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ENVIRONMENTALLY AND SOCIALLY
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Social Development

MainstreamingGender
and Development
in the WorldBank
ProgressandRecommendations

Caroline0. N. Moser
AnnikaTornqvist
BernicevanBronkhorst

The WorldBank
D.C.
Washington,
Copyright C 1999
The International Bank for Reconstruction
and Development/THE WORLD BANK
1818H Street, N.W.
Washington, D.C. 20433,U.S.A.

All rights reserved

Manufactured in the United States of America
First printing December 1998

This report has been prepared by the staff of the World Bank. The judgments expressed do not
necessarily reflect the views of the Board of Executive Directors or of the governments they represent.

Cover photo: Brian Moser/Hutchison Library, London. In the rural altiplano of Bolivia a traditional
gender-specific division of labor is essential to cultivate potatoes.

Caroline 0. N. Moser is lead specialist in Social Development, and Annika Tornqvist and Bernice van
Bronkhorst are social development consultants, in the Environmentally and Socially Sustainable Develop-
ment network in the Latin America and Caribbean region of the World Bank.

Libraryof Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Moser, Caroline 0. N.
Mainstreaming gender and development in the World Bank: progress
and recommendations / Caroline 0. N. Moser, Annika Tomqvist, Bernice
van Bronkhorst.
p. cm. - (Environmentally and socially sustainable
development. Social development)
Includes bibliographical references.
ISBN 0-8213-4262-2
1. Women in development. 2. Women in development-Developing
countries. I. Tomqvist, Annika, 1962- . II. Bronkhorst,
Bernice van, 1969- . III. Title. IV.Series : Environmentally and
socially sustainable development series. Social development.
HQ1240.M67 1998
305.42-dc2l 98-39050
CIP

,9 The text and the cover are printed on recycled paper, with a flood aqueous coating on the cover.
Contents

Preface v

Acknowledgments vii

Chapter 1 Introduction 1
Review Objectives and Background 1
Methodology 2
Notes 4

Chapter 2 Searching for a Common, Bankwide Gender Rationale

and Language: Review Findings 5
Finding 1: World Bank Gender Policy 5
Finding 2: World Bank Country Gender Studies, Strategies, and Regional Gender
Action Plans 8
Finding 3: World Bank Staff Consultations 9
Finding 4: The Global Agenda on Gender: Equality and Sustainable Development 10
Finding 5: World Bank Socially Related Action Plans 11
Note 14

Chapter 3 Mainstreaming Gender and Development in the World Bank:

Recommendations 15
Recommendation 1: Define a Rationale and Framework for Gender
and Development 15
Recommendation 2: Ensure Consensus in Gender Analysis 16
Recommendation 3: Agree on Common Concepts and Language 18
Recommendation 4: Define the Components of a Gender Analysis 18
Recommendation 5: Apply Gender Analysis in Other Networks 20
Concluding Comment 20
Note 20

iii
iv MainstreamingGenderand Developmentin the World Bank

Appendixes 21
1 World Bank Gender Policy and Beijing Documents 21
1.1 World Bank Gender Policy Documents 21
1.2 World Bank Beijing Documents 22
2 World Bank OED Documents, Country Studies, and Strategies 23
2.1 World Bank OED Documents 23
2.2 World Bank Country Studies 24
2.3 World Bank Country Strategies 26
3 World Bank Regional Action Plans 27
3.1 World Bank Regional Gender Action Plans 27
3.2 Social Development Task Group Report 30
4 Bilateral and Multilateral Donor Policies 31
4.1 Bilateral Donor Policies 31
4.2 Multilateral Policies 33
5 Steps for Conducting a Gender Diagnosis 35

References 36

Boxes
1.1 Brief definitions of basic gender and development concepts 3
1.2 Organizing concepts to assess gender and development rationale, language,
and policy approach 3
2.1 WID or GAD? 6
2.2 WID/GAD policy approaches, 1970-90 7
2.3 Consultations on rationale and language for gender and social development 10
2.4 Current GAD rationales in selected international agencies 12
2.5 Mainstreaming gender into participation and social development action plans 13
3.1 Defining a rationale and framework for GAD: The "Moser Methodology"
of gender planning 16
3.2 Diversity in current definitions of gender analysis 17
3.3 Definitions: Gender roles, needs, interests, and approaches 18
3.4 Potential components of a gender analysis 19
Preface
M , ' ore than three decades have passed
since the issue of women's role in
development was first placed
squarely on the international agenda at the 1975
First World Conference on Women, held in
Mexico City. Since then numerous fundamen-
tal changes have been introduced by
policymakers and practitioners working on is-
sues related to low-income women in devel-
oping countries. Two issues stand out as
particularly noteworthy: the shift in focus from
women in development (WID) to gender and
development (GAD) and the widespread ef-
forts made to mainstream gender and devel-
opment into operational practice in a wide
range of government, nongovernmental, bilat-
eral, and multilateral institutions.
The World Bank is no exception. Over the
years different regions, departments, and di-
visions have sought to develop new policies,
approaches, and tools for mainstreaming gen-
der into the World Bank's operational work.
Despite these efforts the Bank still lacks a com-
mon, institution-wide rationale, common Ian-
guage, and clearly defined policy approach to
gender and development. Increasingly, coun-
try clients and operational staff have expressed
confusion regarding appropriate language, pro-
cedures, and tools to be used in their day-to-
day work.
v
The creation of the World Bank's Social De-
velopment (SDV)Family in 1997provided the
opportunity for a Bankwide review of existing
gender and development rationale, language,
and operational procedures from a socialdevel-
opment perspective, which could, in turn, con-
tribute toward mainstreaming gender and
social development into the Bank's lending and
nonlending operations at the policy, program,
and project level.
The review focused on a number of types of
World Bank materials, including gender-fo-
cused documents (such as gender policies,
country gender studies, and gender action
plans) and non-gender-specific documents
(such as social development and participation
action plans). It also included a brief review of
the gender policy documents of a number of
bilateral and multilateral development institu-
tions. In addition consultations were held with
staff both inside and outside the World Bank.
The review also examined the extent to which
social assessments, as the most important Bank
procedures related to social development, had
mainstreamed gender to provide guidelines to
assist task managers. Other Bankwide proce-
dures, such as poverty and environmental as-
sessments, remain to be reviewed.
Consultations with the Bank's Gender and
Social Development Thematic Team during the
vi MainstreamingGenderand Developmentin the WorldBank
course of the review led to the conclusion that
the findings could be of relevance to all Bank
staff concerned with the operational main-
streaming of gender and development. Conse-
quently, the document was expanded to be of
relevance throughout the Bank.
The findings and recommendations in this
volume cannot provide all the answers; ulti-
mately, a considerable amount of work remains
to create a Bankwide consensus on an issue as
complex as gender. Nevertheless, a stock-tak-
ing review of this sort is intended to contrib-
ute to the ongoing debate on mainstreaming
gender in development in the World Bank;
hopefully it will assist in reaching final conclu-
sions on this important process.
Caroline 0. N. Moser
Acknowledgments
T his volume is based on a review and
consultation process carried out between
February and July of 1997 by Caroline
0. N. Moser, in collaboration with consultants
Annika Tornqvist and Bernice van Bronkhorst,
for the Social Development Family of the En-
vironmentally and Socially Sustainable Devel-
opment Network of the World Bank, under the
direction of Gloria Davis.
A number of people assisted the authors in
this work; their contributions are gratefully ac-
knowledged. The World Bank's Gender and
Social Development Thematic Team provided
advice and consultation throughout the writ-
ing and review process. Members of the team
include Lynn Bennett, Mark Blackden, Maria
Correia, Christine Jones, Veena Mayani, Josette
Murphy, Michael Bamberger, Monica Fong,
Wendy Wakeman, Najma Siddiqi, and Sonomi
Tanaka. World Bank NGO liaison officers pro-
vided useful feedback during a session held at
the World Bank NGO Specialist Learning Fo-
rum in May 1997.
Gender specialists outside the World Bank
provided important alternative institutional
perspectives on mainstreaming gender into
their organizations. These included Misrak
Elias, chief, Gender and Development
Programme Section, UNICEF; Ana Maria
Brasileiro, chief, Latin America and the Carib-
vii
bean Section, UNIFEM; Rosina Wiltshire,
deputy director, Social Development and
Poverty Elimination Division/Bureau for
Policy and Programme Support (BBPS),United
Nations Development Programme(UNDP);
Sarah Murrison, programme officer, Social
Development and Poverty Elimination Divi-
sion/BBPS, UNDP; and Stephanie Urdang,
consultant.
Useful documentation was received from
gender specialists of the Canadian International
Development Agency, Swedish International
Development Agency, Danish International
Development Cooperation, Netherlands Devel-
opment Cooperation, and the British Depart-
ment of International Development. Support
for consultants was provided by both the Neth-
erlands and Swedish World Bank Consultant
Trust Funds.
This document was presented to the Gen-
der Board in February 1998; final Social Devel-
opment Family reviews and clearances for the
ESSD Series/Social Development Subseries
were provided by Lynn Bennett and Cecilia
Valdivieso of the World Bank.
The authors also wish to acknowledge the
editorial contributions of Alison Raphael, and
publishing coordination by Bonnie Bradford,
Alicia Hetzner, and Virginia Hitchcock.
Gaudencio Dizon desktopped the volume.
CHAPTER 1
Introduction
T his report presents the main findings of
a recently completed desk study under-
taken for the Social Development Fam-
ily of the World Bank's Environmentally and
Socially Sustainable Development (ESSD) Net-
work. The primary objectives of the review are
to: (a) identify the current rationale, language,
and underlying policy approach to Gender and
Development (GAD) adopted by the World
Bank; (b) evaluate the extent to which these
are shared across the institution; and (c) make
recommendations concerning future steps to-
ward mainstreaming gender in the World
Bank. Although the origins of the review re-
late to needs specifically identified by ESSD,
the issues raised go beyond social develop-
ment, and are relevant to all Bank staff con-
cerned with mainstreaming gender and
development into World Bank lending and
nonlending operations at the policy, program,
and project level.
Review Objectives and Background
As new substantive or sector-level concerns
arise (or reappear) on the development agenda,
agencies such as the World Bank, governments,
academics, and nongovernmental organiza-
tions (NGOs) all seek to reach institutional con-
sensus concerning definitions and usage. This
is essential to ensure consistently effective and
1
sustainable interventions.It requires agreement
on a common rationale, or justification, for the
importance of the issue-whether it arises in a
short mission statement, a 'business case,' or a
lengthy policy statement. The consensus must
also include acceptance of a common language
and an understanding of the policy approach(es),
or goals, underlying associated interventions.
Among the new issues that have arisen re-
cently are the environment and the redefinition
of poverty associated with the 1990 World Devel-
opment Report on poverty (World Bank 1990b),
1991 Poverty Strategy, and the Poverty Reduction
Handbook(World Bank 1993a). Another such is-
sue is gender; 20 years of work in this area has
placed it firmly on the World Bank's develop-
ment agenda (Murphy 1995; 1997). Reflecting
changingapproachesindevelopmentthinking,
first Women and Development and then Gen-
der and Development have been institutional-
ized in the Poverty Reduction and Economic
Management (PREM) Network's Gender Unit;
in regional gender units/focal points; and, most
recently, in the Social Development Family. The
1994policy paper, regional gender action plans,
and numerous sector-level interventions all
represent important initiatives designed to
operationalize gender concerns.
While World Bank task managers know that
gender matters, they are less clear on two im-
portant questions:
2 Mainstreaming Gender and Development in the World Bank
1. Does the World Bank have a common
rationale, language,and policy approachon
gender?
Poverty-focused task managers across the
Bank share a common rationale on poverty re-
duction that links labor-intensive growth, hu-
man capital, and safety nets. Is it not possible
for task managers mainstreaming gender con-
cerns collaboratively across sectors, disciplines,
and regions to share a common rationale on
gender and development?
2. What is a gender analysis?
Economists across the Bank share a common
understanding of the components of a cost-
benefit analysis. Do those concerned with
mainstreaming gender issues into operations
share a commonly agreed set of tools and tech-
niques?
In taking stock of the current status of gen-
der and development work at the World Bank,
this review is driven by a concern to address
these two questions. It was undertaken as a
consequence of a number of initiatives relat-
ing to the recent consolidation of the social de-
velopment agenda in the World Bank. These
include, first, the completion of the Task Group
Report, Social Development and Results on the
Ground; second, the establishment of a Social
Development Family within ESSD; and third,
the preparation of regional social development
action plans. In five out of six regions the inte-
gration of gender as a social development con-
cern was identified as one of three top
intervention priorities.
Two other recent, gender-focused interven-
tions in the World Bank have also identified
the importance of gender as a social develop-
ment concern. The recent Operations and
Evaluation Division (OED) Update on
mainstreaming gender noted that "efforts in the
Bank ...to understand the social dimensions of
development, and to involve stakeholders in
decisions that affect their lives...should include
gender concerns in order to be more effective."
(Murphy 1997,43). In addition the Report from
The Committee on Development Effectiveness
(CODE) on the OED Update stressed that "the
Social Development Family should include in
its forthcoming guidelines on social assess-
ments a discussion of how to link gender analy-
sis, stakeholder analysis, and social assess-
ments." (CODE 1997)
Methodology
This study is based on an extensive document
review and consultation process. Four sets of
documents were reviewed specifically in
terms of their gender rationale, language, and
the policy approaches underlying recom-
mended interventions. These documents in-
clude:
1. Formally cleared World Bank documents
with a gender focus, includingpolicy papers;
country strategies; and regional-level social,
participation, and gender action plans
2. Gender and development policy documen-
tation from various bilateral and multilat-
eral institutions
3. Selected social assessments, as the most im-
portant social development procedures,
were reviewed in terms of their integration
of gender analysis1
4. Selected literature reviews of gender and de-
velopment theory and practice.
Consultations were held with a variety of
interested parties, including: World Bank staff
both within and outside of ESSD, visiting World
Bank NGO Liaison/Social Analysis officers
from field offices, GAD staff at various New
York-based United Nations agencies, and rep-
resentatives of bilateral development agencies.
The World Bank's Gender and Social Develop-
ment Thematic Team provided an important
peer-review function, commenting on early
drafts and participating in a feedback session
on the findings organized by the Leadership
and Learning Center (LLC).
The review adopts familiar working defini-
tions of a number of basic gender and develop-
ment concepts. These include "sex and gender,"
"gender relations," "gender roles," and the
critical distinction between WID and GAD (see
box 1.1).
To undertake a comparative review it is also
necessary to define a set of common organiz-
ing concepts with which to compare World
Bank gender-focused documentation. These are
derived from the extensive international gen-
der and development analytical literature and

