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CIV100 Wind and Earthquake PDF
CIV100 Wind and Earthquake PDF
Design Standards
Abstract
This section contains guidance for determining wind and earthquake loads on indus-
trial structures and equipment. It also includes design methods for avoiding wind-
induced vibration of steel stacks. It is based on ASCE 7-93 and the Uniform
Building Code (1997). Wind and earthquake loads on tanks, buildings, and offshore
platforms are beyond the scope of this document. The Tank Manual covers wind and
earthquake loads on tanks. Local building codes define lateral loads on buildings.
Finally, API RP-2A should be used for the design of offshore platforms.
Maps showing basic wind speeds and seismic zones for the United States are
included in this section.
Allowable stresses, foundation stability ratios, soil bearing pressures, and sample
calculations are also included.
This section can be used as a design guide for contractors responsible for seismic
and wind design of new or existing Company facilities. Copies of this section can be
obtained from CRTC Technical Standards Team. For additional guidance and
requirements, refer to Chevron Specification CIV-EG-5009-C, Structural Design
Criteria. This document can also be obtained from the CRTC Technical Standards
Team.
Contents Page
111 Introduction
It is important that a civil engineer be consulted whenever new facilities or existing
structures are being evaluated for seismic and wind loads. This section is for civil
engineers of all experience levels. Engineers from other disciplines might use this as
a reference to follow a civil engineer’s calculations.
This section gives the reader specific instructions for calculating wind and earth-
quake loads on structures. It does not describe how to use the loads to calculate
stresses and design/analyze a structure or piece of equipment. It does, however, give
allowable stresses and foundation stability information that must be used in wind
and earthquake design.
This section includes formulas for natural period of vibration, example load calcula-
tions, and a method of preventing wind-induced vibration of tall steel stacks.
Section 110 may be used as a design specification.
112 General
These requirements provide the basic criteria for calculating wind and seismic loads
for Company facilities. For further information and background material used in
formulating these provisions, a list of references is provided in Section 130.
For critical structures containing significant quantities of acutely hazardous mate-
rial whose failure could result in off-site consequences, more stringent require-
ments may be appropriate. Examples of critical structures are LNG tanks and
ammonia spheres. The CRTC Civil/Structural Technical Service Team may be
consulted in these cases.
Load Combinations
The basic principle of design for lateral forces involves determining the lateral
forces due to wind and earthquake (not both at once) and designing for the most
adverse conditions. Wind or earthquake loads should be combined with all other
loads which may reasonably be expected to occur simultaneously with the design
lateral loads. Vessels and other equipment and their supports should be analyzed for
wind loads combined with gravity loads, both including and excluding the weight of
the normal contents of the equipment. Earthquake loads need be combined only
with normal operating and gravity loads. Wind and earthquake loads need not be
combined with hydrostatic test loads.
Structures designed for wind and earthquake loads must also be capable of with-
standing all other conditions of loading. Stresses from other loads must not exceed
normal allowable stresses.
Load Direction
The wind or earthquake forces should be considered as acting in any direction, but
for analysis they can be resolved into components in the directions of the principal
axes of the structure.
Dynamic Effects
Both wind and earthquake effects are dynamic phenomena. However, for the design
of structures covered by this document, the use of equivalent static forces is
adequate. Wind design for some structures, e.g., for stacks or slender processing
columns, must consider dynamic behavior. For earthquake design, dynamic
behavior is considered to a limited extent in that the lateral force is based on the
structure’s natural period. For major structures or critical facilities, it may be desir-
able to use dynamic procedures to supplement the basic static approach.
1. The wind load provisions of ASCE 7-95 were reviewed during this manual revision. ASCE 7-95 contains
changes from previous editions and utilizes 3-second gust wind speeds instead of fastest-mile. However, the
design wind forces using the ASCE 7-95 criteria are essentially the same as ASCE 7-93 and 1997 UBC criteria.
Shape factors for various elements are defined in Figure 100-3. The wind impor-
tance factor IW shall be taken as 1.0 for normal non-critical oil industry structures.
For critical structures or structures housing or supporting acutely hazardous mate-
rials (AHMs) Iw shall be taken as 1.15.
• Elements of structures:
Applies to the projected framing area of the wind members on any element 2.0
exposed to the wind (i.e., consider both columns for a frame parallel to the
wind).
(Forces on equipment and piping supported on the structure shall be added.)
Flat or angular sections 1.3
Cylindrical members (including piping):
Two inches or less in diameter 1.0
Over two inches in diameter 0.8
Basic Wind Pressures are defined in Figure 100-4 and are a function of exposures.
Exposure B has terrain which has buildings, forest or surface irregularities 20 feet or
more in height covering at least 20 percent of the area, extending one mile or more
from the site. Exposure C has terrain which is flat and generally open, extending
one-half mile or more from the site in any full quadrant. Exposure D represents the
most severe exposure in areas with basic wind speeds of 80 mph or greater and has
terrain which is flat and unobstructed facing large bodies of water over one mile or
more in width. Exposure D extends inland from the shoreline .25 miles or 10 times
building height, whichever is greater.
