Chapter3 Belitung PDF

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PT PRIMA LAYANAN NASIONAL ENJINIRING

Belitung CFSPP (2x15 MW)
CHAPTER 3. METHODOLOGY
3.1. Geotechnical Drilling

3.1.1. Deep Drilling
Drilling and soil sampling can be done with a variety of different equipment. The
method used to conduct drilling must be in accordance with the conditions of soil and
groundwater, to ensure that the quality of the soil sample obtained is sufficient.
Things that should be considered at the time of drilling, especially the collapse of soil
or dirt off of the drill before sampling.
Drilling water is usually necessary to stabilize the walls and drill holes in the soft clay
or non-cohesive soil below groundwater. Base of borehole must be stabilized so no
shrinkage of wall edge can occur, no soil disturbance before sampling or difficulty in
tubing lowering into the bottom of borehole. In geotechnical investigations, drilling
generally performed using a solid stem continuous flight auger drill, hollow stem
auger drill, or a rotary drill (rotary core drilling).
3.1.2. Disturbed Soil Sample

This example is obtained by using a tool that may destroy the structure of soil
macrostructures but do not interfere its mineralogy composition, and can be done by
various methods (see Table 3.1). This sample specimens can be used to determine
the approximate general lithology of siltation, soil component identification and
classification of general purpose, grain size, Atterberg limits, and characteristics of
soil compaction.
3.1.3. Undisturbed Soil Sample

Samples which are obtained from layers of clay will be used in laboratory tests to
determine its engineering properties. Undisturbed samples from the coarse grained
soil can also be taken with a special procedures, such as freezing or filling resin / wax
(paraffin) and the tube block or core tube. Sampling which is conducted with this
special tool, is used to help reduce interference of in situ soil structure and soil water
content. Undisturbed soil sample can also be used to determine the strength,
stratification, water permeability, density, consolidation, dynamic properties, and
other soil engineering properties (see Table 3.1).
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Table 3.1. Common Method in Taking Sample of Soil
Disturbed/ Type of Land that Penetration Use in

Tube
Undisturbed Suitable Method Practice (%)
Split-barrel split Disturbed Sand, silt, clay beat by hammer 85
spoon
Thin-walled Undisturbed Clay, silt, soil Push by 6
shelby tube grained, sand clay mechanical method
Continuous push Some undisturbed Sand, silt, clay Push by hydraulic 4
with plastic lining
Piston Undisturbed Silt and clay Push by hydraulic 1
Pitcher Undisturbed Stiff until hard clay, Rotate and <1
silt, sand, rotten hydraulic pressure
stone, soil grained
Denison Undisturbed Stiff until hard clay, Rotate and <1
silt, sand, and rotten hydraulic pressure
stone
Modified Disturbed Sand, silt, clay, and Beat by hammer <1
California gravel
Continuous Disturbed Cohesive soil Hollow stem drill <1
auger
Bulk Disturbed Gravel, sand, silt, Hand drill, auger <1
clay ember drill
Block Undisturbed Cohesive soil and soil Hand drill <1
grained
3.2. Standard Penetration Test (SPT)

Standard penetration test (SPT) held in conjunction with well drilling to determine the
dynamic resistance of soil and disturbed soil sampling by comminution techniques.
SPT test (Figure 3.1) consists of beating the split spoon sample tube into the soil
followed by measurement of blows required to advance the tube for 300 mm (1 ft)
vertically. In this system, a falling hammer weighing 63.5 kg (140 lb) used, which is
dropped repeatedly with a high of 0.76 m (30 in). Implementation of the test is divided
into three stages, with thick of 150 mm (6 in) for each stage. The first phase is
recorded as holder, while the number of blows to advance the second and third
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phases are summed to obtain the value of N or resistance of SPT blow (expressed in
blows / 0.3 m or blows per foot).
Figure 3.1. Schematic Sequence of Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
Things that need to be considered in the SPT test is as follow:

a) If the sample tube can not be hit up to 450 mm (3 phase), the number of strokes
per each stage as thick as 150 mm and each section must be recorded on the
drill logs. For most stages, the depth of penetration should be recorded as an
addition to the number of strokes (eg, phase 2 of 50 blows / 5 cm penetration).
This test method can be performed on various types of soil and soft rock, but can
not be used to determine the characteristics of gravel or soft clay deposits.
Advantages and disadvantages can be described as follow:
1) The advantage
a. obtained samples and soil characteristics such as the number of strokes /
30 cm penetration,
b. More simple, but less accurate,
c. Suitable for various types of soil,
d. can be conducted on soft rocks,
e. tools available at various locations in Indonesia.
2) The disadvantage
a. Only disturbed sample and rough soil characteristics can be aquired,
b. Disturbed sample (only index test),
c. Rough estimation for analysis,
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d. Can not be applied on soft clay and silt,

e. Differentiation and uncertainty greatly influenced by a nonstandard
personnel
b) SPT test carried out at the bottom of borehole which has been prepared by using
the method of auger drilling or rotary drilling. At the time of the SPT test is
conducted, the drilling process is stopped. In general, test is done for every 0.76
m (2.5 ft) at a depth of less than 3 m (10 ft), and each interval of 1.5 m (5.0 ft) in
following depth. High of drill water in the borehole must be set above the
groundwater table, to prevent the entry of water flow which can lead to borehole
instability.
c) In the implementation of the SPT test in various countries, three types of

hammer (donut hammer, safety hammer, and automatic) and four types of drill
rods (N, NW, A, and AW) used. Apparently, this test is very dependent on the
tools used and the operator executing the test. The most important factor is the
energy efficiency of the system used. Theoretically, power in a free fall system
with a certain mass and drop elevation is 48 kg-m (350 ft-lb), but the real power
is smaller due to the influence of friction and load eccentricity.
d) Rotating cathead system with ropes are the most common system used with its
efficiency depends on the factors described in the literature (Skempton, 1986),
including the type of hammer, the number of windings ropes, actual drop altitude,
perpendicularity, weather and humidity conditions (eg, wet, dry, freezing), and
other changes. Lately, automatic hammer system also used for lifting and
dropping the masses in order to reduce the unfavorable factors.
e) Refers to the methods and standards of the American Society for Testing
Materials (ASTM) D-4633 each SPT test equipment used must be calibrated its
level of energy efficiency by using strain gauges and accelerometer measuring
devices, to obtain a more accurate energy efficiency standard. In practice, the
efficiency of power system with a donut hammer and safety hammer ranged from
35% to 85%, while the energy efficiency of automatic hammer ranged from 80%
to 100%. If the measured efficiency (Ef) obtained from the calibration tool, the
measured value of N should be corrected to an efficiency of 60%, and expressed
in the formula
N60 = ( Ef /60 ) NM
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with:
N60 is the efficiency of 60%, Ef is the measured efficiency, and NM is the value
of N measured to be corrected.
N measured value must be corrected to N60 for all types of soil. The magnitude
of energy efficiency influence correction is usually depend on tube lining, rod
length, and drill hole diameter (Skempton, 1986; Kulhawy & Mayne, 1990).
Therefore, to obtain a more thorough correction and adequate to the N60, the Ef
energy test should be conducted.
f) Efficiency can be obtained by comparing the work conducted (W = F x D = force

x appropriation) or kinetic energy (KE = ½ mv2) with the potential energy (PE =
mgh), where m is the mass, v is the speed of the collision, g = 9.8 m/s2 = 32.2
ft/s2 is the gravitational constant, and h is the height of fall. So the power ratio
(ER) was determined as the ratio ER = W / PE or ER = KE / PE. All empirical
correlations using NSPT value for the purposes of soil characteristics
interpretation, based on the average power ratio ER ~ 60%.
g) In some correlative relationship, N60 corrected value which is normalized to

influence of vertical effective stress (overburden), expressed by (N1) 60, as
described in equations below and Table 3.2 Value (N1) 60 illustrates the
evaluation of pure sand for the interpretation of the relative density, angle sliding,
and liquefaction potential.
(N1)60 = NM x CN x CE x CB X CR X CS
with:
(N1) 60 is the SPT value corrected to the effect of 60% energy efficiency,
NM is the SPT test results,
CN is the correction factor for the effective vertical stress,
CE is a correction factor to the ratio of power hammer,
CB is a correction factor to the drill diameter,
CR is the correction factor for the length of SPT rod,
CS is a correction to the sample tube (samplers) with or without coating (liner).
i) SPT test can be stopped when it reached 100 punches or blows amount
exceeding 50 strokes in each stage of 150 mm, or failing to advance in 10
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consecutive punches. SPT test is stopped when the resistance penetration

already exceeds 100 blows per 51 mm (100/2 "), although if refers to the ASTM
D-1586 limits have been determined at 50 strokes per 25 mm (50/1 ").
Table 3.2. Corrections in SPT Test
Factor Type of instruments Parameters Corrections

Effective vertical pressure CN (Pa/σ’vo)0,5 or
2,2/((1,2+ σ’vo/Pa)
Effective vertical pressure CN CN ≤ 1,7
Ratio of energy Donut hammer CE 0,5 – 1
Ratio of energy Safety hammer CE 0,7 – 1,2
Ratio of energy Automatic trip donut hammer CE 0,8 – 1,3
Diameter drill 65 – 115 mm CB 1
Diameter drill 150 mm CB 1,05
Diameter drill 200 mm CB 1,15
Length of stem <3 m CR 0,75
Length of stem 3–4m CR 0,8
Length of stem 4–6m CR 0,85
Length of stem 6 – 10 m CR 0,95
Length of stem 10 – 30 m CR 1
Sampling Standard tube CS 1
Sampling Liner tube CS 1,1 – 1,3
3.3. Laboratory Test
3.3.1. Water Content Test