Box 1.1 Brief definitions of basic gender and development concepts
Sex and gender.While sex refers to the biological
state of being male or female, gender refers to the
socially defined aspects of being male or female.
Genderrelations.This refers not to men or women,
but to the social relationships between them; like
relations of class, ethnicity, nationality, and religion,
gender relations are socially constructed. They vary
across time and culture and are not fixed or immu-
table.
Genderroles.Those activities that are considered
by a given culture to be appropriate to a women or a
Sources:WorldBank(1994a);Moser (1989,1993);Overholtand others (1985);Pfannenschmidtand McKay(1997).
its associated operational tools and analytical
techniques. Four organizing concepts were
identified to examine the gender rationale, lan-
guage, and framework in each document (see
box 1.2).
Diversity/differentiation. The first organizing
concept identifies whether the document refers
to men's and women's differences, either bio-
logical or social. More specifically, it reviews
whether each document explicitly acknowl-
edges gender roles, divisions of labor, or prac-
tical gender needs. Recognition of gender
"difference" or "diversity," however, does not
Box 1.2 Organizing concepts to assess gender and development rationale, language,
and policy approach
Diversity/differentiation
* Biological (sex)
* Social relations (gender) identified through:
* Roles (reproductive, productive, commu-
nity)
* Gender division of labor/resources
* Practical gender needs/interests
Disparity/accessto and controlover resources
and power
* Access (rights) to household and community-
based assets such as land and housing, labor, ser-
vices, credit, knowledge
* Strategic gender needs/interests
* Control (power over) of these same assets
* Control (power over) of decisionmaking
Sources:Overholt and others (1985);Moser (1989,1993);SEGA (1996);Longwe (1994);UN (1995).
Introduction 3
man. In most societies women have a triple role, in-
cluding reproductive, productive, and community
management activities,while men undertake produc-
tive and community political activities.
Women in Development(WID) or Genderand De-
velopment(GAD).While WID identifies women as a
special, or separate, interest group, GAD identifies
gender as an integral part of a development strat-
egy.Under GAD the situation of women is no longer
analyzed independently of, but rather in relation to,
that of men.
necessarily imply an analysis of the underly-
ing reasons for such differentiation. 2
Disparity in accessto and controlover resources
and power. The second organizing concept ad-
dresses women's and men's access to and con-
trol over resources and power. "Disparity"
refers to the imbalance in power relations be-
tween women and men, both in terms of
decisionmaking and access to and control
over resources. "Access" refers to use rights,
and "control" refers to power over decision-
making regarding resource allocation. 3 This
concept provides a deeper analysis of the dy-
Social institutions where constraints and opportunities
occurin access,power,or participation
* Household: Intrahousehold access and control
* Inside/outside
* Community: Village committees/councils
* Market: Firms, corporations, farms, labor markets
* State: Legal, administrative, military, police
* Development institutions
Stated WID/GAD policy
* Welfare
* Antipoverty
* Equity
* Efficiency
* Empowerment/autonomy
* Equality
4 MainstreamingGenderand Developmentin the World Bank
namics of social relations between men and
women, and why they may or may not
change.
Social institutions in which constraints and op-
portunities occur in access,power, or participation.
The third organizing concept examines social
structures by identifying institutional levels
where opportunities and constraints may
exist for women and men in terms of access
to power and participation. The six types of
social institutions identified here are not nec-
essarily mutually exclusive; social institu-
tions may exist at the household, community,
market, level. Additionall
state or social in-
market, or state level. Additionally, social in-
stitutions may be further characterized as in-
side/outside, 4 or development institutions. 5
This concept captures some of the structural
barriers and opportunities in institutions that
the concepts of "diversity" and "disparity" are
not able to cover,
Stated WID/GAD policy. The fourth organiz-
ing concept identifies the policy of the docu-
ment, whether stated or implied, regarding its
WID or GAD approach. Policies are identified
as welfare, antipoverty, equity, efficiency, em-
powerment, and finally, equality. 6 The identifi-
cation of a policy approach reflects the
underlying rationale for implementing a par-
ticular strategy. The application of these con-
cepts is illustrated in the detailed review of a
variety of World Bank documents in appendixes
1-4.7
Notes
1. See forthcoming Social Development Note en-
titled "Mainstreaming Gender into Social Assess-
ments," to be published by the Social Development
Family.
2. The concept of gender diversity/differentiation
is universal to all gender and development frame-
works, including the Gender Planning Methodology
(Moser 1989,1993),the Harvard Framework (Overholt
and others 1985),and the Longwe Method/Women's
Empowerment Framework (UNICEF 1994).
3. For detailed discussions on access to, and control
over, resources and power see the Harvard Framework
(Overholt and others 1985).
4. In her work on East Asia Lynn Bennett makes a
distinction between the private and public spheres;
women work primarily in the private sphere of the
home, carrying out reproductive tasks, while men are
outside the home in the public sphere where economic
and political power is transacted (Bennett n.d.).
5. This draws on the social relations framework,
from the Institute of Development Studies, Sussex (see
Kabeer 1994).
6. The first four policy approaches are drawn from
Moser's work on gender planning (Moser 1989;
1993). Equality, the most recent policy approach, was
added after the Fourth International Conference on
Women, held in Beijing in 1995 (UN 1995). (For fur-
ther description of policy approaches see chapter 3. )
7. To systematize the findings from the different
documents reviewed, key concepts of diversity (D),
access to and control over resources (A/C) and insti-
tutional level (L) are all included within the key con-
cept column. For each document the goal/rationale
and policy approach is separately identified. Figures
in parentheses refer to the page number of the reviewed
document.
CHAPTER 2
Review Findings: Searching for a Common,
Bankwide Gender Rationale and Language
T he followingfive findings synthesizethe
conclusions of the review:
1. World Bank policy documents on gen-
der lack a common conceptual ratio-
nale, language, and underlying policy
approach.
2. World Bank country gender studies and
strategies-including gender action
plans-vary extensively in terms of their
conceptual rationale and language.
3. World Bank staff express a need to de-
velop a common gender rationale and
language, as well as tools and training
for mainstreaming gender and devel-
opment.
4. Most bilaterals and multilaterals are
adopting a policy approach to gender
that integrates equality and people-
centered sustainable development, re-
flecting a combination of the messages
from the Rio, Copenhagen, and Beijing
summits.
5. World Bank socially related action plans
have limited success in integrating gen-
der as a social development priority.
Each of these conclusions is discussed in
detail below, along with the implications for
World Bank policy and programs.
5
Finding 1: WorldBank Gender Policy
World Bank policy documents on gender lacka com-
mon conceptual rationale, language, and underly-
ing policy approach.
The study reviewed four recent World Bank
policy documents. The first two set out the
Bank's policy on gender and development and
provide the operational directive that under-
pins it (see appendix 1).
* Enhancing Women's Participation in Economic
Development, World Bank Policy Paper
(1994a)
* "The Gender Dimension of Development,"
World Bank Operational Policy (O.P. 4.20)
(1994b)
The second two documents were originally
prepared by the World Bank for distribution at
the 1995 Fourth World Conference on Women
at Beijing (Beijing Conference), and as such do
not present specific Bank policy, although they
raise a number of relevant issues about the
institution's policy and operational work.
* Towards Gender Equality: The Role of Public
Policy,Development in Practice Series (1995i)
* Advancing Gender Equality: From Concept to
Action (1995a)
The review identified a general movement
away from a "Women in Development" (WID)
6 MainstreamingGenderand Developmentin the World Bank
approach toward one of "Gender and Devel-
opment" (GAD) (see box 2.1). This shift did not
occur in isolation. Just as in past decades para-
digms for economic development have shifted,
so too views about women's role in the devel-
opment process have undergone changes as
women's contribution to development has been
reassessed. In this respect the World Bank con-
curs with the development community, follow-
ing rather than leading bilaterals, NGOs, and
other U.N. agencies in developing both policy
and operational directives on GAD (Buvinic
and others 1996). Momentum gathered during
the 1980s, but it was not until 1994 that the
World Bank formulated a specific policy,
Despite this overall shift, however, there is
still a widespread tendency to "mix," or con-
fuse, approaches. For example, the World
Bank's 1994 Gender Policy (1994a) starts by
identifying GAD as its framework, but fre-
quently refers to women as a separate target
group, rather than identifying women's priori-
ties or needs in terms of men's; in addition the
term gender is used interchangeably with
women, such that the distinction between the
two is not clear and the terms are often con-
fused.
Box 2.1 WID or GAD?
Description Women in development
Approach * An approach that views women as
the problem
Focus * Women
Problem * The exclusion of women (half the
productive resources) from the
development process
Goal * More efficient, effective development
Solution * Integrate women into the development
process
Strategies * Women's projects
* Women's components
* Integrated projects
* Increase women's productivity
* Increase women's income
* Increase women's ability to look after
the household
Source:Dayal and others (1993).
The accompanying Operational Policy
(1994b)identifies policies in terms of gender,but
target groups in terms of womenas a separate
group. For example, in the first paragraph, the
document states that: "The Bank aims to reduce
genderdisparities and enhance women's partici-
pation.' Similarly, it proposes "gender-sensitive"
policies, but as a means of improving women's
access to assets and services.
In terms of policy approaches there has been
a shift from a welfarepolicy approachtargeting
women as a "vulnerable group," to one that
emphasizes economicefficiency,which is identi-
fied as a direct link to the World Bank's
overarching mandate of poverty reduction. The
Bank's policy paper on gender, for instance,
emphasizes the importance of "focusing on
strong economic arguments showing that
women can and must play a role in economic
development." (1994a, 15)
Coinciding with preparations for the 1995
Beijing Conference, the Bank's Gender Policy
also, however, endorsed a concern for social
justice, stating that: "Investing in women is
thus an important part of development strat-
egy as well as a matter of Social Justice" (1995i,
14).
Gender and development
* An approach to development
* Relations between men and women
* Unequal relations of power (rich and
poor, women and men) that prevent eq-
uitable development and participation
* Equitable, sustainable development with
both women and men as decisionmakers
* Empower the disadvantaged and women;
transform unequal relations
* Identify/address practical needs deter-
mined by women and men to improve
their condition
* At the same time, address women's
strategic interests
* Address strategic interests of the poor
through people-centered development
 Review Findings 7

