MODULE 1

Electric Tools & Transformers

Standards are evolved to meet a generally recognized demand, taking into account the interest of manufacturers and users
and fulfilling the needs of economy. At present, a product cannot even be visualized without a standard. design, manufacture,
testing, installation, operation, maintenance etc.

1
SECTION 1

Electric tools and accessories

Electrical Tools and Equipment The following are common electrical tools and equipment needed in the
in
Electrical task can be accomplished systematically to save time, effort,
and resources. Most of the work cannot be done using bare hands. To do SCREW DRIVERS. These tools are made of steel hardened and

the task, electrical tools or equipment are needed to perform the job. This tempered at the tip used to loosen or tighten screws with slotted heads.

lesson will discuss the function/use of each tool or equipment used in They come in various sizes and shapes.

electrical wiring installations.

2
A. Standard/FlatScrewDriver. The blade tip is wedge-shaped and C. StubbyScrewDriver.It comes in either Standard or Philips screw driver
resembles a negative (-) sign. This is used to drive screws with a single with short shank or blade and a shorted handle used to turn screws in tight
slot head. space where standard screw driver cannot be used.

D. AllenScrewDriver/Wrench. This could be in the shape of a screw

driver or a wrench. Its function is to drive screw with hexagonal slot
head.

HAMMERS. These are tools used in driving or pounding and pulling

out nails. They are made of hard steel, wood, plastic or rubber. The
following are types of hammer:

A . C l a w h a m m e r

B. Mallet(rubberhead) C. Ballpeenhammer

B.PhilipsScrewDriver.This has a cross tip resembling a positive (+) sign.

This is used to drive screws with cross slot heads.

3
 PLIERS. These made from metal with insulators in the handle and are
used for cutting, twisting, bending, holding, and gripping wires and
cables.

A. CombinationPliers(Lineman’s Pliers). This is used for

gripping, holding, and cutting electrical wires and cables and even small
nails. They are usually used by linemen in doing heavy tasks.


B. SideCuttingPliers.Thistype of pliers is used for cutting fine,

m e d i u m a n d b i g w i r e s a n d c a b l e s .


C. Long Nose Pliers. This is used for cutting and holding fine
wires. This can reach tight space or small opening where other pliers
cannot reach and also used in making terminal loops of copper wires.


Wire Stripper- A tool used for removing insulation of medium

s i z e d w i r e s r a n g i n g f r o m g a u g e # 1 0 t o g a u g e # 1 6


4
Portable electric drill

IV. Wire Stripper- A tool used for removing insulation of medium sized
w i r e s r a n g i n g f r o m g a u g e # 1 0 t o g a u g e # 1 6 .


V. Portable electric drill

IV. Wire Stripper- A tool used for removing insulation of medium

s i z e d w i r e s r a n g i n g f r o m g a u g e # 1 0 t o g a u g e # 1 6 .

Hacksaw. This tool is used to cut metal conduit and armored cable.

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 MATERIALS AND DESCRIPTION

Convenience outlet- a device that acts as a convenient source of electrical

energy for current consuming appliances. It is where the male plug of an
appliance is inserted and usually fastened on the wall or connected in an
extension cord. It maybe single, duplex, triplex or multiplex and could be
surface type or flush type.

Surface type (duplex)

Electrical Supplies and Materials
Flush type (duplex)
Electrical materials are developed and constructed for a special purpose
such as to:

1. control the flow of current in an electrical circuit;


2. carry electrical current from the source to the load or current
c o n s u m i n g a p p a r a t u s ;

3. hold and secure wires to its fixtures inside and outside houses and
b u i l d i n g s ; a n d

4. protect the houses, buildings, appliances’ and instruments from any
d e s t r u c t i o n a n d

d a m a g e .




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Male plug- a device inserted to a convenience outlet to conduct electric
current. A flat cord is attached to it on one end and the other end is
connected to a current consuming instrument or appliance.

Lamp holders- devices that hold and protect the lamp and are also called
as ―Lamp Sockets/Receptaclesǁ. These come in many designs and sizes.
They are classified as flush, hanging (weather proof/chain) and surface
types.

Switch - a device that connects and disconnects the flow of electric

current in a circuit. There are many shapes, designs, and types and they
are classified as hanging, flush, and surface types.

Fuse - a circuit protective device that automatically blows and cut the
current when and over load or short circuit happens.

7

Indian Electricity Rules,1956.
Definitions:- (1) In these rules, unless the context otherwise requires,
(a) “the Act” means the Indian Electricity Act,1910;
(b) “Accessible” means within physical reach without the use of any
appliance or special effort;
(c) “Ampere” means a unit of electric current and is the unvarying electric
current which when passed through a solution of nitrate of silver in
water, in accordance with the specification set out in Annexure- I,
deposits silver at the rate of 0.001118 of a grams per second; the
aforesaid unit is equivalent to the current which, in passing through
the suspended coil of wire forming part of the instrument marked
“Government of India Ampere Standard Verified” when the suspended
coil is in its sighted position, exerts a force which is exactly balanced
by the force exerted by gravity in Calcutta on the counter balancing
iridio-platinum weight of the said instrument;
(d) “Annexure” means an Annexure to these rules;
(e) “apparatus” means electrical apparatus and includes all machines,
fittings, accessories and appliances in which conductors are used; (ee)
“authorised person” means a person authorised under rule3;
(f) “bare” means not covered with insulating materials;
8
(g) “cable” means a length of insulated single conductor(solid or stranded
or of two or more such conductors each provided with its own
insulation, which are laid up together. Such insulated conductor or
conductors may or may not be provided with an overall mechanical
protective covering; (gg) “flexible cable” means a cable consisting of
one or more cores each formed of a group of wires, the diameter and
the physical properties of the wires and insulating material being such
as to afford flexibility.
(h) ”circuit” means an arrangement of conductor or conductors for the
purpose of conveying energy and forming a system or a branch of a
system;
(i) ”circuit breaker” means a device, capable of making and breaking the
circuit under all conditions, and unless otherwise specified, so
designed as to break the current automatically under abnormal
conditions; 2
(j) “ concentric cable” means a composite cable comprising an inner
conductor which is insulated and one or more outer conductors which
are insulated from one another and are disposed over the insulation of,
and more or less around, the inner conductor;
(k) “ conductor” means any wire, cable, bar, tube, rail or plate used for
conducting energy and so arranged as to be electrically connected to a
system;
(l) “ conduit” means rigid or flexible metallic tubing or mechanically (s) (s) deleted
strong and fire resisting non-metallic tubing into which a cable or
(t) “ enclosed sub-station” means any premises or enclosure or part
cables may be drawn for the purpose of affording it or them
thereof, being large enough to admit the entrance of a person after the
mechanical protection;
apparatus therein is in position, containing apparatus for transforming
(m)“ covered with insulating material” means adequately covered with or converting energy to or from a voltage at or above medium
insulating material of such quality and thickness as to prevent danger; voltage(other than transforming or converting solely for the operation
of switch gear or instruments) with or without any other apparatus for
(n) “ cut out” means any appliance for automatically interrupting the
switching, controlling or otherwise regulating the energy, and includes
transmission of energy through any conductor when the current rises
the apparatus therein;
above a pre-determined amount, and shall also include fusible cut-out;
(u) “ enclosed switch-station” means any premises or enclosure or part
(o) “ danger” means danger to health or danger to life or any part of body
thereof, being large enough to admit the entrance of a person after the
from shock, burn or other injury to persons, or property, or from fire or
apparatus therein is in position, containing apparatus for switching,
explosion, attendant upon the generation, transmission,
controlling or otherwise regulating energy at or above medium voltage
transformation, conversion, distribution or use of energy;
but not for transforming or converting energy(other than for
(p) “ dead” means at or about earth potential and disconnected from any transforming or converting solely for the operation of switchgear or
live system; Provided that apparatus separated from a live conductor instruments), and includes the apparatus therein;
by a spark gap shall not be deemed to be “ dead”; Note:-The term “
(v) The Indian Electricity Rules, 1956 3 1 [(uu) “ flameproof enclosure”
dead” is used only with reference to current carrying parts when these
means an enclosure for electrical machinery or apparatus that will
parts are not live.
withstand, when the covers, or other access doors are properly
(q) “ earthed” or “ connected with earth” means connected with the secured, an internal explosion of the inflammable gas or vapour which
general mass of earth in such manner as to ensure at all times an may enter or originate inside the enclosure, without suffering damage
immediate discharge of energy without danger; and without communicating the internal flammation(or explosion) to
the external inflammable gas or vapour in which it is designed to be
(r) “ earthing system” means an electrical system in which all the
used, through any joints or other structural openings in the closure]
conductors are earthed;

