological texts used ‚smelting‘ to de-
scribe a process that was, in actuality, ‚melt-
ing’ and vice versa. Such errors were quite
widespread and, as a result, really confused
later scholars as to which of these two quite
different procedures was really being used
to undertake a particular operation.
It is to be hoped that the next few lines will
clarify this matter once and for all:
• Melting is the application of heat to a
substance that will cause its tempera-
ture to increase to a level at which the
substance becomes a liquid.
• Smelting, on the other hand, is a com-
pletely different process. It is a process
where metallic ores are broken down
to their constituent metals due to the
combined effects of elevated tempera-
ture and chemical reactions.
In its simplest form, copper was extracted
from its ore (for example malachite) with
coke and a suitable flux and heating the
mass in a forced-draft furnace. Lucas [2] has
stated that the early Egyptian method was
to mix the ore with the charcoal and place
272
Fig. 2 • A charcoal fire in a clay bowl, a clay-
tipped reed as a blow-pipe, and tongs to hold
the work: These were the tools of the craftsmen
who were brazing between 4000 and 6000 years
ago. This figure dates from 1475 B.C.E. and was
found on the wall of a tomb of an Egyptian no-
bleman in Karnak (Illustration: Courtesy of the
British Museum, London).
the mass on the ground, ideally on the side
of a hill so as to take advantage of the wind,
and rely upon the heat generated to reduce
the metallic ores to metal.
Since copper melts at 1,083°C it is not
unreasonable to expect that this tempera-
ture would have been attained using the very
primitive method described above. Further,
Coghlan [3] has claimed that to obtain cop-
per by a smelting process a temperature no
greater than about 800°C is needed. Coghlan
[4] undertook some experiments to check
this matter and came to the conclusion that
copper was first produced accidentally dur-
ing the heating stage of the manufacture pot-
tery in a kiln rather than in an open fire.
Reed [5] on the other hand has suggested
that the introduction of the smelting of ores
to obtain copper was a logical development
from the melting of semi-pure metallic cop-
per nodules found within some copper ores.
Which of these theories is correct is of
only minimal, and passing, significance. The
important consideration is the fact that with
the discovery of how to extract metals from
their ores, ancient Man had made a major
step forward in his technological develop-
ment.
Technical considerations
There are two basic requirements to be
satisfied for a brazing filler material to be
able to wet and flow on the mating surfaces
of a joint:
• The parent material and the filler alloy
must be heated to a temperature that
is higher than the melting point of the
filler material, and
• The mating surfaces of the planned
joint and the filler material that is to be
employed must be free from oxide films
when brazing temperature is achieved.
While it is clear that the ancient metal-work-
ers had heating devices that were capable
of heating the assemblies to a high enough
temperature to permit brazing to occur, it is
somewhat more difficult to determine how
they achieved the removal of the oxide films
that would inhibit the necessary wetting and
flow by that filler material.
In modern industrial brazing practice
oxide removal can be achieved in one of five
ways:
1. By the use of a fusible chemical flux that
will, once molten, dissolve the oxides
present on both the parent metals and
filler material and which will remain
active until the required joint has been
made.
2. By the use of an inert atmosphere, ar-
gon for example. In this case reduction
of the oxides on the assembly that is
surrounded by the argon is encouraged
by the reduction of the partial pressure
of the oxygen that has occurred in the
shrouded area.
3. By the use of vacuum as a ‚shrouding‘
environment for the brazing process.
4. By the use of an atmosphere of con-
trolled composition that contains gases
such as carbon monoxide and/or hy-
drogen. Such atmospheres react with
the oxide layers that they encounter,
and as a result, reduce them to pure
metal.
5. By the dissociation of the oxides present
on the materials when they are heated
above about 800°C. (This is only a viable
route if the metals to be brazed are gold,
silver, the six platinum-group metals
and alloys that are mixtures of any two
or more of these precious metals).
Of these five options, it is clear that some 5000
years ago, the means of producing the con-
ditions required for options 2 and 3 would
only have been possible had the early metal
workers been trained by aliens who arrived
here from a planet whose distance from us is
measured in light years! Perhaps this hap-
pened, but the author is not convinced that
this is a matter that needs too much study
before dismissing it as pure ‚comic book‘ con-
jecture. Consequently, we need to examine
options 1, 4, 5 in further detail.
It is a well-established fact that the
Sumerians were brazing bronzes around
2500 B.C.E, and since the dissociation phe-
Welding and Cutting 14 (2015) No. 5
nomena mentioned in option 5 is not a char-
acteristic that applies to copper-tin alloys it
is clear that it would require the use of a
fusible flux for brazing to occur. Further ar-
chaeological research has indicated that
such fluxes would have to have been mix-
tures of three materials that were certainly
known to the Sumerians. These were hy-
drated copper silicate (chrysocolla), potas-
sium carbonate (potash) and sodium car-
bonate (natron). Such a mixture would act
as an effective flux for use on bronzes in the
temperature range 550 to 850°C.
However, we also have to remember that
bronzes were not worked in Egypt till about
2000 B.C.E, yet beautifully brazed ‚gold‘
items from Egypt, dating from as far back as
2800 B.C.E are to be found in most of the
major museums of the world. To have been
able to make such items clearly required the
use of some form of reducing atmosphere
brazing in the Middle East at that time!
Clearly, the use of hydrogen is an atmos-
phere that can be eliminated from consid-
eration since there was no method that ei-
ther the Egyptians or Sumerians could have
Welding and Cutting 14 (2015) No. 5
used to generate it: thus we are left with car-
bon monoxide being the only possibility.
Consequently, and in order to provide the
brazing procedure that was used for the
brazing of gold and silver items, we have to
take account of four pieces of information.
These are:
• The ancient metal workers knew how
to make and use charcoal.
• At temperatures above 800°C the sur-
face oxides on both gold and silver dis-
sociate and so are, in effect, removed.
• The Sumerians and Egyptians were fab-
ricating gold and silver items some 5000
years ago.
• The Sumerians brazed bronze from
about 2500 B.C.E, the Egyptians begin-
ning to fabricate bronze items only
some 500 years later.
It is therefore reasonable to assume that for
gold and silver items, both of these civilisa-
tions practiced reducing atmosphere braz-
ing under an atmosphere of carbon monox-
ide; this gas being generated in the heart of
a charcoal fire according to the following
general equation:
2 C + O2 2 CO
Fortunately, there are paintings on the
walls of some Egyptian tombs that confirm
this conjecture: the most popular of these
being shown here as Fig. 2.
Part 2 of this article in the next issue of
“Welding and Cutting“ will comment on the
brazing procedures used by the early brazing
operators, together with pictures of some of
the assemblies that they fabricated, and
forms the final portion of this examination
of the historical roots of the brazing process.
P. M. Roberts, Delphi Brazing Consultants,
Congleton, Cheshire/UK
Literature
[1] A. Lucas: Ancient Egyptian Materials and
Technology (Revised by J. R. Harris), p. 219.
[2] Ibid, p. 211.
[3] H. H.Coghlan: Antiquaries Journal Man XXI
(1942), p. 27.
[4] H. H.Coghlan: Antiquaries Journal Man
XXIX (1939), pp. 106-108.
[5] T. T. Reed: American Journal of Archaeology,
XXVIII (1934), p. 383.
273
 REPORTS

Defects due to poor preparation of edges prior to

welding – and how to avoid them
Virtually all branches of industry have Cutting pipes with a
been using welding processes in their metal grinding wheel. (Pic-
assembly work for almost 100 years. Tech- tures: Protem)
niques and materials are improved every
year in the search for increasingly high levels
of efficiency. Despite using welding stations
on the cutting edge of technology, the stage
prior to welding, i.e. preparing the pipe ends
to be welded together, is often neglected or
done with inappropriate techniques. The re-
sult is that, amongst the numerous factors
liable to affect welding quality, poor prepa-
ration is a recurrent cause. This article goes
into detail on these defects and shows how
correct preparation can reduce the risk of
them occurring.
Dry machining a com-
pound bevel in a single
Cracking
pass.
Cracking is one of the most frequently
observed defects in welding. It is due to ex-
cessive mechanical stress in the weld bead.
The most common types of cracking are hot
and cold cracking.

Hot cracking
As indicated by its name, this type of
cracking appears when the metal is still hot
and in the process of solidifying. The design
of the weld assembly is one of the factors
that favour the appearance of this type of
defect. This can be explained by the fact
that the narrower the bevel is, the greater
will be the mechanical stress resulting from
the metal solidifying. If this stress is too
high, cracking is liable to occur during the
change in phase. Therefore, it is important
for bevel angles to be determined correctly.
When the bevel is made by hand, it cannot
be mastered totally accurately. For this rea-
son, it is better to use suitable apparatus
for machining edges, so that an accurate,
constant bevel angle can be obtained.
Cold cracking
Cold cracks appear after welding – imme-
diately, several hours or even several days later.
This type of defect is caused by a simultaneous
combination of three factors: a temper struc-
ture (hard and fragile), residual mechanical
stress (related to clamping for example) and
the presence of diffusible hydrogen in the weld
bead. This last factor may be related to poor
preparation of the edges. It must be remem-
bered that, when welding is done on a rusty
or poorly degreased part, the hydrogen pres-
ent in the rust or the hydrocarbons will de-
compose in the weld. Stresses will then appear
on the atomic scale when the metal is cooling
down. If ever this concentration of stresses
becomes too high, the metal will crack.
When accompanied by other precautions
such as drying the electrodes in ovens or pre-

