Professional Documents
Culture Documents
for
Precast Post-Tensioned
Segmental Construction
Reported by
14
Synopsis
This Joint PCI-PTI committee report presents
basic recommendations for the design and
construction of precast post-tensioned concrete
structures which are composed of individual
segments that are connected by the use of
post-tensioning. The recommendations cover the
fabrication, transportation, and erection of the
precast component segments, details of the
construction of joints, tendons and anchors, and
design considerations applicable to segmental
construction.
It should be emphasized that this report is
published as a guide on segmental construction and
should not be considered a specification. The report
contained herein is an update of the report entitled
"Recommended Practice for Segmental
Construction in Prestressed Concrete," published in
the March-April 1975 PCI JOURNAL.
16
4.3.1 Cranes
4.3.2 Winch and Beam
4.3.3 Launching Girder
4.4 Erection Considerations
4.5 Erection Tolerances
48
Chapter5 -- Joints ........................................
5.1 General
5.2 Cast-in-Place Joints
5.3 Dry-Packed Joints
5.4 Grouted Joints
5.5 Match Cast Joints
5.5.1 Epoxy Bonded Joints
5.5.1.1 Selection of Epoxy
5.5.1.2 Application of Epoxy
5.5.2 Dry Joints
5.6 Metal Joints
References ............................................... 60
18
1.3 Limitations of this steel to the concrete.
Recommended Practice Coating —Material used to pro-
This report is a recommended tect the prestressing steel against
practice on segmental construction, corrosion and/or provide lubrica-
not a building code or specification. tion.
It is presented as a guide to the de- Couplers — Hardware to transmit
sign and construction of structures the prestressing force from one
using segmental elements to insure partial length prestressing tendon
safety and serviceability. En- to another.
gineering judgment must be Grout —A mixture of cement,
and water with or without admix-
applied to these recommendations.
tures. (In some instances sand is
used as a filler).
1.4 Scope Joint — The region of the struc-
These recommendations are in- ture between interfaces of precast
tended to cover those conditions segments with or without adhesive
which affect segmentally con- or grouting materials and with or
structed members differently from without reinforcement.
non-segmentally constructed mem- Prestressing Steel —The part of a
bers. They consider the fabrication, post-tensioning tendon which is
transportation, and erection of the elongated and anchored to provide
precast component segments, the the necessary permanent pre-
construction of joints, tendons and stressing force.
anchors, and design considerations Segment — A precast element
applicable to segmental construc- made out of concrete, with or with-
tion. out reinforcement, prestressed or
non-prestressed.
1.5 Definitions Sheathing or Duct — Enclosure
Adhesive —A bonding material around the prestressing steel.
used in joints. Tendon — The complete assem-
Anchorage — The means by bly for post-tensioning, consisting
which the prestressing force is of anchorages, couplers, and pre-
transmitted from the prestressing stressing steel with sheathing.
VERTICAL
POST -
TEN SIONIN
PRECAST
CORE
ELEMENT
DRY PACKED
JOINT
SHIM S
ce
Fig. 3. Erection of precast panel for liquid natural gas storage tank.
(4.88 m) high steel cab housing the 2.3 Liquid Natural Gas
control tower observation deck and Storage Tanks
facilities. Vertical post-tensioning In 1974 in the United States, two
was used to stabilize the core seg- 900,000 bb] liquid natural gas stor-
ments during construction and pro- age tanks14 were completed using 8
vide moment and shear capacity to x 60 ft (2.44 x 18.3 m) high precast
resist service loads. Fig. 1 shows wall panels. After completion of
the tower during construction. Fig. erection of the panels the structure
2 is an isometric view of the was post-tensioned circumferen-
stacked and post-tensioned box tially. The tanks are composed of
segments. two concentric walls, the outer wall
22
20'- 10 12" TO SUPPORTS
3/B"PL ROOFING
TRUSS POCKET
I8"INSULATION
Cu M FE RENT A Lo
JClR
POST-TENSIONING W LOW-
z U)
w
LIQUID EL.
Ti
>-
I.. W I2-9..
PRECAST WALL., LNG
SEGMENTS
w-
x 00
t- MI Uj PRECAST _~
z WALL m m
° SHOTCRETE \ SEGMENTS _'
- a
SHOTCRETE
10'-O" BERM 3.-0"
Fig. 4b. Section of double wall with post-tensioned precast wall segments.