9
(v) “ guarded” means covered, shielded, fenced or otherwise protected by
means of suitable casings, barrier, rails or metal screens to remove the
possibility of dangerous contact or approach by persons or objects to a
point of danger;
(x) “ Hand-held portable apparatus” means an apparatus which is so
designed as to be capable of being held in the hands and moved
while connected to a supply of electricity;]
(xi) “ Inspector” means an Electrical Inspector appointed under section
36;
(xii) “ Inspector of Mines” means an Inspector appointed under the Mines
Act,1952(35 of 1952)
(xiii) “ Installation” means any composite electrical unit used for the
purpose of generating, transforming, transmitting, converting,
distributing or utilizing energy;
(xiv)“ Intrinsically safe” as applied to apparatus or associated circuits
shall denote that any sparking that may occur in normal working is
incapable of causing explosion of inflammable gas or vapour; (aa) “
lightning arrestor” means a device which has the property of divering
to earth any electrical surge of excessively high amplitude applied to
its terminals and is capable of interrupting follow current if present
and restoring itself thereafter to its original operating conditions;
(aaa) “ linked switch” means a switch with all the poles mechanically
linked so as to operate simultaneously; (ab) “ live” means electrically
10
charged; (ac) “ metallic covering” means mechanically strong metal
covering surrounding one or more conductors; (ad) “ Neutral
conductor” means that conductor of a multi-wire system, the village
of which is normally intermediate between the voltages of the other
conductors of the system and shall also include return wire of the
single phase system; (ae) “ non-licensee” means a person generating,
supplying, transmitting or using energy to whom any of the
provisions of Part III of the Act apply; (af) “ occupier” means the
owner or person in occupation of the premises where energy is used
or proposed to be used; 1.Ins. vide G.S.R.45, dated 23-1-1993 The
Indian Electricity Rules, 1956 4 1 [(aff) “ officer appointed to assist
the Inspector” means an officer appointed under rule4A] (ag) “ ohm”
means a unit of electric resistance and is the resistance offered to an
unvarying electric current by a column of mercury at the temperature
of melting ice14.4521 grammes in mass of an uniform
cross-sectional area and of a length of 106.3 centimetres. The
aforesaid unit is represented by the resistance between the terminals
of the instrument marked “ Government of India Ohm Standard
Verified” to the passage of an electric current when the coil of wire,
forming part of the aforesaid instrument and connected to the
aforesaid terminals is in all parts at a temperature of 30 0 C.
(ah)”Open sparking” means sparking which owing to the lack of
adequate provisions for preventing the ignition of inflammable gas
external to the apparatus would ignite such inflammable gas; (ai) “
overhead line” means any electric supply line which is placed above
ground and in the open air but excluding live rails of a traction
system; (aj) “ owner”, “ agent” and “ manager” of a mine have the
same meanings as are assigned to them in the Mines Act,1952(35 of
1952); (ak) “ portable apparatus” means an apparatus which is so
designed as to be capable of being moved while in operation; (al) “
portable hand lamp”means a portable light-fitting provided with
suitable handle, guard and flexible cord connected to a plug; (am)
“section” means a Section of the Act; (an)”span” means the
horizontal distance between two adjacent supporting points of an
overhead conductor; (ao) “street box” means a totally enclosed
structure, either above or below ground containing apparatus for
transforming, switching, controlling or otherwise regulating energy;
(ap)”supplier” means a licensee, a non-licensee or any other supplier
of energy, including the Government; (aq) “switch”means a
manually operated device for opening and closing or for changing
the connection of a circuit; (aqa) “switchboard” means an assembly
including the switchgear for the control of electrical circuits, electric
connections and the supporting frame; (ar)”switchgear” shall denote
switches, circuit breakers, cut-outs and other apparatus used for the
(xv) (1) A supplier or a consumer, or the owner, agent or manager of a
operation, regulation and control of circuits; (as) “system”means an
electrical system in which all the conductors and apparatus are
electrically connected to a common source of electric supply; (at) “
transportable apparatus” means apparatus which is operated in a
fixed position but which is so designed as to be capable of being
moved readily from one place to another; 1.Ins.vide G.S.R.336 dated
11
23-4-1988 The Indian Electricity Rules, 1956 5 (au) “ volt”means a
unit of electro-motive force and is the electric pressure which, when
steadily applied to a conductor, the resistance of which is one ohm,
will produce a current of one ampere; (av)” voltage” means the
difference of electric potential measured in volts between any two
conductors or between any part of either conductor and the earth as
measured by a suitable voltmeter and is is said to be; “ low” where
the voltage does not exceed 250 volts under normal conditions
subject, however, to the percentage variation allowed by these rules;
“ medium”where the voltage does not exceed 650 volts under normal
conditions subject, however, to the percentage variation allowed by
these rules; “ high”where the voltage does not exceed 33,000 volts
under normal conditions subject, however, to the percentage
variation allowed by these rules; “ extra high” where the voltage
exceeds 33,000 volts under normal conditions subject, however, to
the percentage variation allowed by these rules; (2)All other words
and expressions used herein and not defined shall have the meanings
respectively assigned to them in the Act; 3. Authorization –
mine, or the agent of any company operating in an oil-field or the
owner of a drilled well in an oil field or a contractor for the time
being under contract with a supplier or a consumer to carry out
duties incidental to the generation, transformation, transmission,
conversion, distribution or use of energy may authorise any persosn
for the purpose of any or all of the following namely:- Sub-rule(2) of
rule 36, clause(a) of sub-rule(1) of rule 51 , clause (a) of sub-rule(1)
and 1 [clauses (h) and (i) of sub-rule(2)] of rule 64, sub-rule(2) of
rule 110, sub-rule(1) and (4) of rule 121, sub-rule(4) of rule 123, rule
124 and sub-rule(8) of rule 125. 2 [(2) No person shall be authorised
under sub-rule(1) unless he is competent to perform the duties
assigned to him and possesses either on appropriate certificate of
competency or permit to work;] 3 (2A)(a) No person shall be
authorised to operate or undertake maintenance of any part or whole
of a generating station of capacity 100MW and above together with
the associated sub-station unless he is adequately qualified and has
successfully undergone the type of training specified in Annexure
XIV; Provided that the provisions contained in this sub-rule shall
have effect in respect of the persons already authorised to operate or
undertake maintenance of any part or whole of a generating station
as aforesaid from the date to be specified by the appropriate
Government, but such a date shall not be later than a period of 4 [6
years 2 months] from the date this rule comes into force; (b)The
appropriate Government may, on the recommendations of the owner
of 1.Ins.vide G.S.R. No.112, dated 1 st April,2000 2.Subs. vide
G.S.R.358, dated 9-5-1987 3.Ins. vide G.S.R.461, dated 9-5-1981
4.Amended vide G.S.R.481, dated 20-6-1987 The Indian Electricity
Rules, 1956 6 such generating station, relax the conditions stipulated
in clause(a) of this sub-rule for any engineer and such other person
who have already sufficient experience in the operation and
maintenance of a generating station; (c)The owner of a generating
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station, in consultation with Central Electricity Authority may alter
the duration and manner of training in respect of those persons who
have already been engaged in the operation and maintenance of a
generating station or a substation; 1 [(2B) The provisions contained
in rule 3(2A) will also be applicable in respect of other sub-stations
of 132KV and above from a date to be specified by the appropriate
Government but such a date shall not be later than 3 years from
which this rule comes into force;] (3)No person shall be deemed to
be authorised under sub-rule(1)unless his name has been entered in a
list maintained at the office or premises of the person authorizing
him, and giving the purpose for which such person is authorized and
the entry has been attested by the authorized person and the person
authorizing him. (4)Every list maintained under sub-rule(3) shall be
produced before an Inspector 2 [or any officer of a specified rank and
class appointed to assist the Inspector] when required; (5)An
Inspector may cancel or amend, in such manner as he considers
necessary, any authorisation, made under sub-rule(1) 3 [(6) In every
registered factory, where more than 250KW of electrical load is
connected, there shall be a person authorised by the management of
the factory for ensuring the observance of the safety provisions laid
under the Act and the rules made thereunder, who shall periodically
inspect such installation, get them tested and keep a record thereof
and such records shall be made available to the Inspector 2 [or any
officer of a specified rank and class appointed to assist the
Inspector], if and when required.]
STATUTORY REQUIREMENTS PERTAINING TO SAFETY
Assam Electricity Grid Corporation Ltd. (AEGCL) recognizes and
accepts its commitments for establishing and maintaining Safe and
Healthy work environment for all its employees in every sphere of its
activities. We dedicate ourselves to improve our safety performance,
well-being of employees on continual improvement basis.
.c) Prohibiting the supply or transmission of electricity except by
means of a system which conforms to the specifications as may be
s p e c i f i e d .

.d) Giving notice in the specified form to the Appropriate
Commission and the Electrical Inspector, of accidents and failures of

For observance of the above, provisions of various Acts, Rules, standards s u p p l i e s o r t r a n s m i s s i o n s o f e l e c t r i c i t y .


are to be abided. The relevant Acts, rules, standards are described below.

A . E l e c t r i c i t y A c t 2 0 0 3
 .e) Keeping by generating company or licensee the maps, plants

1) Section 53: Provisions with respect to Supply generally and sections relating to supply or transmission of electricity.