274 Welding and Cutting 14 (2015) No. 5


heating parts to be welded, dry machining
the joint edges will enable welding to be done
on hydrogen-free material and, in this way,
reduce the probability of cold cracking.
Blowholes
Besides cold cracking, a poorly prepared
surface can also be the cause of blowholes
appearing in the weld. This can be explained
by the fact that the presence of water, rust
or greasy substances on the part will lead to
the formation of gas bubbles liable to be
trapped inside the bead. As is the case in
cold cracking, the right type of machining
(dry) of the end to be welded will lead to a
significant reduction in the probability of
this type of defect appearing.
Iron contamination
Iron contaminations concerns stainless
steels. Whenever this type of steel finds itself
in contact with iron particles and an electric-
ity conducting medium (damp air, for exam-
ple), a galvanic corrosion mechanism comes
into being. As a result, the passive layer of
stainless steel will deteriorate progressively
and risks of pitting are then liable to occur.
Generally, these iron particles come
from using inappropriate equipment. This
may concern:
• Shaping equipment: Presses, bending
machines, etc.
• Cleaning equipment: Metal brushes,
cleaning rags that have been used on
carbon steel, etc.
• Machining equipment: Cutting and
beveling tools, clamping jaws, etc.
This type of contamination may also come
from grinding operations carried out on car-
bon steel in the vicinity of the stainless steel
parts.
Welding and Cutting 14 (2015) No. 5
Cutting and beveling the end of a pipe (diame-
ter: 1,026 mm) without any heat-affected zone
with the orbital pipe cutter “TTNG-1200“.
Machining a J bevel on super duplex steel
in a single pass with the portable beveling unit
“Protem SE90NG“.
In the context of a part that has been
machined before welding, it is primordial
that a check is made to ensure that the
clamping jaws and cutting tools used are
compatible with stainless steel machining
operations (jaws in stainless steel or light al-
loy for example) and that they have not been
used for working on carbon steel beforehand
(or that they have been decontaminated
since).
Penetration defects
Excess or incomplete penetration
Incomplete penetration is normally
characterised by a non-melted zone at the
root of the weld. Excess penetration corre-
sponds to a surplus of molten metal at the
base of the welded joint. These two defects
are caused by poor welding parameters (in-
tensity, voltage, welding speed) but also by
the clearance between the parts or poorly
controlled land thickness.
Too little clearance will give rise to in-
complete penetration, whereas too much
clearance is liable to cause excess penetra-
tion. In certain cases, this type of defect is
not systematically eliminated by highly ac-
curate positioning. If the parts to be welded
are not perfectly parallel due to poor prepa-
ration, unequal clearance between the parts
will be liable to give rise to localised points
with excess or incomplete welding. Accurate
facing of the ends enables one of the causes
of this defect to be eliminated.
Incomplete or excess penetration may
also be caused by a bevel with a land thick-
ness that is not compatible with welding pa-
rameters. These parameters are determined
beforehand depending on the material to
be welded, the geometry of the welded joint
and the welding process used. However, cor-
 REPORTS
30° bevel with a constant land (inside counter bore) with the beveling ma-
chine “US25“.
rectly mastering the welding parameters
does not mean that a penetration defect can
be totally avoided.
Variable land thickness due to poor
preparation may also deteriorate the quality
276
Facing a stainless steel pipe (diameter: 15.88 mm) with the outside clamp-
ing tube and fittings facing machine “SE25“.
of the welded joint. For example parameters
that are correct for a land 1.5 mm thick may
lead to excess penetration if the land is only
0.5 mm thick or incomplete penetration on
a land 2.5 mm thick. Mastering this thick-
ness, by carrying out an internal counter-
boring operation or profile tracking on pipes
that are out-of-round, will increase the final
quality of the weld.
Good preparation for guaranteeing
constant clearance or an even land is pri-
mordial whenever automated processes are
used such as TIG orbital or MIG robot
welding. In these cases, welding is done
without any human intervention and any
alignment defects cannot be corrected by
the machine. This would not be the case
with an experienced welder.
Cold lapping or lack of fusion
Lack of fusion, also called cold lapping,
is characterised by a non-molten contact
zone between the filler metal and the base
metal. Once again, poor preparation of the
contact surfaces is one of the causes of this
defect. With a bevel that is too thin com-
pared with the diameter of the electrode,
the arc may be attracted by one of the
walls. As a result, fusion occurs on one of
the edges and the bevel is filled with
molten metal.
However, as the arc has not directly
reached the root (or the previous pass) and
the other side of the bevel, the zones in ques-
tion are not melted but just covered by an
extra layer of filler metal. The weld may ap-
pear to be good, but, in fact, the metallurgi-
cal continuity required when assembling by
a welding process is not achieved. As these
defects are generally located inside the weld-
ed joint, they can rarely be seen by the naked
eye and require the use of special control
techniques such as ultrasound or radiogra-
phy. Proper determination of the bevel angle
Welding and Cutting 14 (2015) No. 5
and accurate machining at a constant angle
reduce cold lapping risks.
Deterioration of the material’s
properties
Two techniques are generally used for
cutting metallic parts: Cutting by heat (torch,
plasma, laser etc.) and cutting by mechani-
cal machining (grinding wheels, saws, or-
bital cutting machines, etc.). The conse-
quences of inaccurate preparation related
to the use of machining solutions such as
grinding wheels and saws have been ex-
plained in detail above.
When cutting by heat, the quality of the
techniques, welding can be done over
WELD PRODUCTION
depths of several hundred mm in a single AND FINANCIAL
CONTROLLING
pass and with a bead that is rarely more than
5 mm wide.
Assemblies welded in this way do not
require bevels but extremely accurate facing
TOGETHER WITH
on part ends. For example, preparation for A LORCH.
laser welding will be acceptable if the align-
ment fault is less than 0,1 mm. Moreover,
parts must be totally free of any contamina- When it comes to welding systems,
tion for using these technologies success- some users want maximum freedom of
fully, especially electron beam welding. As movement, sophisticated technology,
and simple operation, whereas others
electron beam welding operations are car-
emphasise maximum productivity with the
ried out under vacuum conditions, no water lowest possible purchase price. Lorch sa-
or hydrocarbon residues must be allowed 




cut may prove to be satisfactory when made
by an experienced operator or with the help
of an automated system. However, in the
majority of cases, these techniques create
to enter the chamber as their presence is li- solutions according to the SWIP principle:
able to make creating a vacuum a more del- Smart Welding for Industry and Production.
icate task. Sophisticated operating concepts, durable
Using these ultra high-tech methods re- and long-lasting technology with maximum
 





a heat-affected zone close to the cutting
point. The physical characteristics of the
material are significantly changed in this
zone. If a weld is made directly on deterio-
rated material, the quality of the weld and
its mechanical resistance could well be
compromised. Therefore, to be able to
guarantee the final quality of the weld, the
area in question will necessarily need to be
re-machined for eliminating the heat-af-
fected zone.
Using orbital machines eliminates the
accuracy problems related to using grinding
wheels or saws and the constraints caused
by heat-affected zones related to cutting by
applying heat. Cutting and beveling can be
done in a single operation with this type of
equipment, without any heat-affected zones
and with optimal, consistent high quality.
Special cases concerning process-
es using high-density energy
sources
High density energy source processes
concern laser and electron beam welding.
Both these processes use a beam (a laser or
electron bombardment) accurately focused
to make the energy that is aimed at the part
to be welded melt the metal. Using these
Welding and Cutting 14 (2015) No. 5
quires the presence of suitable machining
ensure a boost in your productivity and
equipment capable of perfectly preparing quality – and that you can actually save
the ends to be welded. money in the process.
Welding is always a delicate operation.
www.lorch.eu
A large number of parameters have to be
known and mastered for obtaining the best
possible results. Otherwise, they are all as
many defect causing factors liable to occur
during or after completing the welding bead
and which may deteriorate the quality of the
total assembly.
Despite upgrading techniques and in-
creased knowledge on the subject, industri-
alists are regularly confronted by problems
involving non-conform welded joints. The
consequences of a poor weld can be disas-
trous for the success of a project, in terms of
both schedules and budgets. Eliminating a
welding bead and re-building it may take
several hours or even several days in the
case of major assemblies.
Correctly preparing the edges to be
welded will never prevent 100% of all the
reasons for defects from occurring, but it
will increase the final quality of the welded
assembly in every single case.
Thomas Regourd,
North American Sales Engineer for
Protem SAS, Etoile sur Rhone/France
Welding solutions for the
world’s smartest companies.
31 DVS-IIW Young Professionals conquer Finland –
DVS promotion programme with role model character
31 presentations of research papers, two
honours, one international competition and
one birthday – in headwords, that was the
unique experience of the DVS-IIW Young
Professionals at the 68th IIW Annual As-
sembly & International Conference in
Helsinki, Finland, from 28 June to 3 July
2015. Thanks to the generous donations

Selfie of the Young

Professionals in
Helsinki. (Photo:
Niels Holtschke)

With Dr. Cécile

Mayer, the Chief
Executive Officer of
IIW, and Dr. Ab-
delkrim Chehaibou,
the Head of the
French Delegation,
Dr.-Ing. Philipp
Schempp (centre)
was happy about
the Henry Granjon
Dr.-Ing. André Hälsig (left) received the Henry
Prize in Category B.
Granjon Prize in Category A from Dr. Abdelkrim
(Photo: DVS)
Chehaibou, the Head of the French Delegation.
(Photo: IIW)

from Alexander Binzel Schweisstechnik

GmbH & Co. KG, EWM AG, Forschungs-
vereinigung Schweißen und verwandte Ver-
fahren e. V. des DVS and Linde AG, DVS –
German Welding Society made it possible
for a total of 31 students and up-and-com-
ing scientists in joining technology to take
part in the Annual Assembly of the Inter-
national Institute of Welding (IIW).
For the first time, the promotion pro-
gramme “Students and Young Profession-
als in DVS“ was implemented so success-
fully via sponsoring that it is already cer-
tain even now: Also on the occasion of the
IIW Annual Assembly 2016 (then, in Mel-
bourne in Australia), DVS-IIW Young Pro-
fessionals will be financially supported
once again. With this offer, DVS is pointing
the way ahead in the promotion of the up-
and-coming generation and is a role model
for other international welding societies,
e.g. AWS – American Welding Society
which, together with DVS, will exchange
ideas about the origination of the promo-
tion programme in order to set up some-
thing comparable.
One prerequisite for the participation in
the IIW Assembly is the presentation of one’s
own research paper in the corresponding
IIW Commission. For the students and the
up-and-coming scientists, this is a unique
chance to introduce themselves to interna-
tional experts and to establish valuable con-
tacts too. Good opportunities for worldwide
networking are also offered by the various
events such as the “International Young Pro-
fessionals Evening“ which took place at an
IIW Annual Assembly for the first time. Until
then, there had, on the initiative of DVS,
been an unofficial “German Evening“ during
the IIW Assembly lasting several days in or-