Fig. 100-4 Basic Wind Pressures (psf) for Heights above Ground
Wind Speed (MPH)
Height Exposure
70 75 80 85 90 95 100 110
0-15 ft. 8 9 10 11 13 14 16 19
20 8 10 11 12 14 15 17 21
25 9 10 12 13 15 16 18 22
30 10 11 12 14 16 17 19 23
40 11 12 14 15 17 19 21 26
B
60 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 29
80 13 15 17 19 21 24 26 32
100 14 16 19 21 23 26 29 35
120 15 17 20 22 25 28 31 37
160 16 19 21 24 27 30 33 40
200 18 20 23 26 29 32 36 44
300 20 23 26 30 33 37 41 50
400 22 26 29 33 37 41 46 55
0-15 ft. 13 15 17 20 22 24 27 33
20 14 16 18 21 23 26 29 35
25 15 17 19 22 25 27 30 37
30 16 18 20 23 26 29 32 38
40 16 19 21 24 27 30 33 40
C
60 18 21 23 26 30 33 37 44
80 19 22 25 28 32 35 39 47
100 20 23 26 30 33 37 41 50
120 21 24 27 31 35 39 43 52
160 22 26 29 33 37 41 46 55
200 23 27 31 35 39 43 48 58
300 26 30 34 38 43 47 53 64
400 28 32 36 41 46 51 56 68
Fig. 100-4 Basic Wind Pressures (psf) for Heights above Ground (Cont’d.)
Wind Speed (MPH)
Height Exposure
70 75 80 85 90 95 100 110
0-15 ft. 17 20 23 26 29 32 35 43
20 18 21 24 27 30 33 37 45
25 19 22 24 28 31 35 38 46
30 19 22 25 28 32 36 39 48 D
40 20 23 27 30 34 37 42 50
60 22 25 28 32 36 40 44 53
80 23 26 30 33 37 42 46 56
100 24 27 31 35 39 43 48 58
120 24 28 31 36 40 44 49 59
160 25 29 33 37 42 47 52 62
200 26 30 34 39 43 48 54 65
300 28 32 36 41 46 51 57 69
400 29 34 38 43 48 54 60 72
Note For regions between the hurricane oceanline and 100 miles inland, the basic wind pressures shall be determined by
linear interpolation. At the hurricane oceanline, the basic wind pressures shall be multiplied by 1.05. At 100 miles from
the hurricane oceanline, the basic wind pressures shall be multiplied by 1.00. Hurricane oceanlines are the Atlantic and
Gulf of Mexico coastal areas.
The values of basic wind pressures in Figure 100-4 include: Structure Importance
Factor for wind, Velocity Pressure Exposure Coefficient, and a Gust Response
Factor per ASCE 7-93.
Use the projected area of each element within each height zone for calculating the
force. The total force on the structure is the sum of the forces on all the elements,
including wind up-lift forces on the surfaces of horizontal projections. Apply all
forces at the centroids of the projected areas. For example calculations, demon-
strating wind design methodology, see Section 123, Examples of Wind and Earth-
quake Load Calculations. Other wind design concerns include wind-induced
vibration of stacks, above-grade pipelines, or any slender element which can be
excited aerodynamically. See Section 122 for an analysis of this problem.
Nonbuilding-Type Structures
These structures include all self-supporting structures (equipment with integral
supports) other than buildings which carry gravity loads and resist the effects of
earthquake. Nonbuilding structures also include structures supporting equipment
with structural systems similar to buildings (SSSB).
Cv I
V = -------
-W (Eq. 100-2)
RT
2.5C a I
V max = ---------------- W (Eq. 100-3)
R
and
0.8ZN v I
V min = -------------------
-W (Eq. 100-5)
R
For flexible nonbuilding structures (such as those listed in sections III and IV of
Figure 100-11), Equation 100-2 and Equation 100-3 shall apply, with the additional
stipulations that:
1.6ZN v I
V min = -------------------
-W (Eq. 100-8)
R
Wyoming
Evanston 2B
Fig. 100-6 Seismic Zone Map of the United States (from 1997 ed. of UBC) Reproduced from the 1997
edition of the Uniform Building Code 1997, with the permission of the International Confer-
ence of Building Officials
The Occupancy Importance Factor, I, shall be taken as 1.0 for normal non-critical
oil industry structures. For critical structures or structures housing or supporting
acutely hazardous materials (AHMs), “I” shall be taken as 1.25. See Figure 100-12.
The seismic coefficients, Ca and Cv, shall be determined using Figures 100-7 and
100-8:
Ca and Cv represent the ground motion, and are a function of the seismic zone (Z)
and the soil profile type (given in 100-9). In seismic zone 4 only, Ca and Cv are also
a function of the near source factors Na and Nv. Na and Nv factors are dependent on
the distance of the structure to known active large magnitude faults. The Na and Nv
factors for Company locations in seismic zone 4 are given in 100-5.
