SPECIES AT A GLANCE
Caulerpa (Caulerpa taxifolia) seaweed is a unicellular,
Linda Walters
REPORT THIS SPECIES! Oregon: 1-866-INVADER or Oregon
InvasivesHotline.org; Washington: 1-888-WDFW-AIS; California: 1-916-
651-8797 or email invasives@dfg.ca.gov; Other states: 1-877-STOP-ANS.
Species in the news Learning extensions
“Caulerpa Laws Difficult to Enforce; How DO we manage killer algae?
Illegal Sales Continue” www.csgc.ucsd. And Caulerpa hunt!
edu/NEWSROOM/NEWSRELEASES/
CaulerpaLaws_SGNewsList.html
Why you should care
Caulerpa competes with other species for space and
light, grows rapidly, and emits toxins into the water
column. Caulerpa displaces native plants and creates
dense, uniform mats that persist throughout the year.
These mats present a major threat to marine biodiver-
sity and have a negative impact on commercial and
recreational fishing, tourism, and scuba diving.
How they got here and spread
Releases of Caulerpa from personal aquaria are
the likely source for the introduction of the aquarium
strain of the plant.
Caulerpa often spreads when fragments of the
plant break off due to currents, as well as boating,
fishing, swimming, and other human activities.
What you can do
Don’t release aquarium plants and pets. Instead:
• Give them to a responsible aquarium or pet store
• Give them to a responsible hobbyist
• Freeze Caulerpa for a minimum of 24 hours and
then place it in the trash
• Contact an aquarium or pet store for guidance on
humane animal disposal
Aquatic Invasions! A Menace to the West • SPECIES GUIDE
Caulerpa
marine, green alga found in tropical to subtropical
regions, in both shallow lagoons and deeper coastal
waters at depths of up to 46 meters.
As a result of commercial breeding in an aquarium
setting, an invasive aquarium strain of Caulerpa now
exists. Although the aquarium strain is morphologically
identical to native strains, it is genetically distinct and
has invasive properties that distinguish it from native
populations. This strain is considered one of the world’s
100-worst invasive species. In native populations,
Caulerpa occurs in small patches and is not known to
exhibit invasive properties.
Resources
Don’t release a pest. Freezing is best!
(www.usc.edu/org/seagrant/caulerpa)
Southern California Caulerpa Action
Team (www.sccat.net)
Map created 3/08
Data on map represents established population and species occurrence data
COOL FACTS
Caulerpa has earned the nickname “killer algae” due to its
rapid invasion of the Mediterranean and displacement of
native species. An entire plant can grow from a 2 cm fragment.
Extensive breeding in Stuttgart, Germany, in an aquarium
setting, under artificially extreme conditions, is attributed
to alterations in some of Caulerpa’s genetic characteris-
tics. The breeding process exposed Caulerpa to significant
chemical stressors and ultraviolet lighting, ultimately
producing the popular and resilient aquarium strain (or
Mediterranean strain) that was globally distributed in the
aquarium industry and has since escaped to form some
of the invasive populations in the wild.

 SPECIES IN DEPTH
Rachel Woodfield
Caulerpa
Caulerpa taxifolia
Caulerpa taxifolia is an invasive marine alga that is
widely used as a decorative plant in aquaria. Although
unicellular, Caulerpa develops pseudo organs similar
to roots, shoots, and leaves of more complex plants.
The plant consists of a horizontal, stem-like rhizome
that produces a series of colorless, root-like rhizoids
that extend downward, anchoring the plant to the
sea floor and absorbing food, water, and nutrients.
Branch-like structures that shoot upward from the rhi-
zome compose the recognizable feather-like fronds,
which are the photosynthetic component of the plant.
Typically 5 to 25 centimeters long in shallow water,
fronds lenthen with depth and low light conditions,
averaging 60 to 80 centimeters in very deep water. In
Caulerpa patches, frond density ranges from 5,100/m2
to 14,000/m2, with the highest densities occurring in
the summer.
Aquatic Invasions! A Menace to the West • SPECIES GUIDE 
Caulerpa
Caulerpa
Native and Invasive Range
Caulerpa taxifolia is native to northern Australia, the
Indian Ocean, the east African coast, the western Pa-
cific, Indonesia and the southwest Pacific, Hawaii, and
the Caribbean. The potential for Caulerpa to invade the
Gulf, southern Atlantic, and California coasts is high,
due to its ability to tolerate a wide range of conditions
and effective methods of dispersing into new areas.
In 1984 the aquarium strain of Caulerpa taxifolia
was accidentally released from the Oceanographic
Museum in Monaco. Its subsequent invasion of the
Mediterranean Sea has gained significant attention
over the past decade. By 2001 the aquarium strain of
Caulerpa covered over 30,000 acres of Mediterranean
seafloor off the coasts of France, Spain, Italy, Croatia,
and Tunisia.