Both of the World Bank documents pre-
pared for distribution at the Beijing Confer-
ence refer to equality linked to efficiency as
their underlying policy approach (see box 2.2).
In the introduction, for instance, "Toward Gen-
der Equality: The Role of Public Policy" states:
Persistent inequality between women and
men constrains a society's productivity
and, ultimately, slows its economic
growth ...This report is intended as a ref-
erence to strategies for promoting gender
equality and, consequently, enhancing eco-
nomic efficiency. (1995i, vii)
One of the most innovative aspects of the
Beijing documents was the introduction and
detailed analysis of intrahousehold dynamics,
including a discussion of the unitary and col-
lective household models. Here again, links to
inequality are highlighted, as demonstrated
by the following statement: "In recent years
attempts to explain persistent gender in-
equalities in the accumulation and use of
human capital have focused on the key role
of household decisionmaking and the process
of resource allocation within households."
(1995i, 21).
Despite the challenging approach intro-
duced in the Beijing document-linking equal-
ity to efficiency-the review found that this has
not been adopted across the board as the Bank's
policy approach to gender. While economic ef-
ficiency (not necessarily linked to equality) is
probably the single most common approach
adopted, it is by no means universal. An eclec-

Box 2.2 WID/GAD policy approaches, 1970-90

Approach Description

Welfare Earliest approach, 1950-70. Its original purpose was to bring women into development as
better mothers. Women are seen as passive beneficiaries of development. It recognizes the
reproductive role of women and seeks to meet practical gender needs/priorities in that
role through top-down provision of food aid, measures against malnutrition, and family
planning.
Equity The original WID approach, used in the 1975-85 U.N. Women's Decade. Its purpose is to
gain equity for women, who are seen as active participants in development. It recognizes
women's triple role, and seeks to meet strategic gender needs/priorities through direct
state intervention, by giving political and economic autonomy and reducing inequality
with men. It challenges women's subordinate position.
Antipoverty The second WID approach, a toned down version of equity, adopted from the 1970s on-
wards. Its purpose is to enhance the productivity of low-income women. Women's pov-
erty is seen as a problem of underdevelopment, not subordination. It recognizes the
productive role of women and seeks to meet their practical gender needs/priorities to
eam an income, particularly in small-scale, income-generating projects.
Efficiency The third WID approach, adopted particularly since the 1980s debt crisis. Its purpose is to
ensure that development is more efficient and effective through women's economic con-
tribution, with participation often equated with equity. It seeks to meet practical gender
needs/priorities while relying on all three roles and an elastic concept of women's time.
Empowerment The first post-WID approach, articulated by women in developing countries. Its purpose
is to empower women through greater self reliance. It recognizes the triple role, and seeks
to meet strategic gender needs/priorities indirectly, through bottom-up mobilization of
practical gender needs.
Equality The most recent GAD approach, emerging from the Fourth World Conference on Women
(Beijing, 1995), and widely adopted by governments and aid agencies. It introduces equal-
ity as a human right, and emphasizes that power-sharing and more equitable partner-
ships between women and men are political, social, and economic prerequisites for
sustainable, people-centered development.

Sources:Moser (1989,1993); UN (1995).

8 MainstreamingGenderand Developmentin the World Bank
tic approach relying on a combination of all five
policy approaches is more common.
Finding 2: World Bank Country Gender
Studies, Strategies, and Regional Gender
Action Plans
World Bank country gender studies and strategies-
including gender action plans-vary extensively in
terms of their conceptualrationale and language.
World Bank work on gender and development
at the program and project level is highly di-
verse. There is ample variation not only in the
quality of analysis, but also in the concepts and
frameworks used by different regions and,
within them, different sectors. A review of a
number of the Country Studies series (1989-93)
reflects this heterogeneity. (See appendix 2 for
a detailed, comprehensive matrix.)
* The Kenya Country Study (1989a) focused
on women's roles in agriculture, treating
women as a separate group rather than ex-
amining their roles in relation to those of men.
• The Turkey Country Study (1993), in con-
trast, analyzed changes in gender relations
as the economy underwent a transition from
agricultural production to industrialization.
Key concepts such as gender-segregated la-
bor markets, disparities, and gaps reflect an
analysis that takes into account differences
and institutions outside the household.
* The South Asian Country Studies (1989b,
1990, 1991) introduced a very different ap-
proach to gender and development with their
key concept of "inside/outside (private/pub-
lic) dichotomy." According to these studies:
Part of the cultural definition of the fe-
male in India is her association with the
inside,the home and courtyard where the
family is cared for. This in contrast to
males who belong outside in the fields
and the bazaar, where livelihoods are
earned and economic and political
power is transacted. Since education,
healthcare, and labor force participation
all involve interaction with the "out-
side," girls and women face special bar-
riers in these areas. (1991)
This concept relates, to some extent, to dif-
ferentiation, access, and control, as well as level
of institutions, but is region-specific. The house-
hold is identified as a collective and the site of
gender-basedpower variationsand motivations.The
emphasis is on removing gender-specific con-
straints and increasing women's access to key
inputs.
This review also identified variation within
the same region (see appendix 2). While all
three studies in the South Asia Region use the
concept of inside/outside dichotomy, they dif-
fer in the use of other key concepts:
* The India Country Study (1991) uses the con-
cept of gender and discusses "...ultimately
changing the prevailing gender ideology."
* The Country Study on Pakistan (1989b), in
contrast, does not use the term gender but
refers instead to women, identifying them as
a separate, vulnerable group, and using
terms such as "disadvantaged" and "dis-
crimination."
Other regional-level efforts, such as World
Bank country gender strategies, also show dif-
ferences in language and concepts used. For
instance:
* The Nigeria Strategy (1992) focuses on un-
derstanding gender relations,women's multiple
roles, and triple burden' and analyzing
women's productive and reproductive roles.
It also focuses on gender-specificconstraints to
"human capital" and "economic productiv-
ity," and gives specific recommendations on
how to remove these constraints in different
sectors and at different levels, such as train-
ing, health, agriculture, and the legal system.
* The El Salvador (Gender Approach) Strat-
egy (1996d), in contrast, focuses on gender
differencesand stereotypes,gender-basedbehav-
ioraldifferences,discriminatorypracticesand on
how to "gender" institutions, recommending
measures to mainstream gender into insti-
tutions undergoing modernization in a post-
conflict context.
During the past three years World Bank re-
gions have prepared and implemented a num-
ber of mandated action plans relevant to gender
and social development. These include not only
gender action plans (1997e), but also partici-
pation and social development action plans.

Regional gender action plans (RGAPs) reflect
a variation in depth and use of concepts and
frameworks similar to that of the country stud-
ies and strategies (see appendix 3A). Justifica-
tion and stated policy vary widely, as the
following examples from two very different
regions of the world illustrate:
* The Latin America and Caribbean (LAC)
Gender Proposal "sets out a program to pro-
mote gender-responsive development...that is,
development that considers gender differ-
ences and constraints, and works towards re-
ducing gender barriers."(1997b)
* The Africa Region Gender Action Plan
(1997a) identifies gender as an issue of eco-
nomic efficiency,stating that: "By identifying
gender differentials in economic capacity as
a key strategic issue for Africa, the RGAP
reflects the centrality of gender in Africa's
economic development... .Gender-based dis-
crimination limits economic growth. This
discrimination markedly affects macroeco-
nomic efficiency and equity."
The RGAPs illustrate the critical importance
of contextualizing gender analysis and strat-
egy within region-specific circumstances. The
concepts used reflect regional similarities as
much as differences-at times also including
the dominant paradigms coming from the re-
gions' women's NGOs and academics. The fol-
lowing example of the types of language
differences that predominate in RGAPs from
different regions reflects this diversity:
* Africa/ECA: Gender roles and differentiation
* South Asia: Gender ideology,gender-baseddis-
parities, inside/outside dichotomy
* LAC: Gender-responsivedevelopment.
Some RGAPs are highly detailed, with coun-
try gender profiles and individually tailored
strategies for the different countries in the re-
gion. The Asia Region, for example, has gen-
der profiles for most of its countries. Planned
interventions, nevertheless, vary from the very
practical to the more strategic. For example:
* South and East Asia have sets of country-
specific actions and a set of region-wide
actions. (1997h; 1996b)
* Latin America and the Caribbean has a gen-
eral strategy for the whole region. (LAC
Capacity Building on Gender 1997b and f)
ReviewFindings 9
* The ECA Region has adopted a strategy of
"selectivity in terms of focusing on gender
issues that have potentially large payoffs in
terms of welfare and efficiency gains." (ECA
Gender Action Plan 1997c, 1)
Concepts used in World Bank work on gen-
der and development vary to reflect regional
variations in the nature and intensity of gen-
der-based disparities, as well as the receptiv-
ity of client governments. But even taking these
variations into consideration, the concepts are
frequently not clearly defined. Consequently,
the same term may be used in different way,
making it particularly difficult to develop
Bankwide indicators. For example, OED's
evaluation of Gender in World Bank Lending
Programs (Murphy 1995; 1997) uses the con-
cept, "gender-related activity." Lack of a clear
definition as to what constitutes such an activ-
ity not only means that it may refer to very dif-
ferent interventions, but also results in
unsystematic monitoring of the mainstreaming
of gender and development issues into World
Bank lending operations.
The fact that OED was unable to use more
specific indicators reflects the lack of a
Bankwide set of definitions of key concepts and
limits the utility of current evaluations. Recog-
nition of the confusion resulting from the lack
of a common rationale or clarity on concepts
led Murphy to conclude her OED study by stat-
ing: "What is needed is a conceptual framework
or an agreed upon mode of analyzing and us-
ing a gender perspective that suits or broad-
ens the institution's objectives and information
requirements. (Murphy 1995,107)
Finding 3: World Bank Staff Consultations
World Bank staff express a need to develop a com-
mon gender rationaleand language,as well as tools
and training for mainstreaming gender and devel-
opment.
Consultations held for this review showed that
World Bank staff, such as task-managers and
NGO liaison officers, have experienced prob-
lems as a consequence of the confusion in the
Bank's rationale and language on gender. In
one Central American country, for instance,
10 MainstreamingGenderand Developmentin the World Bank
country clients experienced problems when dif-
ferent task managers working within the same
project used different justifications and lan-
guage for gender. While some viewed women
as a separate "vulnerable group," suggesting a
welfare approach, others recognized the impor-
tance of incorporating women into the project
to ensure its effectiveness.
In addition participants at the recent NGO
liaison officer (NGOLO) Specialist Learning
Forum argued that they can only communicate
clear messages on gender and social develop-
ment to NGOs and civil society in their coun-
tries if the World Bank is clear on its gender
rationale and language. Ensuring that staff
across the institution understand each other-
in field offices as much as in Washington-re-
quires the development of a common set of
appropriate tools and techniques and their dis-
semination through training. Representatives
from the Africa Region, in particular, priori-
tized the need for such tools and training (see
box 2.3).
Finally, peer review by members of the Gen-
der and Social Development Thematic Team
provided an important confirmation of the
need to develop an overall, Bankwide common
rationale and language. While the team agreed
that some lack of clarity is consistent with fun-
damental shifts occurring as the Bank's core
mission has expanded from growth to poverty
Box 2.3 Consultations on rationale and language for gender and social development
The NGO Specialist Learning Forum was held in
May 1997 for Bank mission-based NGO liaison of-
ficers. During preparation the NGO coordinator
found that participants did not identify gender as a
priority issue. Nevertheless, given the importance
of participation, social development, and gender
action plans to NGOLO work programs, the forum
included a one-hour session on "Gender Analysis:
Main-streamning Gender into Social Development.
After a brief overview of preliinnary review find-
ings, regional focus groups discussed the rationale
for gender and social development as it relates to
each region. This limited knowledge of gender by
NGOLOs led to a clearly articulated demand from
various regions for appropriate tools and techniques
to mainstream gender into participation and social
development work. Training was identified as criti-
cal, particularly by African NGOLOs.
reduction (and most recently to inclusion and
social justice), the team also noted that this is
not an excuse for careless language or a lack of
conceptual rigor. Within a common Bankwide
rationale and language, regional-level justifi-
cations will vary in focus and emphasis; the
critical point is that the two should not contra-
dict each other (see box 2.3).
Finding 4: The Global Agenda on Gender:
Equality and Sustainable Development
Most bilaterals and multilaterals are adopting a
policy approachto gender that integrates equality
and people-centeredsustainabledevelopment,reflect-
ing a combination of the messages from the Rio,
Copenhagen,and Beijing summits.
This review also examined the rationale, lan-
guage, and policy approach to gender and de-
velopment in a number of development agencies
outside the World Bank. This process involved a
review of the policy documents of several bilat-
eral agencies, as well as consultations with New
York-based U.N. agencies such as the United
Nations Development Programme (UNDP), the
United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), and
the United Nations Development Fund for
Women (UNIFEM).
The review revealed that, as with different
parts of the World Bank, the level to which a
Consultations were also held with the Gender
and Social Development Thematic Team at the So-
cial Development Family Retreat in May, 1997, pro-
viding an opportunity to share interim findings. Two
questions served as the basis for discussion:
1. Do we need a common language for gender and
social development?
Docia neelommont?
2. Docwe need ommntider
While the group agreed on the need for Bankwide
agreement on definitions of analytical concepts-
using a common language and framework-the ra-
tionale or justification for gender and social
development may vary according to region. Never-
theless, throughout operations it is important to
move away from a rationale that defines women as
victims or as a vulnerable group.