Provision relating to safety of electricity supply- the authority may, in

consultation with the state Government specify suitable measures for- .f) Inspection of maps, plants and sections by any person on
p a y m e n t o f s p e c i f i e d f e e .

a) Protecting the public (including the persons engaged in,
transmission or distribution or trading) from dangers arising from the
generation, transmission or distribution or trading or electricity, or use of .g) Specifying action to be taken in relation to any electric line or
electricity supplied, or installation, maintenance or use of any electric line electrical plant, or any electrical appliance under the control of a
o r e l e c t r i c a l p l a n t .
 consumer for the purpose of eliminating or reducing the risks of personal
i n j u r y o r

d a m a g e t o p r o p e r t y o r i n t e r f e r e n c e w i t h i t s u s e .

b) Eliminating or reducing the risks of personal injury to any
person, or damage to property of any person or interference with use of
s u c h p r o p e r t y .


13
As per the provision contained in Electricity Act 2008 their shall be a
body to be called CEA to exercise such functions & perform such duties
a s a r e a s s i g n e d t o i t u n d e r t h i s a c t .

The CEA established under section III of electricity supply act 1948 (54
o f 1 9 4 8 ) .
 ASSAM ELECTRICITY GRID CORPORATION LTD
The section 73 of EA 2003 says that the CEA shall perform such function
and duties as central Govt may prescribe or direct and in particular to
2) Section 73 of Electricity Act
Functions and duties of Authority:
.a) Advice the Central Government on the matters relating to the
national electricity policy, formulate short-term and perspective plants for
development of the electricity system and co-ordinate the activities of the
planning agencies for the optimal utilization of resources to sub-serve the
interests of the national economy and to provide reliable and affordable
e l e c t r i c i t y f o r a l l c o n s u m e r s .
 C.
b) Specify the technical standards for construction of electrical plants
e l e c t r i c l i n e s a n d c o n n e c t i v i t y t o t h e g r i d .

c) Specify the safety requirements for construction, operation and
m a i n t e n a n c e o f e l e c t r i c a l p l a n t s a n d e l e c t r i c
 concerned with the installation, operation and maintenance of electric
14
l i n e s .

SAFETY MANUAL 4
d) Specify the Grid Standards for operation and maintenance of
t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e s .

e) Specify the conditions for installation of maters for transmission and
s u p p l y o f e l e c t r i c i t y .

B. The Electricity Rules 2005 (Formerly known as IE Rules 1956)

Further to the provision of EA 2003, the electricity Rules 2005 formerly
known as Indian electricity Rules 1956 in the rules 29 through 46 under
chapter IV” general safety requirement” lay down the safety requirements
for strict observance Rules 63 through 71 under chapter VII together with
rules 74 through 93 further describes provision to be observed for safety.

P r o v i s i o n o f t h e I n d i a n S t a n d a r d s

Provision of Indian Standards vide its specification No.IS:5216 (Part I)
1982 (Reaffirmed 1995) “Recommendations on safety procedures and
practices in electrical works - General” and IS:5216 (Part II) 1982 (Re
Reaffirmed 1995) “Recommendation on safety procedures and practices
in electrical work – life saving Techniques detail out the safety instruction
safety instruction and precaution which every employee who may be
l i n e s a n d a p p a r a t u s t o b e c o n v e r s a n t w i t h .

It further expects that supply undertakings have normally to prepare a
written document which should be strictly performed by the employees of
undertaking while under taking the construction operation and
m a i n t e n a n c e o f e l e c t r i c l i n e s a n d a p p a r a t u s .

D. C e n t r a l E l e c t r i c i t y A u t h o r i t y N o t i f i c a t i o n

In exercise of the power conferred by clause (c) of section 73 read with
subsection (2) of section 177 of the Electricity Act 2003, the Central
Electricity Authority New Delhi, made the regulations called “Central
electricity Authority regulations, 2008. (Safety requirements for
construction, operation and maintenance of electrical plants and electric
l i n e s )

As per clause 3.0 of the said regulation, the regulation so formulated shall
apply to all the electrical plants & electric lines already commissioned as
w e l l a s t h o s e u n d e r c o n s t r u c t i o n .

Important and note worthy clause of the notification are as under:

cl. no.6 cl. no.7 cl. no.8

15
SECTION 2
Transformers Testing
Power and distribution transformers are used for the purpose of power
transmission and distribution respectively. Power transformer is one of
the prime components of power system. The transformer is to be
operated as per the specifications for smooth performance. It is essential
to keep the down time as minimum as possible, thereby ensuring the
continuity in the power supply. As it is an important component of the
16
system, utmost care is necessary in its procurement, installation, testing
prior to commissioning, operation and maintenance as per IS code. The
transformer is fitted with various accessories, fitments and protective
devices for assisting the smooth functioning and initiating necessary
actions under abnormal conditions. Various inspection and tests are
conducted on the transformer to be installed, in the factory and at site
depending upon the capacity of the transformer and facilities available for
testing. The transformer should be healthy in all respects before it is
energized.
Standards and Specifications
Standards are evolved to meet a generally recognized demand, taking into
account the interest of manufacturers and users and fulfilling the needs of
economy. At present, a product cannot even be visualized without a
standard. A standard is a useful guide in all facets of a product -
conception, design, manufacture, testing, installation, operation,
maintenance etc.
The international standards published by IEC (International Electro
technical Commission) are accepted universally. However each country
has its own National standards which are based on particular requirements
and practices of that nation. Indian Standards Institution (Bureau of
Indian Standards) publishes IS standards. The manufacturers and users in
India have to follow IS standards and IEC standards. The word
specification or rating denotes the assigned numerical value of
capabilities. The transformer is assigned with certain definite ratings.
These assigned ratings are guaranteed by the manufacturer. These ratings
are confirmed by acceptance test to the satisfaction of the customer.
Essential ratings are marked on the rating plate fixed on the equipment.
17
Need for standardization of specification: Transformer is a job specific
(tailor made) product and requires effort in its design and drafting, even if
a single parameter is changed. Standardization of the specification and
design parameters of this vital equipment of energy transport will not only
help in ensuring optimal deployment of available resources but also go a
long way in economizing the capital costs. Efforts to standardize
transformer specification have been made in different forums. The Central
Electricity Authority (CEA) report and the Central Board of Irrigation and
power (CBIP) specifications are the outcome of a concerted effort over
years.
Specifications of transformers
The specifications of transformers should be supplied to the purchaser.
The transformer is to be operated as per the specifications in order to
avoid failure. The life expectancy of transformer is increased by proper
handling.
Standard specifications of a Power Transformer
Indian standard IS 2026 "Specification for Power Transformers" is the
governing standard on Power Transformers. This has been revised time to
time and is now in five parts and is an exhaustive standard on power
transformers. The following information must be available with enquiry
and order for the design and drafting of the transformer.
 • Type of transformer: Separate winding transformer, • Insulation levels
autotransformer or booster transformer
• Over fluxing conditions
• Number of phases: single or polyphase
• Details of auxiliary supply voltage (for fans, pumps, OLTC,
• Frequency motor alarm, control).

• KVA Rating • Controls of tap changers

• Rated voltages for each winding • Short circuit levels of the system

• Connection symbol • Vacuum and pressure withstanding values of the transformer

tank
• Requirements of on-load / off-load tap changers
• Noise level requirement
• Impedance voltage at rated current
• Number of rails and rail gauge for movement along shorter
• Indoor or outdoor type
and longer axes
• Type of cooling and if different types of cooling involved,
• Fittings required with their vivid description
rated required power for each
• Any other appropriate information including special tests if
• Temperature rises and ambient temperature conditions
any and capitization formula for
including altitude and in case of water cooling, chemical analysis of
water. the losses.

• Number of cooling banks, spare capacity and cooling pumps Specification of outdoor type 3-phase distribution transformer up to and
& fans. including 100KVA, 11 KV: IS 1180 (Part1):1989

• Highest system voltage for each winding This standard specifies the requirements and tests for oil immersed,
naturally air cooled, three phase, and double wound non sealed type out
• Method of system earthing for each winding
door distribution transformers.

18
 • KVA rating: The standard rating shall be 16, 25, 63 and • Standard fittings: Details pertaining to the following standard
100KVA. fittings shall be given.

• Rated Frequency: The rated frequency shall be 50Hz. • Earthling terminals

• Nominal system voltage: Nominal system voltage shall be • Oil Level gauge
chosen from 3.3, 6.6 an11KV.
• Lifting Lugs
• No Load voltage ratio: 3300/433-250V, 6600/433-250V or
• Rating and terminal marking plates
11000/433-250V.
• Breather
• The winding connection and vectors: The primary winding
shall be connected in delta and • Drain cum sampling valve (3/4 nominal size threads)
preferably steel with plug.
the secondary winding star Dyn11 (IS 2026 (part 4); 1977) so as to
produce a positive phase • Oil filling hole (11/4 nominal size thread) with cover (for
transformers without conservator).
displacement of 30° from the primary to the secondary vectors of the
same phase. • Terminal arrangements

• Tapping ratings and tapping methods. The number of tapings, • Mounting arrangements
winding tapped i.e. primary or secondary are to be specified. The total
• Insulation Levels
change in voltage as percent of total voltage and percent voltage change
per tap change are to be specified. Egg. Total change in voltage is ±10% • Limits of temperature rise
and is achieved by changing taps with ±1.5% per tap.
• Losses and impedance values
• The transformer tank and the transformer oil shall comply
• Ability of transformers to withstand external short-circuit
with the requirements (IS 335;
• Any other required relevant information shall be provided.
1983).