Several outbreaks of the aquarium strain have oc-
curred in southeastern Australia. Eradication efforts
have failed, and Caulerpa is spreading through coastal
areas in a pattern similar to that of the Mediterranean
invasion. In some areas off Australia, hybridization
with native populations is possible.
West coast distribution
In 2000 the aquarium strain of Caulerpa was first
identified in Agua Hedionda Lagoon and Huntington
Harbor in southern California. These colonies were
genetically identified as the aquarium strain.
Aggressive eradication efforts were undertaken.
Patches of Caulerpa were covered with tarps, and chlo-
rine was pumped underneath. It is believed that eradica-
tion was successful, and extensive monitoring continues
to ensure the absence of Caulerpa from both systems.
Ecology
Life cycles and migration patterns
In native populations, reproduction is primarily
sexual, although reproduction can also occur through
asexual fragmentation when small sections of Caul-
erpa break off and float to a new location, where they
develop into a viable clone of their parent plant. The
 Caulerpa
aquarium strain reproduces by fragmentation only;
invasive populations are clones of this distinct strain.
Habitat and food webs
Caulerpa defends against herbivory and epiphytism by
using toxic secondary metabolites that prevent predation.
When Caulerpa comes into contact with certain species,
it releases toxins into the water column, which can have
a negative effect on adjacent floral communities.
How Caulerpa got to the United States
Releases of Caulerpa from personal aquaria are
the likely source for the introduction of the aquarium
strain of the plant to marine environments.
How Caulerpa spreads
Caulerpa often spreads locally by vegetative asexual
fragmentation, a process accelerated by water cur-
rents and disturbance from boat anchors, fishing gear,
and other human activities. These factors have aided
Caulerpa’s spread across the Mediterranean.
Ecological impacts
The aquarium strain exhibits several characteristics
that are different from native strains. In addition to its
reproduction by vegetative fragmentation, the aquari-
um strain has the ability to adapt to a wide variety of
environmental conditions. This strain is more resistant
to cold temperatures, and it can survive multiple days
out of water. It grows on a variety of substrates at a
Dana Burfeind
The plant consists of a horizontal, stem-like rhizome that produces a series of root-like rhizoids that extend downward. Branch-like
structures that shoot upward compose the recognizable, feather-like fronds.
 Aquatic Invasions! A Menace to the West • SPECIES GUIDE
wide range of depths, including sheltered bays, soft or
sandy bottoms, polluted muddy harbors, rocky reefs,
and high-current capes. Perhaps most importantly, the
aquarium strain grows astoundingly fast and as dense
monoculture beds.
Caulerpa invasions have caused major ecological
damage in the Mediterranean ecosystem, through
competition and habitat modification. Caulerpa com-
petes with other species for space and light, grows
rapidly, and emits toxins into the water column. These
characteristics result in the displacement of native
communities and the creation of dense, uniform mats
that persist throughout the year.
Considered a major threat to marine biodiversity,
dense mats of Caulerpa alter the physical structure of
the environment (i.e., habitat for other animals), affect-
ing benthic communities and eliminating important
fish habitat for spawning and feeding (Williams and
Schroeder 2004). Major reductions in fish population
and distribution have been associated with the dis-
placement and/or removal of native communities and
habitat. When Caulerpa takes over their habitat, fish
cannot find shelter, space to reproduce, or food.
Economic impacts
Economic damages from Caulerpa are difficult to
estimate, but negative impacts on commercial and rec-
reational fishing, as well as tourism and scuba diving,
have been substantial. As Caulerpa spreads, economic
damages will continue to increase.

Linda Walters
Prevention and eradication measures have been ex-
pensive in Australia and the United States; costing the
U.S. alone $ 7 million as of June 2006.
Cultural significance
Loss of recreational opportunities and biodiversity
are a culturally damaging and disturbing phenomenon
in affected areas. However, Caulerpa is a popular com-
mercial and domestic aquarium plant, due to its attrac-
tive appearance and rapid growth.
Laws currently in place
United States law: It is illegal to import or trans-
port Caulerpa taxifolia aquarium strain across state
lines, including via Internet sales.
California State law: It is illegal to possess, trans-
port, transfer, release alive, import, or sell Caulerpa
taxifolia, Caulerpa sertularioides, Caulerpa mexicana,
Caulerpa ashmeadii, Caulerpa scalpelliformis, Caulerpa
racemosa (and all varieties of C. racemosa), Caulerpa cu-
pressoides, Caulerpa verticillata, and Caulerpa floridana.
City of San Diego law: It is illegal to possess, sell,
and transport any Caulerpa species within city limits.
Management strategies
• Scientists once believed that since Caulerpa taxifo-
lia was a tropical alga, it would die during the cold
winter months in the Mediterranean.