45'O" -
^VIERENDEEL TRUSS— ^
.,l _ 11 II II II I^ II
I ^^I II l+ II I^
II jl
-'-ii II
II jl ^I Ij ^1 II
^ I__°_ IIii
---_=1f_=«-------^
M -------1 +I I II
I
II
II
II
^I
pi
I^ tl II II
I II II II
I I I! f .
I II I I II I^
^ II
II
'.' I II II
w I ^I
o ^ I- II li
^I N
jq W I
Q> 1---yt------_--_- II 7
II
W
II Q
I II z
II
.. y
I. ii II II
II iI I+
I I! +f li Ii
li 11 II I II
o i 13 II l II I^ II li I I II
II Ij II I I II II II
^
^
I
I II I, II II II II II
II II II I I- I it If
II it II_ __I I__ I 1 _ ^ _I II ij
I _Jj II 11 II II L_ I
II II I ^I jl itII
^-r EI 11
II II II
F
— VIERENDEEL TRUSS- ^
2.4 28-Story Office Building and bottom chords of the truss were
In 1974, a 28-story office build- post-tensioned horizontally. The
ing15 used a segmentally con- ends of the truss were then an-
structed Vierendeel truss as the chored into large cast-in-place col-
exterior support for the edges of umns. Fig, 5 is a plan view showing
floors. Truss segments were block-I the location of the trusses and col-
shaped, 17 ft (5.2 m) high, 10 ft (3 umns. Fig. 6 is an elevation of a
m) wide at top and bottom and segmental Vierendeel truss. Fur-
weighed a maximum of 9 tons (8.2 ther design and erection details of
t) each. The block-I's were erected this building can be found in the
side by side at the site and the top Nov.-Dec. 1975 PCI JOURNAL."
24
f COLUMN ECOLUMN
75 7"
h is ' 1 do do _IO'4 29'f
`o IT z-ru4 ^ravr•—
B1 I I TOP CHORD
Z
L^
c–
`P RESTRESSING
c A A TENDON
v
C BOTTOM CHORD
N
I o
= FLOW 1
P5
R4
P4
UL :
O 4F
T i R3 -
I P2 k P 3 ®i
DISCHARGE CHAMBER
CLAY 40
T1
ROCK
r(1NNE PRECAST CONGRETE
L CASF-IN'PLACE CONCRETE
DISCHARGE CONVEYOR-
LEGEND
Fig. 7. Cross section of cement clinker silo showing location of main precast concrete
components.
26
DETAIL PI
RADIAL TIE BEAM AND
ANCHORAGE BLOCK
33o,,
.
.
–LVL
DETAIL P3
LOWER CONE ELEMENT
DETAIL P2
SLANTED V-COLUMN
IO'8"
Al
.Ii
Ii
It
1:1
3" 1:1
IL:
-6"
DETAIL P5
DETAIL P4
CONICAL ROOF
WALL PANEL
ELEMENT
Io.8u
Fig. 9. Construction sequence used for liquified petroleum gas storage vessel.
28
Fig. 10. Match-casting, precast concrete bottom shell segments.
Fig. 11. Graving dock and delivery of 40-ton bottom hull segment.
30
2.8.1 Balanced Cantilever with the environment, traffic flow is
In this method segments are can- not obstructed below, small labor
tilevered from a pier in a balanced force required, and speed of erec-
fashion on each side until midspan tion.
is reached and a closure pour is An interesting concept in bal-
made with a previous half-span anced cantilever segmental con-
cantilever from the preceding pier struction is its incorporation with
as shown in Fig. 14. This procedure cable-stayed bridges. This concept
is then repeated until the structure has been used in the United States
is completed. for the Pasco-Kennewick Bridge s-s
Each segment added is immedi- in the State of Washington as
ately post-tensioned to the already shown in Fig. 15.
completed portion of the structure. 2.8.2 Span-by-Span
Care must be exercised to maintain This type of construction starts at
compression over the entire joint one end of the structure and pro-
area by means of temporary or per- ceeds continuously to the other end
manent post-tensioning until all of the structure, span-by-span, as
of the permanent tendons are opposed to the balanced cantilever
stressed. The magnitude of stresses, where construction starts at the
segment alignment, and elevations piers and symmetrically moves out
must be evaluated at all stages of from the piers. In this type of con-
construction. struction segments are supported
The advantages of cantilever con- during construction by a moveable
struction are minimal interference falsework. The Long Key Bridge in
32
Fig. 16(a). Span-by-span technique using movable steel truss (Long Key Bridge).
ments placed near the pier may be quired to control the cantilever
placed in a cantilever fashion until stress.
the stresses become excessive. At This method can be used to ad-
this point temporary stays (or some vantage where site conditions pro-
other temporary support) are re- hibit the use of the span-by-span
34
Fig. 18. Schematic of incremental launching
sequence (Courtesy of F. Leonhardt).