Objective of water content test is to measure the amount of water present in the soil
in accordance with its dry weight, and to obtain the shear strength characteristics,
reduction, and other parameters of empirical correlations. This test can be done with
a test standard of SNI 03-1976 or ASTM D 4959 or D2216.
The test procedure is done by drying the soil in an oven at a temperature of 110 ±
50°C until a fixed weight (evaporation of free water), which is usually carried out for
12 to 18 hours.
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Explanation of the test results are described as follow:
a) Measurement of soil water content is usually used in a laboratory test

procedures. If the soil moisture content combined with other test data, will yield a
significant soil characteristics information. If the field sample moisture content is
below the phreatic surface approaching the liquid limit, will give an indication that
the sample in its natural state are prone to a greater consolidation reduction.
b) A serious error will occur if the soil is made up of other components, such as oil
products or flammable solids. If the soil is composed of fibrous organic matter,
water absorption can occur in organic fiber and pore cavity. The test procedure
does not distinguish between pore water and the water absorbed into the organic
fiber (although the test procedure suggested organic soil evaluation should be
done at a lower temperature of 60o C to reduce the decomposition of heavy
organic soil). Therefore, the tested water content will be from the loss of total
water content than the loss of free water content (of the pore cavity). This would
indicate a serious error in the determination of Atterberg limits.
3.3.2. Unit Weight Test

Unit Weight measurement of undisturbed soil samples in the laboratory, done simply
by weighing a part of soil sample and dividing it by volume (SNI 03-3637-1994 and
ASTM D9254). This should be done for thin wall tube (Shelby) sample as well as
other tube sample. The water content must be produced at the same time to provide
the necessary conversion from the total volume weight to dry volume weight.
If the undisturbed sample is not available, the volume weight was evaluated from the
relationship between water content and/or void ratio and degree of saturation
assumed or proven, see Table 3.3.
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Table 3.3. Some Correlation Equations of Unit Weight and Volume
Condition Correlation Type of material that can be used

Soil identity 1. Gs w = S e All type of soil and stone
2. Total Volume ɣT = [(1+w)/(1+e)] Gsɣw
Limit of volume weight For solid phase w=e=0 Maximum value for solid silica is 27
ɣstone= Gsɣw kN/m3
Dry unit weight For w=0 (pore filled by air) Used for sand and dry soil on the face of
ɣd = Gsɣw/(1+e) ground water
Total unit weight Air and water variation Saturated soil some on the face of
ɣt = Gsɣw(1+w)/(1+e) with e=Gsw/S ground water, depend on degree of
saturation (S, on decimal). Ground water
with full capillarity.
Saturated unit weight With S=1 (all pore containing water) All soil under ground water, silt and
ɣsat=ɣw(Gs+e)/(1+e) saturated clay on the face of ground
water with full capillarity
Hierarchy ɣd ≤ ɣt ≤ ɣsat ≤ ɣstone Check the relative value
*Note : ɣw = 9,8 kN/m3 (62,4 pcf) for clean water
3.3.3. Specific Gravity Test

The test objective is to measure the specific gravity of soil particle. This test is done
with reference to the test standard of SNI 03-1964 / ASTM D 854. Test procedure is
conducted by measuring the specific gravity as weight ratio of a specific volume of
solid soil material at a certain temperature to the weight of distilled water with the
same volume at that temperature, conducted in air temperature.
Tests explanation are described as follow :
a) Some qualifying terms such as actual (true), absolute, real, lumps or masses and
others sometimes added to density. These terms modify the meaning of density,
whether referring to soil granular or soil mass. Soil Granules have both
permeable and impermeable pores. If the internal pores of soil grains removed to
determine the actual grain volume, density obtained is called absolute or actual
specific gravity.
b) A closed mixture of soil and water during the test is needed to measure the
absolute or actual specific gravity.
c) The value of specific gravity is required for calculating the soil pores, which will
be used in hydrometer analysis and to estimate the weight of soil volume (see
Table 3.4). Sometimes specific gravity can be used for classification of soil
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minerals, such as iron mineral which has a greater specific gravity value than
silica.
Table 3.4. Correlation between Weight and Volume

Characteristic Symbol Unit How to get Direct Application
Water content w D ASTM D 4959 Classification and correlation
weight and volume
Specific gravity Gs D ASTM D 854 Volume calculation
Unit Weight ɣ FL-3 With calculation of unit Classification and pressure
weight correlation calculation
Porosity N D With calculation of unit Define relative volume from total
weight correlation soil volume
Pore e D With calculation of unit Define relative pore volume from
weight correlation solid volumen
3.3.4. Grain Size Analysis

Grain size analysis test can be conducted in accordance with standard test of ASTM
D 422 and ASTM D 1140. The purpose of sieve analysis test is to measure the
percentage of various grain sizes. Grain size distribution is used to determine soil
texture classification (eg gravel, sand, silty clay, and others) which will be used in the
evaluation of the technical characteristics such as the water permeability, strength
and swelling potential.
The test procedure is done by washing a representative sample and prepared

through a series of sieves. Figure 3.2 shows the sieve selection and soil grain size.
The amount of material retained on each sieve was collected in a dry state and
weighed to measure the percentage of material passing through the sieve. Figure 3.3
shows some of the grain size distribution obtained from sieve and hydrometer
method which includes clay, silt, and various types of natural sand.
Tests explanation are described as follow:
a) To obtain a representative sample, sometimes crushing needs to be done before

sample drying and washing. However, test needs to be done carefully to avoid
the destruction of the granules, such as soft carbonate or sand. If the soil is
composed of a number of fibrous organic materials, a possibility of sieve holes
blockage can occur during the washing. Materials left above the sieve during
washing have to be shaken constantly to prevent clogging.
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b) Fine sieve (<200) is susceptible to damage due to handling and frequent use, so
it should be changed frequently. How to choose a sieve that should be replaced
is by checking the frame of sieve arrangement periodically. The composition of
sieves must remain in a state of tension, if flexing it will easily changed and
should be replaced. The cause of common error is the use of a bad filter. Many
soil particles due to the shape, size or adhesion characteristics, have a tendency
to clog the sieve holes.
Figure 3.2. Example of Filter for Grain Size Test in Labratory
Figure 3.3. Particle Size Curve for Some Soil Types
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3.3.5. Atterberg Limit Test
The Atterberg limit tests can be done with reference to SNI 03-1966-1990 and SNI
03-1967-1990 or ASTM D 4318. The purpose of this test is to describe the
consistency and plasticity of fine-grained soil with changes in the degree of moisture.
Description and explanation of the test procedure is as follow:
a) Test procedure
The water content of the soil portion passing through sieve no.40 can be varied to
identify three phases of soil behavior in accordance with consistency. These
phases are known as liquid limit (LL), plastic limit (PL) and the shrinkage limit (SL)
of soil, with the following explanation.
(1) The liquid limit (LL) is defined as the water content with 25 knocks of liquid
limit device (Figure 3.4a) to close the grooves in a soil knock height of 12.7
cm. Replacement procedure (in Europe and Canada) has been carried out by
using a fall cone to get a better test results (Figure 3.4b).
(2) Plastic limit (PL) is determined by a small soil portion rolled to diameter of 3
mm until its water content is reduced to a point at which the thread crumbles
and can no longer be pressed together and re-rolled.
(3) Shrinkage limit (SL) is determined as the water content when the soil loss
more water will not change the volume even with additional subsequent
drying.
b) Description of test results
(1) The Atterberg limits provide general index of water content relative to the
consistency and soil properties. LL indicates a change of liquid or semi-solid,
while the PL showed solid boundary. The difference is defined as plasticity
index (PI = LL - PL).
(2) Liquidity index called LI = (w-PL) / PI is an indicator of stress history, LI ≈ 1 for

normally consolidated soil (NC), and LI ≈ 0 for over consolidated soil (OC).
These values are estimation and empirical values developed for agronomic
purposes. Based on the extensive use by geotechnical experts, has
generated a development of a coarse empirical relationship of soil
classification.
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(3) Considering the summary and the nature of test procedure manual, Atterberg
limits test should be conducted only by experienced technicians to avoid
mistakes of test results.
A B
Figure 3.4. Liquid Limit Test with (a) Casagrande Manual Bowl; (b) Electrical Fall Cone
3.3.6. Direct Shear Test

Test purposes of direct shear test was meant to decide parameter resistance sliding
of the soil. Parameter that may indicate the soil ability to receive shear forces is the
cohesion value (c) and angles of shear ø of soil. To get cohesion C and angles of
shear from the layer of soil required direct shear test. This test can be done with
ASTM D3080.
a) Preparation of the material

The material that used for this test is the undisturbed soil sample has been taken
from a certain depth in the field, the location of the soil to be determined the
cohesion and angles of shear.
b) Preparation of the instrument
Instrument that used in this test is a set of instrument direct shear consisting of
the proving ring for measures pressure sliding, jack up to put the pressure,
porous stone watch/ a dial to determine large shift burden to exert normal
pressure and ring which placed objects test that will be determined the value of
cohesion and angles shear.
c) Determination of the cohesion and angles shear
Test objects put into ring examiners and given constant vertical pressure, and
then gave pressure shear until achieved the maximum. This pressure shear was
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granted with quickness constant motion. To gain value of cohesion C and angles
shear ø needed some test by wearing the value of different normal pressure.
3.3.7. UU Triaxial
Objective of Triaxial test is to determine the characteristics of soil strength which
includes detailed information of lateral pressure influence, pore water pressure,
drainage and consolidation. Triaxial test is a highly reliable test method for
determining shear angle of natural clay and silt or remolding sand, and soil stiffness
(modulus of) on medium to large strain. This test can be conducted with reference to
the test standard of SNI 03-4813, 03-2455 SNI or ASTM D 2850, D 4767.
Figure 3.5. Triaxial Test Tools and Equipments
Descriptions and explanations of test procedure are as follow:

a) Test procedure
(1) In Figure 3.5 shown a series of triaxial test equipment. Test specimen
diameter ranging from 35 to 100 mm with a ratio of high / length between 2
and 2.5 (depending on the size of grains diameter contained must not be
greater than 1/6 of sample diameter). Sample wrapped with a thin rubber
membrane, and placed in a triaxial cell which is usually filled with water or
glycerin.
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(2) Test is conducted by giving a total confining pressure (σ3) in the form of
internal cell’s fluid pressure which is work in to membranes. Backpressure
(u0) is done directly on to the specimen through the inside of pedestal base.
Then the specimen is consolidated with effective circumferential stress σ3' =
(σ3 - u0). (Note: air should not be used as a pressure medium).
(3) If the specimens were loaded vertically through the press rod and increased
gradually (usually called stress deviator = σ1 - σ3), will cause shear failure in
the test specimen. Axial stress can be done with a constant speed (control
strain) or by incremental hydraulic pressure or dead weight or controlled
hydraulic pressure until collapse of test specimen.
(4) The axial load conducted on press rod and magnitude of the load measured
by load ring equipped with measuring gauge or with an electric load cell.
Other connection is used to measure drainage entering or exiting the test
object, or pore water pressure. Deflection was monitored with a dial
indicator, LVDT or DCDT.
b) Test Explanation
(1) In general, there are five types of triaxial tests, namely

a. Unconsolidated Undrained test (UU),
b. Consolidated Undrained test (CU),
c. Consolidated Drained test (CD),
d. Consolidated Undrained test with pore water pressure measurement
(CU),
e. Cyclic Triaxial tests (CTX).
(2) In UU test, the sample is not allowed to drained or consolidated before or

during the test. Undrained test results depend on the degree of saturation
(S) of test sample. If S = 100 %, the test results will give an undrained shear
strength (su). However, this test is affected by sample disturbance and the
rate of testing (Ladd, 1991). This test can not be applied to coarse grained
soil (S = 100 %).
(3) CU test with pore water pressure measurement is very useful because it
provides a direct measurement of undrained shear strength (su), both in the
range of pressure and effective stress parameters (c' and φ'). CD Test also
provides the parameters c' and φ'. Cyclic triaxial test used for projects with
repetitive and/or cyclic loading, measurement of spring modulus (resilient),
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and/or soil liquefaction analysis. In each test, first, the test specimen was
consolidated on the effective vertical overburden stress (σvo ') before
shearing. Test with additional test specimen from the same tube, can be
carried out at a circumference stress level of 0.5 (σvo') to 1.5 (σvo') or more,
to produce a range of workload required.
(4) The test results can be presented according to Mohr's circle stress to gain
strength parameters (Figure 3.6). If conducted in more than two or three
tests, the test results should be described as a relationship of p-q, with q = ½
(σ1 - σ3) and p' = ½ (σ1'- σ3') as shown in Figure 3.7. Additionally, the entire
trajectory of stress line from start to finish can be followed.
Uji Geser Triaxial CU Untuk Tanah Jenis SM/ML
Figure 3.6. Effective stress of Mohr circle for Consolidated Undrained Triaxial Test
Figure 3.7. Sheath Strength p '- q' effective for Consolidated Triaxial Test Undrainageable
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3.3.8. Consolidation Test

One-dimensional consolidation test (or oedometer test) gives one of the most useful
and reliable soil properties results of laboratory tests. This test can be used to
determine the compressibility parameters (Cc, Cs, Cr), stiffness in accordance with
modulus of rigidity (D '= 1 / mv), preconsolidation stress (σp'), rate of consolidation
(cv), creep rate (Cα), and the estimated value of permeability (k).
One-dimensional consolidation test goal is to determine the properties of

preconsolidation stress, pressure characteristics, creep, stiffness, and flow rate of soil
due to loading. This test can be done with reference to the standard test of SNI 03-
2812 or ASTM D 2435. Descriptions and explanations of the test procedure are as
follow:
a) Test procedure
1) The test is performed using a thin sample (25 mm thickness) small diameter
between 50-75 mm which is taken from the undisturbed sample. Selection of
a representative sample for testing is usually difficult. Prepared Sample was
placed inside a rigid-walled loading tool called consolidometer or oedometer
(see Figure 3.8). All load and deformation recorded is in vertical direction.
2) The sample was loaded by a double incremental load after equilibrium phase
was reached (after but according to the end of primary consolidation).
Conventionally will take a 24-hour increments per load. Alternatively the test
specimen can be loaded continuously with a load cell monitoring and pore
water pressure transducers.
3) Generally, it can be done with unload-reload cycle during test without initial
loading on the load increments along the original part of consolidation curve.
Unload-reload cycles provide a more reliable or trustworthy estimation of soil
recompression characteristics.
b) Test Explanation
1) When an additional load applied to saturated soil mass, the soil is in various
degrees of dimensional changes. At first the additional load held and applied
on soil liquid phase, which evolved into the excess pore water pressure (Δu)
in the soil pores. Depending on water permeability and available drainage
layer, Pore water begin to drained and continued until Δu dissipated. If the
hydrostatic pressure decreases, an amount of comparable additional load
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moved to the solid ground. If the excess hydrostatic pressure reaches zero, all
load then applied to the solid part of soil. This process is called primary
consolidation. In granular soil with high permeability, this process will take
place very quickly (because the water can be drained quickly). In clay and soil
with low water permeability, primary consolidation takes longer and can affect
long-term performance of buildings supported by the ground. Time rate is
expressed by the coefficient of consolidation (cv).
2) One-dimensional consolidation test is the most common test used for the
determination of soil consolidation test results. This test method assumes that
the change in dimensions due to the consolidation will be in the vertical
direction. This assumption is generally valid for constrained cohesive soils,
stiff or average, but not applicable for soft soil or unconstrained soil. Data from
these test results have proven reliable (trustworthy) and can be used for
analysis.
3) The results of one-dimensional consolidation test can be presented in various

ways. Two of the most common ways consisting of (1) graph of e-log σv' to
pressure index (Cr, Cc, Cs) which is defined as the slope of Δe vs. Δlog σv' for
recompression lines, pure compression lines, and each swelling lines, and (2)
graph of Δσv 'vs. Δεv with slope equal to the modulus of restraint (D'). Most
importantly, the consolidation test produces a preconsolidation stress
magnitude (σvmax '= σp' = Pc ') from natural deposits, as shown in Figure 3.8d.
Preconsolidation stress effectively illustrate the history of past recorded
ground stress that may have eroded, desiccated, experienced an earthquake,
ground water level fluctuations, and other excess consolidated mechanism.
4) In some types of clay, primary consolidation specifically followed by a

secondary compression or long-term creep and expressed with parameter Cα.
Secondary compression is likely to occur in thick clay deposits. Soil will
potentially experience a large secondary compression due to long-term
additional heavy load. In this case, each additional load testing continues until
the relationship curve between time versus deformation as a result of the load
becomes asymptotic to the horizontal line.
5) Longer loading time also required for heavy organic clay. Relationship curve
between time versus deformation due to heavy organic soil can not clearly
showed the end of primary consolidation. In that case, a monitoring of soil
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pore water pressure is necessary to determine the final stages of primary

consolidation. Therefore, the amount of long-term secondary compression of
heavy organic soil (20 % or more) can be equal to or greater than primary
consolidation. Secondary compression in soil will be the result of constant
compression in organic fibers. Large dissipation (substantially) of excess
hydrostatic pressure during the test does not provide a significant final mark of
compression. Expenditure of suspended / adsorbed water associated with
compression of soil fiber material can continue for a long term period.
Figure 3.8. 1-Dimensional Consolidation Test Equipment
3.3.9. Unconfined Compression Test

The objective of unconfined compression test is to measure the undrained shear
strength (cu) of clay and silty clay. This test can be conducted with reference to the
standard test of SNI 03-3638 or ASTM D 2166. Descriptions and explanations of the
test procedure are as follow:
a) Test procedure
1) Soil sample is tested without confining pressure (σ3 = 0).

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2) Axial load applied to the sample is increased rapidly until collapse. At the
time of collapse, total of minimum primary stress is zero (σ3 = 0) and total of
maximum primary stress is σ1 (see Figure 3.9).
3) The maximum tested force on sample cross section is qu which is identical

with unconfined compression strength. Since the undrained strength is not
affected by confining pressure, then cu = qu / 2.
Figure 3.9. Stress-Strain Correlation of Unconfined Compression Test
b) Test Description
1) Determination of unconfined compression strength from undisturbed soil,

remolding or compacted is restricted for cohesive soils, naturally or
artificially cemented. Shear strength resulted from this non cohesive soil test
is too low, but low cost and relatively fast. Therefore, if there are no overall
lateral pressure and pore water pressure control, will produce a less
accurate results.
2) Stress-strain curve and observed collapse variable during testing may reveal
other characteristics. For example, poorly collapse or sliding of sample
illustrates the relatively soft soil such as fat clay, while the sudden rigid
collapse describe a dry clay or cemented material. Stress-strain curve
developed from this test results should be used with caution for the
determination of soil modulus as an input in numerical analysis (eg. finite
element analysis) which is very sensitive to changes in modulus.
3) Soil with oblique fracture, sand lenses, silt and mirror fault has a tendency to
short collapse along the plane of weakness in this uconfined compression
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Site Investigation
test. This variety of collapse needs to be reported to the geotechnical

experts, since the possibility of a more sophisticated test as triaxial tests is
required to determine a more realistic strength.
3.4. Dutch Cone Penetration Test (DCPT)
Cone penetrometer history in field began from a design by the Netherlands

Department of Public Works in 1930. The Netherlands made penetrometer or DCPT
tool is a mechanically operated device using a gauge for load reading and couples of
inside and outside rods driven every 20 cm intervals. In 1948, the electronics cones
began to be used for continuous testing. In 1965, an additional cover of friction
measuring devices are also used for indirect test to help classify the soil types. Then
in 1974, a combined of electronic cone and piezoprobe used to form a piezocone
penetrometer (see Figure 3.10).
Figure 3.10. Various Cone Penetrometer Including Electric Friction and Piezocone Types
DCPT is a most famous field test in Indonesia, since it can be conducted quickly,
economically, and gives a continuous layer overview of soil profile to be used in the
soil characteristics evaluation. Things that need to be considered in the DCPT are as
follow:
a) This test can be performed with a conventional mechanical systems tool (SNI 03-
2827, ASTM D-3441), and electronic system tool (ASTM D 5778). The test is
conducted by pushing the cylindrical steel probe into the ground at a constant
speed of 20 mm / sec while measuring the cone resistance. Standard
penetrometer has a conical shaped tip with apex angle of 60o, sheath diameter
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Site Investigation
of 35.7 mm (cross section area = 10 cm2), and the friction sleeve 150 cm2.
Measured tip resistance or cones resistance expressed by qc, while the
measured frictional resistance or friction is expressed by fs. Tools with a larger
cone diameter, which is 43.7 mm (15 cm2 cross section area and 200 cm2
sleeve) are also allowed in the ASTM standard.
b) DCPT can be used in a very soft clay to dense sand, but not sufficient to gravel
or rock. DCPT gives a more accurate and reliable results for analysis, but can
not be used for test sampling. Therefore, the results are very useful to support
the drilling, by taking samples for laboratory test and SPT test, results.
Advantages and disadvantages of DCPT test is described as follow:
1) Advantages of DCPT
a. fast and produces a continuous soil profile,
b. economical and productive,
c. the results are not depend on the operator, but the electronic equipment,
d. basic interpretations can be justified theoretically,
e. suitable for soft ground.
2) Disadvantages of DCPT
a. high capital investment,
b. need to be calibrated on each test, to check electronic drift and noise
(noise),
c. Soil samples can’t be obtained,
d. Not suitable for gravel deposits or lumps.
3.5. Foundation Analysis
3.5.1. Shallow Foundation Analysis

