Definition:-

Mechanics of Solids deals with the

relations between externally applied
loads and their internal effects on
bodies.
Course Contents:

1. Simple Stress and Strain:

Kinds of stresses and strains
Difference between stress and pressure
Load extension diagrams for different materials
Hook’s law
Modulus of elasticity
Lateral strain, volumetric strain, Poisson’s ratio
Temperature stresses and compound bars

2. Flexure Formula and Theory of Torsion:

Moment of resistance and section modulus
Applications of flexure formula
Shear stresses in beams
Shear center
Shear flow
Theory of torsion for solid and hollow circular shafts
3. Springs and Strain Energy:
Open coil springs
Closed coil springs
Leaf springs
Strain energy due to direct loads, shear
force, bending moments, torque and impact
loads

4. Analysis of Complex State of Stress:

Analysis of Stress and Strain at a point due
to combined effect of axial force, shear force,
bending and twisting moment
Mohr’s circle for stress and strain,
relationships between elastic constants,
strain rosette solution
5. Curved Beams:
Introduction to circumferential and radial
stresses in curved beams
Correction of Circumferential Stress in curved
beams having I, T-cross section
Unsymmetrical bending
Deflection of curved beams

6. Theory of Yielding/Failure:
Plastic limit analysis for ductile materials
Plastic limit analysis for brittle materials
7. Fatigue:
Fatigue due to cyclic loading
Discontinuities and Stress Concentration,
Corrosion Fatigue
Low Cyclic Fatigue and ɛ-N relations

8. Application of Mechanics of Solid in Civil

Engineering Applications:
Use of stress strain curve for selection of
materials
Course Learning Outcomes:
At the end of the course, the student will be able:
(C3) PLO-1
to explain concepts of stresses, strains, and related theories and
to apply concepts of stresses, strains, and related theories in
simple problems of Mechanics of Solids.
to measure the stresses in structural members of different (C4) PLO-2
materials (e.g. steel, concrete etc.) subjected to different
loadings.
(A2) -

to clarify concepts of stresses, strains, and related theories in

simple problems of Mechanics of Solids.

(C3) -
to perform calculations using software (MS Excel, RISA etc) for
the stresses in structural members of different materials
subjected to different loadings
Stress is defined as the internal resisting force
developed in a body due to external deforming force.
This is magnitude of internal resisting force per unit
area.
𝑃
𝜎=
𝐴
where σ = Stress developed in the body
P = Internal resisting force set up by the body
A = Cross-sectional area resisting the external force
In SI system, stress is
measured in N/m2 and this
unit is specifically called
Pascal (Pa).
A bigger unit of stress in SI
is the mega Pascal (MPa).
2
1 Pa = 1 N/m ,
1MPa = 106 N/m2
= 1 N/mm2
In FPS system, stress is
measured in lb/in2 and this
unit is generally written as
psi (p for pound & “si” for
square inch).
A bigger unit of stress in FPS
is kilo-pound per square inch
(ksi) ( k for kilo-pound & “si”
for square inch).
1 ksi = 1000 psi
Basically three different types of stresses can be identified.
These are related to the nature of the deforming force applied
on the body. That is, whether they are
➢ tensile

➢ compressive

➢ or shearing.
Tensile Stresses
The force which tends to stretch or elongate the body is known
as tensile force. The tensile force per unit area is known as
tensile stress

σt= (internal resisting force at x-x)/(resisting area at x-x)

=R/A

=P/A
.

-A man pulling the box with rope

-Rope is in tension
Compressive Stress
The force which tends to shorten the body is known as
compressive force. The compressive force per unit
area is known as compressive stress

σc= (internal resisting force at x-x)/(resisting area at x-x)

=R/A

=P/A
.
Shear Stress

The force which tends to shear off the body is known as shear
force. The shear force per unit area is known as shear stress.
This is also known as tangential stress.

Г= (internal resisting force at x-x)/(resisting area at x-x) )-x)

=R/A

=P/A
Daily Life Examples of Shear Stress
Bearing Stress
The bearing stress is the contact pressure between two separate
surfaces.

.
Normal or Direct Stresses.

When the stress acts at a section or normal to the plane of

the section, it is called a normal stress or a direct stress. It is
a term used to mean both the tensile stress and the
compressive stress.

.
Simple and Pure Stresses

The stress developed in a body is said to be

❖ Simple tension,
❖ Simple compression and
❖ Simple shear

when the stress induced in the body is

(a) single and

(b) uniform.

If the condition (a) alone is satisfied, the stress is called pure

tension or pure compression or pure shear, as the case may
be.
.
Volumetric Stress

Three mutually perpendicular like direct stresses of same

intensity produced in a body constitute a volumetric stress.
For example consider a body in the shape of a cube
subjected equal normal pushes on all its six faces. It is now
subjected to equal compressive stresses σc in all the three
mutually perpendicular directions. The body is now said to
be subjected to a volumetric compressive stress p.