clear rationale has been developed varied be-
tween and within different agencies. Neverthe-
less, a number of informative trends can be
identified. First, an institution-wide common
mission statement, or guiding principle, is con-
sidered to be an essential starting point by all
agencies. Such a statement should be crafted
after considerable discussion and debate to
ensure institutional consensus. In this regard
other agencies seem to be far less concerned
with regional differences than is the case in the
World Bank.
Second, the current rationale on gender and
development in the agencies consulted has
been heavily influenced by the concepts intro-
duced during the three recent U.N. conferences
addressing socioeconomic issues, culminating
in the 1995 Fourth World Conference on
Women. Key concepts from each of these inter-
national conferences are reflected in the final
Beijing document.
• The U.N. Conference on Environment and
Development (UNCED) held in Rio de
Janeiro in 1992, for example, identified the
concept of "sustainable development,"
bringing environmental concerns to the core
of the development process.
* The Social Summit, held in Copenhagen in
1995,introduced "people-centered develop-
ment," reflecting the need for a participatory
approach.
* The Beijing Platform for Action incorporated
a policy of empowerment at all levels, and
introduced a rationale of equality as a hu-
man right:
Equality between women and men is a
matter of human rights and a condition
for social justice and is also a necessary
and fundamental prerequisite for equal-
ity, development, and peace. A trans-
formed partnership based on equality
betweenwomen and men is a conditionfor
people-centeredsustainable development.
(UN 1995) [Emphasis added.]
Third, as illustrated in box 2.4, bilateral and
UN agencies each maintain their own indi-
vidual rationale on gender. At the same time,
to varying degrees, they have adopted the poli-
Review Findings 11
cies of the Beijing Platform for Action, recog-
nizing the importance of equality as a human
right to people-centered development.
The following examples highlight some of
the rationales and language and policy ap-
proaches adopted by different agencies.
* Canada's CIDA treats gender relations and
differences within an equity and efficiency
approach.
* The Development Action Committee, which
serves as the OECD's counseling body on
gender, has adopted equality as a develop-
ment goal, as have Britain's ODA and
Sweden's Sida.
* The Netherlands in contrast, uses the con-
cept of autonomy as the pillar of its policy.
Despite such differences in language, all
these institutions not only have clearly defined
mission statements, but also identify equality
at all levels in society as a policy goal. Such de-
velopments provide useful lessons for the
World Bank as it moves toward formulating its
own approach.
Finding 5: World Bank Socially Related
Action Plans
World Bank socially related action plans have lim-
ited success in integrating gender as a socialdevel-
opment priority.
Turning to the specific challenges presented by
the recent consolidation of the World Bank's
social development agenda, the review exam-
ined the different development action plans.
The Bank embarked on a process of addressing
social development in 1995 by mandating the
regions to prepare and implement participation
action plans (PAPs). The institution was seek-
ing "opportunities to support government ef-
forts to promote a more enabling environment
for participatory development within client
countries"(World Bank 1994b).
Assessment of PAPs from a gender perspec-
tive shows that, with the exception of Middle
East and North Africa (MENA) and East Asia,
the plans do not incorporate gender as a di-
mension or component of participation. Both
the MENA and East Asia PAPs mention women
as a marginal or "voiceless" group that, as stake-
12 MainstreamingGenderand Developmentin the World Bank
Box 2.4 Current GAD rationales in selected international agencies
Organisation of Economic Co-Operation and Develop-
ment (OECD)/Development Action Committee (DAC)
GenderActions Framework
"To uphold human rights and to achieve sustain-
able, people-centered development, equality in the
roles and treatment of men and women is essential.
Adopting gender equality ....is viewed as a central
issue for society." (UN 1995)
Swedish International Development Agency (Sida)
"Gender equality is a development goal in itself. The
focus on gender equality makes visible the interde-
pendence of the spheres of production and repro-
duction, between paid and unpaid work, and
provides a basis for the formulation of strategies in
support of equitable human development ...Gender
equality is one of the four strategic foundations in
Sida, alongside poverty elimination, democratic de-
velopment, human rights, and sustainable develop-
ment." (Sida 1995, 7)
Overseas Development Administration (ODA), United
Kingdom
"The reduction of gender inequality is not only a
goal in its own right, but also a significant contribu-
tion towards sustainable development. ODA aims
to tackle disparities between men and women
throughout society.. .This also means supporting
women's efforts to achieve partnership in political
and economic decisionmaking, to exercise their hu-
man rights." (ODA 1996, 3)
Canadian International Development Agency
(CIDA)
"CIDA is committed to ensuring that its develop-
ment activities benefit women as well as
men... Investing in women leads to lasting economic
growth, improved family welfare, a reduction in
holders, needs to be included to mainstream
participatory approaches (see box 2.5). The East
Asia PAP goes further by focusing on gender
as a key area of emphasis for the region.
Social Development and Results on the Ground
(World Bank 1996h), the report of the Task
Group set up to consolidate the Bank's social
development agenda, points to the critical im-
portance of social development in the follow-
ing terms:
The development paradigm has evolved
...to a more people-centered approach that
poverty, and a more equitable distribution of the
socioeconomic benefits of development." (CIDA
1995, 4)
The Netherlands Ministryfor Foreign Affairs
"The concept of autonomy, which refers to author-
ity, freedom, and opportunity for each individual,
should be understood in the framework of combat-
ing poverty and inequality on the grounds of class,
gender, and race ...Development cooperation based
on the principle of autonomy for women means en-
dorsing a vision of the distribution of power in all
its manifestations." (Netherlands, Ministry for For-
eign Affairs 1992, 14-15)
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)
"The human development paradigm, which puts
people at the center of its concems, must be fully
engendered. Equality of rights between women and
men must be enshrined as a fundamental principle.
Legal, economic, political, or cultural barriers that
prevent the exercise of equal rights should be iden-
tified and removed .... The engendered development
model ...should not predetermine how different so-
cieties exercise these choices. What is important is
that equal opportunities to make a choice exist for
both men and women." (UNDP 1995)
United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF)
"UNICEF is accelerating its advocacy for universal
ratification of the Convention on the Rights of the
Child (CRC), a task almost accomplished, and the
Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Dis-
crimination Against Women (CEDAW). In its work
with countries to promote implementation of the
conventions, UNICEF places priority [on] support-
ing a gender-sensitive 'rights' approach to programs
for children and women." (UNICEF 1995)
recognizes human and social capital as
critical factors in sustainable development
....Poverty reduction is now the overarch-
ing objective of our activities. Human re-
source development has grown from a
fringe Bank activity to one of our largest
sectors ... But much remains to be done. In
spite of economic growth, inequity and
social alienation persist and are often
increasing .... To take account of these
changes, the social dimensions of devel-
opment need to be fully incorporated into
the work of the Bank.
 ReviewFindings 13

The Task Group report identified gender as
one of the top intervention priorities for the fol-
lowing two reasons:
(1) "Women's participation in economic and
social development is essential both for pro-
moting economic efficiency and for reduc-
ing poverty." (5)
(2) "Gender is a major social factor in achiev-
ing growth and equity, therefore projects
need to mainstream gender" (see appen-
dixes 2 and 4).
As part of the process of mainstreaming so-
cial development concems, the Bank's regions
were mandated to formulate social develop-

Box 2.5 Mainstreaming gender into participation and social development action plans

Action plan Genderincluded Genderstrategy

LAC Participation (1995f) No n.a.