Based on Terzaghi’s bearing capacity theory, a shallow foundation determine by Df ≤
B, where “Df“ is depth of shallow foundation and “B” is width of shallow foundation.
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Site Investigation
Figure 3.11. Shear Stresses Based on Terzaghi’s Soil Bearing Capacity Theory
Column load P is resisted by shear stresses at edges of three zones under the
footing and overburden pressure, q (=γD) above the footing. The first term in
equation is related to cohesion of the soil. The second term is related to the depth of
the footing and overburden pressure. The third term is related to the width of the
footing and length of shear stress area. The bearing capacity factors, Nc, Nq, Nγ, are
function of internal friction angle, ϕ.
Ultimate bearing capacity of shallow foundation, based on Terzaghi’s formula (1943):
Strip footing : Qu = c.Nc + γ.D.Nq + 0,5.γ.B.Nγ
Square footing : Qu = 1,3.c.Nc + γ.D.Nq + 0,4.γ.B.Nγ
Circular footing : Qu = 1,3.c.Nc + γ.D.Nq + 0,3.γ.B.Nγ
Where:
ϕ = internal friction angle,

c = cohesion
γ = soil unit weight
B = foundation width
Df = foundation depth
Nq, Nγ, Nc = bearing capacity factor
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Site Investigation
Table 3.5. Terzaghi’s Bearing Capacity Factor
ϕ Nc Nq Nγ Nc’ Nq’ Nγ’

0 5.71 1.00 0.00 3.81 1.00 0.00
5 7.32 1.64 0.00 4.48 1.39 0.00
10 9.64 2.70 1.20 5.34 1.94 0.00
15 12.80 4.44 2.40 6.46 2.73 1.20
20 17.70 7.43 4.60 7.90 3.88 2.00
25 25.10 12.70 9.20 9.86 5.60 3.30
30 37.20 22.50 20.00 12.70 8.32 5.40
35 57.80 41.40 44.00 16.80 12.80 9.60
40 95.60 81.20 114.00 23.20 20.50 19.10
45 172.00 173.00 320.00 34.10 35.10 27.00
3.5.1.1. Shallow Foundation Based on DCPT

Shallow Foundation can be calculated by the formula:
Square footing : qult = 5 + 0.34 qc kg/cm2
Strip footing : qult = 2 + 0.28 qc kg/cm2
Meyerhof (1965) suggested carrying capacity, where capacity permits can be

obtained directly by assuming a settlement = 25 mm.
Square footing (L < 1.20 m) Qall = qc/30 (qc in

kg/cm2)
Square & strip footing (L > 1.20 m) Qall = qc/50 (1 + 1/B) (qc in
kg/cm2)
For all footing type Qall = qc/40 (qc in

kg/cm2)
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Site Investigation
3.5.1.2. Shallow Foundation Based on NSPT Data

Ultimate bearing capacity for soil layers can be calculated with the Parry’s
Formula (1977)
Qu = 30 N (kPa)
Where:
Qu = Ultimate bearing capacity
N = NSPT
SF = Safety Factor (2 for non cohesive soil, 3 for cohesive soil)
Other formula can be used
Shallow Foundation in surface soil (Df = 0)
N æ B + 0.3 ö
2
qa = ç ÷
0.08 è B ø
Shallow Foundation in surface soil (Df > 0)
æ Dö
qa = ç1+ 0.33 ÷
è Bø
3.5.2. Pile Foundation Calculation Based on Correlation of DCPT

From the DCPT test results, bearing capacity calculation of pile foundation was
conducted using the "Aoki and Alencer" equation as follow:
Qu = Qb + Qs = qbAb + f.As
𝑞𝑐𝑎(𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒)
𝑞𝑏 =
𝐹𝑏
∝𝑠
F = 𝑞𝑐(𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒) +
𝐹𝑠
Where : Qu = Axial ultimate bearing capacity

Qb = Resistance capacity at pile end
Qs = Skin resistance capacity
qb = Resistance capacity at pile end per area
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Site Investigation
Ab = Cross section area of pile end

f = Skin resistance per unit area
qc (side) = Average of cone resistance on each layer around pile
Fs = Empiric factor of skin resistance based each soil type
Fb = Empiric factor of pile end resistance capacity based each soil type
qca (base) = Average of cone resistance on 1,5D above pile and 1,5D below pile
Table 3.6. Empiric Factor of Fb and Fs
Pile Types Fb Fs
Bore Pile 3,5 7,0
Steel 1,75 3,5
Prestressed Concrete 1,75 3,5
Table 3.7. Empiric Factor for Different Type of Soil
Soil Types as(%) Soil Types as(%) Soil Types as(%)

Sand 1,4 Silty Sand 2,2 Sandy Clay 2,4
Silty Sand with
Silty Sand 2,0 2,8 Sandy Clay with Silt 2,8
Clay
Silty Sand with Clay 2,4 Silt 3,0 Silty Clay with Sand 3,0
By using those formulas above, bearing capacity calculation of pile foundation for
each DCPT test points was conducted.
3.5.3. Axial Bearing Capacity of Single Pile
Axial bearing capacity was calculated using the formula
𝑄𝑑𝑤 = 𝑄𝑡𝑖𝑝 + 𝑄𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒
Where : 𝑄𝑑𝑤 = Axial Ultimate Bearing Capacity

𝑄𝑡𝑖𝑝 = Ultimate tip capacity
𝑄𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 = Ultimate Skin Friction capacity
𝑄𝑡𝑖𝑝 = 𝐴𝑡𝑖𝑝 ∙ 𝑞𝑢𝑙𝑡 = 𝐴𝑡𝑖𝑝 ∙ (𝑁𝑞 𝑆𝑉 + 𝑁𝐶 𝐶)
Where: 𝐴𝑡𝑖𝑝 = Cross Section area of pile tip
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Site Investigation
𝑞𝑢𝑙𝑡 = Ultimate Tip Bearing Capacity

𝑆𝑉 = Effective soil stress
𝑁𝑞 = Factor of cohesive soil bearing capacity based on shear angle
𝑁𝐶 = Factor of cohesive soil bearing capacity based on depth/width
𝑁𝑞 = Soil cohesion value at pile end
Table 3.8. Correlation Value Between ø With Nq
Ø (Internal Friction) Nq (Displacement Pile) Nq (Non-Displacement Pile)
26 11.0 5.6
28 15.2 7.6
30 21.0 10.3
31 24.6 12.1
32 29.1 14.2
33 34.5 16.9
34 41.3 20.3
35 49.9 24.6
36 60.9 30.1
37 75.0 37.1
38 93.0 46.1
39 116.1 57.7
40 145.4 72.3
Table 3.9. Correlation Value between z/B and Nc
z/B Nc
0 6.3
1 7.8
2 8.4
3 8.8
4 9
>4 9
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Site Investigation
Skin friction capacity was calculated using the equation:
𝑄𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 = ∑ 𝑆𝑓 𝑃𝑖 ∆𝑙 = ∑(𝑓0 + 𝐶𝑎 )𝑃𝑖 ∆𝑙
Sf = Skin friction
f0 = skin resistance of cohesive soil
Ca = Adhesion factor of cohesive soil
Pi = Side surface of pile
Δl = Pile length
𝑓0 = 𝑆ℎ tan(𝛿) = 𝐾𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛 ⋅ 𝑆𝑉 ⋅ tan(𝛿)
𝑆ℎ
𝐾𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛 = 𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑢 𝑆ℎ = 𝐾𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛 ⋅ 𝑆𝑉
𝑆𝑉
Where :
Sv = Soil vertical stress

Sh = Soil Horizontal Stress
Kdown = Ratio of Sh/Sv, which is defined in Table 3.9
𝛿 = Shear resistance between soil and pile. This is a function from pile
material friction. 𝛿 = 200- 300. For concrete pile, 𝛿 = Kf ɸ. Kf is friction
factor ranging from 0.1 to 1. Kf defined in the Table 3.10.
Table 3.10. Correlation Value of kdown and kup Based on Foundation Type
Materials of Deep Foundation kdown Kup
Drilled pile 0.7 0.4
Driving steel pile (open end) 0.7 0.4
Driving steel pile (closed end) 1 0.5
Driving concrete pile 1.2 0.7
Driving timber pile 1.8 0.7
Driving jetted 0.7 0.4
Minipile 1 1
Uplft Anchor 0 1
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Site Investigation
Uplift plate 0 1
Shallow Footing 1 1
Adhesion of Cohesive Soil
𝐶𝑎 = 𝐾𝑐 ⋅ 𝐾𝑎 ⋅ 𝐶
Where :
𝐶 = shear strength of cohesive soil (cohesion)

𝐾𝑐 = adhesion factor ranging from 0.1 to 1. Defined in Table 3.10.
𝐾𝑎 = adhesion ratio Ca /C
Allowable axial bearing capacity can be determined by the following formula;
𝑄𝑡𝑖𝑝 𝑄𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒
𝑄𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑤_𝑑 = +
𝐹𝑆_𝑡𝑖𝑝 𝐹𝑆_𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒
Where:
𝑄𝑡𝑖𝑝 = ultimate tip resistance