Fig. 100-7 Seismic Coefficient Ca (Reproduced from the 1997 edition of the Uniform Building Code
1997, with the permission of the International Conference of Building Officials)
Seismic Zone Factor, Z
Soil Profile
Type Z = 0.075 Z = 0.15 Z = 0.2 Z = 0.3 Z = 0.4
SA 0.06 0.12 0.16 0.24 0.32Na
SB 0.08 0.15 0.20 0.30 0.40Na
SC 0.09 0.18 0.24 0.33 0.40Na
SD 0.12 0.22 0.28 0.36 0.44Na
SE 0.19 0.30 0.34 0.36 0.36Na
(1)
SF See Footnote
(1) Site-specific geotechnical investigation and dynamic site response analysis shall be performed to determine seismic coeffi-
cients for Soil Profile Type SF.
Fig. 100-8 Seismic Coefficient Cv (Reproduced from the 1997 edition of the Uniform Building Code
1997, with the permission of the International Conference of Building Officials)
Seismic Zone Factor, Z
Soil Profile
Type Z = 0.075 Z = 0.15 Z = 0.2 Z = 0.3 Z = 0.4
SA 0.06 0.12 0.16 0.24 0.32Nv
SB 0.08 0.15 0.20 0.30 0.40Nv
SC 0.13 0.25 0.32 0.45 0.56Nv
SD 0.18 0.32 0.40 0.54 0.64Nv
SE 0.26 0.50 0.64 0.84 0.96Nv
SF See Footnote(1)
(1) Site-specific geotechnical investigation and dynamic site response analysis shall be performed to determine seismic coeffi-
cients for Soil Profile Type SF.
A review of the Design Response Spectra (shown in Figure 100-10) helps to illus-
trate how the seismic coefficients Ca and Cv define the seismic response throughout
the spectral range. There are two basic regions to the response spectrum-short
period
(T < TS) and long period (T > TS). Equation 100-2 represents the curved (long
period) portion of the response spectrum, while Equation 100-3 represents the flat
(short period) portion of the spectrum.
The Structural System Factor, R, reflects the expected earthquake resistance for
different types of structures. It is a numerical coefficient which represents the
inherent global energy absorbing capability or ductility and overstrength in a
particular type of structural system. Values for R for a wide variety of structural
systems are presented in Figure 100-11.
Fig. 100-9 Site Coefficients (Reproduced from the 1997 edition of the Uniform Building Code 1997,
with the permission of the International Conference of Building Officials)
Standard Pene-
tration Test, N
Shear Wave [or NCH for cohe-
Soil Soil Profile Velocity Vs sionless soil Undrained Shear
Profile Name/Generic Descrip- feet/second layers] Strength SU psf
Type tion (m/s) (blows/foot) (kPa)
SA Hard Rock > 5,000
(1,500)
--- ---
SB Rock 2,500 to 5,000
(760 to 1,500)
SC Very Dense Soil and Soft 1,200 to 2,500 > 50 > 2,000
Rock (360 to 760) (100)
SD Stiff Soil Profile 600 to 1,200 15 to 50 1,000 to 2,000
(130 to 360) (50 to 100)
SE(1) Soft Soil Profile < 600 < 15 < 1,000
(180) (50)
SF Soil Requiring Site-specific Evaluation. See Section 1629.3.1.
(1) Soil Profile Type SE also includes any soil profile with more than 10 feet (3048 mm) of soft clay defined as a soil with a
plasticity index,
PI > 20, wmc ≥ 40 percent and su < 500 psf (24 kPa). The Plasticity Index, PI, and the moisture content, wmc, shall be
determined in accordance with approved national standards.
Two major types of structural systems exist, e.g., structures similar to buildings, and
nonbuilding-type structures, each having a different minimum design requirement.
Fig. 100-10Design Response Spectra (Reproduced from the 1997 edition of the
Uniform Building Code 1997, with the permission of the International
Conference of Building Officials)
(1) Prohibited in Seismic Zones 3 and 4, except as permitted in UBC Section 1634.2.
(2) Prohibited in Seismic Zones 2A, 2B, 3, and 4.
Wxhx
F x = ( V – F t ) ------------
- (Eq. 100-10)
ΣWh
where:
Fx = Lateral force applied to a mass at level x.
Wx = Weight of the mass at level x.
hx = Height of level x above the base (normally the bottom of the base
plate of the structure or portion of the structure being analyzed)
V = Total base shear from appropriate equations (Eq. 100-2 through
100-8)
ΣWh = The sum of the products of Wx and hx for all the masses within
the structure.
resisting elements depend upon diaphragm action for shear distribution at any level,
the shear resisting element shall be capable of resisting a torsional moment assumed
to be equal to the shear at the level, acting with an eccentricity of not less than 5%
of the maximum structure plan dimension at that level.
apCa Ip h x
- 1 + 3 ----- W p
F p = ---------------- (Eq. 100-11)
Rp h r
With the condition that:
F pmin = 0.7C a I p W p (Eq. 100-12)
Description I IP
Equipment required for life safety systems 1.25 1.5
Items containing sufficient quantities of acutely 1.25 1.5
hazardous material whose failure could result in off-site
consequences.