LAC Social Develop- Yes Gender treated as a separate priority area; not integrated.
ment (1996f) Refers to RGAP: "Integrating stronger targeting, delivery, and
monitoring/ evaluation systems to address gender issues."
MENA Participation Yes Use of participatory techniques to support the mainstreaming
(19 9 5g) of stakeholder involvement in its development work. Women
treated as a separate "underrepresented or marginalized"
group.
MENA Social Develop- n.a. n.a.
ment (1996)
ECA Participation (1995e) No n.a.
ECA Social Development Yes Refers to RGAP integrating gender in labor market, health,
(1996e) land and capital assets, ethnicity, and (where relevant)
conflict. Local capacity building. Prepared several gender
issue papers.
AFRICA Participation No n.a.
(1995b)
AFRICA Social Develop- Yes Strategic gender initiatives; gender analysis, and planning
ment (1996a) integral to participatory CAS and projects with social assess-
ments; women in context of "specific social groups." Refers
to RGAP.
SAS Participation (1995) No n.a.
SAS Social Development Yes Gender treated as integral part of social development
(1996i) (mainstreamed). Gender is key area of emphasis. Gender
and participation action plans complement the social
development action plan.
EAP Participation (1995c) Yes Mainstream participatory approaches to encompass primary
stakeholders and "voiceless" groups. Key emphasis in social
screening data sheet is gender.
EAP Social Development Yes Gender treated as integral part of social development. "To
1996c) provide people-centered development;" gender, participation,
and social development action plans are complementary.
ESD Participation (1995) Yes Gender is not mentioned in main document, only referred to
in the section on Urban Water and Sanitation: community
men and women (7); gender tool kit (9)
14 Mainstreaming Gender and Development in the World Bank
ment action plans. Most regions that have pro-
duced such plans have integrated gender. How-
ever, there is great variation between regions
in terms of the depth and approaches taken.
For example, Latin America and the Caribbean
treats gender as a separate social development
priority area to be addressed by LAC's regional
gender action plan, while the South and East
Asia development action plans have
mainstreamed gender into all of their social de-
velopments strategies.
The most visible conclusion of the review of
all regional participation, social development,
and gender action plans produced so far is that
they are essentially free-standing documents.
With the exception of the Africa Region,
which has folded the PAP and the gender
action plan into a single comprehensive so-
cial development action plan, there is no sys-
tematic coordination between the different
plans. The extent to which coordination will
occur in practice depends on the institutional
structures and operational procedures devel-
oped for main-streaming such concerns (see
box 2.5).
Note
1. The triple burden comprises productive, repro-
ductive, and community management responsibilities
(Moser1993).
CHAPTER 3
Mainstreaming Gender in the World Bank:
Recommendations
O verall, this review points to the need
for a Bankwide rationale and frame-
work that sets out the fundamental
reasons for mainstreaming gender and devel-
opment into operational practice. This neces-
sarily includes agreement on a common
language-rather than the current situation in
which, for instance, the terms gender and women
are often used interchangeably. Finally, linked
to both the common rationale and language,
is the need for consensus on an underlying
broad policy approach, or approaches, within
which differences in regional emphasis can be
accommodated.
Answers to such complex issues go well
beyond the scope of this review. Nevertheless,
the following section provides some very ru-
dimentary ideas as to how this might be
accomplished.
Recommendation 1: Define a Rationale and
Framework for Gender and Development
As a recent "state of the art" review (Pfannen-
schmidt and McKay 1997) stated, three main
theoretical frameworks for integrating gender
issues into development work tend to under-
pin all subsequent writing on the topic. The
authors summarize these as follows:
* The Harvard Framework, the first developed,
underscores the importance of examining,
among other things, who does what, who
15
owns what, and who controlswhat within a
community. (Overholt and others 1985)
* The Moser Methodology breaks gender-
specific needs into practical needs and stra-
tegic interests, thereby providing a means
of determining whether gender-specific
needs will have only a practical benefit or
will have a strategic, equity-enhancing
impact. The methodology further defines
the concept of women's triple role in rela-
tion to men's dual role (Moser 1993). (See
box 3.1.)
* The Longwe Framework outlines a concep-
tual continuum of women's empowerment.
(Longwe 1994)
The critical point is that the three frame-
works build upon, and complement, one
another. Therefore, most development organi-
zations work with a combination of the key con-
cepts from the three frameworks, rather than
any one alone.
Consultations with task managers and the
Gender and Social Development Thematic Team
on early drafts of this review generated an
institution-wide debate on the need to identify
a common rationale. Two approaches, "eco-
nomic efficiency" and "equality," were identi-
fied as those most commonly used within the
World Bank.
1. Economicefficiency.The focus is on gender
differences;the key objective is the achievement
16 MainstreamingGenderand Developmentin the World Bank
Box 3.1 Defining a rationale and framework for GAD: The "Moser Methodology'
of gender planning
* The goal of gender planning is the emancipa-
tion of women from their subordination, and
their achievement of equality, equity, and em-
powerment.
* The knowledge base explored in recent feminist
and WID/GAD development debates provides
the conceptual rationale for several key analyti-
cal principles, relating to gender roles and prac-
tical and strategic gender needs, as well as to
control over resources and decisionmaking in the
household, civilsociety,and the state (that is, the
recognition that because men and women have
different positions within the household and
different degrees of access to and control over
resources, they not only play different and
Source: Moser (1989, 1993).
of economic growth. Differences can be based
on:
* Sex/gender (social relations)
* Roles (reproductive/productive/commu-
nity)
* Gender division of labor/resources
* Practical gender needs/activities.
This approach does not implicitly assume
that gender inequality is an issue; therefore, it
is not seen as confrontational.
2. Equality.The focus is on gender disparities;
the key objective is to reduce gender-based in-
equality and thus to achieve greater inclusion
and social justice. Disparities can be based on:
* Access to and control over resources and
power
* Strategic needs/interests/activities
* Social institutions where constraints in ac-
cess, power, or participation occur.
Ultimately an approach that combines effi-
ciency and equality as the necessary basis for
sustainable development may be the most ap-
propriate rationale for the World Bank.
Recommendation 2: Ensure Consensus
in Gender Analysis
Gender analysis is based on the institutional
rationale for gender and development. The
changing roles in society, but they also have dif-
ferent needs).
* These principles, in tum, translate into tools and
techniques for a gender-planning process.
* These tools demonstrate how the five different
WID/GAD policy approaches (welfare, antipov-
erty, equity, efficiency,and empowerment) recog-
nize different roles, meet different needs, and rely
on varying participatory planning processes.
* Gender planning is operationalized through a di-
versity of procedures at the policy, program, and
project levels.
* Equally, gender planning is mainstreamed into ex-
isting institutions, rather than establishing sepa-
rate gender-specific organizational structures.
components of a gender analysis therefore de-
pend on the institution's approach to gender
issues. In order to assist task managers, who
may wish to undertake a gender analysis in a
wide variety of sectors and at different stages
of project cycles, consensus as to both the defi-
nition and the components of a gender analysis
may be the most important mechanism for
Bankwide collaboration on gender issues.
As illustrated in box 3.2, there is currently
no consistent definition of what constitutes
a gender analysis within the World Bank (or
outside it). Although some similarities of lan-
guage exist (such as roles, needs, activities,
and opportunities), the difference in defini-
tions-between PREM's World Bank Gender
Net and their Guidelines for Gender Analy-
sis in the CAS, for example-may confuse,
rather than clarify, issues for task managers.
Building on the distinction between the ef-
ficiency and equality approaches identified
above, a working definition of gender analy-
sis that is inclusive of both might be worded
as follows:
Gender analysis consists of the techniques
and approaches intended to bring to light two
sets of issues, within a specific context:
* Gender-based differences and disparities in
roles, constraints, needs, and opportuni-
ties. The extent to which these differences

Box 3.2 Diversity in current definitions of gender analysis
Source
Bennett, "A Quick Guide for
Gender Analysis," Asia
Symposium, n.d., 1.
Jacobs, "Social Assessment
and Participation: Overview of
Methods and Tools," 1997, 35.
WorldBank ParticipationSource-
book,1996j,201.
Minh Chau-Nguyen, "Gender
Analysis in the CAS Process,"
Poverty Reduction and
Economic Management
Network, 1997.
Poverty Reduction and Economic
Management Network, "World
Bank Gender Net," 1997d.
Dayal and others, "Gender Analy-
sis and Planning in the Bank
Project Cycle," 1993.
SEGA, "Socioeconomic and Gender
Analysis Programme," 1996.
U.N., Women2000, 1992.
Pfannenschmidt and McKay,
"Through a Gender Lens:
Resources for Population,
Health, and Nutrition Projects,"
USAID, 1997.
Hartigan, "Gender, Environment,
and Health: Incorporating a
Gender Approach in Environ-
mental Health Work," PAHO,
1997.
Recommendations 17
Definition
"Gender analysis focuses on understanding and documenting the
differences in gender roles,activities, needsand opportunitiesin a
given context. Gender analysis involves the disaggregation of
qualitative and quantitative data by gender. It highlights the
different roles and learned behavior of men and women based on
gender attributes. These vary across cultures, class, ethnicity,
income, education, and time. Thus gender analysis does not treat
women as a homogenous group nor gender attributes as immu-
table."
"Gender analysis looks at quantitative and qualitative data on the
different roles,activities, needs,and opportunitiesof men and women
in economic as well as non-economic activities in a particular
setting to determine how they differ, and how they affect and, in
turn, are affected by interventions and policies." (p.1)
"Gender analysis examines the accessand controlmen and women
have over resources. This includes analyzing the sexual division of
labor and the outputs (benefits) of their labor. It also refers to a
systematic way of determining men's and women's often differing
development needsand preferencesand the different impacts of
development on women and men. Gender analysis takes into
account how factors of class, race, ethnicity, or other factors interact
with gender to produce discriminatory results."
"Gender analysis captures men's and women's different opportuni-
ties, constraintsand responsibilities,and accessto and controlover
resources."
"Gender analysis: the study of the different roles of women and
men to understand what they do, what resources they have and
what their needs, responsibilities, and priorities are."
"The systematic effort to document and understand the roles of men
and women within a given context. Key issues include (a) the
division of labour for both productive and reproductive activities; (b)
access to and control over resources and benefits; and (c) social,
economic and environmental factors that influence both of the above."
"Gender analysis is the systematic study of the differences in
condition (material welfare) and position (status) of women versus
men in a given population. Gender analysis provides important
contextual information that can be used as a community-based
needs assessment to plan projects or to evaluate their progress or
impact."
'Gender analysis is an approach which has its purpose to identify
analyze and act upon inequities that arise from belonging to one
sex or another ....fundamental to applying an analysis of a health
situation from a gender perspective is the consideration of access
and control of resources necessary to protect health."
18 Mainstreaming Gender and Development in the World Bank
and disparities are significant for the ac-
complishment of specific policy, sector, or
program objectives.
Recommendation 3: Agree on Common
Concepts and Language
Agreement on common concepts and lan-
guage follows directly from the rationale and
definition of tools and techniques-in this case
gender analysis. Box 1.1 contained basic defi-
nitions of the most common gender and devel-
opment concepts, including "sex and gender,"
"gender relations," "gender roles," and "WID
and GAD." Based on the proposed working
definition of gender analysis, further system-
atic clarification is required for such well-
known concepts as "gender roles" and "gender
division of labor/resources," as well as the defini-
tion of "gender needs/interests/approaches."
Some potential definitions are elaborated in box
3.3; they are not definitive and, as with all defi-
Box 3.3 Definitions: Gender roles, needs, interests, and approaches
Gender roles define what a society considers to be
appropriate for a man or a woman, reflecting a di-
vision of labor. Both women and men play multiple
roles in society; while men play their multiple roles
sequentially, women play their roles simultaneously,
and must balance competing claims on limited time
for fulfillment of each.
* Productive role. Work done both by women and
men for pay in cash or kind; includes both mar-
ket production with an exchange value and sub-
sistence/home production with actual use value,
but also potential exchange value
* Reproductiverole.Child bearing/rearing respon-
sibilities and domestic tasks required to guaran-
tee the maintenance and reproduction of the
labor force; includes not only biological repro-
duction but also the care and the maintenance of
people living in the household
* Community roles. Voluntary activities contribut-
ing to the welfare, development, or political or-
ganization of the community
Because men and women have different gender
roles they also have differentgender needs/interests!
approaches. From both a policy and operational view-
Sources:Moser (1989, 1993);Blackden and Morris-Hughes (1993);Hartigan (1997).
nitions, they can be crafted to fit institutional
requirements.
Recommendation 4: Define the Components
of a Gender Analysis
Gender analysis is the most critical tool to en-
sure that gender concerns are mainstreamed
into the early stages of all World Bank opera-
tions. This includes not only projects, but also
economic and sector work (ESW) and country
assistance strategies (CASs).
Providing guidelines to task managers
concerning the different components of a gen-
der analysis will ensure consistency in cov-
erage across the institution. This becomes
much easier once a common rationale and
language have been agreed upon. Obviously,
a single checklist solution fails to address all
concerns; however, a recommendation for
gender analysis would include the following
components:
point, it is useful to distinguish between two types
of gender needs:
Practical gender needs are needs women and men
identify in their socially accepted roles in society.
They are practical in nature, often concem inadequa-
cies in living conditions (such as water provision,
health care, employment), and respond to immedi-
ate needs identified within a specific context. While
such needs arise out of gender divisions of labor,
meeting them does not change the position of either
women or men in society.
Strategicgenderneeds are those needs formulated
from the socially structured subordinate position of
women to men in society.Such biases vary according
to particular contexts and may indude gender-based
discrimination in the division of labor and in house-
hold management;factorand product markets (includ-
ing access to and control over productive resources);
legal status and rights; and participation in
decisionmaking at the household, community, or na-
tional level. Meeting such needs through policies to
improve women's status and promote equity entails
actions to remove systematic biases against women,
thereby changing women's position in society.
 Recommendations 19

Box 3.4 Potential components of a gender analysis

Component Description

Needs assessment * What are the priority needs of men and women?
* What are the underlying causes of the problem?
* How can these problems be addressed?
* Which problems can be solved at the local level?
* Which need external intervention?