278 Welding and Cutting 14 (2015) No. 5


Dipl.-Ing. Christoph Eßer-Ayertey, the The Young Professional Matthias Manka (left) celebrated
Supervisor of the German Young Profes- his birthday at the German Delegation Meeting. The DVS
sionals, greeted the Young Professionals General Manager, Dr.-Ing. Roland Boecking, congratula-
on behalf of DVS too. (Photo: IIW) ted him. (Photo: DVS)
der to strengthen the network amongst the
German Young Professionals.
On the occasion of the now official, in-
ternational event, 81 Young Professionals
from 16 nations came together in the Aalto
Three “Young Welders“ victors will set out on the
journey to the WELDCUP in Cambridge
DVS – German Welding Society will offer
the winners of the 11th DVS National “Young
Welders“ Competition the possibility of pit-
ting their wits against the victors from all
over Europe during the WELDCUP in Cam-
bridge, UK, on 19 October 2015.
For Germany, the three “Young Welders“
winners will go to the starting line in Cam-
bridge in the following disciplines: Manual
Metal Arc Welding, Gas-Shielded Metal Arc
Welding and Tungsten Inert Gas Welding.
The Flux-Cored Wire Welding discipline has
been included in the WELDCUP as a new
category. DVS which stages Gas Welding as
the fourth discipline during “Young
Welders“ will thus be unable to send an up-
and-coming welder to England for Flux-
Cored Wire Welding.
However, all four “Young Welders“ win-
ners from 2015 will be able to provide evi-
dence of their ability during the ARC Cup in
Peking, China, in June 2016. Who will be al-
lowed to represent Germany on internation-
Welding and Cutting 14 (2015) No. 5
University in Helsinki and, in mixed groups,
competed against each other in a small
competition. Beforehand, they were greeted
by the IIW President, Professor Gary Mar-
quis (also a member of the Finnish Delega-
al soil will be shown during the DVS Nation-
al Competition in the DVS Course Centre in
the Vocational Education and Technology
Centre of the Cottbus Chamber of Handi-
crafts in Gallinchen, Berlin-Brandenburg,
on 24 to 27 September 2015.
tion and a Professor at the Aalto University),
Dipl.-Ing. Christoph Eßer-Ayertey, the Su-
pervisor of the German Young Profession-
als, and Levente Bakos, the Hungarian or-
ganiser of the Young Welding Professionals
International Conference. Professor Pedro
Vilaca, an Associate Professor at the Aalto
University, guided the international public
through the programme in a relaxed and
informal way.
The highlights of an IIW Annual Assem-
bly also include the “Opening Ceremony“
with the presentation of various prizes. Two
formerly promoted DVS-IIW Young Profes-
sionals were honoured this year: Thus, Dr.-
Ing. André Hälsig was able to receive the
Henry Granjon Prize 2015 in Category A
and Dr.-Ing. Philipp Schempp the Henry
Granjon Prize 2015 in Category B. A small
honour was conferred on the Young Pro-
fessional Matthias Manka: He celebrated
his birthday at the German Delegation
Meeting.
In 2013, the
first WELDCUP
took place at
the Schweissen
& Schneiden
fair in Essen,
Germany.
279
SPECIALIST ARTICLES
Determination of failure criteria of mechanically
and corrosively loaded brazed joints of sheets made
of stainless chromium-nickel steel
The article reports not only on the testing and assessment of brazed joints
which were executed between sheets made of high-alloyed stainless
chromium-nickel steel and were subjected to combined mechanical and
corrosive loads but also on the development of a testing procedure suitable
for this purpose. The investigations focused on nickel braze metals from
the NiCrSi, NiCrBSi(Fe) and NiCrPSi systems as well as on 1.4301-grade
steels brazed with them. According to the terms of reference, a procedure
with which brazed joints subjected to combined mechanical and corrosive
loads can be tested and assessed with a small scope of apparatus was de-
veloped first of all. In preliminary experiments as well as within the frame-
work of the tests, the function of the testing apparatus was proven on a
large number of brazed test pieces. Furthermore, the developed testing
concept was validated using the example of high-alloyed stainless chromi-
um-nickel steels which were joined with nickel-based braze metals and
were brazed in different process conditions (a continuous shielding gas
furnace in pure hydrogen or nitrogen/hydrogen gas mixtures or a high
vacuum furnace). The testing conditions selected for the subsequent ageing
operations were aimed at subassembly applications for components which
guide exhaust gas and are exposed to aggressive exhaust gas condensate.
Lap joints, such as generally arise with sheet subassemblies (e.g. exhaust
gas recirculation condensers), were simulated as the testing geometry.
The results of the investigations show that the superimposition of static
mechanical loads on the corrosive loads does not give rise to any significant
acceleration in the failure of the joint, i.e. the nickel braze metals do not
exhibit any susceptibility to stress cracking corrosion. However, the results
show not only, as expected, that the susceptibility of the brazed joints to
corrosion is extremely dependent on the utilised brazing material but also
that the corrosion behaviour deteriorates significantly due to the presence
of nitrogen in the brazing atmosphere.
1 Introduction
Brazed sheet subassemblies made of high-alloyed
stainless chromium-nickel steel have widespread appli-
cations in industry. Heat exchangers which are intended
for vehicle construction or for energy and air conditioning
technology and are fabricated in millions every year in
the most diverse sizes and types and whose manufacture
and use therefore constitute an important economic factor
for the German companies involved may be cited as one
example of these applications. A substantial proportion
of these subassemblies is fabricated with nickel braze met-
als which, amongst the braze metals available for high-
alloyed stainless chromium-nickel steels, promise high
corrosion and oxidation resistances of the resulting brazed
joints [1...5]. The braze metals are based on the nickel el-
ement to which metals soluble in the solid nickel (i.e.
chromium, iron, manganese or copper) can be admixed.
Moreover, one characteristic of these braze metals is a
substantial proportion of the silicon, boron and/or phos-
phorus additives which lower the melting point and are
(nearly) insoluble in the Ni(+Cr, Fe, Mn and/or Cu) matrix
280
but are instead present in the braze deposit as silicides,
borides or phosphides of the matrix metals [6...9].
In this respect, the corresponding chromium com-
pounds exhibit particularly stable thermodynamic behav-
iour. Therefore, a substantial proportion of the chromium
added in order to improve the corrosion resistance is
bound in the intermetallic precipitations. However, the
resulting brazed seam structure is dependent not only on
the chemical composition of the utilised braze metal itself
but also on chemical and metallurgical interactions with
the contacting base material and process gas, the brazing
temperature and time, the brazing gap width as well as
the cooling rate after the brazing. It is therefore obvious
that, to a decisive extent, the technological properties of
the brazed joint are determined not only by the utilised
nickel braze metal itself but also by the brazing gap geom-
etry (particularly beyond the narrow gap which generally
cannot be implemented in the case of sheet subassem-
blies) and the brazing process conditions.
The user can choose between a number of different
nickel-based braze metals which differ with regard to their
chemical compositions, the melting ranges and the re-
sulting process conditions for their processability. From
the user’s viewpoint, two criteria are decisive for the se-
lection of the braze metal. On the one hand, it must be
possible to process the braze metal using the available in-
stallation technology (vacuum or shielding gas furnace
process, induction brazing process etc.). On the other
hand, the resulting brazed joint must withstand the actual
operating loads on the subassembly, i.e. exhibit the re-
quired corrosion resistance and strength. While the
processability can be clarified relatively quickly with one’s
own preliminary experiments or with assistance from the
braze metal supplier, the latter constitutes a problem be-
cause there is frequently no corresponding information
about the braze metal for the concrete load profile of a
subassembly. There is a lack of serviceable data precisely
with regard to the probable corrosion resistance of a
brazed joint in combination with a mechanical load
which, in certain circumstances, must be predictable for
subassembly service lives of one decade or more.
In this connection, great significance is attached to
the development of a practicable testing procedure for
the assessment of brazed joints which are exposed to com-
bined mechanical and corrosive loads. The principal ob-
jective for such a testing procedure relates to the nickel-
based braze metals as well as to subassemblies which are
made of corrosion-resistant stainless chromium-nickel
steels and are brazed with these braze metals since, par-
ticularly for this purpose, the concrete load-bearing ca-
pacities of the brazed joints can only be established in
sometimes lengthy field experiments but no assured pre-
Welding and Cutting 14 (2015) No. 5
THE AUTHORS
Dr. rer. nat. Ulrich Holländer, born in 1965,
studied Chemistry at the Dortmund University of
Technology in Dortmund/Germany and concluded
his doctorate in the teaching field of Physical
Chemistry there in 1997. Then, he firstly worked
as a Scientific Employee at the Professorship of
Materials Technology (LWT) at the University of
Dortmund and, since 2001, has been responsible
for the management of the Specialist Group
called “Brazing and Thermal Process Engineer-
ing“ in the IW-FORTIS Division at the Institute of
Materials Science (IW) at the Leibniz University
of Hanover. His research activities focus on the
development of brazing materials and brazing
processes for flux-free brazing and high-tempera-
ture brazing.
B. Eng. Felix Weber, born in 1983, studied Me-
chanical Engineering at the Dortmund University
of Applied Sciences in Dortmund/Germany con-
centrating on Machine, Energy and Enviromental
Technology. As from 2009, he initially worked as
a Student Assistant at the Institute of Materials
Science (IW) and, in 2012, was then taken on as
a Technical Employee after a Bachelor disserta-
tion written at IW. Since then, he has carried out
project work in the subject field of brazing and
high-temperature brazing in the “Joining and
Surface Technology“ Division (IW-FORTIS) of the
institute and has also been responsible for the
maintenance and operation of the brazing tech-
nology installations.
dictions can be derived from these if the requirement pro-
files change.
Therefore, the project carried out by the Institute of
Materials Science at the Leibniz University of Hanover es-
sentially pursued the following aims:
• Development and qualification of a testing procedure
for the assessment of brazed joints of steel sheets
subjected to combined mechanical and corrosive
loads.
• Collection of application-relevant data about the me-
chanical and corrosive load-bearing capacities of
corrosion-resistant stainless chromium-nickel steels
brazed with nickel-based braze metals and clarifi-
cation of material-specific and, if necessary, process-
specific failure mechanisms in the case of selected
corrosion loads.
2 Executed work
2.1 Definition of the requirements on the testing
procedure
The basic idea during the development of the testing
procedure was to use one technological property of a
Welding and Cutting 14 (2015) No. 5
Apl. Prof. Dr.-Ing. habil. Kai Möhwald, born
in 1961, studied Mechanical Engineering with
the advanced subject of Fabrication Technology
at the Dortmund University of Technology. In
1996, he obtained his Dr.-Ing. title at the Pro-
fessorship of Materials Technology (LWT). After
his studies, he worked as a Scientific Employee
at LWT and was responsible for the manage-
ment of the Brazing/Soldering Technology and
PVD Department. Since 2001, he has been the
Director of the Joining and Surface Technology
Division (IW-FORTIS) at the Institute of Materi-
als Science at the Leibniz University of Hanover,
based in Witten/Germany. In 2009, he obtained
his habilitation at the Leibniz University of
Hanover with venia legendi for the specialist
field of Materials Technology.
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Hans Jürgen Maier, born in
1960, studied Materials Sciences in Erlangen/
Germany. In 1990, he obtained his doctorate
with a subject relating to the influence of ambi-
ent media on the fatigue behaviour of steels.
Thereafter, he assumed responsibility for the
management of the Electron Microscopy Work-
ing Group and moved to the University of
Siegen as a Senior Engineer in 1993. After a
research stay in the USA, he was nominated
as the holder of the Professorship of Materials
Science at the University of Paderborn in 1999.
He has been the Director of the Institute of
Materials Science at the Leibniz University of
Hanover since 2012.
brazed joint which was as easy to establish as possible as
the assessment criterion for its resistance or susceptibility
to freely selectable corrosive liquids, e.g. aqueous solu-
tions, in variable ageing conditions such as time, temper-
ature, pressure and additional mechanical loads. The al-
teration in the quasi-static tensile shear strength after cor-
rosive loads was chosen as a criterion which was possibly
suitable for this purpose.
On the basis of this approach, the concept of the test-
ing procedure is outlined on Fig. 1. Using brazed tensile
test specimens with suitable testing geometries and with
strengths dependent on the chosen base and brazing ma-
terials, the geometry of the existing joining zone and, if
necessary, the chosen brazing procedure, the quasi-static
tensile shear strength is firstly determined as the reference
variable (τmax,  reference). Thereafter, identically fabricated
specimens are aged in the corrosion medium in stipulated
ageing conditions in both unclamped (only corrosive
loads) and clamped (combined mechanical and corrosive
loads) conditions and the tensile shear strengths are sub-
sequently determined too. If these deviate from each other
significantly (i.e. τmax (corrosive + mechanical) <τmax (corrosive)), brazed
281
SPECIALIST ARTICLES
Fig. 1 • Sequence
diagram for the
testing of the
brazed joints.
specimens are also subjected solely to mechanical loads
(same load profile as in the ageing) and the tensile shear
strength is established.
In the case of the available strength values, a distinc-
tion may be made between the following scenarios:
Case 1: τmax, reference = τmax (cor.) = τmax (cor. + mech.)
Case 2: τmax, reference > τmax (cor.) = τmax (cor. + mech.)
Case 3: τmax, reference = τmax (mech.) ≥ τmax (cor.) > τmax (cor. + mech.)
Case 4: τmax, reference = τmax (cor.) > τmax (cor. + mech.) = τmax (mech.)
Case 1 designates the situation that neither the chosen
corrosion loads alone nor an additionally applied me-
chanical stress result in a loss in strength. In Case 2, ex-
clusively corrosive damage to the brazed joint is the cause
of a drop in strength. Case 3 occurs if the initiation or ac-
celeration of corrosion-induced damage is caused by the
simultaneously applied mechanical load (“stress cracking
corrosion“ or a similar phenomenon). Finally, Case 4 ex-
ists if solely the mechanical load leads to strength-de-
creasing damage to the brazed joint without corrosion ef-
fects playing any significant role.
For the rigorous assessment of any damage, additional
investigations were conducted into the fracture faces after
the brazed joints had been broken open. In the event of
corrosive damage, corrosion products which can already
be seen visually or using a light microscope in most cases
can be detected on the fracture faces and provide the first
Fig. 2 • Jig for the
fixing of the ten-
sile shear test
specimens during
spot welding.
282
indications of the extent of any damage. For more detailed
information about the damage pattern and the cause of
the damage, it was necessary to carry out metallographic
and scanning electron microscope (SEM) analyses on
aged but not yet tensile-tested (destroyed) brazed speci-
mens which were taken into account during the planning
of the scope of the experiments and during the execution
of the experiments.
2.2 Manufacture of tensile test specimens
With regard to the choice of a suitable testing geome-
try, it is necessary to take account of the fact that the
brazed joints of brazed sheet subassemblies are principally
subjected to tensile shear loads due to their designs.
Therefore, a simple lap joint was chosen for the testing
geometry. In order to ensure that the specimens are sub-
jected to shear loads which are as pure as possible and
that the fracture actually occurs in the brazed seam, a ma-
terial thickness of 5 mm with overlapping lengths of 5 mm
too was chosen according to the strength values to be ex-
pected for the base material and the braze deposit. Par-
ticular care was taken with regard to the setting of a de-
fined assembly gap (here, 50 μm) since the strengths of
the brazed joints may be sensitively dependent on the
brazing gap width. The components to be brazed were
therefore cut out of finish-rolled sheet panels by means
Fig. 3 • Welded
tensile shear test
specimens.
Welding and Cutting 14 (2015) No. 5
of laser beam cutting which led to burr-free and distor-
tion-free specimens (dimensions: 100 mm × 10 mm ×
5 mm). In the same step in the procedure, one end of the
specimen in each case was provided with a borehole with
a diameter of 4 mm in order to hold the specimens in the
tensile testing machine and the clamping jig.
A fixing jig with which defined assembly gap widths
can be set was built for the fixing of the assembly gap, Fig.
2. The clamped specimens made of the 1.4301 steel were
fixed with each other by setting two welded spots in the
side areas of the overlapping region. In this respect, the
welding process was carried out without any filler material.
The surface oxidation caused by the heat input during
the welding process (visible as a tempering colour on Fig.
3) may exert a wetting-inhibiting effect in the brazing
process and was broken down by a vacuum heat treat-
ment. After the brazing had been carried out, the welded
spots were removed by means of milling. Thus, the widths
of the joints were tapered from 10 mm to 6 mm so that a
joining area of 6 mm × 5 mm was then available, Fig. 4.
All the fabrication steps were checked by measuring the
specimens using a dial gauge. With regard to the settable
accuracy of the brazing gap, tolerances of 10  μm were
achieved.
2.3 Ageing apparatus
A simple and easy-to-replicate design was chosen for
the planning of the ageing apparatus. The apparatus con-
sists of a heatable pressure vessel, similar to an autoclave,
and a clamping jig which is to be inserted into the vessel
and can be used in order to subject eight specimens to
individual tensile loads using springs with forces up to
4 kN. At the same time, eight more specimens can be sus-
pended from the jig without any tensile loads. Taking ac-
count of relevant design guidelines (AD  2000 technical
bulletins), the apparatus was designed for 10 bar / 180°C
in order to be able to also carry out ageing operations at
an increased pressure if necessary. A reflux condenser
which is flanged on the cover and is executed as a tube
bundle heat exchanger prevents the progressive evapo-
Welding and Cutting 14 (2015) No. 5
Fig. 4 • Joining
regions of brazed
tensile shear test
specimens after
milling.
ration of volatile electrolyte constituents (water, hydrogen
chloride etc.). Highly corrosion-resistant steels were
utilised as materials for the vessel and the spring-loaded
clamping jig. Toroidal sealing rings made of fluorinated
rubber (Viton) served as sealing elements for the cover
and the reflux condenser. The implemented overall
apparatus is portrayed on Fig. 5 together with the clamping
jig.
2.4 Brazing materials and brazing experiments
Amongst those applications for the high-temperature
brazing of high-alloyed stainless chromium-nickel steels
which were specified at the beginning, exhaust gas com-
ponents of motor vehicles and, amongst these, particularly
the so-called exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) condensers
play an outstanding role – seen quantitatively. Therefore,
the industrial representatives on the project-accompany-
ing committee wanted to focus the investigations on the
load profiles of such subassemblies. The programme of
experiments was thus stipulated with regard to the utilised
materials and the load profiles in the case of components
which are made of the 1.4301 steel and guide exhaust gas.
The standard alloys listed in Table 1 were selected for
the experiments and were applied as brazing pastes. The
Table 1 • Proper-
ties and chemical
compositions of
the braze metals
used for the
investigations
(* vacuum furnace
and ** continuous
furnace).
283
SPECIALIST ARTICLES
Fig. 5 • Ageing braze metals were utilised without any flux in shielding
apparatus. gas or high vacuum furnaces. In this respect, industry
prefers to apply the latter brazing process with the phos-
phorus-free braze metals which set stringent requirements
on the process conditions. All the braze metals were
processed according to the specified brazing temperatures
not only in the continuous shielding gas furnace but also
in the high vacuum furnace. During the brazing in the
continuous shielding gas furnace, the process atmosphere
was varied in order to also investigate the influence of ni-
trogen in the process gas on the mechanical and corrosive
behaviour of brazed joints manufactured in this way. For
this purpose, the brazing experiments were carried out
with the boron-free B-Ni60CrPSi-980/1020 and B-Ni71Cr-
Si-1080/1135 (Ni 650) braze metals not only in a pure hy-
drogen atmosphere but also in a mixture consisting of
80% nitrogen and 20% hydrogen while the B-Ni74CrFe-
SiB-980/1070 (Ni  610) and B-Ni82CrSiBFe-970/1000
(Ni  620) braze metals containing boron could only be
processed in a nitrogen-free hydrogen atmosphere due
to the materials. In contrast, the B-Ni76CrP-890 (Ni 710)
braze metal was processed exclusively in the nitrogen/hy-
Fig. 6 • Tensile
drogen mixture in the continuous furnace since any ni-
shear strengths of
triding effects are less relevant at the low processing tem-
selected brazed
joints before and
perature. During the brazing experiments in the vacuum
after ageing with furnace, the heating-up times until the respective brazing
variation of the temperatures were reached were typically 45 min and the
mechanical loads brazing temperature itself was held for 15  min in each
during ageing. case. On the other hand, substantially shorter heating-up
284
and hold times were implemented in the continuous fur-
nace with reference to industrial fabrication conditions
in this furnace type. Here, the heating-up time until the
brazing temperature was reached was approx. 10 min in
each case and the brazing temperature itself was held for
approx. 3  min before the specimens then cooled once
again when they entered the cooling channel of the fur-
nace.
2.5 Ageing and testing of the brazed specimens
The following testing conditions were chosen for the
ageing operations on brazed specimens:
• Corrosion medium
K 1.2 testing solution according to the VDA 230-214
test sheet (chloridic mineral acid solution: aqueous
HNO3+H2SO4, pH: 1.2, + 1,600 mg/l NaCl)
• Shear stress
0%, 20%, 25% and 50% of Tmax,  reference of the braze
metal used in each case
• Ageing temperature and duration
1  h heating-up from the room temperature to the
testing temperature (90°C or 70°C), 15 h holding at
the testing temperature and subsequent sampling
without any cooling
The specified corrosion medium is a model condensate
which has particularly corrosive properties and is stipu-
lated by the VDA 230-214 test sheet (VDA: German Asso-
ciation of the Automotive Industry) [10]. While the chosen
ageing time of 15 h is oriented to DIN EN ISO 3651-2 (cf.
[11]) and was kept constant for all the ageing operations,
the ageing temperature was varied (70°C and 90°C) within
the framework of preliminary investigations in order to
test how extremely a change in temperature exerts effects
on the corrosion behaviour of the different brazed joints.
The aim of this approach was to find testing conditions
with which firm differences between the braze metal sys-
tems can be established according to the testing proce-
dure. Following this demand, the work was also performed
with different shear stresses to which the brazed joints
were subjected during the ageing.
In order to take the asymmetrical specimen geometry
of the brazed lap joints into consideration during the ten-
sile shear tests, specimen holders which took account of
the misalignment of the sheet strips brazed on to each
other were fabricated for the utilised tensile testing stand.
All the tensile experiments were carried out at the same,
constant crosshead pull-off speed of 0.5 mm/min. Exclu-
sively the maximum force when the brazed joint failed
was decisive for the evaluation of the tensile experiments.
3 Results
Since it was initially unclear how strongly the different
braze metals and the joints brazed with them on the high-
alloyed stainless chromium-nickel steels react in the cho-
sen ageing medium at elevated temperatures, preliminary
experiments were firstly carried out at different ageing
temperatures (90°C and 70°C). In this respect, it was shown
that 90°C led to a number of total failures in which all the
utilised specimens with the same material combination
Welding and Cutting 14 (2015) No. 5
Fig. 7 • Scanning electron micrographs of a damaged
brazed seam made of B-Ni74CrFeSiB-980/1070 braze deposit
(vacuum-brazed).