36
port area. Honeycombing of ele- 3.2.2 The Short-Line Method
ments outside this area, provided it Principle —The segments are
is suitably repaired, need not be cast at the same place in stationary
cause for rejection. forms and against a neighboring
element. After casting, the neigh-
3.2 Methods of Casting boring element is taken away and
Segments to he erected with the last element shifted to the place
wide joints may be cast separately. of the neighboring element, clear-
Match-cast joint members are cast ing the space to cast the next ele-
by the "long-line" or "short-line" ment. A horizontal casting opera-
method. tion is illustrated in Figs. 20a
3.2.1 The Long-Line Method through 20c. Segments intended to
Principle — All of the segments be used horizontally may also be
are cast, in correct relative position, cast vertically.
on a long line. One or more form- Advantages — The space needed
work units move along this line. for the short-line method is small in
The formwork units are guided by a comparison to the long-line
pre-adjusted soffit. An example of method, approximately three times
this method is shown in Figs. 19a to the Iength of a segment. The entire
19c. For further practical details of process is centralized. Horizontal
the long-line fabrication method and vertical curves and twisting of
see Reference 24. the structure are economically ob-
Advantages — A long line is easy tained by adjusting the position of
to set up and to maintain control the neighboring segment.
over the production of the seg- Disadvantages — To obtain the
ments. After stripping the forms it desired structural configuration
is not necessary to take away the very precise workmanship, quality
segments immediately. control procedures, and geometry
Disadvantages — Substantial control are required. The neigh-
space may he required for the long boring segments must be accurately
line. The minimum length is nor- positioned for each match-casting.
mally slightly more than half the
length of the longest span of the 3.3 Formwork
structure. It should be constructed 3.3.1 General
on a firm foundation which will not All forms should be carefully de-
settle or deflect under the weight of signed and it is highly recom-
the segments. Because the forms mended that forms be designed by
are mobile, equipment for casting, Engineers with experience in the
curing, etc., has to move from place segmental method and the proce-
to place. In case the structure is dure, as well as form design.
curved, the long line must be de- Formwork should be designed to
signed to accommodate the curva- safely support all loads that might
ture. This, however, increases the be applied without undesired de-
complexity of the form and the formations or settlements. Soil sta-
more appropriate method to pro- bilization of the foundations may be
duce curved bridges is by the required, or the formwork may be
short-line method. designed so that adjustments can be
outside Formwork
Inside Formwork
ELEVATION
PLAN
Fig. 19(b). Formwork at start of casting (long-line method).
ELEVATION
Hil _
PLAN
Fig. 19(c). Formwork after casting several segments (long-line method).
38
AFTER STRIPPING DURING CASTING
r INSIDE
FORMWORK
CARRIAGE
TURN BU
age
Fig. 20(c), Formwork just before casting next segment (short-line method).
40
segment being cast together with Chapter 7 lists the requirements
the segment it was cast against. This for supplemental reinforcement.
prevents temperature deformations 3.3.4 Tolerances
of the hardened segment during Tolerances as specified by appli-
curing of the new segment which cable codes of practice can gener-
may lead to open joints upon erec- ally be used for segmental con-
tion. struction, It should be borne in
Internal vibration is commonly mind, however, that tolerances on
used. If the form is designed for dimensions which directly influ-
external vibrators they should be ence alignment or shape of the
attached at locations that will erected segmental structure require
achieve optimum consolidation and particular attention. Formwork for
permit easy replacement during the segmental box girder bridge con-
casting operations. To break the struction that meet the tolerances
suction during stripping, air jets
shown in Table 1 (see next page)
may be employed if required. are normally considered accept-
3.3.2 Provisions for Tendons able.
Holes for prestressing tendons Depending upon the detail at
may be formed by: bridge piers, the tolerances for the
(a) Sheathing which remains after soffit of the pier segment may need
hardening of the concrete. Flexible special attention. The actual di-
sheathing made of spirally wound
mensions of a segment should be
metal may be stiffened from the in- determined immediately after re-
side by means of inflatable rubber moving the forms. If specified tol-
duct tubes during the casting oper-
erances are exceeded, acceptance
ation. or rejection should be based on the
(b) Rigid sheathing with smooth
effect on final alignment and on
or corrugated walls may be used whether the effect can be corrected
that will not deform excessively
in later segments.
under the pressure of vibrating the
plastic concrete. Sheathing should 3.4 Concrete
be carefully aligned and tied at Uniform quality of concrete is es-
close intervals to avoid displace- sential for segmental construction.
ment. Procedures for obtaining high
Holes should be accurately po- quality concrete are covered in
sitioned, particularly when a large ACI,25 PCI,E8 and PCA27 publica-
number of holes are required. tions.