Aquatic Invasions! A Menace to the West • SPECIES GUIDE 
Caulerpa
In Caulerpa patches, frond density ranges
from 5,100/m2 to 14,000/m2.
• Unsuccessful attempts were made
to eradicate Caulerpa taxifolia from
certain portions of the Mediter-
ranean infestation, but biomass was
too extensive throughout the invaded
areas. The new goal is to maintain
“Caulerpa-free sanctuaries.”
• In the United States, the Aquatic
Nuisance Species Task Force has
developed a prevention and eradi-
cation program for Caulerpa taxi-
folia. Any new discoveries will be
aggressively and quickly treated
with bleach to ensure eradication.
Prevention in the United States
has focused on vector control by prohibiting inter-
national trade of the aquarium strain of Caulerpa.
Public education about proper disposal of aquarium
species aims to prevent the risk of introduction.
Other potential vectors of introduction must also be
addressed.
What you can do
Alternatives to releasing aquarium plants and pets:
• Give them to a responsible aquarium or pet store
• Give them to a responsible hobbyist
• Freeze Caulerpa for a minimum of 24 hours and
then place it in the trash
• Contact an aquarium or pet store for guidance on
humane animal disposal
Information gaps
• Biocontrol research has focused on a variety of mus-
sels and sea slugs. Few organisms eat Caulerpa, due
to its toxicity, and no effective biocontrols have yet
been discovered and approved for widespread imple-
mentation.
• Further experimentation with alternative herbicides
is needed to identify a substance less toxic than
chlorine to eradicate Caulerpa.
Caulerpa
Worldwide distribution of Caulerpa taxifolia. Yellow squares = native range. Orange circles = invasive populations of Caulerpa
taxifolia. Dashed line = 15°C average winter sea-surface temperature. Modeled after Verlaque et al. 2000.
References
Anderson, Lars WJ. 2007. “Control of Invasive Sea-
weeds.” Botanica Marina 50:418–437.
NOAA. 2003. “Facts about Caulerpa taxifolia.”
National Marine Fisheries Service. Southwest
Regional Office. http://swr.nmfs.noaa.gov/hcd/
caulerpa/factsheet203.htm
Keppner, Sandra M. and Russel T. Caplen. 1999. “A
Prevention Program for the Mediterranean Strain
of Caulerpa taxifolia.” US Fish and Wildlife Service.
Aquatic Nuisance Species Task Force.
ISSG Global Invasive Species Database. 2006. Caul-
erpa taxifolia. www.issg.org/database/species/ecology.
asp?si=115&fr=1&sts=sss
Pierre, M. and Y. Maricela. 2005. “Literature Review
of Caulerpa taxifolia.” BUFUS Newsletter. No. 31.
www.sbg.ac.at/ipk/avstudio/pierofun/ct/ct-1
Wiedenmann, J, A. Baumstark, T. L. Pillen, A. Mei-
nesz, and W. Vogel. “DNA fingerprints of Caulerpa
taxifolia provide evidence for the introduction of an
aquarium strain into the Mediterranean Sea and
its close relationship to an Australian population.”
SOURCE?
Williams, Susan L. and Stephanie L Schroeder. 2004.
“Eradication of the invasive seaweed Caulerpa taxifolia by
chlorine bleach.” Marine Ecology Progress Series 272:69–76.
 Aquatic Invasions! A Menace to the West • SPECIES GUIDE
Additional resouces
Facts:
http://swr.nmfs.noaa.gov/hcd/caulerpa/factsheet203.htm
www.caulerpa.cjb.net/
Literature Review:
www.sbg.ac.at/ipk/avstudio/pierofun/ct/caulerpa.htm
Invasive aquatic plants in the United States:
http://aquat1.ifas.ufl.edu/seagrant/cautax2.html
Prevention Program for United States:
www.anstaskforce.gov/Caulerpa.htm
Australia: “Eradicating and preventing the spread of
the invasive alga Caulerpa taxifolia in NSW.” Gives
a long discussion of different control methods.
www.deh.gov.au/coasts/imps/caulerpa-taxifolia/
index.html
Video on Caulerpa taxifolia:
Deep Sea Invasion. NOVA/PBS, 1 hr, grade level 4+.
ISBN 1-57807-980-2. Available online from NOVA
for $19.95 plus s/h. www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/algae/
http://shop.wgbh.org/webapp/wcs/stores/servlet/
ProductDisplay?productId=13334&storeId=11051&
catalogId=10051&langId=-1
Southern California Caulerpa Action Team
www.sccat.net/
Killer Algae, The True Tale of Biological Invasion By Alex-
andre Meinesz. 1999. Translated by Daniel Simberl-
off. The University of Chicago Press, 360 pages.