19
Procurement and Installation of Transformers Inquiry: Tenders:

In the initial stage of a transformer inquiry there is nothing as important The submission of comprehensive and informative tenders is essential

as a full and explicit statement of the total requirements that, from the from all points of view to all parties concerned to facilitate the duties of

users' point of view, have to be met and from the manufacturers stand others to the greatest possible extent. In addition, to price, manufacturing

point have to be considered. Frequently, inquiries are received giving period, conditions of payment, mode of supply, service after sale,

insufficient information concerning the relevant details, so with a view to maintenance contract, essential and extra data as per the inquiry,

saving both time and trouble. The general information should be given quotations should give the following specifications and performance.

when issuing transformer enquiry.

• Type of transformer

• Planned Project • Type of tank

• Requirements of Load • Type of cooling i.e. self cooled, water cooled, forced oil

• Location, environnemental conditions, ambianttempérature, • cooled etc.

raina, dus etc..
• Core loss at normal voltage and frequency
• Sub-station Layout, system voltage and fault Levels.
• Copper loss at rated load
• Civil engineering requirements such as room, foundation,
trenches for cabling, ventilation • Percentage regulation at up

aspects etc. • Percentage regulation at 0.8 lagging pf (or at any other

specified pf)
• Limits of variation of the supply voltage and/or frequency,
coli nag, earthy nag etc. • Percentage impedance and reactance

• Efficiency at up at 5/4, 1/1, 3/4, 112 and 1/4 full load.

20
 • Performance reference temperature i.e. 75° C.
• Ambient air temperature or assumed temperature of cooling
medium, permissible overloads
• Oil quantity
• Net overall dimensions
• Net weight of core and windings, tank and oil
• Shipping specifications (for export tenders)
• Insulating medium between windings and tank i.e. air or oil.
• Primary and secondary connections
• Overloads
• Locations
• Tapings used for the following purposes.
• Primary tapings to vary primary voltage
• Secondary tapings to vary secondary voltage
• Primary tapings to vary secondary voltage
• Secondary tapings to compensate for variations in primary
voltage
• Details about the fittings with the transformer.
21
In comparing tenders, the simple and effective procedure is to tabulate the
data submitted by different manufacturers, on a sheet, so that a
comprehensive summary can be made. Based on the price and
performance parameters indicated, depending upon the priority of the
organization an order shall be placed for supply of the transformer.
Dispatch:
The transformer is dispatched by the manufacturer by one of the
following methods depending upon the size and local conditions.
Dried out - filled with oil, ready for service' (small transformers)
With oil covering core and coils only (medium transformers)
Without oil in the tank, filled with nitrogen at pressure slightly above the
atmosphere pressure (large transformers).
In majority of the cases accessories like radiators, bushings, explosion
vent pressure relief valve, dehydrating breather, rollers, Buchholz relay,
conservator, pipe work, marshalling box are separately dispatched.
Transformer oil is sent in separate sealed containers. When transformers
are dispatched with inert gas, positive pressure must be maintained
throughout the period till the gas is replaced by oil. The transformer may
be packed in a strong wooden packing and / or may be sent without
packing case or crate depending upon the conditions of transport. Special
care is to be exercised finally to prevent movement of the core and
windings during transit. To send small and medium transformers trucks
and large transformers road trailers or rail wagons are generally used.
Inspection upon arrival at site: Handling:

Immediately after arrival at site, it should be inspected for possible The transformers are provided with lugs and shackles for the purpose of
damages during transit. The nitrogen gas pressure should be checked. lifting. The following means are normally used for lift nag operations.
Positive pressure if not found, indicates that there is leakage, and there is
• Overhead travelling crane or gantry crane
a possibility of the moisture entering the tank during transit. This can be
ascertained by dew point measurement which indicates the amount of • Jib crane
surface moisture content in transformer insulation. Internal inspection
• Derricks
should be carried out to the extent possible through inspection covers.
Particular attention should be paid to the connections, bolt links, coil • Jacks and winches
clamping bolts, tap changers. Current transformers and the general
insulation. Break down strength of oil of transformer tank and drums
containing transformer oil should be examined carefully. An inspection of The overhead crane and jib cranes are the convenient and safe means.
the transformer on arrival at site is to be carried out preferably in the Precautions mentioned below should be complied with:
presence of the representative of the manufacturer.
• Transformers should be lifted only through lifting points ,/
Storage: Cover must always- be bolted in

The transformers arrived at site and likely to be installed immediately do position

not need elaborate storage. In case of delayed installation, it requires
• Proper balance should be maintained while lifting.
proper storage to avoid influx of moisture, effect of rain / dust etc. It is
preferable to store the transformers indoor on proper flooring with Installation:
protective covering. The oil should not be drained unless there is a
Location, site preparation and foundation details:
provision of filling inert gas.
The location may be indoor or outdoor. For indoor installation, the
following aspects should be considered.

22
Ventilation
Noise level
Space required for movement, maintenance etc
Trenches for cables
Minimum clearances between the transformer and the walls should be as
follows.
Clearance on all four sides of wall: 1.25 m
Clearance on all three sides of wall: 1 m
Clearance on a wall on backside only: 0.5 m
The clearance of 0.5 m (minimum) should be provided between the top
most point of the conservator and the roof.
Ventilation area: The ventilation area required is as follows.
Outlet: 2m2 per 1000 KVA
Inlet : 1m2 per 1000 KVA minimum
Indoor transformers having oil capacity of more than 2000 liters should
be provided with soak pits. Power cables and control cables should never
be run in the same conduit or cable tray or and windings during transit. To
send small and medium transformers trucks and large transformers road
trailers or rail wagons are generally used.
23
Inspection upon arrival at site:
Immediately after arrival at site, it should be inspected for possible
damages during transit. The nitrogen gas pressure should be checked.
Positive pressure if not found, indicates that there is leakage, and there is
a possibility of the moisture entering the tank during transit. This can be
ascertained by dew point measurement which indicates the amount of
surface moisture content in transformer insulation. Internal inspection
should be carried out to the extent possible through inspection covers.
Particular attention should be paid to the connections, bolt links, coil
clamping bolts, tap changers. Current transformers and the general
insulation. Break down strength of oil of transformer tank and drums
containing transformer oil should be examined carefully. An inspection of
the transformer on arrival at site is to be carried out preferably in the
presence of the representative of the manufacturer.
Storage:
The transformers arrived at site and likely to be installed immediately do
not need elaborate storage. In case of delayed installation, it requires
proper storage to avoid influx of moisture, effect of rain / dust etc. It is
preferable to store the transformers indoor on proper flooring with
protective covering. The oil should not be drained unless there is a
provision of filling inert gas.
Handling: than 9000 liters should be provided with drainage facility. For medium
voltages, cable connector or bare conductor connection is used.
The transformers are provided with lugs and shackles for the purpose of
lifting. The following means are normally used for lift nag operations. Code of practice for Rating and Terminal plates: IS 1180 (part 1): 1989

Each transformer shall be provided with non-detachable rating plate of

weather proof material.
• Overhead travelling crane or gantry crane
This plate fitted in a visible position, indicates the information given in
• Jib crane
fig. The entries on the rating plate shall be indelibly marked (e.g. by
etching, engraving or stamping).

Foundation: No special foundation is required for the installation of a Terminal marking plate: Each transformer shall be provided with a
transformer except a level floor strong enough to support the weight and terminal marking plate as per IS 1180 (part 1): 1989. This is in
prevent accumulation of water. Foundations with oil drainage facilities accordance with whichever is applicable. IS 2026 (part 4): 1981 (first
during fire and emergency is recommended for large transformers. revision) also highlights about terminal marking, tapping and connectors.
Transformers should be positioned on the foundation so that easy access
Phasor Diagram and Phasor Groups
is available all around to read or reach different fitments.
Phases are used to represent the induced emus in pharos diagram of a
For outdoor installations, the clearance between live parts and
transformer. The direction employed for the rotation of phases is counter
neighboring structures, equipments etc., should be adhered to electricity
clock wise. In three phase transformers polarity alone is insufficient to
rules. Simple, firm, horizontal and leveled foundation is necessary. The
represent the relation between he and Live windings. Besides the terminal
level of concrete plinth with bearing plates of sufficient size and strength
markings on he and Live side voltage, pharos diagrams are required to
can be adopted. The space between the plinth and base of the transformer
show the angular displacement between he and Live winding. The angular
should be prevented by use of rust proof bituminous compound. The
difference between phases representing the voltages induced between he
suitable rail tracks should be provided where rollers are used. Once the
and Live terminals having the same marking Letters and the
wheels of the transformer are in final position and then should be locked
corresponding neutral point (real or fictitious) expressed with respect to
to prevent accidental movement. Transformers having oil capacity more
the side is termed as the displacement. Under normal conditions, the Line