𝑄𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 = ultimate side resistance
𝐹𝑆_𝑡𝑖𝑝 = factor of safety for tip resistance
𝐹𝑆_𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 = factor of safety for side resistance in downward direction
Table 3.11. Correlation Value between kc and kf with Foundation Material
Materials of Deep kc kf
Foundation (Kpa) (Degree)
Steel (rough) 1 25
Steel (smooth) 1 20
Concrete (rought) 1 0.8
Concrete (smooth) 1 0.7
Grouted 95.8 0
Post-Grouted 143.6 0
Timber 1 0.8
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Site Investigation
3.5.4. Uplift Bearing Capacity of Single Pile
Uplift bearing capacity is the pile strength to withstand the moment force given by the
building, where the values given are a safe value where the pile is not lifted or pulled
out of position, causing structural failure.
𝑄𝑢𝑝 = 𝑄𝑊 + 𝑄𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒
Where:
𝑄𝑊 = weight of pile
𝑄𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 = ultimate skin friction capacity
𝑄𝑊 = ∑ 𝑊𝑖 ∆𝑙
Where:
𝑊𝑖 = weight of pile section in unit length

∆𝑙 = segment of pile
Sf = Skin friction
f0 = skin resistance of cohesive soil
Δl = Pile length
𝑓0 = 𝐾𝑢𝑝 ⋅ 𝑆𝑉 tan 𝛿
𝑆ℎ
𝐾𝑢𝑝 = 𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑢 𝑆ℎ = 𝐾𝑢𝑝 ⋅ 𝑆𝑉
𝑆𝑉
Where:
Sv = Soil vertical stress

Sh = Soil Horizontal Stress
Kup = Ratio of Sh/Sv, which is defined in Table 3.9.
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Site Investigation
𝛿 = Shear Resistance between soil and pile. This is a function from pile
material friction. 𝛿 = 200 - 300. For concrete pile, 𝛿 = Kf ɸ. Kf is friction
factor ranging from 0.1 to 1. Kf defined in the Table 3.10.
𝐶𝑎 = 𝐾𝑐 ⋅ 𝐾𝑎 ⋅ 𝐶
Where:
𝐶 = shear strength of cohesive soil (cohesion)

𝐾𝑐 = adhesion factor ranging from 0.1 to 1
𝐾𝑎 = adhesion ratio Ca /C
Allowable uplift bearing capacity
𝑄𝑤 𝑄𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒
𝑄𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑤_𝑢 = +
𝐹𝑆_𝑤 𝐹𝑆_𝑢𝑝
Where:
𝑄𝑤 = weight of pile
𝑄𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 = ultimate side resistance
𝐹𝑆_𝑤 = factor of safety for pile weight
𝐹𝑆_𝑢𝑝 = factor of safety for side resistance for uplift
3.5.5. Lateral Bearing Capacity of Single Pile
Lateral bearing capacity is the ability to withstand from horizontal force (seismic
force). Security parameters are checked against two criteria, namely displacement
and crack moment that occurs at the pile. Limitation of maximum displacement is 2.5
cm, and for crack moment that occurs referred to the product purchased from the
manufacturers. Piles which are purchased from the manufacturer must have a higher
crack moment value compared to design crack moment.
Differential equations to perform the lateral analysis.
𝑑4 𝑌 𝑑2 𝑌
𝐸𝐼 + 𝑄 − 𝑅 − 𝑃𝑞 = 0
𝑑𝑍 4 𝑑𝑍 2
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Site Investigation
Where:
𝑄 = axial compression load on the pile

𝑌 = lateral deflection of pile at depth of Z
𝑍 = depth from top of pile
𝑅 = soil reaction per unit length
𝐸 = modulus of elasticity of pile
𝐼 = moment of inertia of the pile
𝑃𝑞 = distributed load along the length of pile
𝑄𝑊 = ∑ 𝑊𝑖 ∆𝑙
𝑊𝑖 = weight of pile section in unit length

∆𝑙 = segment of pile
Sf = Skin friction
f0 = Skin resistance of cohesive soil
Δl = Pile length
𝑑3 𝑌 𝑑𝑌
𝐸𝐼 ( )+𝑄 ( )= 𝑃
𝑑𝑍 𝑑𝑍
Where :
𝑃 = shear in the pile

𝑀 = bending moment of the pile
𝑑𝑌
= 𝑆𝑡
𝑑𝑍
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Site Investigation
𝑑2 𝑌
𝐸𝐼 ( )=𝑀
𝑑𝑍 2
Figure 3.12. Output Illustration of Lateral Force from the All Pile Program
3.5.6. Theory of Bearing Capacity

In determining bearing capacity, used some of the following formula :
3.5.6.1. Burland dan Burbidge

They collected more than 200 records of structures founded on sands and
gravels. They started with the premise that settlement could be represented by an
equation of the form :
𝑞𝑎 = 2540 × 𝑁601.4 /(10𝑇 × 𝐵0.75 )
Where N60 is the average SPT blow counts to a depth of B0.75 below footing and
T~2.23.
3.5.6.2. Terzaghi
The following Terzaghi equation is used for indirect estimation of bearing capacity
of shallow footing on cohesionless soil:
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Site Investigation
𝑞 = (𝑞̅ 𝑁𝑞 ) + (0,5𝛾𝐵𝑁𝛾 )
where:
q = is the overburden stress at foundation level (Df).

Nq = e[π.tan(ϕ)] [tan (π/4+ ϕ/2)]2
Nγ = 1,5(Nq -1).tan (ϕ)
Φ = friction angle correlated from the equation proposed by Hatanaka and
Uchida, 1996 based on SPT at foundation level
3.5.6.3. Bowles/Meyerhof
The allowable bearing capacity based on the SPT test according to Meyerhof is:
𝐾𝑑
𝑞𝑎 = 𝑁60 . 𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑘 𝐵 ≤ 𝐹4
𝐹1
𝐵 + 𝐹3
𝑞𝑎 = 𝑁60 . 𝐾𝑑. 𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑘 𝐵 < 𝐹4
𝐵 + 𝐹2
Where :
Kd = 1+D/(3B) ≤ 1.33
F1 = 0.05
F2 = 0.08
F3 = 0.3
F4 = 1.2
N60 = average SPT blow counts from 0.5B above to 2B below the foundation level.
3.5.6.4. Parry
The allowable bearing capacity according to Parry for cohesionless soil is:
𝑞𝑎 = 30𝑁60
Where N60 is the average SPT blow counts below 0.75B underneath the footing.
3.5.6.5. Peck
The following formula for this method:
𝑞𝑎 = 10,6𝑁1(60)
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Site Investigation
3.5.7. Settlement
The Settlement is happening on the foundation can be a Total Settlement (S) at the
sam time, on differences settlement (Sd) that is caused be tilted so that the
foundations of structures in the upper part becomes tilted. Tolerance is not judged by
the decrease in construction requirements, but more on the feasibility of use and
aesthetic value. At the shallow foundation that allowed the settlement is as follow:
Shallow foundation : 10 – 40 mm
Deep foundation : 50 – 100 mm
Different settlement (Sd) : Sdallowable = Sallowable x column spacing
Titling angle (ω) : ωallowable = 1/250
Settlement in soil layers re the result of consolidation process from loading. Judging
from the time and nature of the settlement, can divided by 3 (three) phases
settlement, the immediate settlement (Si) which is elastic, primary settlement (Sc) due
to consolidation and secondary settlement (Ss). The settlement is the sum total of
these three stages, where S = Si + Sc + Ss
The settlement is elastic which instantly when the load is lifted before the
consolidation process occurs then the volume of soil can be expand to its original
state. This settlement was dominant (large enough) on granular soil. Calculation
method is to divide the soil into several layers and calculate the strain that occurs at
each point in the middle layer, so that:
i =n
Si = å z i e i
i =1
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Site Investigation
Figure 3.13. Illustration Strain in Each Layer
Primary settlement due to consolidation of soil generally dominant inorganic silt and
clay in a state of saturation. With the same method as in settlement immediately,
then obtained:
i=n
Dei
Sc = å zi
i=1 1+ (e0 )i
For NCC
s 'vo + Ds v
De = Cc log
s 'vo
For OCC with σ’vo + Δσv≤σ’c
s 'vo + Ds v
De = Cr log
s 'vo
For OCC
s 'c s ' + Ds v
De = Cr log + Cc log vo
s 'vo s 'vo
For σ’vo < σ’c < σ’vo + Δσv with σ’c, is the effective stress in soil pre-consolidated for
OCC
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Site Investigation
Figure 3.14. Illustration of Tension in Each Layer
Secondary settlement occurred after completions of primary settlement caused by

soil particles are still orient one self (re-adjustment). Dominant secondary settlement
in plastic clay and organic soils.
i=n
t
Ss = å(Ca )i (Z s )i log
i=1 tp
Where:
tp = decrease the time required for primary
Zs = thick layer of soil after the primary settlement is completed = zi – Sc
Cα = secondary of compressibility coefficient
3.6. Geo-Electrical Survey

3.6.1. General Principles
The first application of geo-electric was performed by Conrad Schlumberger in 1912.
Geo-electric is one of geophysical methods to determine changes in resistivity layer
of rock beneath the soil surface by means of an electric current DC (Direct Current)
having a high voltage into the ground. This electric current injection using 2
'Electrode Flow' A and B are plugged into the ground with a certain distance. The
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Site Investigation
longer the distance of AB electrode will cause the flow of electric current can
penetrate the deeper layers of rock.
With the flow of electric current will cause the voltage on the ground. Voltage that
occurs at the soil surface was measured with the use of a multimeter which is
connected via 2 pieces 'Voltage Electrode' M and N with a shorter distance than the
distance of the electrode AB. When the AB Electrode distance changed farther, then
the voltage occured at MN Electrode also change according to the type of rock
injected by electric current at deeper depths.
Assuming that the depth of sediment layer which can be penetrated by electric
current is equal to half of the distance of AB which is commonly called AB/2 (when
pure DC electric current used), then the effect of electric current injection is etimated
have a form of hemispherical with radius AB/2.
3.6.2. Geo-electrical Survey Working Methods