All other equipment or normal non-critical structures 1.0 1.0
Critical structures 1.25 1.5
Direct anchorage through anchor bolts shall be provided where possible. For
shallow expansion anchor bolts, use Rp = 1.5. For nonductile or adhesive anchor
bolts, use Rp = 1.0. In situations where anchor bolt connections are impractical, a
welded ductile connection between equipment and support may be provided. A
ductile connection shall be defined as one that will undergo inelastic deformation
through yielding before the connection fails. The direct welding of rigid equipment
to a rigid foundation or support is not recommended.
Appendix H, “Determination of Base Shear for Selected Structures,” indicates the
appropriate base shear equations that should be used for many typical refinery struc-
tures and types of equipment. Appropriate R values are also included.
Displacement
There is no specific code requirement which limits the lateral displacement/drift in
industrial structures. However, it is recommended that the lateral displacement be
limited to a displacement that can be tolerated by the equipment being supported,
including the associated piping and other appurtenances.
The Maximum Inelastic Response Displacement, ∆M, corresponds to the maximum
deformations of a structure responding in the inelastic range. In order to calculate
∆M, the design level displacement (∆S) is simplified to the inelastic level using the
following equation:
Earthquake Loads
To design a structure, calculate the forces to be applied to each element of the
structure. The earthquake load (E) on an element of a structure is a result of the
combination of the horizontal component (Eh) and the vertical component (Ev), and
can be calculated using the following equation:
E = ρE h + E v (Eq. 100-16)
where:
ρ = redundancy/reliability factor
= 1.0 for nonbuilding structures and for structures in seismic zone
0, 1, or 2
≥ 1.0 for structural systems similar to buildings (SSSB) in seismic
zone 3 or 4
Eh = earthquake load due to either the base shear (V) or the design
lateral force (Fp)
Ev = the load effect resulting from the vertical component of the earth-
quake ground motion
= 0.5CaID for Strength Design
= 0 for Allowable Stress Design
The intent of the ρ factor is to encourage the design of redundant lateral force
resisting structures by penalizing non-redundant structures. There are a number of
important benefits to redundancy, one of the most evident being that the failure of
any single element in a non-redundant structure can produce global structural
collapse. Therefore, in order to obtain good seismic performance, the lateral resis-
tance should be distributed throughout the structure so that failure of any single
element will not result in collapse of the entire structure. The ρ factor varies
between 1.0 and 1.5, and takes into account the number of lateral force resisting
elements, the plan area of the structure, and the distribution of the forces to the
lateral force resisting elements. For a structure with an adequate level of redun-
dancy, the ρ factor would be equal to 1.0; whereas a structure with poor overall
redundancy could have a ρ factor of up to 1.5, resulting in design forces that are
50% higher than otherwise required. Contact the CRTC Civil/Structural Team for
guidance on this subject.
ments, as needed, to identify, characterize, and safely manage any present or future
potential hazards of Company products and operations.”
A critical facility is defined as one for which a major failure would cause one of the
following:
1. Develop a condition which would result in serious injury or death.
2. Result in damage to the environment significantly beyond that which the earth-
quake would cause at the site.
3. Result in appreciable loss of revenue.
To evaluate the risk of a critical facility, the following steps are recommended:
1. Determine the existing strength of the structures.
2. Make a judgment as to whether the existing strength is acceptable in light of
current conditions, including the types of risk factors previously noted.
The judgments required to determine acceptability should include evaluation of
structural redundancy and reserve strength. The assessment of existing facilities for
earthquake capacity is not commodity engineering and should be done by qualified
personnel.
Since most assessments of existing facilities are voluntary efforts to mitigate
potential business risks, it is not always necessary or even beneficial to measure a
structure’s acceptability against the current building code requirements. CRTC’s
Civil/Structural Technical Service Team has performed many seismic assessments
of Company owned facilities utilizing “Proposed Guidance for Risk Management
and Prevention Program (RMPP) Seismic Assessments.” This document was
developed in 1992 by a team of technical experts and industry professionals to aid
in the assessment of seismic risk at existing industrial facilities. In 1998, this
document was revised and renamed “Proposed Guidance for California Accidental
Release Prevention (CalARP) Program Seismic Assessments.”
“Proposed Guidance for CalARP Seismic Assessments” evaluates the ultimate
strength capacity of existing structures. The ultimate strength capacity of a structure
is defined here as the ability of a structure to perform inelastically while avoiding
failure. The ultimate strength must be compared to the expected structural demand
resulting from the expected levels of ground shaking at the site. The CalARP guide-
lines utilize the same level of acceptable risk as that defined in the current UBC, i.e.,
the level of ground motion associated with a 10 percent chance of exceedance in 50 years.
For facilities with unacceptably low strength, one of the following should be
considered:
1. Strengthen the facility
2. De-rate the facility to lower the risk of failure. For example, reduce the safe
operating height for tanks.
CRTC’s Civil/Structural Technical Service Team is available for counsel regarding
these procedures and judgments.
Stability Ratio
The stability ratio of the resisting moments about the edge of a foundation to the
overturning moment due to wind loads shall not be less than 1.5.
The stability ratio for earthquake loads shall not be less than 1.0 and the force Ft, if
applicable, may be omitted when determining the earthquake overturning moment
to be resisted at the foundation-soil interface.
accurately determined by finding the period of the upper portion, assuming that
displacement and rotation are fixed at its junction with the lower section. For
vessels where the shell diameter or thickness is large in comparison with the
supporting skirt, such as for high pressure reactors, the period calculated from
Equation 100-23 may be overly conservative for earthquake design, and more accu-
rate methods may be justified.