24
to Line voltages on the side are displaced from corresponding voltages on
Live side and the same is true for Line to neutral voltages also. This
displacement depends upon the transformer winding connections.
An internationally adopted convention for indicating phase displacement
is to use a number which represents the time indicated by a clock, where
the minute hand represents the Line to neutral voltage pharos for the he
winding and is set at 12 0' clock and the hour hand represents the Line to
neutral voltage pharos for the Live winding. It therefore follows that the
clock hour number is obtained by dividing the phase displacement angle
in degrees by 30. The following standard pharos diagrams are frequently
encountered in practice.
Three phase transformers, phase displacement Three phase transformers,
phase displacement
Polarity and phase sequence
The induced relative voltage directions in he and live winding of a
transformer is termed as polarity. In primary and secondary winding of a
transformer when the induced voltages have the same direction i.e. when
the polarity of the two windings is same, this is called as subtractive.
When, on the other hand, the induced terminal voltages are in the
opposite direction, the windings are of opposite polarity, which is referred
to as additive.
25
Phase sequence:
Phase sequence is the angular direction in which the voltage and current
phases of a polyphone system reach their respective maximum values
during a sequence of time. This angular direction may be clock wise or
counter clockwise. It should be remembered that the phase sequence is
really a question of the sequence of line terminal voltages, and not
necessarily of the voltages across individual windings. When two
transformers are to be operated in parallel, phase sequence should be
same, which is one of the conditions for parallel operation of
transformers. The phase sequence indicator is used to know the sequence.
The phase sequence of the supply is decided or fixed by the generating
plant
Tanks and testing of tanks
The transformer tank shall be of adequate strength to withstand positive
and negative pressures built up inside the tank while the transformer is in
operation. The transformer tank covers shall be welded with tank rim so
as to make a leak-proof joint. The exterior of the transformer tank and
other ferrous fittings shall be thoroughly cleaned, scraped and given a
primary coat and two finishing coats of durable oil and a weather resisting
paint or enamel. All steel screws, nuts and f£.?tenors exposed to
atmosphere shall either be galvanized or cadmium plated. The space
above the oil level in the tank shall be filled with dry air or nitrogen
confirming to commercial grade of IS 1747 : 1992. Dry air / nitrogen plus
oil volume inside the tank shall be such that even under the extreme
operating conditions the pressure generated inside the tan k does not
exceed 40KPa positive or negative. The transformer cover and frame shall
be such that it is possible to remove the weld and rowel twice.
The tank sizes reach the transportable limits and call for a lot of ingenuity
in the design, to meet stringent conditions as minimum electrical
clearances from high voltage points of windings and leads proper shaping
to reduce oil quantity, transportable profile suitable for loading on rail
wagons, transportable weight, etc. From these design considerations, in
general, and for large power ratings, transformer tanks are structurally
quite complicated. For medium size, plain tanks are also used quite often
for the sake of ease and economy of cost of fabrication. The structural
design of transformer tanks comprises the computation of the combined
behavior of plate and shells with stiffeners, which involves a realistic
estimate of boundary conditions. For calculating the stresses and
displacements at a few selected points the classical method is convenient,
however for the stresses and displacements in global sense, one has to
make use of rigorous methods such as finite element method.
Transformer tanks may be classified as
• Plain tanks: Plain tanks are rectangular box type in shape and
are commonly used for small and medium rating transformers.
• Shaped tanks: Here the profile of the tank body is suitably
shaped to make it more economical. The shaping is decided by the
electrical layout, considerations of transformer windings and terminal
gear/tap changers mounting arrangements.
26
• Bell shaped tanks: Tanks which are made into two separable
parts are known as bell type tanks. When the top portion is removed, the
height of the lower portion is such that there is accessibility to the core
and winding for inspection and maintenance. .
Corrugated tanks: An alternative for providing vertical ribs
• welded to the plates is to form corrugation on the plates by
suitably folding the plates. The merits are additional cooling area on the
tank walls and reduction in tank weight.
• Stub-end wagon type tanks: These tanks are of special
construction and designed to withstand dynamic loading during transit
besides the static load. Such large size transformers are not supported on
girders thereby reducing the height during transport. The design is such
that these tanks are supported from either end stub-end wagons and the
transformer hangs in the vertical position, with minimum clearance
between the bottom of the tank and railway track.
Testing of tanks:
The oil pressure and vacuum testing are conducted to ensure against
leakages and to check for strength.
Oil pressure test:
The oil is filled up to tank cover and the required pressure is applied using
pump. The pressure is maintained for few hours and all the wildings are
checked for leakages. In case of leakage, rectification is done by draining
out the oil. The tank deflection readings are measured before the starting
of oil pressure, at full oil pressure and after releasing the oil pressure.
Vacuum test:
The oil is completely drained. After ensuring all the fitting, the vacuum
pump is started and the required vacuum is measured by a vacuum gauge.
During vacuum testing the air leakage points are detected by air leakage
detecting instrument. If the leakages are found in casketed rims, the bolts
are tightened. The deflection reading at the starting and after maintaining
full vacuum for one hour and releasing the vacuum are taken to find out
the permanent deflection. This shall be within specified allowable limits
of deflection, depending on the size of the tanks.
Measurement of stresses:
At various locations stresses are required to be measured.
The strain gauges are fixed to the tank structure with proper adhesive. A
gauge consists of a fine wire suitably fixed to the body of the structure.
Under load, strains are developed on the body. This results in
displacements of the points to which the ends of the gauges are fixed.
This changes the resistance of the gauge wire, which is measured
electrically using a suitable electric / electronic bridge. One typical strain
gauge is Rosette delta with six wires connected to the ends of wire gauges
and brought to the bridge for measurement. The bridge is set to null
balance prior to the commencement of the measurements. The readings
are simultaneously recorded. The tank is subjected to full vacuum and
27
readings are taken. The strain gauges are fixed inside and outside the tank
wall to compare the top and bottom principal stresses on the surface. The
strain gauge gives values of strains in the direction of Rosettes from
which the two principal stresses and their directions are calculated.
Transformer oil
Insulating oil forms important part of transformer insulation system and
acts as electrical insulation as well as coolant to dissipate heat. The basic
raw material to get transformer oil is a low viscosity lube called as
Transformer Oil Base Stock (Tabs). This is obtained by fractional
distillation and series of treatment of crude petroleum. Tabs
characteristics are kept within permissible limits in order to produce good
insulating oils. Tabs is further refined by acid treatment to get transformer
oil.
Characteristics
Requirement
Viscosity at 40°C
9-14 cost
Pour point, max
-9°C
Flash point (Pesky-Marten
closed cup method) min
145°C
Characteristics of TOBS
Transformer oil consists of four major generic class of organic
compounds viz. paraffin’s, naphthenic, aromatics and olefins. All these
are hydrocarbons and hence insulating oil is called a pure hydrocarbon
mineral oil. Based on the requirement and predominance, oil is usually
called paraffinic base or naphthenic base.
Characteristics of oil and their importance:
The ,characteristics of transformer oil as per IS: 335 are, given in table
Properties of insulating oil:
Physical properties:
Density: The maximum density of insulating oil at 29.50C must be 0.89
g/m2
Interfacial tension (1FT): This is the measure of the molecular attractive
force between oil and water molecules at their interface. A test is carried
out for detecting the soluble polar contamination and products of
deterioration that reduces molecular attractive force between oil and
water.
Moisture content: The moisture content is the amount of free and
dissolved water present in the oil and is expressed in pap (parts per
28
million by weight i.e. mg/kg). Presence~ of moisture is harmful as it has
adverse effect on the elect cal characteristics of oil.
Flash point: It is the temperature at which the oil gives vapour, that this
vapour, when mixed with air,.for.ms ignitable moisture and gives a
momentary flash on application of test flame under specified conditions.
A minimum flash point is specified to prevent the risk of fire that may
result by accidental ignition.
Viscosity: This is a measure of oil resistance to flow continuously without
external forces. The oil must be mobile. as heat transfer in transformers
takes place by convection currents. The viscosity increases with decrease
in temperature, it is necessary that viscosity be as low as possible at low
tem prelatures.
Pour point: The temperature at which oil will just flow under specified
conditions is known as pour point. If the .Olli becomes too viscous or
solidifies, it will hinder the formation of convection currents and thus
cooling of the equipment will be severely affected.
Electrical properties:
While selecting the oil to be used in transformer as insulating material,
more emphasis is to be given to the electrical properties.
Electric strength (Breakdown voltage): BDV is the voltage at which
breakdown occurs between two electrodes when oil is subjected to an
electric field under prescribed conditions. Electric strength is the prime
parameter for insulation design of a transformer. It helps to know the
presence of contaminating agents like moisture, fibrous materials, carbon
particles, perceptible sludge and sediment.
Specific resistance (Resistivity): This is the most sensitive property of oil
requiring utmost care for its determination. Resistivity in Acme is
numerically equivalent to the resistance between opposite faces of a
centimeter cube of the liquid. Insulation resistance of windings of a
transformer is also dependent upon the resistivity of oil. A low value
indicates the presence of moisture and conductive contaminants.
Dielectric dissipation factor (DDF): DDF is numerically equal to sine of
the loss angle (approximately equal to tangent of loss angle for
dielectrics) and is a good tool to indicate the quality of insulation. A high
value of DDF means the presence of contaminants or deterioration
products such as water, oxidation products, metal soaps, soluble varnishes
and resins.
Chemical properties:
Neutralization value (total acidity): It is a measure of free organic and
inorganic acids present in the oil and is expressed in terms of milligrams
of KOH required to neutralize the total free acids in one gram of oil.
Oxidation stability: This gives the presence of natural inhibitors which
impart anti-oxidation characteristics to oil. This test is a measure of
neutralization value and sludge after oil is aged by simulating the actual
service conditions of a transformer.
29
Sediment and perceptible sludge: These are oil deterioration products or
contaminants which are insoluble after dilution of the oil with n-heptanes
under prescribed conditions. The oil is not suitable for use, if sediment or
perceptible sludge is detected.
Corrosive Sculpture: Crude petroleum usually contains sculpture
compounds, most of which are eliminated by refining. The traces of free
corrosive sculpture may be present in oil. This will result in pitting and
black deposit on the surface of the bare conductor used in transformer
which adversely affects the dissipation of heat.
Qualities of good insulating :
The fresh dielectric oil has pale yellow color. Dark or cloud color
indicates deterioration.
The oil should never contain suspended particles, water soluble acids and
bases, and active sculpture of colloidal carbon. These impurities
accelerate deterioration rate.
It should be free from dust particles, carbon particles and sludge.
It should have high dielectric strength.
It should have low viscosity.
It should have high flash point.
It should. posses good electrical characteristics.
Effect of moisture, water and impurities: valve of the transformer and oil hose to the top filter press valve. The tank
shall be tightly sealed.
The impurities accelerate deterioration of the dielectric oil.
Oil filtering:
The dust particles, carbon particles and sludge in suspended form gather
along the conductor and insulating surfaces in the presence of electric The oil filtering equipment (oil purifying equipment shown in fig 1.8) is a
field. This forms a thin conducting layer gradually along the internal portable device used for filtering transformer oil and switchgear oil. The
surface of internal insulation during service. The flash over can occur oil is circulated through the filtering equipment for several hours till the
along the surface of the insulation or tank due to tracking. The desired dielectric strength of oil is achieved. The purifying equipment
transformer oil and winding have tendency to readily absorb moisture removes the dissolved moisture, free water and solid particles. The oil
from the air. This decreases the dielectric strength of the oil. All possible purifier comprises of the following components.
preventive measures are taken to avoid moisture penetration. Oxygen
1) Vacuum tank and pump
reacts on the insulation and decomposed products cause sludge, which
blocks the free circulation of the oil. The dielectric strength gets 2) Centrifugal filter unit
diminished significantly in the presence of solid impurities.
3) Oil pump
Procedure of filling oi[ in the transformer tank:
4) Heater
Before filling with oil, transformer should be fitted with all accessories
5) Valves
including valve gauges, thermometers and plugs and made oil tight. Oil
sample is tested before filling. It should be ensured that no air packets are 6) Temperature gauges
left in the tank and no dust or moisture is present. All air vents should be
7) Vacuum gauge
opened. Oil should be filled from the filtering plant. To prevent aeration
of oil, the transformer tank should be filled through the bottom drain 8) Pressure gauge
valve. Enough time should be allowed (16 to 24 hours) for the oil to settle
in the transformer and also the bubbles to escape. Vacuum filling may be
used for large transformers. A vacuum pump may be connected to the top