Generally, the most often geoelectric method used is the 4 pieces of electrodes
method which located in a straight and symmetrical lines to the midpoint, ie: two
current electrodes (AB) on the outside and two voltage electrodes (MN) on the inside
The combination of distance AB/2, the distance MN/2, the amount of electric current
flowed and the voltage that occurs will get a value of apparent resistivity. Called
apparent resistivity due to the resistivity calculated is a combination of many
subsurface sediment layer injected by electrical current.
When a set of apparent resistivity measurement results from the shortest to the
longest AB distance AB ilustrated to a logarithmic graph with AB/2 distance as the X-
axis and the apparent resistivity as the Y-axis, then a form of geoelectric data curve
can be obtained. From these data curve, the nature of subsurface sediment layers
can be calculated and predicted.
3.6.3. Objective of Geo-electrical Survey

The objective of geoelectrical survey was to determine the characteristics of
subsurface sediment layers to a depth of approximately 300 m which is very useful to
determine the possibility of the aquifer layer which is a water carrier layer. Generally,
the layer sought is 'confined aquifer', aquifer layer between layers of impermeable
rock (eg clay layer) on the bottom and the top. This confined aquifer has a recharge
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Site Investigation
location relatively far, so the availability of groundwater beneath the drill point is not
affected by changes in local weather.
3.6.4. Geo-electrical Survey Configuration

Geoelectrical method consist of several configuration, for example, a method using 4
eletrodes which are positioned in a straight line with AB and MN electrode
symmetrical to centre point at both side are Wenner and Schlumberger configuration.
Each configuration has its own calculation method to determine the value of
thickness and resistivity of subsurface sediment. Schlumberger geoeletric
configuration method is a favorite method that is widely used to determine the
characteristics of subsurface layers with a relatively low cost.
Generally, sediment layers do not have a perfectly homogeneous properties, as

required in the geoelectric measurements. Near surface sediment layer will be greatly
affected by this voltage measurement and this will make the geoelectrical data be
deviated from the true value. Several factors which may affect the homogeneity of
sediment layers are other sediment fragments which penetrate between the layers,
the heterogeneity factor of sediment/rock weathering, the material contained on the
road, the local pool of water, metal piping system which can deliver an electric
current, the wire fence that is connected to the ground, etc.
Spontaneous Potential is a natural electrical voltage which is generally found in the

sediment layer caused by the presence of conductive solution that chemically induce
a voltage difference in the minerals of different rock layers and also cause non-
homogenous sediment layers. The electric voltage difference is relatively small in
general, but when Schlumberger configuration used with a long AB electrode
distance and short MN electrode distance, it is possible that the natural electrical
voltage contributes to the electrical voltage measurement of MN electrode, so that
the measured data becomes less accurate.
To overcome this natural presence of electrical voltage, prior to the electric current
injection, multimeter is set on the natural electrical voltage and the initial position of
the multimeter is made to zero, thus the multimeter will show the actual voltage
caused by the current injection from AB electrode. This function can only be found on
a high accuracy multimeter.
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Site Investigation
3.6.4.1. Wenner Configuration

The advantages of this Wenner configuration is on the better MN electrode
voltage reading accuracy with relatively large numbers because the distance of
MN electrode relatively close to the AB electrode. Here, a relatively smaller
impedance multimeter measuring instrument can be used. The disadvantage is
not to able to detect homogenity of rocks near the surface that could affect the
calculation results. The data obtained from the Wenner configuration is very
difficult to eliminate the non-homogeneity of the rock factor, so that the results of
the calculation becomes less accurate.
3.6.4.2. Schlumberger Configuration

At Schlumberger configuration MN distance ideally made as small as possible, so
that the MN distance theoretically unchanged. But due to the limited sensitivity of
the measuring instrument, then when the AB distance is already relatively large,
the MN distance should be changed. Changes in MN distance should not be
greater than 1/5 of the AB distance.
The downside of this Schlumberger configuration is on the MN electrode voltage

reading is smaller especially when the AB distance is relatively far away, so we
need a high accuracy multimeter measuring devices with high impedance
characteristics which can measure a voltage of at least 4-digit or 2 digits after the
decimal point in the screen. Or by any other means, a very high DC voltage
injection capacity equipment is required.
While the benefits of this Schlumberger configuration is the ability to detect the
presence of the non-homogeneity of the rock layers on the surface, ie by
comparing the apparent resistivity value when there is a distance change within
the MN/2 electrode.
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Site Investigation
Figure 3.15. Electrode Arrangement of Schlumberger Configuration
In each measurement, the current electrodes AB always transferred in accordance

with a predetermined distance, while the potential electrode MN can only be
moved at certain distances on the condition that the distance MN / 2 ≥ 1/5 spacing
AB / 2 (see Figure 3.15).
3.6.5. Data Processing Methods
To achieve the intended purpose of this study, a model will be used using the
boreholes correlation to analyze the recharge zone and transmisifity calculation of the
aquifer identified.
The methodology consists of several interrelated activities, ranging from the

collection of data from previous information, the water resources data grouping by
type, location and present utilization. Mapping the distribution of groundwater with
evaluation and reconstruction of the type, state and slope of the rock layers and
assisted by available drilling data to get an overview of the subsurface and
groundwater basins. Modeling of subsurface geological cross-section is based on the
data from Geological map and the data that describes the position of the drill
lithology, rock type and thickness description. Description of the correlation between
wellbores by seeing the similarity of physical characteristics from lithology
description, made from a variety of directions, including a cross-section of the West-
East, North-South, East-West and North-South.
Soil and rocks composing the earth's subsurface consist of a variety of minerals, pore
space, the degree of fluid in the pore space, and different depositional ages
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Site Investigation
(Johnson, 2003). Diversity factor variables, making the soil and rock has a specific
electrical resistivity value.
Figure 3.16. Analysis Mechanism of the Material’s Resistivity Value
Based on Ohm's Law it is obtained a relationship of the voltage difference generated

and influenced by objects resistivity due to the current flow,
V
V = IR atau R =
I
with V = voltage in volts, I = electric current in amperes, and R = resistance in ohms.
The relationship between the resistivity of the existing barriers stated:
A
=R
L
Equation above is an approach to determine the electrical properties of each soil and
rock in the laboratory (Schon, 1990). While to researching in situ value of resistivity
can be done by giving the flow of electric current in the form of injection into the
subsurface through the two points, with the description shown in Figure 3.17.
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Site Investigation
Figure 3.17. Two Current Electrodes and Two Potential Electrodes on the Surface as an
Approach to the Analysis of Subsurface Rocks (Telford et al, 1990)
For the model layout in Figure 3.17, resistance value at a certain depth can be
expressed by the equation below :
V
a = K
I
−1
 1 1   1 1 
Where; k = 2  −  −  −  The geometry factor formulation of general
 r1 r2   r3 r4 
provisions, and only reflects the influence of C1 and C2 positions to P1 and P2
positions.
Through this mechanism, it can be analyzed changes in the electrical properties of

resistivity as a function of depth and horizontal functions. Based on a well distributed
geo-electric measuring point, then geometry, aquifer position and hydrogeological
models can be mapped, as shown in Figure 3.18.
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Site Investigation
Figure 3.18. One of the Hydrogeological Models Associated with the Cycle and Formation of Aquifer
Accuracy of subsurface geological materials based on electrical properties has been

widely demonstrated by previous researchers. Johnson (2003) pioneered to examine
the fault zones as prone to landslides material in underground mines. While the
results of the research by; Benson, et al. 1997; Frangos, 1997; Gupta, 1997; Meju, et
al. 1999; Nowroozi, 1999; Osella; 1999; Yang, 1999; DW Oldenburg, and Li Y.,
Lenkey 1999 and 2005, were able to map the conductive layer associated with the
presence of ground water.
3.7. Topographic Survey
3.7.1. Measurement of Control Network

Mapping control network consists of the horizontal and vertical control networks. The
control networks serve as a reference points used to determine the coordinates of the
other points. Control networks can be measured using the method of Global
Positioning System (GPS) observations or traverse measurements using a Total
Station (TS).
3.7.1.1. Reference Points

Reference points in field which is called Bench Mark (BM) observed with the static
GPS observation methods for six hours and tied to BIG’s control points nearest to
project location. From the observations, the processing of baseline was performed
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Site Investigation
between that observed points. BM coordinates expressed in geocentric system

WGS 84 defined by four parameter, namely:
a. Semi mayor axis (a) = 6378137.0 m

b. Flattening (1/f) = 298.257223563
c. Angular velocity of the earth (ω) = 7292115.0 x 10-11 rad s-1
d. Earth gravity constant (GM) = 3986004.418 x 108 m3 s-2
The coordinates using UTM projection with the basic spesification used are:
• Width zone = 6°,
• Zero point is the intersection of central meridian with the equator,
• Apparent coordinate of the zero point (N,E) is (0 m; 500000 m) for point in the
northern equator and (10000000 m; 500000 m) for point in the southern
equator.
• Central meridian scale factor = 0,9996
3.7.1.2. Traverse Measurement

In this work, a controlled open traverse was used for traverse measurement. The
explanation of the controlled open traverse is as follow:
P(x,y)
AP
BQ
s4
s0 23 3B
A1 12 B (xB,yB)
s2
s1
A (xA,yA 2
jA1 j3B
j23 S3 Q
1 3
Figure 3.19. Controlled Open Traverse Method
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Site Investigation
The descriptions of Figure 3.19 above are:
1. P, A, B, Q : fixed point that the coordinates is knowed