The equations presented in this section ignore the effects of soil-structure inter-
action. Soil-structure interaction can have a profound effect on the natural
period of large vertical vessels on individual pile-supported foundations. All
critical calculations for such vessels should consider this dynamic phenom-
enon. The CRTC Civil/Structural Technical Service Team may be consulted in
these cases.
• Figure 100-14 gives the general formula for determining the natural period of
vibration, T, for a one mass structure.
• Figure 100-15 gives the equation for determining the natural period of vibra-
tion for a one mass, Bending Type Structure.
• Figure 100-16 gives the equations for a one mass, rigid frame-type structure.
• Figure 100-17 gives the equation and parameters for determining the natural
period of vibration for a two mass structure.
• Figure 100-18 gives the equation for a bending type structure of uniform
weight distribution and constant cross section.
• Figure 100-19 gives the equation for the natural period of vibration for a
uniform vertical cylindrical steel vessel.
• Figure 100-20 gives the equation for the natural period of vibration for a non-
uniform vertical cylindrical vessel.
• Figure 100-21 lists the coefficients for determining the natural period of vibra-
tion of free-standing cylindrical shells with varying cross sections and mass
distribution.
y 0.5
T = 2π --- (Eq. 100-17)
g
where:
y = static deflection of mass resulting from a lateral load applied at the
mass equal to its own weight.
g = acceleration due to gravity.
See Examples 4 and 5 for application.
(Eq. 100-18)
Fig. 100-16Natural Period of Vibration - One Mass, Rigid Frame Type Structure
(Eq. 100-19)
(Eq. 100-20)
Fig. 100-18Natural Period of Vibration - Bending Type Structure, Uniform Weight Distribution and
Constant Cross Section
(Eq. 100-21)
Fig. 100-20Natural Period of Vibration - Non-uniform Vertical Cylindrical Vessel Courtesy of the James F.
Lincoln Arc Welding Foundation
(Eq. 100-23)
Fig. 100-21Coefficients for Determining Period of Vibration of Free-Standing Cylindrical Shells Having
Varying Cross Sections and Mass Distribution Courtesy of the James F. Lincoln Arc Welding
Foundation
4.7D
U c = ------------ (Eq. 100-24)
T
3. Determine the Mean Steady Wind Velocity (Um) at the site, sustained for
approximately 10 minutes. This wind velocity should be referenced to a
particular height above grade (Z), which is 30 feet in most meteorological data.
Note: This is not the “Wind Speed Zone” used in Section 113 or the Base Shear
“Z” used in Section 114.
4. Determine the Mean Steady Wind Velocity (Ut) at the top of the stack (H):
U t = Um H---
- 0.28 (Eq. 100-25)
Z
5. Calculate the Design Wind, (Ud):
Ud = 3Ut (Eq. 100-26)
If Uc > Ud, then the stack is not susceptible to wind-induced oscillation. If Uc < Ud,
the following design check is required.
Design Check
The design objective is to have the Design Damping Coefficient (Cd ) be less than
the Structural Damping Coefficient (Cs ) so wind-induced vibration amplitudes will
not exceed acceptable limits.
The Design Damping Coefficient (Cd ) and the Structural Damping Coefficient (Cs )
are determined as follows.
1. Select an allowable vibration amplitude, Ya, which represents the amplitude of
vibrations that could be sustained indefinitely without fatigue damage to the
stack. Use this method to find a good approximation for Ya.
a. Define allowable stress range (Fr) for infinite life. For shells with butt
welded circumferential joint, Fr is 16 ksi. For shells with fillet welded
circumferential joint, Fr is 5 ksi. For other types of connections, refer to the
tables in the AISC Manual of Steel Construction, Part 5, Appendix K4.
b. Determine stress per unit-deflection (Fm) for the fundamental mode shape
of the stack. This may be approximated by:
Fm = 1.2 Fw / Yw (Eq. 100-27)
where:
Fw = the maximum change in stress from a static condition due to
design wind load only.
Yw = The maximum deflection from a static condition due to the design
wind load only.
c. Let:
Ya = (Fr /2Fm) (Eq. 100-28)
Note that allowable stress range is divided by two to get single amplitude
allowable stress.
2. Compute Mr:
w
M r = ---------- (Eq. 100-29)
λD 2
w = Weight/unit length of the top one-third of the stack. If variable,
average the weight over the top one-third of the stack.
λ = Weight density of air times π/4
= 0.076 lb/ft3 x π/4 = 0.06 lb/ft3
D = Diameter of the top one-third of the stack. If variable, take the
square root of the length-weighted average of the squared values
of the diameters over the top one-third. For example, for two
sections:
0.5
D 12 l 1 + D 22 l 2
D = -----------------------------
- (Eq. 100-30)
( l1 + l2 )
0.45 αD 0.5
C d = ---------- -------- – 1.0 (Eq. 100-31)
Mr Ya
α = A shape factor; use 1.3 for the fundamental mode of cantilever
structures.