Activities profile * Who does what?

* What do women, men, and children do?
* When do they do it-daily? seasonally?
* Where is the activity performed?
* How flexible or rigid is the division of labor?

Resources, access, and * What resources are available to men and women to conduct their activities?
control profile * What resources (land, produce, knowledge, cash, tools, institutions) do
women and men have access to (use)?
* Which resources do they control, who has power to decide whether a
resource is used, how it is used, and how it is allocated?

Benefits and incentives * Benefit analysis refers to resources, access, and control, and goes further
analysis to analyze who controls outputs or benefits.
* Incentive analysis taps into user preferences, values placed on output, and
the risks involved, which affect motivation.
* Incentives include: taste, risk, convenience, time savings, reduced conflict,
marketability, prestige, and byproducts.

Institutional analysis * Gender analysis of social institutions.

(a) Intrahousehold * The household is a system of resource allocation.

dynamics * All members of a household have different roles, skills, interests, needs,
priorities, access to, and control over resources.
* Any development intervention that affects one member of the household will
positively or negatively affect all others.
* It is important to understand these interdependent relationships-the rights,
responsibilities, obligations, and patterns of interaction among household
members.
(b) Interhousehold * Individuals and households belong to larger groupings (such as professional
relations or religious groups or extended families).
* With these they are involved in labor exchanges, flows of goods, and other
alliances for survival.
* It is important to understand the social organization of these larger networks
and the gender differences in roles, functions, and access.

Institutional constraints * Policies, laws, regulations, and procedures from the national agency level to
and opportunities the community level.
* Agency organization, responsiveness, activities, training, gender, mobility,
and skills of personnel.
* Planning and evaluation procedures.
* Information flow and outreach activities.

Sources:CEDPA(1996);Kabeer(1994);Derbyshire(1996);Moser (1989,1993);Overholt(1985).
20 Mainstreaming Gender and Development in the World Bank
* Needs assessment
* Activities profile
* Resources, access, and control profile
* Social institutional analysis
* Benefits and incentives analysis
* Institutional constraints and opportunities
analysis.
A gender analysis comprising these compo-
nents provides the necessary framework for
identifying gender-based differencesand dispari-
ties in roles, constraints, needs, and opportuni-
ties. It implies the need to understand access
to and control over resources and power, as
well as social institutions in which constraints
to access, power, or participation occur (see
box 3.4). The extent to which these differences
and disparities are significant for the accom-
plishment of specific policy, sector, or program
objectives can then be analyzed from the results
of the different components identified above.1
Recommendation 5: Apply Gender
Analysis in other Networks
Once the components of a gender analysis are
clarified, they can be introduced, or main-
streamed, ntny many operationaluprcea,uore-
streamed, into many operational procedures-
not only social assessments and CASs, but also
a diversity of additional tools and techniques
across all four World Bank networks. This could
include procedures such as poverty assess-
ments in the Poverty Reduction and Economic
Management Network (PREM) and environ-
mental assessments in ESSD, as well as other
procedures in the Human Development (HD)
and Finance, Private Sector, and Infrastructure
(FIPSI) networks.
Concluding Comment
These very provisional recommendations con-
cerning future steps toward mainstreaming
gender into World Bank operations are not in-
tended to be either definitive or conclusive.
Their purpose is more to illustrate the types of
guidelines that could facilitate a more consis-
tent approach to mainstreaming gender at the
policy, program, and project level across the
Bank, while respecting regional, sector, or other
types of variations.
Note
1. An alternative, simplified version of the above,
identified as a 'gender diagnosis," was recently de-
veloped by the Pan American Health Organization for
an excellent new training manual (PAHO 1997) using
a similar rationale and language, and is illustrated in
appendix 5.
 APPENDIX 1

World Bank Gender Policy and Beijing Documents

1.1 WorldBankGenderPolicyDocuments

Interventionl Stated
Publication Level/date Goals/rationale& Key conceptsb proceduresa policy

Enhancing World Bank "Investingin women is critical for pov- (D) Gender:differentiation,gaps, "Focus on strong economic argu- Efficiency
1
Women's PolicyPaper erty reduction.Speedseconomicde- analysis, roles/ needs,disparity mentsshowingthat womencan and
Participationin (1994) velopmentby raising productivityand must play a full force in economic Anti-
Development promoting more efficient use of re- (A/C) Gender differencesin ac- development."(15) poverty
sources...produces significant social cess/controlresources;barriers
returns."(22) Institutionalinterventionsas in OP Equity
Gender:relations,issues,
"...importantpart of development
strat- -neutral,-sensitive,dimension
egy and a matter of Social Justice."
(14)

"The Gender World Bank "Toreducegenderdisparitiesand en- (D) Gender disparities; gender 1. Designgender-sensitivepolicies Efficiency
Dimensionof Operational hance women'sparticipation in eco- analysis (a) Identifybarriers
Development" Policy (1994) nomic development." (b) Improveaccessthroughlegal Equity
(A/C) barriers; access to assets and regulatoryframeworks
and services 2. Trainin genderanalysis
3. Obtain financing and collabora-
Gender-sensitive policies;equita- tion with other agencies
bly beneficial;gender issues 4. Analyze gender issues through
povertyassessmentsand incor-
porate into CASs

a. Numbers in parenthesesreferto pagesin citedtext.

b. (D):differentiation;
(A/C):access/control;
(L):levelof institution.
1.2 WorldBank BeijingDocuments

Interventionl Stated
Publication Level/date Goals/rationalea Key conceptsP,b procedures policy

TowardGender Development "Persistentinequalitybetweenwomen
Equality:The in Practice and men constrains a society's pro-
Role of Public series (1995) ductivityand, ultimately,slowsits rate
Policy of economicgrowth."(vii)"Thisreport...
is intended as a referenceto strate-
gies for promoting gender equality
and.. enhancingeconomicefficiency."
(vii)
(D) Gender in/equality (1); gap
(9); differences (15); equalize
opportunitiesbetweenmen and
women;wagedisparity(3);women
agentsof change
(A/C)Constraintson women'sop-
portunities(employment)(4); in-
tra-household decisionmaking
process(1); intra-householdallo-
cationof resources(1);collective
vs. unitaryhouseholdmodel (22)
(L) Household; market; institu-
tional norms(1)
Governmentsto improve economic Equity
status of women by:
* Modifyinglegal framework Efficiency
* Ensuringequallandand property
rights Equality
* Promotinggenderequality in la-
bor market and employment
* Ensuringgenderequalityin fam-
ily and financial law
* Generating gender-disaggre-
gated data
* Interactionwith publicinstitutions
and civil society

Advancing World Bank (D) Variationsin gender relations
Gender (1995) (4); gender: issues, inequality,
Equality:From -specific constraints, -neutral,
Conceptto -based labor market segmenta-
Action tion (23), discrimination (7);
women'stime (7); women'spar-
ticipation (9); segregation of
women(23);culturallybasedgen-
der stereotypes(27)
(A/C)Barriersfor women(5);gen-
der-basedconstraints;women's
access to financial services (6);
inside/outside(4)
* Modifyinglegal framework Efficiency
* Ensuringequallandand property
rights Equity
* Promoting genderequality in la-
bor market and employment Equality
* Ensuringgender equalityin fam-
ily law and financial laws and
regulations
Genderand structuraladjustment
in Africa (donors).

a. Numbers in parenthesesreferto pagesin citedtext.

(L):levelof institution.
(A/C):access/control;
b.(D):differentiation;
 APPENDIX 2
World Bank OED Documents, Country Studies, and Strategies
2.1 World Bank OED Documents
Publication Date Goals/rationalea
Gender 1995 "Genderdifferencesare at the core of
Issuesin human resource development.They
WorldBank are relevant for alleviating poverty..
Lending Understanding theresponsibilities
and
roles of womenand men amongvari-
ousincomeand ethnicgroupswill help
borrowersplan and implementeffec-
tive developmentstrategies...Atten-
tion to gender issues is essentialto
achieve the Bank'smandateof pov-
erty alleviationand economicgrowth."
(22)
Mainstreaming 1997 "World Bank involvement in gender
Genderin issueson the basis of improvedeffi-
WorldBank ciency,povertyalleviation,and equity."
Lending:An (2) The arguments most frequently
Update used to justify gender-relatedactivi-
ties were: (a) equity, (b) poverty; (c)
welfare,and (d) economicefficiency
(16).
a. Numbersin parenthesesrefer to pages in citedtext.
b. (D): differentiation;(A/C):access/control;(L): level of institution.
Interventionl Stated
Key conceptsa,b procedures policy
(D) Gender: roles, differences, (a) Country involvement and Efficiency
differentiated outcomes (80), commitment to gender-related
triple role (3,22,23) actions Equity
(b) Clear integration of gender-re-
(ANC)Constraints(23,58) lated objectives with overall Anti-
project objectives poverty
(L) Household/community Gen- (c) Gender issuesto be addressed
der-related action/activities(1), in ESW and CASs
gender: issues (2), -related is- (d) Presenceof staffwithgenderex-
sues(79), -relatedproblem(81), perience
-related objectives (3), experi- (e) Supervision/attentionto gender
ence, focus (23), assessment, action
work;WID-focus(23)
(D) High quality/substantialgen- (a) Genderconcernsshouldbe fully Efficiency
der analysis( ii,10,14) Differen- addressed in social assess-
tial benefitsfor men and women ments Equity
(box2.3,.12)Gendergap (26/27) (b) Integration with other World
Bankconcerns Anti-
(ANC)lntrahousehold decisionpro- (c) Breakdownof key indicatorsby poverty
cesses(30)Genderissues,action, gender
goals, -related actions/activities, (d) Set clear targets Welfare
roles, objectives, supervision,
components,aspects,outcome
2.2 WorldBank CountryStudies
Publication Date Goals/rationalea
Genderand 1991 "If the objectiveis to changecurrent
Povertyin patterns(asone keymeansof increas-
India ing women's productivity, reducing
their dependency, and ultimately
changingthe prevailinggender ideol-
ogy), then..."(5) "Increasingwomen's
economicproductivityis a necessity
to achieve key developmentgoals."
Womenin 1989 "Developmentis held back-and the
Pakistan:An gains of growth are not widely
Economicand shared-if half the populationcannot
Social participate effectively either as con-
Strategy tributors or as beneficiaries.Increas-
ing opportunities for women will be
essentialto improveeconomicperfor-
mance, promote equity, and slow
Pakistan's rapid population growth."
(iii)
Bangladesh: 1990 "Bangladeshcouldbenefitsignificantly
Strategiesfor in terms of increasedproductivity,en-
Enhancingthe hanced family welfare (particularly
Role of amongstthe poor),and reducedpopu-
Womenin lation growthby focusing on the de-
Economic velopment potential of its women."
Development (xviii, 2)
lnI themselves,these extremelyad-
verse conditionsjustify major efforts
to mitigateBangladeshiwomen'ssuf-
fering...."(xxix)
Interventionl Stated
Key conceptsa,b procedures policy
(D) Inside/outside dichotomy; Increasewomen'saccessto key in- Efficiency
map of inside/outsidedichotomy puts, such as:
* Education Empower-
(A/C) Accessto key inputs (edu- * Training ment
cation, credit); control (over re- * Credit
sources) * Land
(L) Householdas collective;site
of intrahousehold,gender-based
powervariationsand motivations
(6) Welfare inputs; productive
outputs
Invisible labor (xx); status of (a) Investing in human resources Efficiency
women;disadvantaged(xiii) ;dis- (educationand health)
crimination(xxvii) (b) Improvingeconomicproductivity Welfare
(c) Removingovert discrimination
(D)Purdah;inside/outside
(xxi,xxii)
class (xxii)
(A/C) Access/constraintsto in-
puts and services (xxiv,xxv)
(D) Inside/outside(xvii);invisible (a) Removalof gender-specificcon- Efficiency
labour(xviii,2) straints
(b) Investmentinwomen:education, Equity
(A/C) Access to inputs; gender- health,accessto productivere-
specificconstraintsof cultureand sourcessuch as credit
tradition (xvii, xviii, 1) (c) Participationby women
(L) Household;Economy(xvii)
(Tablecontinues
on thefollowing
page.)
2.2 World Bank Country Studies (continued)
Interventionl Stated
Publication Date Goalslrationalea Key conceptsab procedures policy