and the same stress condition had already been destroyed.

In contrast, only the specimens brazed with Ni 620 failed
in all the experiment variants at an ageing temperature of
70°C. Since 70°C is also the testing temperature for the
loads for which provision is made by the VDA  230-214
test sheet, it was decided to refrain from moderating the
testing conditions any further by lowering the testing tem-
perature once again. Thus, the B-Ni82CrSiBFe-970/1000
(Ni 620) braze metal was not used for any further experi-
ments.
On the basis of the results from the preliminary ex-
periments as well as of the industrial relevance of the
utilised braze metals and brazing processes which was
formulated by the project-accompanying committee,
three braze metal systems, i.e. B-Ni60CrPSi-980/1020,
B-Ni74CrFeSiB-980/1070 (Ni 610) and B-Ni71CrSi-1080/
1135 (Ni  650), were selected as examples. A number of
test pieces sufficient for statistically serviceable statements
were manufactured from these in each case. For each vari-
ant, a random sample of at least eight brazed specimens
which were fabricated in the same way and subjected to
loads in the ageing as well as brazed reference specimens
were therefore available for the subsequent tensile shear
strength measurements. Vacuum brazing was utilised ac-
cording to the fabrication conditions used for these braze
metals in industry. In the case of the B-Ni60CrPSi-980/
1020 braze metal, one set consisting of 30 individual spec-

Welding and Cutting 14 (2015) No. 5

SPECIALIST ARTICLES

Fig 8 • Scanning imens was additionally brazed in the continuous shielding

electron micro- gas furnace using pure hydrogen since this braze metal is
graphs of a dam- also a candidate for industrial fabrication in the continu-
aged brazed fillet
ous furnace because of its phosphorus content and the
made of
processing temperature. Using the testing conditions listed
B-Ni60CrPSi-980/
in Section 2.5 and delimited in the preliminary experi-
1020 braze de-
posit (vacuum- ments, the brazed specimens were aged and the tensile
brazed). shear strengths after the ageing were determined accord-
ing to the above testing procedure and compared with
the strengths of the corresponding reference specimens.
The results of the experiments are summarised on Fig. 6.
Accordingly, no significant decreases in strength as a
consequence of the mechanical and corrosive loads were
established with the B-Ni60CrPSi-980/1020 and B-Ni71Cr-
Si-1080/1135 (Ni  650) braze metal systems within the
framework of the scatter of the measured values, even
with a 50% load (in relation to the reference tensile shear
strength). In the case of the B-Ni74CrFeSiB-980/1070
(Ni 610) braze metal, it was measured that the mean ten-
sile shear strengths dropped to approx. 30% of the original
strength irrespective of whether only pure corrosion loads
or combined loads with a 25% tensile load existed during
the ageing. It may therefore be stated that, in the chosen
testing conditions, the last specified braze metal contain-
ing boron performs substantially worse than the first two
specified braze metals. However, one common feature of
all the braze metals is the fact that the superimposition of
an additional mechanical load on the corrosion loads ob-
viously does not have any significant influence on the
strengths of the brazed joints after the loads. Any possible
Fig. 9 • Scanning
susceptibility of the brazed joints to stress cracking cor-
electron micro-
graph of a dam-
rosion cannot be derived from the values.
aged brazed Analyses of brazed and aged brazed joints made of
fillet made of B-Ni74CrFeSiB-980/1070 (Ni 610) using a scanning elec-
B-Ni60CrPSi- tron microscope show the cause of the drop in the
980/1020 braze strengths of these brazed joints, Fig. 7. Not only the
deposit (brazed braze deposit but also the adjacent base material exhibit
in a nitrogen/ massive damage starting from the brazed fillets as far
hydrogen shield- as deep into the brazed seam (base material dissolution
ing gas mixture). at the grain boundaries modified by boron diffusion and
selective dissolution of the braze deposit matrix). This
leads to a substantial reduction in the joining area re-
maining for the load-bearing capacity. SEM investiga-
tions on specimens which were brazed with B-Ni60CrP-
Si-980/1020 and aged show that the corrosive loads did
not fail to have any consequences here either. Invisible
Fig. 10 • Scan-
ning electron from the outside, the braze deposit has dissolved selec-
micrograph of a tively in the brazed fillet and essentially only the chromi-
damaged brazed um-rich intermetallic phases are present here as well,
fillet made of Fig. 8. Moreover, the adjacent base material already ex-
B-Ni71CrSi-1080/ hibits considerable damage. However, since the damage
1135 braze de- pattern is only restricted to the brazed fillets, the
posit (brazed in strength of the brazed joint which is principally deter-
a nitrogen/hydro- mined by the still intact joining area of approx. 30 mm2
gen shielding gas
was not reduced substantially. Longer ageing times
mixture).
and/or higher ageing temperatures would consequently
lead to the further progression of the corrosive damage
which would then also be reflected in drops in the
strengths of the brazed joints.

286 Welding and Cutting 14 (2015) No. 5

 Finally, scanning electron micrographs of corrosively
damaged brazed fillets of specimens which were brazed
in the continuous shielding gas furnace in an atmosphere
containing nitrogen are documented on Figs. 9 and 10 as
examples. Distinct differences to the damage pattern on
the vacuum-brazed variant (cf. Fig. 8) are established in
the case of the B-Ni60CrPSi-980/1020 braze metal, Fig. 9, DVS Technical Codes on Plastics Joining Technologies
and may be attributed to the nitriding of the braze deposit
This book contains more than 100 significant DVS codes that deal with the
proven by means of energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy joining of plastics in the field of piping, containers and apparatus construction
(EDX). Even the B-Ni71CrSi-1080/1135 (Ni  650) braze as well as series fabrication.

metal which may be classed as exceptionally corrosion-

resistant and with which it was not possible to detect any From the content:
welding, adhesive bonding and
damage in the case of the corrosion specimens brazed in mechanical joining processes
the vacuum and in pure hydrogen, the specimens brazed testing and design calculation of
in the process gas containing nitrogen now exhibit corro- joints and constructions

sion damage which can be found especially at the attach- practical application of
joining processes
ment point of the brazed fillet and in the base material
training and examination of
adjacent to this. Here as well, nitrogen was detected in qualified personnel
the braze deposit of the fillet. 4th edition,
s,
1076 page Also available as USB-pen
180012
4 Discussion Order-no.