Often, sheathing with tendons in Both normal weight and struc-
place require no stiffening. Further tural lightweight concrete can be
information on forming holes for made consistent and uniform with
tendons and tendon anchorages is proper mix proportioning and pro-
presented in Chapter 6. duction controls, Normally concrete
3.3.3 Provisions for Supplemental for segmental construction will
Reinforcement have a slump of'3 to 5 in. (76 to 127
Supplemental mild steel rein- mm) and 28-day strength greater
forcement is used to resist forces than the strength specified by
not provided for by prestressing. structural design. It is recom-
42
/DVERALL TOP SLAB WIDTH
I
ENDON HOLE
0 000oQ 0000000
°o 0o DEPTH OF
DUCTS WEB
7 KEY TOP SLAB
OVERALL DEPTH
WEB OF SEGMENT
SS 90, THIC N SS
0 0 __ o 0
SQUARENESS —"— DEPTH OF
(MEAS. ON GRADE OF BOTTOM SLAB
DIAGONALS) FORM EDGE
WIDTH OF WEB
POSITION OF POSITION OF
SHEAR KEYS - - --- i - SHEAR
-SHEAR KEYS
^+-DIAPHRAGM t I
WEB KEY I I THICKNESS I
--------4-4-------
LONGITUDINAL SECTION
44
Fig. 22, Winch and beam erection method.
46
0
CHAPTER 5- JOINTS
5.1 General further discussion of design consid-
Joints separate the structure into erations for joints is presented in
a number of segments. It is gener- Chapter 7.
ally preferable to use as few seg- joints are either wide or match-
ments as possible consistent with cast. Wide joints may be cast in
transportation and erection eco- place with concrete, dry packed
nomics. The joint surface is usually with mortar, or grouted. Match-cast
oriented approximately perpen- joints are normally bonded with
dicular to the centroidal axis of the epoxy but dry joints have been
structure. used in special instances. For all
The capacity of a joint is a func- types of joints the surfaces must be
tion of the prestressing force nor- clean, free from grease, oil or other
mal to the joint and development of contaminates. Where epoxy bond-
friction on the joint face. This ing is to be used the joint surfaces
Chapter discusses the joint types. A should be lightly sandhlasted while
48
maintaining the match-cast fit. to ensure maximum compaction.
Post-tensioning tendons crossing Serration of the joint is recom-
joints should be approximately per- mended.
pendicular to the joint surface in The height of each concrete
the direction of the smaller dimen- placement or lift must be limited so
sion of the segment element con- that the concrete can be properly
cerned, i.e., flange or web thick- consolidated. Ports are normally
ness; but may be inclined in the di- provided in the joint form for in-
rection of the larger dimension, i.e., spection. Formwork should be
flange width or web depth. This is sealed to prevent leakage of paste.
to minimize any unbalanced Cast-in-place joints should be ade-
shearing force which could lead to quately cured.
dislocation of edge zones at joints. The sharpness of line of assem-
Holes for the passage of tendons bled segments with wide joints de-
must be located very precisely. pends mainly on the accuracy of the
Particular care is required to com- manufacturing of the joints during
pletely seal tendon ducts at joints erection and less on the accuracy of
in order to prevent penetration of the segments. Curvature and
joint filling material into the duct, twisting of the structure may occur
thereby blocking passage of ten- within the joints from the post-
dons, and also to prevent unsightly tensioning unless proper care is
leakage at joints during grouting. taken to prevent it.