Kenya: The 1989 "[Kenya's]...experience shows that in- (D) Families ...headed de facto by (a) Intensification of the agricultural Efficiency
Role of tegration of women in development is women; women-headed house- extension program
Women in a cost-effective way to pursue eco- holds;female heads of household (b) Improvement of secondary Equity
Economic nomic progress for the whole popula- (xix-xx); women's groups; women education for girls
Development tion." (xi) farmers (1); division of agricul- (c) Expansion of "safe mother- WID
tural labour by gender (6); hood"
"women's crops" (28) (d) Exploration of options in credit Welfare
(e) Expansion of rural water sup-
(A/C) Female head of household plies
(x); lack of access to credit (29) (f) Potential for women's employ-
ment outside agriculture
(L) Household

Turkey: 1993 "...to enhance the participation of
Women in women in the economic development
Development process" (xi)
"Turkey can benefit significantly in
terms of increased productivity, en-
hanced family welfare, and reduced
population growth by focusing more on
the development potential of its
women." (xi)
(D) Limited economic opportuni-
ties (xii); women's subordinate
positions in economy and house-
hold (xii); gender-segregated
-labor market (xvi), employment
status, disparity ( xx), gap (xxi),
-neutral policies (xxii); female la-
bor participation (xii)
(A/C)Women's access to services
(xxii); barriers
(L) Male-dominated institutions;
household vs. labor market
(a) Remove barriers for women's Efficiency
participation
(b) Education/schooling: broaden-
ing women's skill range
(c) Eliminate gender segregation in
employment equity initiatives
(d) Eliminate segregation of boys/
girls separate schools and cor-
responding bureaucratic struc-
tures in Ministry of Education
(e) Integrate women into activities
in all ministries

a. Numbersin parenthesesrefer to pages in citedtext.

b. (D): differentiation;(A/C):access/control;(L): level of institution.
2.3 WorldBank CountryStrategies

Interventionl Stated
Publication Date Goals/rationalea Key Conceptsa,b proceduresa policy

El Salvador, 1996 "...identifies and discusses gender
Movingto a differencesand inequitiesthat affect
Gender women'sand men's contributionsto
Approach: El Salvador's economicand human
Issuesand development." (ix)"Genderdifferences
Reccommenda- have importanteconomicand human
tions developmentimplications.Differences
and inequities in health status; edu-
cational attainment, access to land
tenure and affordable credit affect
humanwell-being,economicproduc-
tivity and ratesof investment."(xii)
(D) Gender:differences,-based
behavioraldifferences,inequities,
disaggregateddata, stereotypes,
approach;discriminatorypractices
(ix); inequitiesthat affectwomen's
and men's contribution to eco-
nomic and human development;
societalbasedgender-roles(47);
gender-based labor trends and
inequalities;gender-related par-
ticipationindicators(xi)
(A/C)Familylaw:commonspouses
land rights (xi); genderlending
Threestrategicgoals (ix): GAD
(1) Eliminatinggenderperceptions
in society that inadvertently Gender
lead to discriminationand bi-
ases Approach
(2) Supportingmen'sandwomen's
behavioraltendencies that re- Efficiency
duce inequitableaccess to in-
come opportunities and
resources
(3) Creatinga more gender equi-
table division of labor in the
household

(L) Householdheadship

Towardsa 1992 'The major objective of the Bank in (D) Gender relations(1); roles; (a) Trainingprograms Efficiency
Gender Nigeria is to support the government multiple roles (5); productive/re- (b) Women's participation in
Strategyfor efforts to alleviate poverty and raise productive roles (iii); division of decisionmakingprocesses Equity
Nigeria: thestandardof livingin a sustainable labor; gender-disaggregated (c) Awarenessprogramson credit
Integrating manner...In this context, the under- data; inequities(1); triple burden facilities Empower-
Women's standingand full developmentof both (1) (d) Agriculturalextension ment
Issuesinto the productiveand reproductiveroles of (e) Family planning, health, and
Development womenare criticalto bring abouteco- (A/C) Barriers:formal/ informal/ nutrition
Agenda nomic successin the country."(iii) legal/ institutional to: access to (f) Nonformaleducation
factors (education,credit, prop- (g) Legislativeand policy reforms
erty) (iii); gender-specific con- targeted at removing discrimi-
straints to "human capital" and natory provisions in existing
"economicproductivity"(iv); intra- legislationand institutionalized
householddecisionmaking practices

(L) Household(as collective);in-

stitutions

a. Numbersin parenthesesrefer to pagesin citedtext.

b. (D): differentiation;(A/C):access/control;(L): level of institution.
APPENDIX 3
World Bank Regional Action Plans
3.1 World Bank Regional Gender Action Plans
Publication Date Goals/rationale8
"Capacity 1997 "This proposal sets out a program to
Building on promote gender-responsive develop-
Gender in ment in Latin America and the Carib-
Latin America" bean (LAC); that is, development that
considers gender differences and con-
straints and works towards reducing
gender barriers:' (1)
"MENA Region 1996 "MENA gender indicators are amongst
Gender Action the worst in the world. This is true for
Plan" social indicators, participation of
women in the economy, political and
legal rights, and in terms of institu-
tional concern with gender issues.
However, MENA governments, with
rare exceptions, have been reluctant
or at best timid in addressing issues
of gender equality, and thus, while
there has been some progress on
gender equality over the last decades,
it has been limited." (1)
Key conceptsa'b
(D) Gender: differences, issues,
inequities, -based investments,
1
goals,-disaggregated information
(A/C) Gender: barriers, con-
straints, intrahousehold resource
allocation
(L) Household, institutions
(D) Gender: equality,equity,dispari-
ties, impact,-related activity,analy-
sis, issue, indicators; women's
participation in the economy; gen-
der-disaggegated data
(A/C) Political and legal rights and
participation; advocacy; con-
straints on and niches for partici-
pation and access to services and
productive resources (4). Intra-
householddistributionof resources
(L) Household, institutions,
economy
Interventionl Stated
procedures policy
(a) In-country workshops to create Equity
consensus on gender issues
and priorities, with the participa-
tion of government, nonprofit,
and private stakeholders
(b) A gender operations support fa-
cility in LAC
(c) A gender review and monitoring
system
(d) Special studies and strategic
events on priorityareas for gender
(a) Improved gathering and analysis Equity
of gender-disaggregated data
(b) Highlighting of gender issues in Efficiency
selected CASs, economic re-
ports and overall country policy
dialogue
(c) Continuing attention to issues of
women's participation in the
economy (d) Support to all local
women's groups, government
and nongovernmental
(Tablecontinueson the followingpage.)
 3.1 World Bank Regional Gender Action Plans (continued)
Publication Date Goals/rationalea
"South Asia 1997 "In some countries-particularly in
Region South Asia-gender-based dispari-
Gender Action ties are sharp and represent a major
Plan" constraint on economic growth and
poverty reduction that must be ad-
dressed as a top priority ...ln other
countries gender asymmetries, while
present, are more subtle ... A well
thought out and consistent gender
strategy is no less important in such
a country: significant welfare and effi-
ciency gains are possible from reduc-
ing inequities in access to resources
and opportunities even when they are
less acute." (1)
00
A set of country-specific actions and
a set of region-wide actions.
"Europe and 1997 "Selectivity in terms of focusing on
Central Asia gender issues that have potentially
Gender Action large pay-offs in terms of efficiency
Plan" and welfare gains." (1)
Key conceptsa,b
(D) Invisibility of working women;
subordination (i); Gender: analy-
sis, relations, ideology; stratifica-
tion, relations, issues, disparities,
-based differentials, equity
(1,3,7); inside/outside (female/
male) dichotomy (3)
(A/C) Barriers (to interaction with
"outside") (4) Access (to re-
sources and opportunities) (1)
(D) Gender roles; asymmetric
gender outcomes; gender distor-
tions; gender issues
(A/C) Gender-based asymme-
tries
Interventionl Stated
procedures policy
"...The strategy that is common to Efficiency
all countries in the region is the em-
phasis on strengthening women's Equity
productive roles, while providing the
support for doing so through im- Anti-
provements in health and education. poverty
Further, improving the economic
well-being of the region's poor
women must include not only ex-
panding opportunities of employ-
ment and earnings, but making
specific efforts to enable women to
avail of the opportunities." (i,ii)
(a) CAS as entry point (PA, SA, gen- Efficiency
der-specific analysis)
(b) Research and monitor specific Equity
areas: institutionalization of gen-
der issues in ECA; regional gen-
der coordinator; gender group;
country managers; resident mis-
sion focal points
(c) Tools: Regional good practice
dissemination; training in gender
issues
3.1 World Bank RegionalGenderActionPlans (continued)
Publication Date Goals/rationale&
"Africa 1997 Overall regional goal: Sustainable
Regional Poverty Reduction: "By identifying
GenderAction gender differentialsin economicca-
Plan (RGAP)" pacityas a key strategicissuefor Af-
rica, the RGAP reflectsthe centrality
of genderinAfrica's economicdevel-
opment." (1) "...gender-based dis-
crimination limits economicgrowth.
This discriminationmarkedlyaffects
macroeconomic efficiency and
equity."(3)
"East Asia 1996 "In some countries.. gender-based
Regional disparities are sharp and represent
Gender Action a major constraint on economic
Plan" growth and poverty reduction that
must be addressedas a top priority..,
In other countries gender asymme-
tries,whilepresent,are moresubtle...
A well thought out and consistent
genderstrategy is no less important
in such a country:significantwelfare
and efficiencygainsare possiblefrom
reducing inequities in access to re-
sourcesand opportunitiesevenwhen
they are less acute."(1)
a. Numberin bracketsrefersto a page in citedtext.
b. (D): differentiation;(A/C):access/control;(L): level of institution.
Key conceptsa,b
(D) Women'seconomiccapacity
(1); Gender:differentials(4), bias
(2), dimension (of poverty) (2),
barriers(4), disparity (4); female
poverty( 6); women'slabor time;
Tripleresponsibility(9); system-
atic participationof womenat all
levels (8)
(A/C) Inheritance and property
rights...strongly asymmetricalby
gender (4); inequality in intra-
household resource allocation;
women'seducation,health (6)
(L) Household; labor market;
policy
CASto identifythree prioritygen-
der actions.
(D)Gender:disparities,stratifica-
tion, -relatedactivities, analysis,
equity,-disaggregateddata,strat-
egy;wagegap
(A/C)Gender-basedconstraints;
inequitiesin access(to resources
and opportunities); intrahouse-
hold allocationof resources
(L) Household; labor market;
economy;society
Interventionl Stated
procedures policy
(a) Endorsementof RGAP by re- Efficiency
gional vice presidents
(b) Accountabilityto WBpresident Equity
(c) Responsiveness to commit-
ments made in SPAof integrat- Anti-
ing poverty and gender poverty
systematically into policy dia-
logue, economicreformopera- GAD
tions, and strategicdocuments
(d) Country directors/ teams re- Empower-
sponsiblefor specifyingstrate- ment
gic gender actions for each
country(genderanalysisneeds
to be part of SA and participa-
tion in CAS)
(a) Set of country-specificactions Efficiency
that focus on identifyingthe im-
portance of gender,priority is- Anti-
sues, and the Bank's role in poverty
addressingthem in the context
of each country Equity
(b) Set of regionwideactions that
complement and facilitate the
processof mainstreaminggen-
der into the Bank's work and
into the dialogue with its bor-
rowers and other partners
 3.2 Social DevelopmentTask GroupReport