According to the terms of reference and objective of 00 Euro

Price: 120.
this project, the aim was firstly to set up a measuring pro-
cedure with which brazed joints subjected to combined
mechanical and corrosive loads can be tested and assessed DVS Media GmbH • Aachener Straße 172 • 40223 Düsseldorf
with the smallest possible scope of apparatus. In prelimi- T +49. (0)2 11. 15 91-162 • F +49. (0)2 11. 15 91-250
vertrieb@dvs-hg.de • www.dvs-media.eu
nary experiments as well as within the framework of the
tests, the functional capacity of the testing apparatus was
proven on a large number of brazed test pieces. In total,
20 operating tests and ageing operations were carried out
at temperatures between 70°C and 100°C. It was not pos-
sible to detect any corrosion-induced damage or even fail-
ures on any of the fitted components. With regard to the
developed testing apparatus, it may therefore be stated in
summary that the planning and execution of the apparatus
were successful and direct implementation is unproblem-
atical at small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs). For
this purpose, a technical bulletin including remarks about
the design of the apparatus for the experiments and the
execution of ageing operations is being elaborated in co-
operation with DVS (German Welding Society).
Furthermore, the developed testing concept was val-
idated using the example of high-alloyed stainless chromi-
um-nickel steels which were joined with various nickel-
based braze metals and were brazed in different process
conditions (a continuous shielding gas furnace in pure
hydrogen or nitrogen/hydrogen gas mixtures or a high
vacuum furnace). The testing conditions selected for the
subsequent ageing operations were aimed at subassembly
applications for components which guide exhaust gas
and, in operating conditions, are exposed to aggressive
exhaust gas condensate in particular. Simple lap joints,
such as generally arise with sheet subassemblies (e.g. ex-
haust gas recirculation condensers), were simulated as
the testing geometry. The testing conditions with regard
to the utilised model condensate (K1.2 condensate ac-
cording to the VDA 230-214 test sheet) as well as to the
ageing temperature (70°C), the ageing time (15 h at the
testing temperature) and the applied tensile shear stresses

Welding and Cutting 14 (2015) No. 5 287

SPECIALIST ARTICLES
(up to 50% of the fracture stresses) were chosen in such a
way that it was possible to highlight firm differences be-
tween the braze metal systems. As the assessment criteria,
reference was made not only to the tensile shear strengths
before and after the ageing but also to analyses of aged
specimens using light and scanning electron microscopes.
The core statements of these investigations can be sum-
marised as follows:
• No significant decreases in the strength of the brazed
joint due to the mechanical loads applied addition-
ally in the ageing operations were established with
any of the investigated braze metals. Accordingly, no
stress cracking corrosion arises in the set corrosion
conditions in the case of high-alloyed stainless
chromium-nickel steels brazed with nickel braze
metals.
• In the utilised model condensate and at the chosen
testing temperature, massive corrosion damage al-
ready arises with the B-Ni74CrFeSiB-980/1070
(Ni 610) braze metal and leads to a drastic decrease
in strength. Consequently, this braze metal is totally
unsuitable for such operating conditions.
• In the case of the B-Ni60CrPSi-980/1020 braze metal,
corrosion damage is detected in the region of the
brazed fillets (irrespective of the utilised brazing
process) but does not yet lead to any significant de-
crease in strength.
• The specimens brazed in the vacuum and in pure
hydrogen using the B-Ni71CrSi-1080/1135 (Ni 650)
braze metal are free from any significant corrosion
phenomena after ageing. Consequently, no decreases
in strength arise with these brazed joints either. With
regard to the corrosion behaviour, the best choice
consists of this braze metal in combination with ni-
trogen-free process atmospheres during brazing
(high vacuum, hydrogen or argon).
• The presence of nitrogen in the process atmosphere
during brazing seems to have a significant influence
on the subsequent corrosion behaviour of the brazed
specimens particularly if the brazing temperature
dependent on the utilised braze metal system is high
(over 950°C). For example, a distinct deterioration
in the corrosion resistance is established with the
specimens brazed with the B-Ni71CrSi-1080/1135
(Ni 650) braze metal in nitrogen/hydrogen mixtures.
Also in the case of the B-Ni60CrPSi-980/1020 braze
metal, the damage pattern is altered in comparison
with the specimens brazed without any nitrogen but
without having any influence on the established ten-
sile shear strength at first.
In summary, it may be stated that the strengths estab-
lished according to the developed testing procedure be-
fore and after ageing with combined mechanical and
corrosive loads coincide with the microscopically
analysed corrosion phenomena and the testing proce-
dure is thus suitable for the assessment of the brazed
joints. The special role of the nitrogen in the brazing at-
mosphere which may lead to the nitriding of the base
and brazing materials particularly at high brazing tem-
288
peratures and thus lower the corrosion resistances of
brazed joints should not be underestimated even in the
case of vacuum brazing processes. Although the brazing
process itself takes place in a high vacuum, the still hot
furnace is generally flooded with nitrogen during indus-
trial vacuum brazing in order to be able to cool the
brazed components more quickly thereafter. The extent
to which the component surfaces are nitrided here too
is still unclear at present but should also be taken into
consideration during the assessment of the corrosion
resistances of the subassemblies.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The IGF Project IGF 16.941 N / DVS Num-
ber 07.068 of the research association
“Forschungsvereinigung Schweißen und
verwandte Verfahren des DVS, Aachener
Straße 172, 40223 Düsseldorf“ was, on
the basis of a resolution of the German
Bundestag, promoted by the German Ministry of Economic Affairs
and Energy via the Federation of Industrial Research Associations
(AiF) within the framework of the programme for the promotion of
joint industrial research and development (IGF).
Literature
[1] Hoffmann, E. E., et al.: An evaluation of the corrosion and
oxidation resistance of high-temperature brazing alloys.
Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge 1956.
[2] Brandl, W., et. al.: Korrosionsverhalten von gelöteten CrNi-
Stahl-Verbindungen in Trinkwässern. DVS-Berichte, Vol.
132, pp. 40/43. DVS Media, Düsseldorf 1990.
[3] Achete, M, u. a.: Korrosionsbeständigkeit von Hochtemper-
aturlötverbindungen in organischen und wässrigen Lösun-
gen. Schw. Schn. 49 (1987), issue 6, pp. 280/84.
[4] Hoyer, I., S. Weis and M. Groll: Nickel ions in potable water
and their migration out of brazing fillers and brazed joints.
DVS reports, Vol. 293, pp. 176/81. DVS Media, Düsseldorf
2013
[5] Persson, U., O. Mars and M. Stroiczek: Corrosion resistance
of BrazeLetTM Ni613 and BrazeLetTM F300 in different en-
vironments compared to standard nickel alloys. DVS re-
ports, Vol. 293, p. 242. DVS Media, Düsseldorf 2013
[6] Lugscheider, C., and T. Cosack: High-temperature brazing
of stainless steel with low-phosphorus nickel-based filler
metal. Wdg. J. 67 (1988), pp. 215/21.
[7] Hartmann, T., and D. Nützel: Nickel-chromium-based
amorphous foils for continuous brazing of stainless steel.
DVS reports, Vol. 263, pp. 42/47. DVS Media, Düsseldorf
2010.
[8] Lugscheider, E., and D.-S. Kim: Neue niedrig schmelzende
Nickelbasis-Hochtemperaturlote. Schw. Schn. 43(1991),
issue 4, pp. 222/26.
[9] Bach, Fr.-W., et al.: Boron and phosphorus free nickel based
filler metals for brazing stainless steel in shielding gas fur-
naces. Int. J. Mat. Res. (formerly Z. Metallkd.) 102 (2011),
pp. 964/71.
[10] VDA-Prüfblatt 230-214: Beständigkeit metallischer Werk-
stoffe gegen Kondensat-Korrosion in abgasführenden
Bauteilen (June 2010 edition).
[11] DIN EN ISO 3651-2: Ermittlung der Beständigkeit nichtros-
tender Stähle gegen interkristalline Korrosion – Teil 2:
Nichtrostende austenitische und ferritisch-austenitische
(Duplex)-Stähle. Korrosionsversuch in schwefelsäurehalti-
gen Medien (August 1998 edition).
Welding and Cutting 14 (2015) No. 5
 N EWS
September
October

2015
THE NEWSLETTER OF THE WELDING INSTITUTE

Editorial
Her Royal Highness, The Princess Royal opens new
buildings at TWI Granta Park
Her Royal Highness, The Princess Royal, graciously consented to
open the new buildings at TWI, Granta Park, Great Abington on
Wednesday 16 September. In commemoration of the event, she
was awarded an Honorary Fellowship of The Welding Institute
(pictured, right). The certificate was presented by Chief Executive
of TWI, Dr Christoph Wiesner. The band holder for the certificate
was made at TWI from 316L steel with an androgynous weld by
Martin D’Urso, a Practical Welding Trainer at TWI Training School
who has worked at TWI since 2001.
The Princess Royal has a keen interest and is actively involved in
promoting engineering and science through her patronage and in-
volvement with various engineering institutions. She is Patron of
the Institution of Civil Engineers, WISE, which promotes science Highness, The Duke of Edinburgh, in June 1953 following his Pres-
and engineering as suitable careers for women and girls, and idential Address to the British Association and on the occasion of
RedR UK, a charity providing trained engineers to relief agencies the Ramsay Memorial Dinner. His Royal Highness, The Prince of
in the wake of humanitarian disasters. Wales, opened the Robert Jenkins building in 1971 and was also
Her Royal Highness is also a Royal Fellow of the Royal Academy made an Honorary Fellow of The Welding Institute.
of Engineering and a Fellow of the Royal Society. She already The Princess Royal’s Honorary Fellowship will be included on the
holds honorary fellowships with the Institute of Engineering and British Monarchy website at www.royal.gov.uk/CharitiesandPa-
Technology (IET) and the Institute of Marine Engineering, Science tronages.
and Technology (IMarEst). A series of etched glass panels will soon be installed in the board-
The Welding Institute has a long association with the British room in TWI’s new facilities, listing all recipients of honours and
Monarchy, having awarded an Honorary Fellowship to His Royal awards by The Welding Institute, past and present.

Current Honorary Fellowships are held by: Professor J F Lancaster

Duke of Edinburgh Lord Marshall of Goring
Prince of Wales Sir Leonard Redshaw
Princess Royal Dr L Rotherham
Professor B Paton Professor Soete
Professor Bernard George Neal R N Thompson
Dr Robert George Baker Dr Alan A Wells
Dr John D Harrison D Lomer
Professor Frederick Michael Burdekin Professor R P Newman
Dr Richard Dolby OBE Sir H G Cotton
Dr D Widgery Sir Hugh Ford
T Kobayashi Professor Bernard Crossland
Dr Robert John OBE Dr R W Nicholls
Bertil Pekkari Eur Ing H H Sossenheimer
Dr M L Coutinho R D Thomas Jr
I Laing Professor R L Apps
Bevan Braithwaite
Previous holders of Honorary Fellowships: Dr J C M Farrar
Sir William Akins
Professor J G Ball
Air Commodore Sir Frank Whittle Honorary Fellowships are just one of the prestigious TWI Awards
H Granjon made to people who have contributed significantly to the industry.
Dr U Guerra Nominations are welcomed for 2016 for this and a series of other
J Hooper awards. For further information visit www.theweldinginstitute.
Robert Jenkins com/news-and-events/awards/.