50
surface flaws on the jointing sur- joints see Section 7.4.
faces. Bridge model tests and other
2. Epoxy improves the durability cif structural tests having epoxied
match-cast joints. joints with large keys have been
A. Complete filling of the joint tested up to failure and were found
provides weather tightness. to perform excellently. Breen stated
3. Epoxy improves the structural that "Epoxied joints did not induce
performance of match-cast joints. any discernable weakness of this
Since the tensile strength of type of construction. "31
epoxy itself and the bond strength If this high-performance epoxy is
between epoxy and concrete can be not provided, the joint or key will
equal or superior to the tensile be a plane of weakness in the
strength of concrete, the use of a structure. The durability, capacity
suitable epoxy restores "the tensile to sustain overloads, and moment
strength of concrete" at the match- capacity of the individual slabs at
cast joints. The significance of this the joints are affected, and must he
is: attended to by using alternative
A. The use of epoxy increases the methods.
overload at which the joint opens 5.5.1.1 Selection of Epoxy
and makes the magnitude of this The compressive strength of the
equal to the load required for epoxy should equal that of the con-
cracking the sections surrounding crete in adjacent segments under
the joints. Crack development any environmental condition that
under overloading tends to be may be encountered during the life
similar to that in a monolithic of the structure.
structure. This also improves the Only highly cross-linked epoxy
tightness of the closure of such adhesives that have been
cracks upon removal of the load. thoroughly tested in accordance
B. The joints are subjected to with current ASTM32 and applica-
secondary effects which make com- ble industry standards should be
plete restoration of tensile strength used. Information which should he
desirable. For example, tempera- obtained from the manufacturer, or
ture gradients in top slabs of box be determined by test, must in-
girder bridges can cause consider- clude as a minimum:
able tensile stresses. Also, the dis- (a) Workability, pot life and
tribution of bending moments in "open time" at various tempera-
the top slab caused by wheel loads ture s.
is more effective across moment- (b) Compressive strength and
resisting joints. It is evident that modulus of elasticity at various
joints without epoxy do not have temperatures after curing for at
moment capacity unless there is least 7 days at 68 F (20 C).
substantial compression normal to (c) Direct shear strength of
the joint face. Such compression is bonded concrete prisms at various
usually not provided in negative temperatures, with notation of
moment areas of box girders de- whether failure occurs in the joint
signed for zero tension under full or in the concrete.
loading. For a further discussion of (d) Ability to bond in such a way
52
tures. Special attention is required be applied to prevent staining of
for welded joints to prevent crack- adjacent surfaces and to protect the
ing or spalling of the concrete. integrity of welds and contact sur-
Protection against corrosion should faces.
54
or another suitable material should tendon profile. The effects of con-
be used between the plate and the crete creep and changes of the
concrete to achieve a good degree statical system during construction
of stress distribution under the should be considered.
bearing plate. The strength of the Anchorages, couplers and splices
mortar or other material should not of post-tensioning tendons should
be less than the concrete strength preferably not be located in areas
on which it bears, and the thickness where yielding may occur under
of the joint should he limited to a ultimate load conditions.
maximum oft in. (50 mm).
The reinforcement of the con- 6.5 Placement and Stressing
crete underneath the dry-packed of Tendons
mortar or other material should be When tendons are installed in the
the same as if the plate was cast segments before casting, they are
into the precast segment. usually coupled together at each
The preparation of the surface joint. This construction method
under the bearing plate will de- permits stressing of part of a ten-
pend on the type of plate and don, after installing one or more
placing procedure used. segments, before the full length is
When the bearing plate is not completely installed.
cast into the concrete, the surface Tendons may also be installed
should be clean and free from after casting and erection in parital
foreign matter. The surface should lengths and coupled together at
be wire brushed to remove all la- special openings. Usually, how-
tents and loose concrete chips. If ever, these tendons are installed
the hearing plate is to be grouted, full length. It may be noted, that
proper bond should be assured. this coupling procedure permits
intermediate stressing of portions of
6.4 Tendon Layout the structure, by using tendons of
Attention should be given to the variable lengths, stressing the short
tendon layout to make it compatible ones first and long ones later. The
with: prestressing steel should be free of
(a) Sequence of the segmental detrimental rust when installed into
construction. the structure. Special attention
(b) Progressive and subsequent should be given to the temporary
load conditions which the segmen- corrosion protection of the pre-
tal structure will undergo while stressing steel until grouted.
being erected,
(c) Concrete placement. 6.6 Grouting
(d) Effective section used in de- The purpose of grouting is to
sign. provide corrosion protection to the
It is important to anticipate the prestressing steel, and to develop
secondary effects (stresses due to bond between the prestressing
restrained deformations) which steel and the surrounding concrete.
post-tensioning may have on the To accomplish this, the grout
structure, and how these effects can should fill all the voids in and
be influenced by changes in the around the post-tensioning tendon
56
CHAPTER 7- DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
7.1 General Handling and storage of precast
The analysis and design of seg- segments requires special attention
mental structures are essentially so that no warping or bending of
the same as for monolithic pre- individual segments will take
stressed concrete structures except place. It is suggested that the En-
that due consideration should be gineer specify the method of sup-
given to the following items: port during storage and handling.