4. Select a Structural Damping Coefficient (Cs) by adding the appropriate frac-
tions listed below (other values for structural damping may be used if they can
be substantiated):
Factor Incremental Damping Fraction
Basic Stack 0.003
Refractory 0.002
Basic Column
–Empty 0.008
–With Liquid Content 0.013
Foundation soil strength:
less than 1500 psf 0.006
1500 psf to 3000 psf 0.002
greater than 3000 psf 0.0
Pile-supported stacks 0.0
Stacks supported atop structures 0.0
For example, a stack with refractory lining on a 2000 psf foundation would
have:
Cs = 0.003 + 0.002 + 0.002 = 0.007.
5. If Cd < Cs, then wind-induced vibration amplitudes will not exceed acceptable
limits. If Cd > Cs, then design alternatives must be considered.
Design Alternatives
1. Lower H/D or increase t, stack wall thickness (to raise Uc above Ud.)
2. Increase t or refractory line stack (to increase Mr and Cs.)
3. Attach helical spoilers to the top third of the stack. Conservative guidelines for
spoiler design are:
a. Spoilers shall consist of three helical strakes over the top third of the stack
with a pitch of 5D and a height of 0.12D.
b. A conservative estimate for Design Minimum Damping Fraction for a
stack with spoilers is:
0.30
C d = ---------- (Eq. 100-32)
Mr
Spoilers will be effective if Cs > Cd. A lower value of Cd may be used if it can
be justified.
Note that spoilers increase the effective area and shape factor for static wind
load, which must be accounted for in the design.
4. Attach a damping device to the stack. Several such devices have been used.
Two proven alternatives are hydraulically tensioned guys, and chain impact
dampers.
If Design Minimum Damping is close to the required minimum, so that short dura-
tions of wind-induced vibration will not result in damage, then a reasonable alterna-
tive is to design an auxiliary damping system and provide attachments to the stack
(i.e., padeyes), but defer fabrication and installation of the dampers until after the
stack is erected and actual unacceptable vibration amplitudes have been observed.
t Ud
If --- < --------------
- stiffeners are required (Eq. 100-33)
R 10200
where:
t = stack wall thickness, inch
R = stack radius, inch
Ud = Design Wind (see Equation 100-26), fps
If stiffeners are required:
1. Choose a spacing of stiffeners, L, such that:
L
4 ≤ --- ≤ 6 (Eq. 100-34)
R
2. Calculate the required moment of inertia, Ir (in4), of the added stiffener section
about its center of gravity axis by
U d 2 0.00334LtR 4
I r = -----------
- -------------------------------- (Eq. 100-35)
2.5D E
where:
E = modulus of elasticity at operating temperature in psi
D = Diameter in feet
R = Radius in inches
3. Select the stiffener section to provide this Ir. Usually a flat projecting circum-
ferential bar will do this efficiently.
4. Check that stack thickness, t, is large enough to avoid possible vibration of the
shell between stiffeners.
t > 0.003 R (Eq. 100-36)
Example Calculations
See Section 123, Examples 6 and 7, for a demonstration of the methodology for
analyzing wind-induced vibration of steel stacks
Note: Examples 1-5 are based on the 1997 edition of the UBC. The earthquake
design forces specified by the 1997 UBC are based on strength design; whereas in
past editions of UBC the design forces were based on allowable stress design.
Therefore, in order to be consistent with the 1997 UBC, examples 1-5 are strength
design based. If you want to use allowable stress design, the calculated earthquake
forces should be divided by a factor of 1.4.
Fig. 100-22Two-Story Concrete Vessel Support Structure—SMRSF, EQ Zone 4, Wind Zone 70 MPH
2 2 0.5 0.5
12 ( 0.0384 ) + 8 ( 0.0157 ) + [ [ 12 ( 0.0384 ) – 8 ( 0.0157 ) ] + 4 ( 12 ) ( 8 ) ( 0.0180 ) ]
T = 2 ( 3.14 ) ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2 ( 386 )
= 0.234 sec > 0.06 sec
CvI
∴ Use V = -------
-W (Eq. 100-2)
RT
Z = 0.40 (Seismic Zone 4)
I = 1.0
Assume Type Sc soil.
For El Segundo, Na = 1.1 and Nv = 1.33 (Figure 100-5)
2.5C a I
V max = ---------------- W (Eq. 100-3)
R
Note: If it is desired to use allowable stress design, the base shear value (V =
3.93K) should be divided by 1.4.
T ≤ 0.7 sec., therefore F t = 0.0
WA hA WB h B
240 80
F A = V ---------------- = ( 3.93 ) --------- = 2.95 kip ; F B = ---------------- = 3.93 --------- = 0.98 kip (Eq. 100-10)
ΣWh 320 ΣWh 320
Period of Vibration:
t vessel 0.625
--------------- = ------------- = 2.5 and 2.5 > 1.5, therefore, use R = 2.2 (from Figure 100-11)
t skirt 0.25
Check Vmin:
1.6ZN V I
V min = --------------------
-W (Eq. 100-8)
R
1.6 ( 0.4 ) ( 1.33 ) ( 1.0 )
= ------------------------------------------------ ( 60 )
2.2
= 23.21kips
∴V min controls! Use V = 23.21 kips
Note If it is desired to use allowable stress design, the base shear value
(V = 23.21k) should be divided by 1.4.)