Welding and Cutting 14 (2015) No. 5 289

 THE WELDING INSTITUTE NEWS

New welding apprenticeship standards receive government approval

The government has approved two new apprenticeship standards
developed by a group of companies including The Welding Insti-
tute.
On 21 August, as part of a series of announcements relating to na-
tional apprenticeships, David Cameron formally approved both the
apprenticeship standard for welding (level 2) – general welder (arc
processes), and the apprenticeship standard for welding (level 3) –
multi-positional welder (arc processes).
The official approval of the two standards is the culmination of a
year’s work by the Welding Apprenticeship Employer Group, a con-
sortium of employers, skills councils, professional bodies and trade
organisations that has developed the new standards to improve and
homogenise the quality of welding training for apprentices.
The group was formed to develop new standards under the gov-
ernment’s trailblazer initiative, which seeks to transform appren-
ticeships in the UK by giving employers and relevant trade
organisations the power to determine their content.
The initiative has provided an opportunity to harmonise the cur-
rent, fragmented provision and to develop a single uniform set of
apprenticeship standards for welding that can address competence
issues across a range of sectors. The need for competence in welding
is critical for compliance with a number of key European standards
and directives, and international standards for manufacture and
construction.
Each standard contains a description of the role profile; the require-
ments in terms of theoretical knowledge, practical skills and behav-
iours; entry requirements; duration; and progression beyond
completion of the apprenticeship. The standards offer flexibility in
terms of welding processes, parent materials and welding positions,
so that employers can select only those modules that are relevant
to their products. A practical skill test, in accordance with a recog-
nised standard such as ISO 9606, is an integral part of both stan-
dards.
Tim Jessop, associate director of The Welding Institute and co-ordi-
nator of the welding apprenticeship trailblazer, said: ‘The approval
of these standards represents a major step forward in the recogni-
tion of welding as a key skill for the UK and in ensuring that UK
welding apprenticeships match the best in the world.’
Although the standards have received formal approval, they cannot
be introduced until an accompanying assessment plan has been
drafted for each. Work on these plans is underway and it is expected
that they will be ready for submission in the next few weeks.
For more information on the new standards, contact TWI at
http://www.twi-global.com/contact/?e=professional

New members (16 July 2015 – 15 September 2015)

Member No Name Member Grade EngC Registration Branch Prev. Member Grade

645009 KESKESIADIS Dimitrios Member IEng SCT

518107 SALES Andrew M Member IEng UN/OS
680600 DOBSON Philip Member IEng ECS
589744 COPPEN Craig Member IEng NUA
685431 RAHMANLI Ulvi Member IEng UN/OS
639212 WILLIAMS David Member IEng SCT Tech/EngTech
505027 DRAGOMELO Nimmo Member LDN
686583 WILLIAMS, Darren Member SHD
651341 WOOD, Kevin Member SHD
528572 IHEME, Brendan Ikechukwu Technician EngTech UN/OS
595938 HUNG, Nguyen Thanh Technician EngTech UN/OS
606954 JOSEPH, Samuel Technician EngTech UN/OS
608488 ENBERG, Jonas Hemming Andre Technician EngTech NWE
618480 LOCHRIDGE, David Technician EngTech SCT
650769 BAGSHAW, Andrew Technician EngTech TEE Associate (Reg)
666179 VALENSKY, Martley Rene Technician EngTech UN/OS
571213 ROSIDIN, Rosidin Technician EngTech UN/OS
628663 MCKAY, Ian Technician EngTech SCT Associate (Reg)
580489 LINKS, David Technician EngTech NUI
592801 HERBERT, Gregory Alex Technician EngTech UN/OS
608011 KENDALL, Stephen Technician EngTech SWE
520700 HOGGETT, Philip Roy Technician EngTech LON
619253 EJEH, Ugochukwu Chukwujekwu Technician EngTech N.SCT Associate (Reg)
590152 RAMSAY, Shane Technician EngTech UN/OS
592894 WANN Alan Technician EngTech N/SCT
679470 RICHARDSON Simon Technician EngTech ECS
553029 ARMSTRONG, William Technician EngTech NUA
588349 DICKESON Andrew Technician EngTech ECS
682571 MOUSTAFA Ali Technician Eng/Tech UN/OS
528003 LUMLEY, Mark Technician EngTech UN/OS Associate
686885 BOLUT Maxime Associate Interim/CEng ECS

290 Welding and Cutting 14 (2015) No. 5

 THE WELDING INSTITUTE NEWS

The 2016 Welding Institute Awards

Nominations are being invited for a series of awards from The
Welding Institute which recognise outstanding achievements in
joining and related technologies.
Award winners will be invited to receive their prizes at a special
ceremony forming part of the TWI annual dinner, a prestigious
event attended by more than 200 people, which will take place in
late June 2016 at King’s College, Cambridge.
The Institute’s suite of professional Awards has been established
since the late 1970s to recognise the contributions and achievements
of individuals or successful partnerships worldwide, working in
the development and application of welding, joining and related
technologies.
Each award comes with a significant cash prize, and carries the pres-
tige of endorsement by industry experts. Award winners’ names are
etched into glass panels on permanent display in the new Welding
Institute boardroom, located in TWI’s £43 million new facilities at
its Cambridge headquarters.
The 2015 Awards presentation ceremony was held on 30 June at
King’s College. Citations for the award winners and photographs
of the ceremony can be seen on the website:
http://www.theweldinginstitute.com/news-and-events/awards/
The first award was made in 1970 as a commemoration of the work
of Leslie Lidstone, chief executive at ESAB, who sponsored the
award until recently. TWI continues the award to encourage and
promote talented young engineers in the field.
The Larke-Lillicrap Award is a combination of the Larke Medal and
the Lillicrap Medal from 2008. It acknowledges an individual or
team with the most influence or impact on the practical application
of novel welding or joining knowledge or technology through pub-
lished work.
Honorary Fellowships are conferred in recognition of the recipient’s
contributions to, and standing in, the welding engineering commu-
nity at an international level.
Distinguished service awards recognise Professional Members of
The Welding Institute who have performed an outstanding service
for the organisation at a national level.
The closing date for nominations is 30 November 2015.
For assistance in compiling and submitting a nomination, please
contact twiawards@twi.co.uk
To find out more and download a nomination form, please visit
www.theweldinginstitute.com/news-and-events/awards/

The Awards panel is inviting nominations for:

The Brooker Award, named after Harry Brooker, recognises per- Deceased members from July 2015
sonal contribution to the science, technology and industrial ex-
Name Number Grade Joined Branch
ploitation of materials joining.
Henry Robert Brooker (1914–1976) was chief executive of Johnson Peter 503325 Senior 1960 Sheffield
Matthey. The first medal under their sponsorship was presented in Middleton Member
1977. George 195290 Fellow South Africa
The Bevan Braithwaite Award was first introduced in 2008 in mem- Bernard Murray*
ory of former chief executive of TWI, Bevan Braithwaite, who initi- John A 505338 Fellow 1949 London
ated the first phase of the development of the TWI site at Granta Park. Lucey
The award is made to recognise a recipient’s enterprise to the benefit
*George Murray recently died following an accident at home. He was a Fel-
of welding and joining. It recognises enthusiastic and passionate pro-
low of The Welding Institute and a well-known and well-respected member
motion of a vision, and strategic drive to turn the vision into reality.
of the worldwide welding community. He had a breadth of knowledge of
The Lidstone Award. This award is made to an individual under 40
processes, materials, design and inspection techniques which made him
years of age who is deemed to have made the most significant con- valuable as an expert witness. He was known for his passionate and enthu-
tribution to the advancement of welding technology during the five siastic commitment to his field. He really valued his relationship with TWI
years preceding the year of the award. and promoted its benefits to other companies in South Africa.

Welding and Cutting 14 (2015) No. 5 291

 THE WELDING INSTITUTE NEWS

Apprentice welder wins medallion at WorldSkills 2015

The Welding Institute wishes to congratulate WorldSkills partici-

pant Reece Taylor, who secured a medallion of excellence for his
welding efforts at WorldSkills São Paulo 2015.
The 21-year-old, who previously took part in national welding com-
petition SkillWeld, supported by The Welding Institute, managed
to earn the medallion despite having broken his wrist three weeks
before the event. He was one of 12 young people representing the
UK at the international competition, which saw more than 1000 par-
ticipants battling it out for medals in more than 40 disciplines, rang-
ing from web design to bricklaying.
Reece, an apprentice at Dyer Engineering and student at Der-
wentside College in County Durham, contributed to an impressive
medal haul for the UK team. In total they brought home 33 medals,
including three golds.
The next WorldSkills competition will take place in Abu Dhabi in
2017. For more information visit www.worldskills.org. Reece receiving his medallion of excellence in São Paulo

Standards News July–Aug. 2015

New/revised standards

ASTM E273-15 Standard practice for ultrasonic testing of the weld zone of welded pipe and tubing
ASTM Tracker Alert. 18 June 2015
BS EN 60068-2-58:2015 Environmental testing. Tests. Test Td. Test methods for solderability, resistance to dissolution of metallization
and to soldering heat of surface mounting devices (SMD). (Supersedes 2004 edition)
[BSI] Update Standards. July 2015. p.12.
BS EN 62135-2:2015 Resistance welding equipment. Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) requirements. (supersedes 2008
edition)
[BSI] Update Standards. July 2015. p.12.
BS EN ISO 3834-5:2015 Quality requirements for fusion welding of metallic materials. Documents with which it is necessary to
conform to claim conformity to the quality requirements of ISO 3834-2, ISO 3834-3 or ISO 3834-4.
(Supersedes 2005 edition)
[BSI] Update Standards. Aug.2015. p.10.
BS EN ISO 18490:2015 Non-destructive Testing. Evaluation of vision acuity of NDT personnel
[BSI] Update Standards. July 2015. p.10.
BS EN ISO 18563-1:2015 Nondestructive testing. Characterisation and verification of ultrasonic phased array equipment. Instruments
[BSI] Update Standards. Aug.2015. p.12.
BS ISO 27307:2015 Thermal spraying. Evaluation of adhesion/cohesion of thermal sprayed ceramic coatings by transverse
scratch testing
[BSI] Update Standards. Aug.2015. p.18.
CEN/TR 13445-102:2015 Unfired pressure vessels. Example of application of vertical vessel with bracket supports
[BSI] Update Standards. July 2015. p.40.
EN 62135-1:2015 Resistance welding equipment. Safety requirements for design, manufacture and installation.
(Idt. IEC 62135-1:2015)
[BSI] Update Standards. Aug.2015. p.48.
IEC 62135-1:2015 Resistance welding equipment. Safety requirements for design, manufacture and installation
[BSI] Update Standards. July 2015. p.45.
PD ISO/TR 18491:2015 Welding and allied processes. Guidelines for measurement of welding energies
[BSI] Update Standards. July 2015. p.18.