30
Maintenance of Transformer Oil:
Oil maintenance is carried out in accordance with standards titled "Code,
practices of maintenance of insulating oil". The code refers to the
contamination of oil and determination of suitability of oil for further
service. It also gives the procedure of treatment of oil at site. The
transformer oil is tested for the desired qualities giving more emphasis to
moisture and dielectric strength during periodic maintenance. A sample of
insulating oil is taken from the bottom of the transformer tank. The fresh
dielectric oil has pale clear yellow color and dark brown and cloudy
appearance indicate deterioration. Contamination of oil due to moisture or
solids are dealt by centrifugal separators to effectively remove free water
and fine solid impurities. Filters are used to remove solid impurities. The
dust particles, carbon particles and sludge are responsible for formation of
thin layer on the insulation part thereby causing internal flashover due to
tracking can be removed by means of filters in the oil filtering unit.
Moisture level is to be less than the specified value which otherwise cause
internal flashover. Viscosity indicates fluidity. Oil with low viscosity has
more fluidity and gives better cooling. Hence, viscosity should be
measured at various temperatures.
observation is to be made on flash point. Higher flash point (1450C) is
preferred and flash point indicates the tendency to evaporate. For
satisfactory use of insulating oil for the desired and specified qualities,
periodic checking of the oil is to be carried out.
31
Testing of transformer oil:
Sampling:
condition of the oil should be checked before commissioning, during
maintenance and re commissioning after overhaul. Sample of oil from the
transformer should be taken from the bottom of the tank. The sample
should be collected only after the oil is allowed to settle for 24 hours.
Containers of sample:
Containers for samples should be bottles of clear glass, clean and dry with
one liter capacity. The samples should not be filled up to the top.
Samples from transformer tank:
When taking sample remove dirt from the sampling valve plug. Sample
should not be taken immediately after opening the valve. Allow some oil
to flow first, then collect sample in the bottle. Oil sample from the
transformer in service may be taken preferably under switched off or
no-load condition.
Oil sample from drums:
Before taking oil for testing allow it to settle for 24 hours without any
disturbance so that the heavy contents will settle down. Then oil will be
collected from the bottom of the drum.
Testing of dielectric strength:
BDV test: The test sample from the bottom of the drum or transformer
tank is collected in the standard test cup (80mm x 60mm x 100cm) size.
Electrodes are polished brass spheres of 12.5 to 13 mm diameter mounted
horizontally. The gap is 2.5 mm to 4 mm ± 0.2 mm depending upon the
magnitude of voltage available for breakdown test. Allow the sample in
the cup for 20 minutes for air bubbles to vanish, apply ac voltage
gradually and steadily till the breakdown occurs between electrodes.
Six breakdown tests are conducted at an interval of one or five minutes.
After each breakdown test, the oil is gently stirred with clean, dry glass
rod. Average of five subsequent tests is considered as the BDV
(breakdown value) of oil sample.
Crackle test:
This test is performed to determine free water. A sample is heated rapidly
over silent flame. The presence of moisture above 50-60 pap of water will
give typical crackling sound. The Karl Fisher Solution test is used for
determining the moisture more accurately (up to 2 pap). During periodic
maintenance crackle test, dielectric test, acidity test and moisture
measurement is carried out .
32
Drying of transformers: IS 10028 (part II) 1981
The transformer oil and insulation are hygroscopic (absorbs moisture).
When the transformer is dispatched without oil or is left idle for a long
period, the oil and insulation absorb moisture and drying out is required
before commissioning. When the power transformer is idle for more than
a month, drying out is necessary prior to re commissioning. The main
purpose of the drying out is to expel the moisture from the oil, the
winding insulation and other internal parts. If the transformer is not dried
out properly, it cannot withstand specified voltage for long duration
leading to premature failure of insulation. In drying out process the
transformer oil/winding is heated by one of the approved methods for a
prolonged period (ten hours to four weeks). Periodic readings of
a)Oil and winding temperature
b)Power input
c)Insulation resistance
are taken. The temperature of oil is maintained at 800e and that of the
windings at 90°C. Figure 1.9 shows variation of insulation resistance with
time of drying.
Different methods of drying out:
I) Drying of core and coils with oil by oven
ii) Drying of core and coils with oil by short circuit method
iii) Drying with oil removed by using external heat temperature of the air should not exceed 115°C. The heat may also be
obtained by direct combustion but care is to be taken to avoid the
iv) Drying with oil removed by using both external and internal heat.
products of combustion entering into the transformer tank.
Drying with oil:
By both external and internal heat: This is a combination of the hot air
i)Drying of core and coils with oil by using oven. The core and circulation and short circuit method. The current circulated in the
coils can be effectively dried in a suitable oven, by raising the windings should, of course, be less than that when drying out is done by
temperature to a value not exceeding 8o°e. A large volume of air should the method of short circuit alone.
pass through -the oven to remove moisture and vapors. Insulation
Duration of drying out:
resistance check will indicate when the coils are dry.
Transformer voltage rating Duration
j)Drying by short circuit method: The transformer can also be dried
by heating the coils by short circuiting the low voltage winding and 11 kV 1 to 6 days
supplying a reduced voltage at the terminals. Current should not exceed
220 kV 10 days to 30 days
70% of the rated current and oil temperature should not exceed 75°e. The
winding temperature under no condition should exceed 90°e. This method 400 kV 15 days to 40 days
is more effective in drying the insulation at site.
Precautions to be taken while drying:
Drying without oil:
1. Only spirit type thermometers are to be used for temperature
By external heat: The transformer may be placed in its own tank without measurement. Mercury thermometers shall not be used except in the
oil. Externally heated air is blown into the tank at the bottom through the pockets provided for this purpose.
main oil valve. A small blower or fan should be used to get the proper
2. The temperature of transformer oil in the top should not be
circulation. It is desired to-force as much of the heated air as possible
more than 85°C. The maximum sustained temperature to which anything
through the ducts in the transformer windings. To accomplish this, baffles
in contact with the oil should be raised, is 90°C.
should be placed between the core and the case, closing off as much of
the space as possible. The convenient way to get the heated air is by 3. Under no condition the transformer is left unattended during
passing air through grid resistors. The resistors are in fire proof box. The any part of the dry out period. The transformer should be under constant