T > 0.7 sec, therefore Ft = 0.07 TV = 0.07(0.898)(23.21) = 1.46 kip (Eq. 100-9)
When the weight is distributed uniformly along the height, the distribution of the
lateral force V-Ft given by Equation 100-10 resolves to the triangular distribution
shown in Figure 100-23.
2
Base Moment, M o = F t H + ΣF x h x = 1.46 ( 100 ) + --- ( 21.75 ) ( 100 ) = 1 ,596 k-ft
3
The moment at the top of the skirt, or at any other elevation, can be found by
drawing a free body diagram. For example, M15 = 1,243 k-ft.
Wind Forces (Wind Zone = 70, Exposure C)
Diam. = 6 ft.-0 in. + 2 (2 in) = 6.33 ft.
Shape Factor = 1.7 - (0.075 D) = 1.7 - (0.075)(6.33) = 1.23
Wind Base Shear, VW Wind Moment, MOW:
F1 = 1.23(13)(6.33)(15) = 1,520 M01 = 1,520(7.5) = 11,400
F2 = 1.23(14)(6.33)(5) = 550 M02 = 550(17.5) = 9,630
F3 = 1.23(15)(6.33)(5) = 580 M03 = 580(22.5) = 13,050
F4 = 1.23(16)(6.33)(15) = 1,870 M04 = 1,870(32.5) = 60,780
F5 = 1.23(18)(6.33)(20) = 2,800 M05 = 2,800(50) = 140,000
F6 = 1.23(19)(6.33)(20) = 2,960 M06 = 2,960(70) = 207,200
F7 = 1.23(20)(6.33)(20) = 3,110 M07 = 3,110(90) = 279,900
Vw = 13,390 lb Mow = 721,960 lb-ft = 722 k-ft
(lb/ft)
D
(lb)
1200 40
1039.76
8000
900 672.47
3760 2397
2397
t vessel 0.625
--------------- = ------------- = 2.5 and 2.5> 1.5, therefore, use R =2.2 (from Figure 100-11)
t skirt 0.25
Assume SD soil.
Therefore, from Figures 100-7 and 100-8, Ca = 0.36, and Cv = 0.54
W = 58.5(1.8) + 23.5(1.2) + 12(0.9) + 8.0 = 152.3 kips
Cv I ( 0.54 ) ( 1.0 )
- W = ------------------------------- ( 152.3 ) = 33.83 kips
Base Shear, V = ------- (Eq. 100-2)
RT ( 2.2 ) ( 1.105 )
V - Ft = 31.21 kips
Wx hx 31.21
F x = ( V – F t ) ------------
- = ---------------- W x h x (Eq. 100-10)
ΣWh 7672.7
Shear and Moments: Divide column into segments not exceeding 20% of height.
Base overturning moment, Mo = 2239.3 k-ft. See Figure 100-26.
62 62
11.7 21.06 88.15 1856.44 7.55 6.40 74.83 74.83
10.17
11.7 21.06 76.45 1610.04 6.55 13.45 157.32 232.15
16.72
11.7 21.06 64.75 1363.64 5.55 19.49 228.08 460.22
22.27
11.7 21.06 53.05 1117.23 4.54 24.54 287.11 747.34
26.81
11.7 21.06 41.35 870.83 3.54 28.58 334.42 1081.76
30.35
5.875 7.05 32.56 229.57 0.93 30.82 181.07 1262.83
31.29
5.875 7.05 26.69 188.15 0.77 31.67 186.06 1448.89
32.05
5.875 7.05 20.81 146.73 0.60 32.35 190.07 1638.96
0.49 32.65
32.89 0.0 1638.96
33.14
5.875 7.05 14.94 105.31 0.43 33.35 195.94 1834.90
33.57
0.26 33.70 404.38 2239.28
33.83
Σ
60
73
106
179
192
34
226
22
248
37
285
39
324
41
365
26
391
108
499
The shear in each panel and the maximum panel shear may be found by the
formulas:
2V
V p = ------- cos α (Eq. 100-37)
n
2V
V pmax = ------- (Eq. 100-38)
n
where:
Vp = panel shear
Vpmax = maximum panel shear
V = total lateral force
n = number of panels (equal to number of columns)
α = angle between the plane of the panel and the direction of the
lateral force.
Earthquake Forces
Period of Vibration:
The period of vibration is found using the general formula for one-mass structure in
Section 121, Equation 100-17. The static deflection, y, is found by determining the
change in length of the bracing resulting from a total lateral load equal to the weight
of the sphere. Deformation of the columns and balcony girder are usually neglected
for one-story structures.
1 2 × 1500 36.0
P = Maximum force in brace = --- --------------------- ---------- = 450 kip
2 6 20.0
PL ( 450 ) ( 36.0 ) ( 12 )
∆ = Change in length of brace = ------- = ---------------------------------------- = 0.838 in.