292 Welding and Cutting 14 (2015) No. 5

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SPECIALIST ARTICLES
Assessment of influences of the weld quality on the
fatigue strength of transverse stiffeners manufactured with
laser beam welding and hybrid laser beam / GMA welding
Within the “QuInLas“ project, funded by the German Federal Ministry for
Economic Affairs and Energy BMWi, fatigue tests were performed on speci-
mens welded with laser and laser-GMA-hybrid robots. Geometric para-
meters like angular misalignment as well as local weld geometry of almost
every specimen were measured before testing to generate effective notch
stress models. With these finite element (FE) models, parametric studies
on the influence of quality attributes on fatigue life could be investigated
systematically. After categorising the quality attributes of angular mis-
alignment and undercut depth into quality levels similar to the ISO 5817
Standard, an assignment to FAT (fatigue) classes was arranged to enable a
structural engineer to estimate the fatigue life of a construction safely by
introducing tolerance limits for the welds. A suggestion of applicable FAT
classes for laser and laser-GMA-hybrid welded transverse stiffeners on
4 and 10 mm thick plates made of S355 steel subjected to their categorised
angular misalignment and undercut depth is presented in this paper.
1 Introduction
Local approaches like the effective notch stress con-
cept for the assessment of the fatigue life of welded ship
structures are getting more and more common in today’s
structural design processes. The local geometry of the
welds is needed for this. However, data of the real weld
geometry of laser and laser-GMA-hybrid welds measured
by the use of a laser scanner is rare and therefore the
notch stress approach was seldom used for these kinds of
welds. Thus, the basis for the assessment of the fatigue
life of laser and laser-hybrid welded structures and the
influence of geometric weld parameters are missing for
users’ and classification societies’ needs. Former research
projects like the EU-funded “BESST“ project [1] already
dealt with the fatigue life assessment of laser and laser-
hybrid welded thin-walled structures. Influences of quality
attributes, in particular angular misalignment, on fatigue
life were investigated as well, see [2] and [3]. The influence
of undercut depths found in conventionally welded butt
joints was examined by Petershagen [4] who proposed re-
duced FAT classes dependent on the undercut depth.
During production the ISO 5817 Standard [5] is used
to classify welds into quality levels. Normally, quality level
B, meaning the highest standard, has to be fulfilled fre-
quently for joints subjected to high cyclic loads. However,
in areas of lower loading, this high standard might not be
appropriate and results in higher, not necessary produc-
tion and post-processing costs. As shown for example in
[6], the FAT classes recommended by the International
Institute of Welding (IIW) [7] are in line with undercut
depths of d < 0.05 times thickness t which matches quality
level B of ISO 5817. In [2], it is stated that welded joints
with small angular misalignments of φ ≤ 1°, which again
fits quality level B of ISO 5817, fulfil the recommended
FAT classes while specimens with higher misalignments
294
THE AUTHORS
Dipl.-Ing. Christoph Robert, born in 1983,
studied Naval Architecture at the Hamburg Uni-
versity of Technology in Hamburg/Germany, as
from 2003 and obtained his degree there in
2010. He has been a Scientific Employee at the
Institute for Ship Structural Design and Analysis
at the Hamburg University of Technology since
2010. At present, he is supervising research pro-
jects relating to the fatigue strength of laser and
laser-hybrid welds and is working on obtaining
his doctorate with precisely this main focal point.
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Wolfgang Fricke, born in 1949,
studied Naval Architecture at the Universities of
Hanover and Hamburg. After a few years in
shipyard practice and in the university sector, he
obtained his Dr.-Ing. title in 1985. Thereafter, he
worked at Germanischer Lloyd where he was in
charge of the department responsible for
strength and vibration analyses as from 1995.
He has been a Professor at the Institute for Ship
Structural Design and Analysis at the Hamburg
University of Technology since 2000.
do not. Thus, present rules and guidelines do not take
into account fatigue assessment of lower-quality-level
welds. Therefore, a structural engineer has to assume
welds classified into level B to calculate the fatigue life of
the structure although lower-quality-level welds might be
sufficient. Hobbacher and Kassner [8] defined relations
between the quality levels and fatigue properties of con-
ventionally welded joints to overcome this problem.
The following chapters are describing the investiga-
tions performed within the “QuInLas“ project regarding
certain quality attributes of laser and laser-hybrid welded
joints. The preparations, tests and assessments done to
investigate the influence of quality attributes on fatigue
life and their correlations to FAT classes are outlined en-
abling a safe estimation of fatigue life by introducing re-
quired quality levels for the welds. The influence of an-
gular misalignment and undercut depth is examined using
the effective notch stress concept according to [7] and [9].
2 Description of specimens
Specimens with transverse stiffeners welded with the
laser or laser-GMA-hybrid process made of S355 steel are
fabricated from 4 and 10 mm thick plates with the dimen-
sions of 1  m × 0.6  m. The 4  mm thick base plates are
equipped with 4  mm thick stiffeners while the 10  mm
Welding and Cutting 14 (2015) No. 5
plates are welded with 10 mm stiffeners. In the workshop,
these plates are cut into single specimens having a length
of 600 mm and a breadth of 60 mm, see middle of Fig. 1.
Examples of polished micrographs of the different types
of welds are also displayed in Fig. 1. As can be seen some
specimens were welded on one side with incomplete
penetration and others on both sides. For the 4 mm thick
plates, the fabrication of a fully connected stiffener by a
one-sided weld was possible with the laser-hybrid process.

3 Preparations and measurements

Before testing, the specimens’ geometric parameters
are measured including the angular misalignment and
the local weld geometry. If existent, the weld geometry
Fig. 1 • Single specimen and examples of polished micrographs of the welding
parameters shown on the polished micrograph in Fig. 4 processes used.
are captured using a laser scanner. Almost every single
specimen is scanned by the laser scanner. The section
having the deepest undercut is used to measure the pa-
rameters shown above.

4 Categorisation of quality attributes

All measured parameters of angular misalignments
and undercut depths are categorised according to the ISO
5817 Standard [5]. The latest version of this standard has
no categorisation for angular misalignment while an older
version from 2003 contains quality levels B, C and D for
angles φ ≤ 1.0°, φ ≤ 2.0° and φ ≤ 4.0° for butt-welded joints.
These categories are directly applied to the transverse
stiffeners at hand. The undercut depth is sorted into qual-
ity levels dependent on the plate thickness t. Therefore,
level B contains welds with undercuts d ≤ 0.05∙t, but small-
er than 0.5 mm. For level C, the undercut depth is d ≤ 0.1∙t,
with a maximum value of 0.5 mm as well and level D un-
dercuts have depths smaller than d ≤ 0.2∙t, but not more
than 1 mm. For 10 mm thick plates, categories of undercut
depths B and C have the same maximum value of 0.5 mm,
so level C is not existent. To give a more detailed overview,
sub-groups like for example D.1 and D.2 are introduced
in this paper. All defined quality limits can be found in
Table 2. The number of specimens included in the re-
spective quality levels is given in the table as well.
5 Fatigue tests
Fatigue tests are performed on horizontal resonance
testing machines at a frequency of about 30 Hz and a stress
ratio of R = 0. Fatigue lives are located in a range between
1∙104 and 2∙106 cycles. Fig. 2 shows the S-N data of the trans-
verse stiffeners with 4 mm thick base plates showing the
results of the nominal stress approach. The blue-coloured
dashed lines are generated with a given slope exponent of
k = 3. A fatigue assessment done with this slope exponent
will end up in underestimated life cycles for specimens in
the high-cycle range. Lifetime estimation will therefore be Fig. 2 • S-N dia-
very conservative. A much larger free slope exponent was gram for trans-
calculated, thus a slope exponent of k = 5 (black lines) is verse stiffeners
on 4 mm thick
more suitable to obtain the life cycles of the 4 mm thick
base plates
specimens. As no specimen is lying below the black line
assessed with
for the probability of survival PS = 97.7%, the assessment
the nominal
with the slope exponent of k = 5 is still conservative and stress approach.
therefore lifetime prediction is on the safe side.
Sonsino et al. [10] proposed a slope exponent of k = 5
for plates with thicknesses smaller than 5 mm under nor-
mal loads. The results found here for the 4 mm thick plates
are matching this proposal. The evaluation with the slope
exponent k = 5 results in a reference value for PS = 97.7%
of Δσn,ref = 79 N/mm2 at 2∙106 life cycles, while the statistical
evaluation with k = 3 results in Δσn,ref = 51 N/mm2. Without
taking into account a correction for the influence of stress
ratio, the FAT class 80, applicable to transverse stiffeners
[7], gives good agreement with an assessment using the
slope exponent k = 5.

Table 1 • Number of specimens

according to welding type.

Welding and Cutting 14 (2015) No. 5 295

SPECIALIST ARTICLES

in the FAT class 80 for transverse stiffeners with fillet welds

left as-welded. It seems that the specimens at hand are
having greater angular misalignments than the covered
ones, see Table 2. In addition, there are a lot of specimens
having undercuts with depths deeper than that of quality
level B. Parametric finite element models are used to in-
vestigate more closely the influence of these parameters.

6 Finite element calculations

Fig. 3 • S-N dia- Nevertheless, there seem to be parameters in the weld
gram for trans- geometries influencing the fatigue life of the 4 mm thick
verse stiffeners specimens, which are beyond the limits covered by the
on 10 mm thick FAT class. In addition, the scatter ratios Ts and TN with re-
base plates
gard to fatigue strength and life, respectively, between
assessed with
probability survivals PS = 90% and 10% are rather large.
the nominal
stress approach.
Fig. 3 displays the S-N results of the transverse stiff-
eners with 10 mm thick base plates based on the nominal
stress approach. For these specimens, the slope exponent
of k = 3 is fitting well. Δσn,ref = 70 N/mm2 is the reference
value for PS = 97.7% at 2∙106 cycles and the recommended
FAT class 80 is not fulfilled. This leads to the conclusion
that again some influencing parameters are not covered
by the nominal stress approach.
It is obvious that angular misalignment as well as un-
dercuts have a huge influence on the fatigue life of a spec-
imen. As mentioned in [7], a km value up to km = 1.2 for
the influence of angular misalignment is already included
All finite element calculations are done with the
ANSYS 14.0 software. Effective notch stress models are
generated according to the IIW guideline [9]. For every
single specimen, a two-dimensional effective notch stress
model is built with Plane183 elements in a plane strain
condition. This element type is an eight- or six-noded
plane element with a quadratic displacement function.
The angular misalignment and all of the local weld
geometry parameters shown on the micrograph in Fig. 4
are included in the models. The stresses at the rounded
notches sK are calculated with linear-elastic material prop-
erties, thus an elastic-plastic behaviour is not taken into
consideration. The radii at the notch toes are rounded
with the reference radius rref = 1 mm for the 10 mm thick
plates and rref =  0.05  mm for all 4  mm plates. Undercut
depths, if existent, are kept and modelled as well, as can
be seen for a 10 mm thick base plate on the right side of
Fig. 4. In investigations previously done, it was found that
the modelled flank radius (see RfL and RfR in Fig. 4) for the
10 mm thick specimens had a negligible influence on the
notch stress, thus it was not applied to the 4  mm thick
models. All other parameters shown on the micrograph
in Fig. 4 including the lower flank angles abL and abR and
the undercut depth h are considered in the FE models.
As all tested 10 mm and 4 mm thick specimens failed
at the weld toe and not at the weld root, if one existed, the

Fig. 4 • Boundary
conditions for an
effective notch
stress model
showing first
principal stress
after load step 2
of a two-sided
welded laser-
hybrid joint
(angular mis-
alignment shown
exaggerated) and
micrograph with
used parameters.