Volumetric stress produces a change in volume of the body

without producing any distortion to the shape of the body.
Problem-1.1
 Difference between Pressure and Stress
• Pressure is defined as external force per unit area
applied to an object in a direction perpendicular to the
surface. Naturally, pressure can cause stress inside an
object.

• Stress is the property of the body under load and is

related to the internal forces. It is the internal reaction
produced by the molecules of the body under some
action which may produce some deformation. The
intensity of these internal forces produced per unit area
is known as stress.
Strain is defined a the ratio of change in dimension to original
dimension of a body when it is deformed. It is a dimensionless
quantity as it is a ratio between two quantities of same
dimension.
Strains may be :

➢ Linear Strain
➢ Tensile strain

➢ Compressive strain

➢ Lateral strain

➢ Volumetric strain

➢ Shear strain
Linear Strain

Linear strain of a deformed body is defined as the ratio of the

change in length of the body due to the deformation to its
original length in the direction of the force.

If “L” is the original length and “ΔL/L” is the change in length

occurred due to the deformation, the linear strain “ε” induced
is given by ε = ΔL/L.
Linear strain may be a tensile strain, εt or a compressive
strain εc according as dl refers to an increase in length or a
decrease in length of the body. If we consider one of these as
+ve then the other should be considered as –ve, as these are
opposite in nature.
Lateral Strain

Lateral strain of a deformed body is defined as the ratio of

the change in length (breadth of a rectangular bar or
diameter of a circular bar) of the body due to the
deformation to its original length (breadth of a rectangular
bar or diameter of a circular bar) in the direction
perpendicular to the force.
Volumetric Strain

Volumetric strain of a deformed body is defined as the ratio of the

change in volume of the body to its original volume. If V is the
original volume and dV the change in volume occurred due to the
deformation, the volumetric strain εv induced is given by εv=dV/V.
 Volumetric Strain
Consider a uniform rectangular bar of length l, breadth b and
depth d as shown in figure. Its volume V = l x b x d

This means that volumetric strain of a deformed body is the sum

of the linear strains in three mutually perpendicular directions.
Shear Strain
Shearing forces cause shearing deformation. An element
subject to shear does not change in length but undergoes a
change in shape.

The change in angle at the corner of an original rectangular

element is called the shear strain and is expressed as
 Load Extension Diagram-Stress-strain Diagram

Suppose that a metal specimen be placed in tension-

compression-testing machine (universal testing machine).
 Load Extension Diagram-Stress-strain Diagram

As the axial load is gradually increased in increments, the total

elongation over the gauge length is measured at each
increment of the load and this is continued until failure of the
specimen takes place. Knowing the original cross-sectional
area and length of the specimen, the normal stress “σ” and the
strain “ε” can be obtained. The graph of these quantities with
the stress “σ” along the y-axis and the strain “ε” along the x-axis
is called the stress-strain diagram. The stress-strain diagram
differs in shape for various materials. The diagram shown below
is that for a medium-carbon structural steel.
Load Extension Diagram-Stress-strain Diagram
 Load Extension Diagram-Stress-strain Diagram

Elastic Limit

The elastic limit is the limit beyond which the material will no
longer go back to its original shape when the load is
removed, or it is the maximum stress that may be developed
such that there is no permanent or residual deformation
when the load is entirely removed.

Elastic and Plastic Ranges

The region in stress-strain diagram from O to P is called the

elastic range. The region from P to R is called the plastic
range.
 Load Extension Diagram-Stress-strain Diagram

Yield Point
Yield point is the point at which the material will have an
appreciable elongation or yielding without any increase in load.

Ultimate Strength
The maximum ordinate in the stress-strain diagram is the
ultimate strength or tensile strength.
Rupture Strength
Rupture strength is the strength of the material at rupture. This
is also known as the breaking strength.
 Load Extension Diagram-Stress-strain Diagram

Modulus of Resilience
Modulus of resilience is the work done on a unit volume of
material as the force is gradually increased from O to P, in
N·m/m3. This may be calculated as the area under the stress-
strain curve from the origin O up to the elastic limit E (the
shaded area in the figure). The resilience of the material is its
ability to absorb energy without creating a permanent
distortion.

Modulus of Toughness
Modulus of toughness is the work done on a unit volume of
material as the force is gradually increased from O to R, in
N·m/m3. This may be calculated as the area under the entire
stress-strain curve (from O to R). The toughness of a material
is its ability to absorb energy without causing it to break
 Load Extension Diagram-Stress-strain Diagram

Working Stress or Allowable Stress and Factor of Safety

• The working stress, also called the allowable stress, is the

maximum safe stress that a material can carry.

σw= σy/Ω
 Load Extension Diagram-Stress-strain Diagram

Working Stress or Allowable Stress and Factor of Safety

• The allowable stress is taken as either the yield point or

ultimate strength divided by a factor called factor of safety.