(a) Redistribution of forces due to
creep of concrete, which changes
the stresses of the as built condi- 7.4 Joint Design
tions, and erection conditions. The joints between segments
(b) Weather-proof tightness and should he capable of transferring the
strength of connections and joints. compressive, shearing, and tor-
(c) Storage and handling of seg- sional forces determined by the de-
ments before and during construc- sign. There should be no tensile
tion. stresses in extreme fibers when all
(d) Camber, during erection and possible design loads such as live
in the casting bed. load, temperature, wind, construc-
tion loads, etc. are properly consid-
7.2 Force Redistribution ered. Longitudinal bending mo-
In most cases, the statical system ments in the top slab due to wheel
of the structure during construction loads should be included in the
stages is not the same as in the final analysis. Temperature variation
stage under service load. Redis- through the cross section may cause
tribution of forces due to creep and significant stresses in bridge
shrinkage of concrete should be superstructures and should not be
considered. neglected.
As the structural system changes The joints are subjected to shear
during construction, creep of con- stresses. In box girder bridges, the
crete tends to redistribute the mo- joints are generally perpendicular
ments and forces in the structure to to the neutral axis. Shear forces act
approach the conditions as if the in the plane of the joint, and per-
structure were built totally on pendicular to that plane are pre-
falsework. However, depending on stressing forces. In many precast
environmental factors, concrete segmental bridges, the ratio of the
properties and construction prestressing forces and shear forces
schedules, the degree of this redis- is seldom less than 5. For a dry
tribution varies. match-cast concrete-to-concrete
Calculation of the force redis- joint, if the friction coefficient is as-
tribution may follow the recom- sumed to be 1.0, the resulting
mendations of ACT Committee safety against sliding would equal
209311 or other recognized methods. 5. Therefore, under those condi-
tions, dry joints of this type would
7.3 Handling and Storage of safely transfer the shear even with-
Segments out keys or serrations. If the
58
forcement is normally required in frame. Transverse prestressing in
segments for: the deck slab has often been used.
(a) Concentrated forces at reac- Deck slab design should also in-
tions and at tendon anchorages. clude longitudinal local bending
(h) Volume change forces. moment in the deck slab due to
(c) Temporary forces imposed wheel loads which can cause sig-
during fabrication, transportation, nificant flexural stresses. If curved
or erection. tendons are used, radial forces due
(d) Temperature gradient stresses to curvature of tendons should be
between the top and bottom of the considered. In some cases tendons
segment and between inside and are given curvature in addition to
outside surfaces of exterior webs. the principal tendon curvature at
Horizontal and vertical rein- certain locations in order to ac-
forcement should be placed be- commodate better distribution of
tween segments in wide joints voids in the concrete or arrange-
filled with mortar or concrete when ment of anchors; forces due to these
the transverse thickness of the joint secondary trajectories should be
is more than 2 in. (50 mm). carefully evaluated. Fillets or rein-
forcement may be added for this
purpose.
7.6 Design of Segments for Diaphragms are normally re-
Box Girder Bridges quired at abutments, piers and
lr or constant depth segmental hinges. Intermediate diaphragms
bridges, span-to-depth ratios from contribute very little to load dis-
18 to 25 are currently considered tribution and are not recom-
practical and economical. Midspan mended.
depth of variable depth girders may Special consideration should he
have span-to-depth ratios of 40 to given to the effects of severe en-
50; span-to-depth ratios of equal to vironmental exposure.
that of constant depth girders are For more information on seg-
used at the piers. mental box girder bridges refer to
Simple single cell box girders the Precast Segmental Box Girder
may be used if the width of the Bridge Manual.37
deck is less than 20 percent of the
span. This is based on the use of
simple beam theory for which the 7.7 Design of Segments for
distribution of longitudinal stresses Decked I-Beams
is limited to a deck width per web The spanning capability of typi-
of 10 percent of the span length. cal I-shaped sections is extended
For wider decks, multiple cells are when the beam and deck are pre-
desirable and the webs should be cast integrally.
located to reduce moments in the Moment redistribution due to
top slab and to minimize transverse creep of the concrete should be
bending of the webs. Generally, considered in order to estimate the
these moments are computed with interaction between the beams and
sufficient accuracy by considering the deck slabs if the structural sys-
the box section as a closed rigid tem changes during construction.
60
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