Interventionl Stated
Publication Date Goals/rationalea Key conceptsa proceduresa policy

"Social 1996 "The development paradigm has Gender:Women'sparticipationin Gender is a major social factor in Efficiency
Development evolved...to a more people-centered economic and social develop- achievinggrowthand equity, there-
and Results approachthat recognizeshuman and mentis essentialbothfor promot- fore projects need to mainstream Equity
on the social capitalas criticalfactorsin sus- ing economicefficiency and for gender.(Annex2, 4)
Ground" tainabledevelopment ...Povertyreduc- reducingpoverty(5)
tion..In spite of economic growth,
C povertyand social alienationpersist,
and are often increasing."

(i) "People-centeredDevelopment,
that is,developmentthat putspeople's
welfareand energyat thecenterof the
developmentagenda."(i)

a. Numbers
in parentheses
referto pagesin citedtext.
APPENDIX 4

Bilateral and Multilateral Donor Policies

4.1 BilateralDonor Policies

Interventionl Stated
Publication Level/date Goals/rationalea Key conceptsab procedures policy

Womenin Netherlands "The conceptof autonomy,which re-
Development: Ministry of fers to authority,freedom,and oppor-
Advancing Foreign tunity for each individual, should be
towards Affairs (1992) understoodin the frameworkof com-
Autonomy bating poverty and inequality on the
grounds of class, gender, and race."
(14,15) 'Development cooperation
basedon theprincipleof autonomyfor
women means endorsinga vision of
the distributionof powerin all its mani-
festations.'(15)
(D) Autonomy; self-determina-
tion; human development;(gen-
der) (1); class; race (15)
(A/C) Autonomy:physical, eco-
nomic, political, sociocultural;
distributionof power (15)
(L) Household;community;soci-
ety; market
(a) Mainstreaming accompanied Autonomy/
by targets and screening pro- Empower-
cedures ment
(b) Active participationby women
from recipientcountries
(c) Strengtheningof expertise and
developmentof tools
(d) Supportforinternational
women's
movement,particularlywomen's
networks

CIDA'sPolicy Canadian "CIDA is committedto ensuring that (D) Gender: relations, equity, (a) To encourage,respondto, and Equity
on Womenin International its development activities benefit roles, gap, inequality, analysis supportinitiativesthat: increase
Development Development womenas well as men....Investing in (3); gender division of labor (4); women's participationin deci- Efficiency
and Gender Agency women leads to lasting economic systematic discrimination (6); sionmakingprocesses;improve
Equity, 1995 (1996) growth, improvedfamily welfare,and practical needs (6) women'sincomelevelsand eco- Empower-
a reductionin poverty-a more equi- nomic conditions; improve ment
table distribution of the socio-eco- (A/C) Empowerment(4); strate- women's access to basic
nomic benefitsof development."(4) gic interests(6) health, family planning ser-
vices, and education;promote
the humanrights of women
(b) Promotethe eliminationof dis-
criminatory barriers against
women
(c) Promote WID-integrated ap-
proachwithin CIDAand among
partners
(Tablecontinues on thefollowingpage.)
4.1 Bilateral Donor Policies(continued)

Interventionl Stated
Publication Level/date Goals/rationalea Key conceptsab procedures policy

Fourth World British "...Thereductionof genderinequality (D) Disparities;Gender(in)equal- Support:

Conference Overseas is not only a goal in its own right, but ities(3) Genderissues (5) (a) Programsthat helpwomenand Equity
on Women: Development also a significantcontributiontowards girls gaingreateraccessto edu-
Platformfor Administration sustainabledevelopment ...ODA aims (A/C) Access (to productive re- cation, health, and incomes Efficiency
Action (1996) to tackledisparitiesbetweenmenand sources);control (of assets) (3) (b) Institutional development and
womenthroughoutsociety..Thisalso capacity building Empower-
meanssupportingwomen'seffortsto (L) Household,community,mar- (c) Revising legal frameworks for ment
achieve partnership in political and kets, all levels of government(3) gender equality
economicdecisionmaking, to exercise (d) Promoting women's participa-
their humanrights...."(3) Equal partnership(3) tion in governmentand politics
(e) Civil society institutions con-
cerned with promotionof gen-
der equality

Gender Swedish "Gender equality is a development (D) Gender roles (11); equality (a) Support empowerment of Gender
Equalityin International goal in itself. The focus on gender (7,8,9,11); people includes men women through special inputs
Development Development equalitymakesvisiblethe interdepen- and womenon equal terms. targeting women Equality
Cooperation: Agency dence of the spheres of production (b) Mainstreaming a gender per-
Takingthe (1995) and reproduction,betweenpaid and (A/C)Increasedpoliticaland eco- spective into existingprograms
Next Step unpaidwork, and providesa basisfor nomic power-sharing between in all areas,emphasison policy
the formulation of strategiesin sup- men and women;the securingof developmentand concrete ac-
port of equitablehumandevelopment." human rights for both men and tivities within programs/agenda
MfFA (7) "Genderequality is one of women. (11); gender equality a setting
thefour strategicfoundationsin SIDA "societalissue"not a women'sis- (c) Giving attention to gender
alongsidepovertyelimination,demo- sue (15); girl child (15) equality at highest policy level
craticdevelopmentand HR and sus- in relation to the political, eco-
tainabledevelopment."(7) nomic, and legal frameworks
(17)
a. Numbersin parentheses referto pagesin citedtext.
b.(D):differentiation;
(A/C):access/control;
(L):levelof institution.
4.2 MultilateralPolicies

Interventionl Stated
8
Publication Level/date Goals/rationale Key conceptsl.b procedures policy

DAC Gender DCD/DAC, "To uphold human rights and to (D) Women's education; eco-
Actions (1996 draft) achievesustainable,people-centered nomic actors;managersof natu-
Framework development,equalityinthe rolesand ral resources;men'sbehaviorand
treatment of men and women is attitudes; gender: roles, differ-
eesential." ences, disparities, distortions,
issues, approaches (7), knowl-
(4) "Adopting gender equality... is edge, responsible, responsive,
viewedas a centralissue for society.' (11), entry points,training,analy-
(6) sis (11)
(A/C)Accessto economicoppor-
tunities
* Emphasize...accountibilityand
adequatemonitoring.
• DACto establisha GenderAc-
tion Frameworkand Plan.
Endorsed goals for DAC-member
aid agenciesto:
(a) Endorse gender equality as
strategicobjective
(b) Reemphasizesocioculturalas-
pects of development
(c) Reconsider impact on women
of economiccooperation,trade, Gender
enterprise development, and equality
nonprojectformsof cooperation
(d) Include gender implication in Human
analyses,policies,country,and rights
sector strategies
(e) Emphasizeprinciples in areas
such as conflict resolution,HR,
good governance,participation
(f) Help partners to strengthenin-
stitutionalcapacitiyfor address-
ing gender equality

on thefollowing
(Tablecontinues page.)
4.2 Multilateral Policies (continued)

Interventionl Stated
Publication Levei/date Goals/rationalea Key conceptsD procedures policy

Fourth World UN (1995) "Equalitybetweenwomenand men is
Conference a matterof humanrights and a condi-
on Women: tionfor socialjusticeand is also a nec-
Platformfor essary and fundamentalprerequisite
Action for equality,developmentand peace.
A transformedpartnershipbased on
equality betweenwomen and men is
a conditionfor people-centeredsus-
tainabledevelopment."(1)
(D) Triple role; gender: roles,
perspectives, division of labor,
equality; women's:roles,status;
feminizationof poverty;burdenof
work;discrimination;marginaliza-
tion; inequality;human rights
(A/C) Barriersto empowerment/
full equality;accessto resources
and decisionmakingprocesses
(L) Household (family); institu-
tions (private,public,social, cul-
tural, political); international
community
Inequality between men and
women in the sharing of power
and decisionmakingat all levels;
insufficientmechanismsat all lev-
els to promotethe advancement
of women;lackof respectfor and
inadequate promotion and pro-
tection of the human rights of
women
Governments,the internationalcom- Empower-
munity and civil society, including ment
NGOs and the private sector, are
called upon to take strategicaction Equality
in the followingcriticalareas of con-
cern: Human
(a) The persistent and increasing rights
burdenof povertyon women
(b) Inequalities and inadequacies
in and unequal access to edu-
cation, training, health care,
and related services
(c) Violence againstwomen
(d) The effects of armed or other
kinds of conflict on women, in-
cluding those living under for-
eign occupation
(e) Inequality in economic struc-
tures and policies, in all forms
of productive activities, and in
accessto resources

a. Numbers in parenthesesreferto pagesincitedtext.

b. (D):differentiation;
(A/C):access/control;
(L):levelof institution.
APPENDIX 5

Steps for Conducting a Gender Diagnosis

Who does what? How? Where? When?

Gender roles analysis C*CC*C>C With whom?

Accessand control Who has what? |

What are the differencesbetweenmen's

Men'sand women'sneeds ¢¢**c and women'shealth profiles?
Who needs what?

Formulationof objectives
What needswill be met?
Whoseneeds will be met?
What opportunitiesexist to meet them?
What constraintshinder meetingthem?

Policy approaches
PracticalGenderApproaches?
StrategicGenderApproaches? A
Howare men'sand women'sneeds met?a
C* Who has access to what? T
Who has control over what?
Is reductionof genderinequity a goal?
Who participatesin what,with whom,how,
where, when, and to what end?

4++++++++++++++ +++++ ++4+++++++++++++4++++

F' AL F T I C, I P A T I O N
a. Practicaland StrategicGenderApproaches are usedby PAHOto underscore that in healththe keyto achieving
gender
equityis in how(inthis case)environmental
healthprojects,policies,andprogramsare designed.
Source:PAHO(1997).

35
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