2. AP, BQ : early and end azimuth
3. s0, s1, … : traverse angle
4. jA1, j12, … : traverse distance
5. A1, 12, … : azimuth between point to point
Elements measured in the traverse are the distance, angle and early azimuth. In
accordance with the theory of errors in the measurement of distance and angle of
the traverse, then getting away from the reference point the mistakes will be even
greater
The angles were used to find the size of the next azimuth angle of the traverse
within the data of distance traverse will be calculated coordinates of each traverse
point. From the Figure 3.21 above we can see that:
αB1 = αBA + β0
α12 = αB1 + β1 -180º
= αBA + β0 + β1 -180º
α23 = α12 + β2 -180º
= αBA + β1 + β2 -360º
α34 = α23 + β3 -180º
= αBA + β1 + β2 + β3 -540º
αCD = α34 + β4 -180º
= αBA + β1 + β2 + β3 + β4 -720º
or :
Σβ = (αCD - αBA) + 4 . 180º
Generally it can be described :
Σβ = (αend – αearly) + n . 180º
with n is the total of the angle
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Site Investigation
Early and end azimuth calculated from early and end coordinates, namely A,B,C,D
with the following formula :
XA − XB
αBA = arc tg , and
Y A − YB
XD − XC
αCD = arc tg
YD − YC
Total of angles measured must be equal to the difference between the end and
beginning of azimuth plus a multiple of 180º or Σβ = (αend - αearly) + n.180º, in fact
to angle measurement error so Σβ = (αend - αend) + n. 180º ± fα, where the value of
fα (fault closing angle) that will corrected to each angle with the correction of each
angle = fα / n, where n is the number of traverse points.
To get the requirements, projecting sides of the traverse on the X axis and Y axis,
in order to obtain:
Σ d sin α = (Xend – Xend) ± fx ; fx = absis cover error
Σ d cos α = (Yend – Yend) ± fy ; fy = ordinate cover error
The errors of fx and fy connected on each additional absis (d sin α) and the
ordinate (d cos α) with a straight comparison with distances traverse, so it can be
written as follow:
di − di −
∆xi = .+ fx ∆yi = .+ fy
d d
Steps count coordinates of any traverse points systematically:
1) Sum the measure angle.

2) Add up angles as a result of measurements. Calculate αend and αearly from the
tow of end and early point, then define fα and corrected to each measure
point with the same value.
3) Based on the corrected value of early azimuth, calculate another azimuth with
formula αn-(n+1) = α(n-1)-n ± β ±180º. If the calculation is right then azimuth
CD from the calculation will be the same as value with azimuth CD from the
coordinates.
4) From point 2 above, calculate d sin α dan d cos α.
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Site Investigation
5) It can be calculated coordinates of the points of the traverse coordinate point

in front of it with formula:
X2 = X1 + d12 sin α12
Y2 = Y1 + d12 cos α12
requirements in traverse which should be done are as follow:
• The length of the side between two successive points in the same cultivated
webs is between 100-200 meters.
• Distance is measured using Total Station (TS).
• Distance accuracy is smaller or equal to ± (5mm + 5ppm).
• Angle is measured using TS with the smallest value is 5”.
• Angle is measured by 2 double series (4 angle, 2 pieces in regular posititon
and 2 piece in remarkable position). The maximum difference between the
average angle by angle size of k "√2.
• Coordinates control points are calculated by the Bowditch method.
• Error cover angle is less than or equal to 10√n (n: number of points).
• Comparison of the linear cover with the total distances less than or equal to 1:
10000.
3.7.2. Detailed Situation Measurement

Detailed situation measurement aim is to determine the position of detail topographic
objects specifically for important and particular objects. The measurement results and
detailed topographic map of the situation depicted in the scale of 1: 1000 and presented
in the Appendix.
Detailed topographic measurements were using polar method or polar coordinates. The
detail position is determined by the component of azimuth (angle of direction), the
distance and the height difference of the polygon points. The angles were measured
using a Total Station, distances between points were measured optically and the height
differences were measured using trigonometric methods automatically. The detailes
taken include:
• Survey of the area boundary (fences and pillars)

• Land elevation point per ± 10 meters
• Roads, electricity pylons, rivers (water channels), etc.
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Site Investigation
In order to make a consistent distances or grid when carrying out detailed

measurement, a handheld GPS device which has been set by 50 meter grid was used.
For locations which require a more detailed information, observation was performed as
10 meters or to be adjusted to field conditions
3.8. Bathymetry and Hydro-Oceanographic Survey
3.8.1. Mapping Specifications

Specifications in bathymetry survey are as follow :
1. Datum / Ellipsoid : WGS84 / WGS84
2. Projection : UTM
3. Geoid Model : -
4. Coordinate System : Geographic and UTM Grid
5. False Easting : 500000 m
6. False Northing : 10000000 m
7. Scale Factor : 0,9996
8. Survey Scale : 1 : 1000
3.8.2. Lane Design

The main lanes will be designed perpendicular to the dominant direction of the depth
contour or shoreline with intervals of 10% x scale. Cross lanes will be designed
perpendicular to the main lane with interval 15 x interval main lane).
3.8.3. Depth Reduction

Reduction and editing depth using Trimble Hydropro Navedit software. Editing depth
data carried out by comparing the digital recording of the recording paper
echosounder (echograf). The depth of the measuring results is reduced to sounding
datum to consider the value obtained from the tide gauge, calculation of Mean Sea
Level (MSL) and data Chart Datum Level (CDL). Value ups and downs with a 15
minute interval is used for subsidence depth. Down value refers to the tide data from
the main tidal stations in the survey area.
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Site Investigation
3.8.4. Measuring Coastline

Coastline measurement can be done by using terrestrial or RTK GPS method. For
teristris method can use the Total Station (TS), while for the method of using the RTK
GPS tool Geodetik that operates using radio waves as the mediator of correction
from the base to the receiver.
Requirements in the measurement of coastline are as follow :

• Regional sloping coast (sandy), the shoreline is determined by looking at the
trace when the highest tide inundation.
• The coast area is muddy, shoreline represented by a meeting point between the
mainland (hard ground) with the ocean, which is represented by the high water
line in the form of traces of the highest sea level.
• Rugged steep coastal area, the shoreline is the cliff edge.
• Areas of marsh and shrub, the shoreline is the outer limit of the plant toward the
sea.
• Artificial coast area, the shoreline is represented by the line of the outer limits of
a man-made permanent building which is located on the coast.
3.8.5. Sounding
Sounding implemented using RTK system for positioning the reference point as a
reference station. Echosounder equipment using a device that is connected to the
ADL Hydropro Navigation software. Sounding held on as follow :
1) Survey Area (with 1:1000 scale)

2) Depth data acquisition using ADL Hydropro Navigation software
3) Editing and processing data using Trimble Hydropro Navedit 2:30 software
version.
4) The average speed of a vessel when the measurement survey was 5 knots (2.6
m/s) up to 7 knots (3.6 m/s) with the appropriate logging interval sounding
echosounder maximum data-rate (25Hz) and the maximum depth of the survey
area. Interval fix appropriate intervals using a standard scale of the survey are
set on the configuration of the event.
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Site Investigation
Echosounder calibration carried out before and after the bathymetry survey using
barcheck. Phases of calibation are as follow :
• Survey vessel stop floating in or close to the area's deepest survey to be

surveyed on that day.
• Transducer echosounder tool has been installed at a depth of 1 m below the
surface of the water, then echosunder turned on and recording the depth had
appeared.
• At first iron lowered just below the transducer at a depth of 5 m below the surface
of the water, wait 10 seconds for the record.
• Then iron lowered every 2 m up to the greatest depth. Each will be lowered
depths recorded for 10 seconds in advance.
• Upon reaching the greatest depths, iron-and-error is increased gradually as
when lowering.
• If the depth is shown on the display echosounder is not equal to the depth of the
iron-and-error, then the calibration is done by adding or subtracting the
propagation velocity of acoustic waves.
3.8.6. Tidal Observation

Tides is a natural phenomenon that is evident in the sea, is a vertical movement (rise
and fall of ocean water regularly and repeatedly) of the mass particles of sea water
from the surface to the deepest part of the ocean floor. The motion caused by the
gravitational influence (gravitational pull) between Earth and the Moon, the Earth and
the Sun or the Earth to the Moon and Sun (Pugh, 1987). To determine the tidal
conditions in the survey area, need the observation of tides.
Effect of astronomical forces that occur will affect the determination of the tidal
harmonic constants. Application of the least squares method which produces a
constant harmony is the result of numerical analysis of the sequence data obtained
and synthesized based astronomical style influence of the moon and sun.
In determining the position of the tide station observations, the requirement are as
follow :
• Tide station can described the tidal characteristics of the surrounding area.
• Land in tide station location must be hard (not muddy).
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Site Investigation
• The location of tide station should be away from the mouth of the river to avoid
the influence of flow and sediment also debris carried to the sea.
• Bodies at the site of tide station arranged clearly and not be disturbed by marine
plants.
• The location should be easy to do the supervision and maintenance.
• Protected from the influence of waves.
Tide observations in this survey used a manual method to do the reading on the palm
that has been installed, and automatically use the tool Seabed Orinoco Solo with a
time interval of observation every 15 minutes. To scale tidal palm readings using a
scale of centimeters (cm). Data from tide observations are used to determine the
Chart Datum and Tidal Type Constants in the survey area.
From the results of calculations using the least squares method, the type of tide in a
body of water can be determined by using the Formzhal numbers (F) wherein
Formzhal numbers equation is as follow :
(𝐴𝑀2 + 𝐴𝑆2 )
𝐹=
(𝐴𝐾1 + 𝐴𝑂1 )
Classification of the tidal type at these locations are as follow :
𝐹 < 0.25 = Semidiurnal
0.25 < 𝐹 < 1.5 = Mixed semidiurnal
1.5 < 𝐹 < 3 = Mixed diurnal
𝐹 > 3.0 = Diurnal
3.8.7. Current Observation

Current according Pariwono (1998) is a mass transfer of water from one place to
another due to various factors such as the pressure gradient, meteorological factors,
differences in density and low tides. Ocean currents are part of hydrodynamics at sea
in addition to wave and tidal. Currents that occur in the oceans consist of various
types, but generally grouped into the tidal current and non tidal currents. To obtain a
description of the nature of ocean currents then carried out measurements in order to
obtain the future direction and speed of the current. Sea currents are influenced by
meteorological factors (wind), in which current flows in a single season to a fixed
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Site Investigation
direction, next season will change the direction of ocean currents in accordance with
a change in wind direction the wind happens.
Current observations done using Valeporrt current meter equipment, it works

mechanically. Moving currents in the sea will have a propeller that is connected with
the other components of the equipment in the current meter.
In coastal environments and estuarine, tidal influence is very dominant place, so that
the current measurement is done at least along the tidal period. Measurements
carried out for 24 hours continuously at spring tide conditions (full moon) and the
condition of neap tide (half moon) on several layers. Measurements conducted at
each depth from the ocean depths in 0.2, 0.6 and 0.8 of the ocean depths. The data
recorded is the depth, speed, and direction.
3.9. Modelling of Thermal and Sediment