EA ( 29 ,000 ) ( 8.0 )
∆
y = ----------- = ( 0.838 ) ---------- = 1.51 in.
36.0
sin θ 20
y 0.5
Period of Vibration, T = 2π --- (Eq. 100-17)
g
1.51 0.5
T = 2π --------------------- = 0.393 sec
32.2 ( 12 )
Cv I ( 1.54 ) ( 1.0 )
Base Shear, V = --------- W = ------------------------------- ( 1500 ) = 2026.8 kips (Eq. 100-2)
RT ( 2.9 ) ( 0.393 )
Check Vmax:
2.5C a I
V max = ---------------- W (Eq. 100-3)
R
Earthquake Forces
Period of Vibration:
Since the stiffness of the shell is usually large compared with that of the legs, the
period of vibration can be found using the general formula for a one-mass structure
in Section 121 (Equation 100-17) assuming the deflection, y, equals the deflection
of the legs resulting from a total lateral force equal to the weight of the vessel. For a
vessel supported on three or more legs symmetrically spaced about the center, y
may be determined from the formula:
2WL 3
y = ------------------------------- (Eq. 100-39)
3NE ( Ix + I y )
where:
N = number of legs
Ix + Iy = sum of moments of inertia of one leg about the perpendicular axis
L = length of legs from base to shell attachment
For example shown:
( 2 ) ( 15.0 ) ( 5 × 12 ) 3
y = -------------------------------------------------------------------- = 3.80 in
( 3 ) ( 4 ) ( 29000 ) ( 2.45 + 2.45 )
Period of Vibration:
Check Vmax:
2.5C a I
V max = ---------------- W
R (Eq. 100-3)
2 H3 – L3
M 0 = F t H + --- ( V – F t ) ------------------- (Eq. 100-40)
3 H2 – L2
for design example,
2 ( 15 3 – 5 3 )
M 0 = --- ( 7.33 ) ------------------------- = 79.4 k-ft.
3 ( 15 2 – 5 2 )
Wind Forces (Wind Speed Zone = 70, Exposure B)
Wind Base Moment Mo = 0.53(10) + 0.067(2.5) = 5.47 k-ft.
Therefore, Earthquake Moment controls the design.
The axial loads may be determined using the vessel weight and governing base
overturning moment. The bending moment in the legs at the shell about each prin-
cipal axis (axes of maximum and minimum moment of inertia) may be determined
using the governing base shear.
π 1
w = --- ( ( 180 ) 2 – ( 179 ) 2 ) × --------- × 490 = 959 lb/ft.
4 144
Use Figure 100-19, Uniform Vertical Cylindrical Steel Vessel, for determining
period of vibration.
4.7D ( 4.7 ) ( 15 )
U c = ------------ = ----------------------- = 106.8 fps (Eq. 100-24)
T 0.66
Since Uc > Ud for this location, the stack is not susceptible to wind-induced
vibration.
Check Ovalling:
t 0.5
--- = ------- = 0.00555
R 90
Ud 74.4
--------------- = --------------- = 0.0074
10200 10200
t Ud
--- < --------------- (Eq. 100-33)
R 10200
L = 360 in.
U 2
d ( 0.00334 ) ( L ) ( t ) ( R ) 4 74.4 2 ( 0.00334 ) ( 360 ) ( 0.50 ) ( 90 ) 4 = 5.35 in. 4
I = -----------
- ---------------------------------------------------- = ---------- --------------------------------------------------------------------- (Eq. 100-35)
2.5D E 37.5 29 × 10 6
4.7D ( 4.7 ) ( 7 )
U c = ------------ = -------------------- = 15.1 ft/sec (Eq. 100-24)
T 2.18
0.28 0.28
U t = Um H - = ( 15 ) 188
--------- = 25.1 ft/sec (Eq. 100-25)
---
Z 30
Moment of Inertia:
I
Section modulus: S = --- = 2771 in. 3 (Eq. 100-42)
R
w ( wt – wb )
H4 t ( 188 ft ) 4 0.129 k/lf ( 0.129 k/lf ) – ( 0.056 k/lf )
Y W = ------- ----- – ----------------------- = -------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------- – ---------------------------------------------------------------
EI 8 30 8 30 (Eq. 100-43)
( 4 ,176 ,000 k/ft 2 ) ( 5.61 ft 4 )
= 0.763 ft. = 9.2 in.
M 22 ,200
F w = ----- = ---------------- = 8.01 ksi (Eq. 100-45)
S 2 ,771
Fw
Stress/unit deflection, Fm = 1.2 ------- = ( 1.2 ) ---------- = 1.04 ksi/inch deflection
8.01
9.2
(Eq. 100-27)
Y
w
Assume a full penetration weld, ground flush and checked in accordance with the
requirement of Table 9.25.3 of AWS D1.1. Hence, allowable fatigue stress range:
Fr = 16 ksi
F
Allowable vibration amplitude,Y a = ----------- = --- ---------- = 7.69 in. = 0.64 ft.
r 1 16
(Eq. 100-28)
2Fm 2 1.04
w 900
M r = ---------- = ----------------------------- = 306 (Eq. 100-29)
λD 2 ( 0.060 ) ( 7 ) 2
130 References
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