• Thus the ratio of this strength (ultimate or yield strength) to

allowable stress is called the factor of safety.
Load Extension Diagram-Stress-strain Diagram
Metallic engineering materials are classified as either ductile
or brittle materials. A ductile material is one having relatively
large tensile strains up to the point of rupture like structural
steel and aluminum.

FIG. 1-13 Typical

stress-strain diagram
for an aluminum alloy.
Load Extension Diagram-Stress-strain Diagram
Metallic engineering materials are classified as either ductile
or brittle materials. A ductile material is one having relatively
large tensile strains up to the point of rupture like structural
steel and aluminum.

FIG 1-14Arbitrary yield stress determined by

the offset method
Copyright 2005 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited

FIG. 1-13 Typical

stress-strain diagram
for an aluminum alloy.
Load Extension Diagram-Stress-strain Diagram

Whereas a brittle material has a relatively small strain up to

the point of rupture like cast iron and concrete. An arbitrary
strain of 0.05 mm/mm is frequently taken as the dividing line
between these two classes.
 Load Extension Diagram-Stress-strain Diagram

From the origin O to the point “P” called proportional limit,

the stress-strain curve is a straight line. This linear relation
between elongation and the axial force causing was first
noticed by Sir Robert Hooke in 1678 and is called Hooke's
Law that within the proportional limit, the stress is directly
proportional to strain.

The constant of proportionality “k” is called the Modulus of

Elasticity “E” or Young's Modulus and is equal to the slope
of the stress-strain diagram from O to P.
Load Extension Diagram-Stress-strain Diagram
Shear Strain

The ratio of the shear stress τ and the shear strain γ is called
the modulus of elasticity in shear or modulus of rigidity and is
denoted as G, in MPa.
Elastic Constants

Elastic constants are used to express the relationship

between stresses and strains. Hooke’s law , is
stress/strain = a constant, within a certain limit. This
means that any stress/corresponding strain = a
constant, within certain limit. It follows that there can be
three different types of such constants. (which we may
call the elastic constants or elastic modulus)
corresponding to three distinct types of stresses and
strains. These are given below.
(i) Modulus of Elasticity or Young’s Modulus (E)

Modulus of Elasticity is the ratio of direct stress to

corresponding linear strain within elastic limit. If σ is any
direct stress below the elastic limit and ε the
corresponding linear strain, then E = σ / ε.

(ii) Modulus of Rigidity or Shear Modulus (G)

Modulus of Rigidity is the ratio of shear stress to shear

strain within elastic limit. It is denoted by G. if Г is the
shear stress within elastic limit and γ the corresponding
shear strain, then G = Г / γ.
 (iii) Bulk Modulus (K)
Bulk Modulus is the ratio of volumetric stress to volumetric
strain within the elastic limit. If σv is the volumetric stress
within elastic limit and εv the corresponding volumetric strain,
we have K = σv / εv.
Poisson’s Ratio

Any direct stress is accompanied by a strain in its own

direction and called linear strain and an opposite kind of
strain in every direction at right angles to it, lateral strain.
This lateral strain bears a constant ratio with the linear
strain. This ratio is called the Poisson’s ratio and is
denoted by µ.

Poisson’s Ratio = Lateral Strain / Linear Strain.

Value of the Poisson’s ratio for most materials lies

between 0.25 and 0.33.
Problem 1.7. Steel rod having a cross-sectional area of
300 mm2 and a length of 500 cm is suspended vertically
from one end. It supports a tensile load of 20 kN at the
lower end. If the unit mass of steel is 7850 kg/m3 and E

250cm
= 200 × 103 MN/m2, find the total elongation of the rod.

500cm
500cm
P=100 KN
Thermal Stresses

Temperature changes cause the body to expand or

contract. The amount δT, is given by

where α is the coefficient of thermal expansion in m/m°C or

in/in oF, L is the length in meter or inches, Ti and Tf are the
initial and final temperatures, respectively in oC or 0F. For
steel, α = 11.25 × 10-6 m/m°C or 6.5 10-6 in/in F0 .
Thermal Stresses

If temperature deformation is permitted to occur freely, no

load or stress will be induced in the structure. In some
cases where temperature deformation is not permitted, an
internal stress is created. The internal stress created is
termed as thermal stress.

For a homogeneous rod mounted between unyielding

supports as shown, the thermal stress is computed as:
Thermal Stresses

deformation due to temperature changes;

Thermal Stresses

where σ represents the thermal stress.

Take note that as the temperature rises above the

normal, the rod will be in compression, and if the
temperature drops below the normal, the rod is in
tension.
Problem-1.8
As stresses due to both
load and temperature
fall are tensile in
nature, therefore both
deformation are tensile
and are added

To balance the tensile

stress produced due to
load, the temperature
should be more than 70
oF so that compressive

stress induce.