33
observation throughout the dry out process and all observations shall be • Date of completion
carefully recorded.
• Time of start
4. It is recommended to keep firefighting equipment ready
• Temperature of top oil
during dry-out period. Naked lights and flames should be kept away while
the drying operation is in progress. • Temperature of bottom oil

• Average temperature

Preparations of drying out: • Insulation resistance in mega ohms

• The tank is covered with external shields Like fire resistance • Power inputs
mat such as asbestos cloth, glass sheet to prevent drought of cold air.
• Initial heat nag up
• Connecting thermo couples, fixing thermometers calibration
• Steady temperature
and arranging measuring instruments
• Cool down etc.
• Bring out well insulated Leads from the windings, from the
terminal bushings for the measurement of insulation resistance •

• Bring out thermo couple Leads through one of the opening in Procedure / steps involved in drying out of power transformer:
the tank
1. Preliminary preparation of the machine, source of heat,
• To prepare Log-book to record the data regarding the dry out
2. measurements etc.
process. This Log sheet will have the following details
3. Arrangement of the set up
• Details of the transformer
4. Gradually applying heat by one of the suitable methods
• Details about method of drying
5. Take periodic readings of
• Date of start

34

➢ Clock time
➢ Temperature of different parts
➢ Insulation resistance values with 15 second mugger reading
and 60 second mugger reading
➢ Winding resistance (in the beginning and at the end)
➢ Maintenance of steady temperature
➢ Gradually reduce the heat applied and stop.
Testing of Transformers
The establishment and maintenance of high standard of materials and
workmanship can only be achieved by continuous inspection during the
manufacturing stages and by subsequent testing of the components and
finished product. In broad sense, the tests can be classified as preliminary
and final tests. Preliminary tests are carried out on the transformer
components before it is placed in the tank. Final tests are carried on the
completely assembled transformers.
Following tests are carried out when the work is at different stages, prior
to the insertion of core and coil assembly in the tank. These tests help in
Locating any fault at an early stage.
35
a)Core insulation
b)Core Loss test
c)Check of ratio, polarity, vector relationship and winding
resistance of transformer assembly.
d)Preliminary Load Loss and impedance voltage measurements
The completely assembled transformer is subjected to the following final
tests in accordance with international standards. These tests are
a)Routine tests: These tests are conducted on every transformer before it
Leaves the factory, to ensure that it is in accordance with the
specifications.
I) Voltage ratio and polarity test [IS 2026 (part 1) : 1977];
ii) Winding resistance test [IS 2026 (part 1): 1977];
iii) Impedance voltage, short circuit impedance and Load Loss [IS 2026
(part 1) : 1977];
iv) Dielectric tests
•Separate source ac voltage [IS 2026 (part 3) : 1984];
•Induced over voltage [IS 2026 (part 3) : 1984]
v)No Load Losses and current [IS 2026 (part 1) : 1977]; vi) On
Load tap changers, where appropriate.
 b)Type tests: These tests are performed on a single transformer
which is representative of batch of transformers, to demonstrate that they
comply with specified requirements and are not covered by routine tests.
I) Temperature rise test: [IS 2026 (part 2) 1977]; ii) Lightning impulse
test; [Is 2026 (part 3); 1977] iii) Air pressure test [IS 1180 (part 1) 1989];
iv) Permissible flux density and over fluxing [IS 1180 (part I) 1989];
v) Noise Level test.
c)Pedal tests: The tests conducted other than routine or Type tests,
based on the agreement between the manufacturer and purchaser as asked
for in the tenders/orders placed;
I) Dielectric tests
ii) Zero sequence impedance on three phase transformers iii) Short circuit
test iv) Acoustic sound level
v) Harmonics on the no-load current
vi) Power taken by fan and oil-pump motors vii) Partial discharge test
viii) Vibration test
ix) Tan delta test
Special tests and type tests are to be performed in the presence of the
purchaser or his representative. Commissioning tests are conducted at site
before commissioning.
36
Polarity testing
In the he winding the induced elf at any instant is in the direction A1 to
A2, the direction of the induced elf in the live winding at the same instant
will also be in the same sequence a1 to a2• When the two windings are
joined in series by connecting A2 to a1 and a single phase elf applied to
terminals A1 and a2, the elf measured between the he terminals A1A2
will be less than the applied voltage. Then the transformer windings will
have the same polarity i.e. subtractive. On the other hand, the elf
measured between the terminals A1A2 is more than the applied voltage
then the transformer windings have opposite polarity i.e. additive. For
three-phase transformers the procedure of polarity testy nag is same,
except that the windings, of course, be excited from a three phase supply.
Fig.1.12 shows the test connections and results for a star/star connected
transformer with subtractive polarity.
Measurement of winding resistance
To calculate the I2R Loss, it is necessary to know the dc resistance of
winding. The measurement is done once the dc current reaches steady
state. In some cases it may take several minutes depending upon the
winding inductance. This test is conducted at stable temperature, for this
reason it is carried out usually before Load Loss measurement. The
average oil temperature and is taken as the average winding temperature.
DC resistance can be measured with sensitive Wheatstone or Kelvin’s
double bridge. Volt-ampere method can also be used to measure
resistance by using Low voltage high current source. Winding and oil
temperature must be recorded when measurement is made.
Volt Ratio test
Ratio test is conducted to ensure the correctness of voltage ratio between
different windings on each tapping. The tolerance allowed for ratio is ±
0.5% of the declared ratio or ± 10% of the percentage impedance voltage,
whichever is Less. This test can be done using calibrated voltmeter. It is
advisable to use special rcy:io testing apparatus called ratio meter which
is designed to give a measurement accuracy of 0.1% over a ratio range up
to 1110 : 1. The ratio meter is used in a bridge circuit where the voltages
of the windings of the transformer under test are balanced against the
voltages developed across the fixed and variable resistors of the ratio
meter. This method also confirms the polarity of the windings. With this
type of ratio meter the test can be performed at normal mains supply
voltage without Loss of accuracy. This test is to be conducted on every
transformer for position of every tap.
Measurement of Insulation resistance and polarization index
The insulation resistance 'is measured between two parts separated by
insulation. Insulation resistance of electrical equipment refers to the
resistance between conducting part and earth. It is expressed in mega
ohms. Insulation resistance is measured by mugger which consists of a
hand driven generator. Muggers are available for dc voltages of 500V,
1000V and 2500V. Mugger of 500V is used to measure the insulation
resistance of transformers up to 60KVA, mugger of 2500V are employed
37
for transformers operating at 11, 33, 110, 220 kV and above. One of the
terminals of mugger is connected to conducting part. Other terminal is
connected to the earthed frame as shown in fig 1.13. The generator is
hand driven and the reading is directly obtained on the scale graduated
from zero to infinity in mega ohms.
Dielectric test
This test is to check the adequacy of main insulation to earth and between
windings. The Line terminals of the windings under test are connected
together and the appropriate test voltage is applied while the other
windings and tank are connected together to the earth. The supply voltage
must be nearly sinusoidal. The peak value of the voltage is measured
using digital voltmeter. The peak value divided by {2 shall be equal to the
test value.
The duration of application of test voltage is 60 sacs.
No load current and no-load losses
No Load current is the current drawn by the transformer when there is no
Load. Usually no-Load current is Less than 4% of full Load current.
Hence 12R Losses are negligible. However iron losses (hysteresis and
eddy current losses) are present in no-load condition. No-load test is
performed at normal voltage and frequency with the winding open
circuited. The live winding is supplied with normal voltage. The input
power measured will give no-load loss. The no load current and losses are
useful in evaluating the efficiency of transformer
Temperature rise test
Temperature rise test is one of the Type tests which confirms the design
for temperature rise. This is also called as heat run test. This test simulates
the conditions of continuous rated load and occurrence of temperature
rise.
For standard tank, the dissipation constant is known. In such case it is
necessary to measure only transformer losses and to calculate the
temperature rise of the coil and windings on continuous loading. For
non-standard tank, it is necessary to carry out temperature rise on the
transformer and different methods to obtain the temperature rise are as
below.
a)Short circuit test
b)Back to back test
c)Delta/Delta test
d)Open-circuit test
In short circuit method, one winding of the transformer is short circuited
and voltage applied to the other winding of such a value that the power
input is equal to the total normal full load losses of the transformer at the
temperature corresponding to continuous full load. The measurements are
taken with the transformer at ambient temperature. The copper loss at the
continuous full load temperature will be higher than the measured copper
loss at lower temperatures Le the copper loss varies directly as the
38
resistance of the windings. At the commencement of the test, the current
is given by
However to ensure greater accuracy, the test is made by measuring the
power input, which is finally increased to include the hot copper loss. In
general, it is seen that this test is most suitable when the copper loss is
high compared with the iron loss and conversely and not for the
transformers having relatively high iron losses. When the normal
temperature rise is approached the copper loss should be measured and
any necessary current adjustment should then be made in order to correct
the power input to obtain the true losses under normal full-load
conditions.
Cooling of transformers:
The oil acts as an insulating medium and cooling medium.
The heat generated is removed by the oil and is transferred to atmospheric
air or water. The effective cooling ensure longer life due to less thermal
degradation. Several cooling methods are possible for transformers
depending on the capacity of the transformers.
i)ONAN: Oil Natural Air Natural: This is widely used for
transformers up to 30MVA and are fitted with panel type radiators for oil
natural circulation.
ii) ONAF: Oil Natural Air Forced: This is used for transformers of
capacity between 30 MVA and 60 MVA. The panel type radiators are used
with cooling fans. Fans are switched on during heavy loads only.
iii) OFAF: Oil Forced Air Forced: This method is used for transformers
above 60 MVA. The oil is circulated through coolers. Fans are used to
exchange heat from oil to air.
iv) OFWF: Oil forced Water Forced: The heat is exchanged from oil to
cooling water. Both oil and cooling water are circulated through radiator.
v)AN: Air Natural: The ambient air used for cooling. This method
is employed for oil free transformers up to 1.5MVA
Switching impulses can occur during all kinds of switching operations in
the system. The magnitude and form of impulses generated differ from
case to case. The magnitudes of switching impulses in the network are
proportional to system voltage. The maximum voltage can be about 3.5
times the service voltage.
The system disturbances may be
a)Full waves