Modelling is performed using the software Danish Hydraulic Institute (DHI) Water and
Environment, especially Mike 21 FM HD. Mike 21 is a pre-and post-processors for
finite element modeling and finite difference element. Core of the MIKE 21 program is
a program that can calculate the hydrodynamic modeling of water surface elevation
and flow velocity for a hydrodynamic problems.
In DHI software package, there are some modules that have specific capability to
perform simulations. Related to this work, DHI (2007), thermal distribution analysis
would present some modules includes:
a. The Mesh Generator provides a work environment for creating detailed digital
mesh for use in the MIKE Zero flexible mesh (FM) models. Providing these new
generation models with a suitable mesh is essential for obtaining reliable results
from the model simulations. MIKE Zero offers the MIKE 21 Flow Model FM,
MIKE 3 Flow Model FM and MIKE 21 Spectral Wave Model FM, which all are
based on a flexible mesh. Setting up a mesh includes appropriate selection of
the area to be modeled, adequate resolution of the bathymetry, flow, wind and
wave fields under consideration and definition of codes for open and land
boundaries. Furthermore, the resolution in the geographical space must also be
selected with respect to stability considerations. Generating a mesh file with the
MIKE Zero Mesh Generator. The mesh file is an ASCII file (.mesh extension) that
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Site Investigation
includes information of the geographical position and water depth at each node
point in the mesh. The file also includes information about the node connectivity
of the triangular elements. All the specifications for generating the mesh file are
saved in a Mesh Definition File (.mdf extension), which can be modified and re-
used. The Mesh Generator includes utilities for importing raw data from various
external sources (e.g. XYZ soundings, XYZ contours, MIKE 21 bathymetries,
MIKE C-MAP exported data), or to manually create data by using the built-in
drawing tools. You can import background images such as maps in the Mesh
Generator and use them when editing data or for e.g. enhancing presentation
graphics.
b. MIKE 21 Flow Model FM is a modeling system based on a flexible mesh

approach. The modeling has been developed for applications within
oceanographic, coastal and estuarine environments. The Hydrodynamic Module
is the basic computational component of the entire MIKE 21 Flow Model FM
modeling system providing the hydrodynamic basis for the Transport Module,
ECO Lab Module, Mud Transport Model, Sand Transport Module and Particle
Tracking Module. The modeling system is based on the numerical solution of the
two-dimensional shallow water equations - the depth-integrated incompressible
Reynolds averaged Navier-Stokes equations. Thus, the model consists of
continuity, momentum, temperature, salinity and density equations. In the
horizontal domain both Cartesian and spherical coordinates can be used. The
spatial discretization of the primitive equations is performed using a cell-centered
finite volume method. The spatial domain is discretized by subdivision of the
continuum into non-overlapping element/cells. In the horizontal plane an
unstructured grid is used comprising of triangles or quadrilateral element. An
approximate Riemann solver is used for computation of the convective fluxes,
which makes it possible to handle discontinuous solutions. For the time
integration an explicit scheme is used. The hydrodynamic module calculates the
resulting flow and distributions of salt, temperature, subject to a variety of forcing
and boundary conditions. Baroclinic effect due to salt and temperature variations
are considered as subordinated to the HD module and are set up here.
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Site Investigation
c. The temperature/salinity (TS) module is invoked from the specification of the

density, provided baroclinic density (density depends on temperature and/or
salinity) is selected. The TS module sets up additional transport equations for
temperature and salinity. Additionally the calculated temperature and salinity are
feed-back to the hydrodynamic equations through buoyancy forcing induced by
density gradients. The density is assumed to be a function of salinity and
temperature. Selecting barotropic mode, both temperature and salinity (TS) will
be constant and the density will not be updated during the simulation. When the
density is considered to be a function of temperature and/or salinity (baroclinic
mode), the transport equation for the temperature and/or salinity must be solved.
The solution of these equations is automatically invoked and the density is
updated from the TS fields. The density is calculated using UNESCO's standard
equation of state for sea water. These relations are applicable for temperatures
ranging from -2.1 ºC to 40.0 ºC and salinities in the range from 0 to 45 PSU
(Practical Salinity Unit). The reference temperature and salinity can be used to
improve the accuracy of the density calculation, as these are subtracted from the
TS fields before the density calculation. If density is a function of temperature
alone, the density is calculated using the actual temperature and the reference
salinity, and vice versa for salinity.
d. MIKE 21 ST is a module in the MIKE 21 application suite for calculating non-

cohesive sediment (sand) transport rates. You can calculate sand transport
based on pure current information, or you can take waves into consideration too.
In addition to sand transport rates, a simulation will give you the initial rates of
bed level changes. This is sufficient to identify potential areas of erosion or
deposition, but can not take the place of a full morphological model.
Simple explanations would be presented to get the impression how the software
works. Firstly, it will start from the flow chart of the simulation.
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Site Investigation
Figure 3.20. Flowchart of HD-FM Simulation
Generally, the model has two basic equation that are continuity and momentum
equations. Since the product would be used a 3D analysis therefore, it would be
expressed the three-dimensional incompressible Reynolds averaged Navier-Stokes
equations, subject to the assumptions of Boussinesq and of hydrostatic pressure.
The local continuity equation is written as :
and the two horizontal momentum equations for the x- and y- component,
respectively
where t is the time; x,y and z are the Cartesian co-ordinates;  is the surface
elevation; d is the still water depth; h =  +d is total water depth; u, v and w are the
velocity components in the x, y and z direction; f = 2 sin is the Coriolis parameter,
 is the angular rate of revolution and  the geographic latitude); g is the
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Site Investigation
gravitational acceleration;  is the density of water; sxx, sxy, syx and syy are
components of the radiation stress tensor; vt is the vertical turbulent (or eddy)
viscosity; pa is the atmospheric pressure; o is the reference density of water. S is the
magnitude of the discharge due to point sources and (us, vs) is the velocity by which
the water is discharge into the ambient water.
The transport of temperature, T, and salinity, s, follow the general transport-diffusion

equations as
where Dv is the vertical turbulent (eddy) diffusion coefficient. H is a source term due
to heat exchange with the atmosphere. Ts and ss are the temperature and the salinity
of source. F are the horizontal diffusion terms defined by
where Dh is the horizontal diffusion coefficient. the diffusion coefficients can be

related to the eddy viscosity
where T is the Prandtl number. In many applications a constant Prandtl number can
be used (Rodi, 1984).
3-56

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Site Investigation

PT PRIMA LAYANAN NASIONAL ENJINIRING

3.1. Geotechnical Drilling

3.1.2. Disturbed Soil Sample

3.1.3. Undisturbed Soil Sample

Table 3.1. Common Method in Taking Sample of Soil

Disturbed/ Type of Land that Penetration Use in

3.2. Standard Penetration Test (SPT)

Figure 3.1. Schematic Sequence of Standard Penetration Test (SPT)

Things that need to be considered in the SPT test is as follow:

d. Can not be applied on soft clay and silt,

c) In the implementation of the SPT test in various countries, three types of

f) Efficiency can be obtained by comparing the work conducted (W = F x D = force

g) In some correlative relationship, N60 corrected value which is normalized to

NM is the SPT test results,

CN is the correction factor for the effective vertical stress,

CE is a correction factor to the ratio of power hammer,

CB is a correction factor to the drill diameter,

CR is the correction factor for the length of SPT rod,

CS is a correction to the sample tube (samplers) with or without coating (liner).

consecutive punches. SPT test is stopped when the resistance penetration

Table 3.2. Corrections in SPT Test

Factor Type of instruments Parameters Corrections

3.3. Laboratory Test

3.3.1. Water Content Test

Explanation of the test results are described as follow:

a) Measurement of soil water content is usually used in a laboratory test

3.3.2. Unit Weight Test

Table 3.3. Some Correlation Equations of Unit Weight and Volume

Condition Correlation Type of material that can be used

3.3.3. Specific Gravity Test

Tests explanation are described as follow :

Table 3.4. Correlation between Weight and Volume

3.3.4. Grain Size Analysis

The test procedure is done by washing a representative sample and prepared

Tests explanation are described as follow:

a) To obtain a representative sample, sometimes crushing needs to be done before

Figure 3.2. Example of Filter for Grain Size Test in Labratory

Figure 3.3. Particle Size Curve for Some Soil Types

3.3.5. Atterberg Limit Test

Description and explanation of the test procedure is as follow:

b) Description of test results

(2) Liquidity index called LI = (w-PL) / PI is an indicator of stress history, LI ≈ 1 for

3.3.6. Direct Shear Test

a) Preparation of the material

Figure 3.5. Triaxial Test Tools and Equipments

Descriptions and explanations of test procedure are as follow:

(1) In general, there are five types of triaxial tests, namely

(2) In UU test, the sample is not allowed to drained or consolidated before or

Uji Geser Triaxial CU Untuk Tanah Jenis SM/ML

3.3.8. Consolidation Test

One-dimensional consolidation test goal is to determine the properties of

3) The results of one-dimensional consolidation test can be presented in various

4) In some types of clay, primary consolidation specifically followed by a

pore water pressure is necessary to determine the final stages of primary

Figure 3.8. 1-Dimensional Consolidation Test Equipment

3.3.9. Unconfined Compression Test

1) Soil sample is tested without confining pressure (σ3 = 0).

3) The maximum tested force on sample cross section is qu which is identical

Figure 3.9. Stress-Strain Correlation of Unconfined Compression Test

1) Determination of unconfined compression strength from undisturbed soil,

test. This variety of collapse needs to be reported to the geotechnical

3.4. Dutch Cone Penetration Test (DCPT)