296 Welding and Cutting 14 (2015) No. 5


weld roots were modelled with a reference radius of
rref = 0.05 mm or without any radius to keep the influence
on the evaluated notch stress on the weld toe small.
A specific notch stress model is required for some of
the two-sided laser welded stiffeners on 10 mm base plates
which have undercuts not in the base plate but in the stiff-
ener, see micrograph on the upper right-hand side of Fig.
1. This type of undercut, caused by a gap between the at-
tachment and the plate, was modelled similar to a keyhole
notch for a weld root. The deepest position of the undercut
in the stiffener determines the position of the circle
spanned by the reference radius rref. This procedure may
lead to a small undercut in the base plate, but this strict
application of the IIW guideline for effective notch stress
analysis is leading to reasonable results.
The boundary conditions are arranged in two load
steps, see Fig. 4. Load step 1 simulates the clamping in
the testing machine by moving the nodes situated at the
position of the grips to the same y-coordinate y = 0. The
nodes at the right end of the left grip are moved to the
same x-coordinate by this boundary condition. To sup-
press a rigid body movement, these nodes are fixed at
their deformed position in the x-direction.
All boundary conditions of the first load step are kept
in the second load step. Additionally, the nodes on the
left side of the right grip are coupled to combine their dis-
placement in the horizontal x-direction. The force F is
Welding and Cutting 14 (2015) No. 5
Table 2 • Quality levels of angular
misalignment and undercut depth
and their correlation to FAT values.
then applied to one of these coupled nodes. By arranging
the boundary conditions with these two load steps, the
force is applied to the deformed model similar to reality.
7 Assessment with the effective notch stress
approach
For each of the overall 170 specimens investigated, a
notch stress model is generated as described above. The
boundary conditions of the two load steps are applied, so
that notch stresses for clamping (load step 1) and tension
loads (load step 2) can be determined by reading out the
maximum first principal stresses in the rounded notches.
The notch stress range ΔσK can then be calculated as the
difference between load steps 2 and 1.
Fig. 5 shows the S-N data derived from the computed
notch stress ranges of the transverse stiffeners on 4 mm
base plates. The scatter is significantly reduced in com-
parison to the nominal stress approach.
As done before for the nominal stress approach, the
statistical evaluation with slope exponent k  =  3 is com-
pared to that with slope exponent k = 5. By using the ef-
fective notch stress approach in contrast to the nominal
stress approach, the scatter ratio of the S-N curves with
slope exponent k = 5 could be reduced from TS = 1 : 1.626
to TS =  1  :  1.384, because of the angular misalignments
and local weld parameters included in the notch stress.
The reference values for PS = 97.7% at 2∙106 life cycles are
297
SPECIALIST ARTICLES
Fig. 5 • S-N dia- Δσk,ref =  584  N/mm2 for slope exponent k  =  3 and
gram for transverse Δσk,ref = 886 N/mm2 for k = 5.
stiffeners on 4 mm For the 10 mm thick specimens, the scatter ratio could
thick base plates be reduced from TS = 1 : 1.780 in the nominal stress ap-
assessed with the
proach to TS = 1 : 1.484 in the effective notch stress ap-
effective notch
proach, as can be seen in Fig. 6. The reference value for
stress approach and
PS = 97.7% at 2∙106 life cycles from the statistical evaluation
comparison of slope
exponents k = 5 of all 10 mm thick specimens is Δσk,ref = 262 N/mm2. The
and k = 3. slope exponent k  =  3 is applicable to the 10  mm thick
specimens in the effective notch stress approach.
8 Investigations on the influence of quality
attributes on fatigue strength
The following analysis investigates finite element
models where one of the quality attributes, i.e. angular
misalignment or undercut depth, is set to zero in order to
show its effect on fatigue strength.
On the left-hand side of Fig. 7, the reference values
based on the effective notch stress of the 4 mm thick spec-
imens for a probability of survival of PS = 50% calculated
with and without angular misalignment are compared
and categorised in the above-mentioned quality levels
similar to ISO 5817 from 2003. All parameters including
the undercut depths and local weld geometries are kept
in the FE models, except for the angular misalignment
Fig. 6 • S-N dia- which is set to zero, so that no geometric parameter other
gram for trans- than the angular misalignment should be responsible for
verse stiffeners on the differences in the fatigue strength of the specimens.
10 mm thick base
The black line at ΔσK,ref,50% = 838 N/mm2 in Fig. 7 shows
plates assessed
the reference value for PS = 50% of the FAT630 class which
with the effective
notch stress ap-
is recommended to evaluate fatigue life with the effective
proach. notch stress approach using the reference radius of
298
rref = 0.05 mm, see [9]. This reference value is calculated
with a typical scatter ratio for welded components ac-
cording to [11] of TS = 1 : 1.44.
It can be seen that all reference values calculated with
models including the angular misalignment are above
FAT630 and are therefore on the safe side, if the influence
of the mean stress is neglected. Specimens with angular
misalignment greater than that of quality level B do not
reach the FAT class 630 if its influence is not considered
in the notch stress. The default km factor of 1.20 for fillet
welds recommended by Hobbacher [7] is a conservative
estimation for the values found for quality level B. Here,
angles up to 1.0° (quality level B) lead to a km = 1.11 (i.e.
difference between the red and blue bars in Fig. 7) while
the categories of angles greater than 1.0° lead to much
larger km values. The ratio between the intended FAT class
630 and the reference values of the models without angu-
lar misalignment is given by the respective km,FAT factors
on the left-hand side of Fig. 7.
A similar diagram is set up on the right-hand side of
Fig. 7 for the categorised undercut depths of the 4  mm
thick specimens. Again, all calculated reference values of
stress calculations with undercuts (green bars) surpass
the reference value of the FAT630 class. All geometric pa-
rameters are kept in the FE models without undercuts
(blue bars), except for the undercut if existent. The refer-
ence values of these models for specimens having under-
cut depths of more than 0.1  mm (quality levels B.2,
C and D) are lying below that one of the FAT630 class and
are leading to reduction factors named kt,FAT.
The same calculations with and without angular mis-
alignment are done for the transverse stiffeners on 10 mm
thick base plates. The reference values of the categorised
specimens are compared on the left-hand side of Fig. 8.
The black line shows the reference value for PS = 50% of
the FAT225 class which is used in connection with the ref-
erence radius of rref =  1  mm, see [9]. Calculated with a
scatter ratio of TS =  1  :  1.44, this value becomes
ΔσK,ref,50% = 299 N/mm2. The notch stress reference values
of specimens in the category B with angular misalignment
φ ≤ 1.0° are greater than that of the FAT class 225, even
those without modelled angular misalignment. A km,FAT
factor describing the difference to the FAT class can be
assessed for the specimens with angular misalignments
greater than 1.0° (categories C.1 and C.2).
The right-hand side of Fig. 8 shows the quality levels
of undercut depth and compares the reference values for
PS = 50% obtained for the effective notch stress approach.
Again, the green bars show the values for the calculations
done with modelled undercuts and the blue ones those
for the calculations without. kt,FAT factors are calculated
for quality levels B.2, B.3 and D.
9 Correlation between quality levels
and FAT classes
In Table 2, FAT classes assumed from the results for
the transverse stiffeners on 4 mm and 10 mm thick base
plates are given depending on their quality levels of angular
misalignment and undercut depth. As already mentioned,
Welding and Cutting 14 (2015) No. 5
some sub-categories are inserted to expand the quality
level groups of ISO 5817. The determined factors km,FAT and
kt,FAT are ratios between the FAT class applicable and the
reached value of the specimens assessed with the effective
notch stress approach and take into account only the in-
fluence of the investigated quality attribute of angular mis-
alignment or undercut depth. These ratios are deemed to
be also valid in the nominal stress approach and are there-
fore used to generate reduction factors which match the
FAT classes with the determined values for the specimens.
The kt,FAT = 1.03 for quality level group B.2 for the 10 mm
thick base plates is neglected and the groups B.1 and B.2
are connected to one group, as can be seen in Table 2.
As shown in the table, the specimens with angular
misalignments of quality levels B do not require a reduc-
tion of the nominal FAT class. The same is applicable to
specimens with undercuts of levels B.1 and B.2 respec-
tively – in contrast to 4 mm thick transverse stiffeners.
Specimens of lower quality level groups need to be as-
sessed with reduced FAT classes.

10 Comparison with proposals from

literature for conventional welds
Hobbacher and Kassner [8] as well as Petershagen [4]
assigned FAT classes to quality levels of ISO 5817. The
categories of angular misalignment are established for
conventionally welded butt welds using FAT100 in [8]. To
make a comparison possible, the number of degradations
of FAT classes is applied to FAT80 for transverse stiffeners
in Table 2 for angular misalignment as well as for under-
cuts, according to butt welds derived by Petershagen [4].
The FAT classes assumed in this way are listed in the last
lines of the four groups in Table 2. In quality levels C and
D, Hobbacher and Kassner propose more conservative
FAT classes than found in the present investigations. The
same can be seen for the 10 mm thick base plates.
An explanation may be found in the reduction Δy of
the seam sag y when the specimens are clamped in the
testing machine, see Fig. 9. Maybe, the seam sag y is a
better parameter to describe the additional stresses. The
reduction Δy of the seam sag after clamping the specimen
reduces the additional stresses although the angular mis-
alignment stays the same. This may lead to the higher FAT
values gained with the specimens at hand compared with
those of Hobbacher and Kassner.
The comparative FAT values for the different under-
cut depths are compared as well in Table 2. As in the
publication of Petershagen [4], it is mentioned that the
given FAT values are only valid for butt joints from 10 to
25 mm thickness. They are not compared with the pres-
ent values of the 4 mm specimens. However, a compari-
son to the 10 mm transverse stiffener specimens seems
to be appropriate. For the specimens with 4  mm thick
base plates, the FAT values found are more conservative
than those of Hobbacher and Kassner [8]. The investi-
gated laser and laser-hybrid welded specimens show a
reduction of fatigue strength even if only a small under-
cut of the introduced quality level B.2 is found while
Hobbacher and Kassner do not expect an influence on

Welding and Cutting 14 (2015) No. 5 299

SPECIALIST ARTICLES

Fig. 7 • Reference
values for PS =
50% based on
effective notch
stress calculations
with and without
imperfections
of the 4 mm
thick transverse
stiffeners.

Fig. 8 • Reference
values for PS =
50% based on
effective notch
stress calculations
with and without
imperfections
of the 10 mm
thick transverse
stiffeners.

the fatigue strength of conventionally welded joints of
quality levels B and C. A good accordance with the FAT
values given by Petershagen [4] is found for the 10 mm
thick base plates. Only for quality level D does Petersha-
gen introduce a lower FAT class.
11 Summary and conclusion
The fatigue tests of laser and laser-GMA-hybrid welded
transverse stiffeners obtained within the “QuInLas“ project
show the following results:
• Laser and laser-GMA-hybrid welded specimens can
be assessed by the effective notch stress approach
using the reference radius rref = 0.05 mm for 4 mm
thick plates and rref = 1 mm for 10 mm thick plates.
Fig. 9 • Reduction Δy of seam sag because of the clamping of
the specimen.
• In accordance with [10], the slope exponent of k = 5
fits the S-N data for 4 mm thick plates while k = 3 is
applicable to 10  mm plates in both nominal and
effective notch stress approaches.
A systematical investigation of the influence of the quality
attributes on the fatigue life of the specimens was made
by categorising the specimens’ quality attributes of angular
misalignment and undercut depth into quality levels sim-
ilar to those of ISO 5817 and using parametric effective
notch stress models of the 170 specimens. The gained ra-
tios between the original FAT classes and the reference
values of the effective notch stress models were used to
assume reductions of FAT values in correlation to the qual-
ity levels. The following conclusions can be drawn:
• The assumed FAT classes dependent on the quality
levels similar to ISO 5817 are applicable to assess the
fatigue strength of categorised welds and enable a
structural engineer to estimate the fatigue strength
of a laser or laser-hybrid welded construction safely
by introducing tolerance limits.
• FAT values for laser and laser-GMA-hybrid welded
joints are similar to those of conventional welds, al-
though FAT values for angular misalignment were
found to be more conservative in literature. This
might be due to the decreased seam sag when clamp-
ing the test specimens.

300 Welding and Cutting 14 (2015) No. 5

• Particularly for joints of thin plates (4 mm), the effect
of undercuts on fatigue strength is larger than the
one assumed in [8] for t = 10 mm.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The work was performed within the research project “QuIn-
Las“, funded by the German Federal Ministry for Economic
Affairs and Energy BMWi under project no. 03 SX 271. The
authors are responsible for the content of this paper and
wish to thank those who supported this project as well as
Project Management Jülich and all partners of the joint re-
search project.
Literature
[1] Bohlmann, B. et al.: Fatigue Performance of Laser and Laser
Hybrid welded Joints (in German). Jahrbuch der Schiff-
bautechnischen Gesellschaft, Volume 107, Schifffahrts-Ver-
lag “Hansa“ C. Schroedter & Co., Hamburg, Germany 2013.
[2] Fricke, W. et al.: Fatigue strength of laser-welded thin plate
ship structures based on nominal and structural hot-spot
stress approach. In: Analysis and Design of Marine Struc-
tures, edited by Guedes Soares & Romanoff. Taylor & Fran-
cis Group, London, UK 2013, pp. 249-254.
[3] Lillemäe, I. et al.: Fatigue strength of welded butt joints in
thin and slender specimens. Int. J. of Fatigue 44 (2012), pp.
98-106.
Welding and Cutting – editorial preview
Issue 6 (November/December)
• Adhesive bonding technology
• Automation using robots and sensors for welding and cutting
Closing date for editiorial contributions: 13 November 2015
Closing date for advertisements: 10 November 2015
The editorial preview is subject to modifications.
For information about advertising, please contact:
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James Burton, TWI, Cambridge/UK, e-mail james.burton@twi.co.uk
Welding and Cutting 14 (2015) No. 5
[4] Petershagen, H.: Assessment of the fatigue strength of
welded joints with imperfections – an overview (in Ger-
man). Schweißen und Schneiden 42 (1990), Issue 3, pp.
134-137.
[5] International Standard: ISO 5817 Welding – Fusion-welded
joints in steel, nickel, titanium and their alloys (beam weld-
ing excluded) – Quality levels for imperfections. Second
edition ISO 5817:2003, revised version ISO 5817:2005.
Geneva, Switzerland, 2003 and 2005.
[6] Jonsson, B., Samuelsson, J. and Marquis, G. B.: Develop-
ment of weld quality criteria based on fatigue performance.
Welding in the World (2011), 55: 11/12, pp. 79-88.
[7] Hobbacher, A: Recommendations for Fatigue Design of
Welded Joints and Components, Welding Research Council
Bulletin, Vol. 520, Welding Research Council, Ohio, USA 2009.
[8] Hobbacher, A. and Kaßner, M.: On relation between Fatigue
Properties of welded Joints, Quality Criteria and Groups in
ISO 5817. Welding in the World (2012), 56: 11/12, pp. 153-
169
[9] Fricke, W.: IIW Recommendations for the Fatigue Assess-
ment of Welded Structures by Notch Stress Analysis. Wood-
head Publ., Cambridge, UK 2012.
[10] Sonsino, C. M., Bruder, T. and Baumgartner, J.: S-N lines for
welded thin joints – suggested slopes and FAT values for ap-
plying the notch stress concept with various reference radii.
Welding in the World (2010), 54: 11/12, pp. R375-R392.
[11] Haibach, E.: Fatigue Strength: Procedures and data for
analysis of components (in German). VDI-Verlag GmbH,
Düsseldorf, Germany 1989.
Issue 1 (January/February)
• New findings about resistance welding
• Welding in plant, tank and pipeline construction
• Gas-shielded arc welding
Closing date for editiorial contributions: 15 January 2016
Closing date for advertisements: 22 January 2016
301
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