Radiators are b)Chopped waves

•tank mounted radiators c)Front waves

• Banked radiators

Impulse testing: The standard impulse voltage is characterized by

Lightning is probably the most common cause of flashover on overhead a)Polarity

transmission line. Two mechanisms can be distinguished. In the first, the
b)Peak value
lightning stroke makes a direct contact with phase conductor producing a
voltage on the line in excess of the impulse voltage level and in the other, c)Virtual front T1
the stroke makes contact with an earth wire or tower and the combination
d)Virtual half time T2
of tower current and tower impedance produces a voltage near the tower
top to produce back flashover. The terminal equipments of high voltage e)Virtual time chopping TCU
transmission lines experience lightning impulses in service.
The standard impulse waves are of three types:

a)Lightning impulse: 1.2/50 ~s wave with wave front of 1.2 ~ sacs

and wave tail of 50 ~ sacs

39
 b)Switching impulse wave: 250/2500 ~s
c)Chopped impulse wave: 12/50 ~s.
The Chopped wave is an incoming surge chopped by a flashover of the
co-ordination gaps close to the transformer.
Test set up for impulse testing of Power Transformer: The impulse
voltage is produced by the discharge of a capacitor or number of
capacitors into a wave generating network and so produced impulse
voltage is applied to the object under test. For the impulse test a multi
stage impulse generator which is a modified version of Marx's original
circuit is used. This consists of number of capacitors initially charged in
parallel and discharged in series by the sequential firing of the interstate
gaps.
Partial Discharge Testing
A partial discharge is localized electrical discharge in insulating media
which only partially bridges the insulation between conductors. Some of
the reasons for initiation of partial discharge in transformers are -
Improper processing or drying of the insulation
- Over stressed insulation due to the lack of proper
recognition of the voltage limitation of the insulation
- High stress areas in conducting part or the ground plane.
These factors cause
40
•Ionization in the cavities within the solid insulation
•Gas bubbles in insulating liquids or along dielectric surfaces
•Partial discharge may lead to progressive deterioration of
insulating materials
The partial discharge test has been introduced as routine test for
transformers of system voltages more than 300 kV. This test is a long
duration test, to check the insulation with regard to voltage under normal
operating conditions and momentary over voltages originating from
switching operations and faults. The magnitude of these over voltages
shall not exceed 1.5 up. The test voltage of 1.5 up for 30 minutes is
suitable for checking the ability of the insulation to sustain the stresses.
Power frequency withstand test
This is a routine test conducted at specified test voltage applied for one
minute to check for the flash over or breakdown. The test voltages depend
upon the type of the transformer i.e. dry or oil immersed transformer.
These tests are usually conducted in high voltage test laboratories.
Voltage source is derived from an ac generator driven by a motor. High
voltage transformers are cascaded to get the voltage. During the test,
voltage is gradually raised and kept applied for one minute. Special
methods used to measure high voltages include sphere gap, transformer
ratio method, potential divider etc
.
Sudden short circuit withstand test
It may be considered as a Type test and is conducted in a short circuit
testing station. The ability of transformer to and external short circuit
(through short circuit) is proved .
withstand the mechanical and thermal stresses caused by to external short
circuit current. When short circuit current flows ~~rough the winding, the
winding is subjected to radial force. The radial forces produce hoop stress
on outer and compressive stress on inner winding. The winding also
experiences axial forces tending to collapse the winding, fracture the end
rings and bending of conductor between spacer. The windings should not
get deformed when short circuit current is circulated. The secondary is
shorted and low specified voltage is applied for short duration of the order
of 2 seconds.
Induced over voltage withstand test:
Power transformers are subjected to a voltage equal to twice the rated
voltage. This test is carried out by supplying the specified test voltage to
the live windings from an he testing transformer at a frequency higher
than the rated value. The test voltage may be measured on live side of the
transformer under test, either directly or using a voltage transformer or
peak value of voltage induced in the winding using electrostatic voltmeter
or a suitable voltage divider. The duration of test must be 60 sacs at any
frequency up to and including twice the rated frequency. When the
frequency exceeds twice the rated frequency, the duration of the test
should be equal to rated frequency
41
Efficiency and regulation
The efficiency of transformer is the ratio of its output to input. The
efficiency changes with load (both magnitude and quality of the load).
The losses in transformers are
a)No-load losses: It includes both hysteresis loss and eddy current
loss. As the core flux in a transformer remains
practically constant at all loads, the core loss is also called as constant
loss. These losses are minimized by using steel of high grade silicon for
the core and by using very thin laminations. The input power of a
transformer under no-load, measures the core loss.
b)Load losses: This loss is mainly due to holmic resistance of the
transformer winding. Copper-loss also includes the stray loss occurring in
the mechanical structure and winding conductor due to the stray fluxes.
c)Full load copper loss is measured by the short circuit test.
Loading conditions of transformer:
The loading of transformer is decided by permissible temperature rise of
windings and oil. Permissible oil temperature is 650( and hot spot
temperature of the winding is 800C at rated current. As load on the
transformer varies according to the load curve, loading becomes an
important operating problem. Life expectancy reduces if the transformer
is overloaded for longer duration.
Tap changers inception of o LTC, the operating efficiency has considerably improved.
All forms of OLTC circuit possess an impedance, which is introduced to
Voltage variation is a normal phenomenon, because of rapid growth of
avoid short circuiting of tapping section during tap changer operation.
electrical load and distribution network. It is necessary to maintain system
The OLTC can in general, be classified as resistor or reactor type. As the
voltage within the specified limit for the better health of electrical
motor drive unit is initiated by a push button or voltage control relay, tap
equipments. The system voltage may be adjusted by changing the tapings
selector changes tap. The diverter switch diverts the current. The tap
on the power transformer. The variation in voltage may be brought in
changers function without interruption in load current.
either by step or step less control. But the practice proved that voltage
variation is handled effectively in steps without creating objectionable Commissioning of transformers:
disturbances on the system. This variation is generally achieved by means
Transformer must be healthy in all respects before energizing and,
of tapings on the power transformer because of the smaller currents to be
therefore, it should be thoroughly checked before commissioning. The
dealt with, are normally located on the higher-voltage winding
tests to be carried out at site before commissioning will depend upon the
Off circuit tap changer: voltage and KVA rating of the transformer, facilities available at site and
conditions of contract. The typical tests to be carried out are as follows
The economic method of changing the turns ratio of a transformer is the
use of off-circuit tap changer. As the name suggests, it is necessary to Typical Tests carried out before commissioning
de-energize the transformer before changing the tap. A mechanical lock is
General inspection
provided to prevent unauthorized operation and inadvertent operation.
The transformers are normally provided with off-circuit taps with ± 2.5 a) Control and relay panels, etc.
percent and ±5 percent on the side. The station transformers are
b)Junction boxes and marshalling kiosks.
preferably provided with OLTC with ± 10% in steps of 1.25 percent on
the side. On all transformer protection relays

On Load Tap Changers (OLTC): a)Tests on operation and stability of earth fault relays on high
voltage side.
OLTC are employed to change turns ratio of transformer to regulate
system voltage while the transformer is delivering normal load. With the b)Tests on line directional elements of high voltage line relays.

42
 c)Tests on high speed neutral circuit breaker
Movie 1.1 Module 1:Transformers testing
d)Tests on over current relays on low voltage side.

e)Tests on operation and stability of earth fault relays on

low-voltage side.

f)Tests on operation of standby earth fault relay on low-voltage

side.

g)Tests on over current relay on high voltage side (when current

transformer are not in transformer) bushings

h)Voltage compensation

i)With 415 V applied on high-voltage side, measure the voltage

between all phases on the low-voltage side for every tap position.

j)To check phasing, measure volts: A to a, band c B to a, band c ( to

a, b and c where A, Band ( are the terminals of three phases on high
voltage side and a, band c are the corresponding terminals on low voltage
side.

k)Magnetic balance test.

mo

43
Interactive 1.1 Module 1 Review 1.1 Module 1

Question 1 of 5
The full-load copper loss of a transformer is 1600 W. At
half-load, the copper loss will be _______

A. 6400 W

B. 1600 W

C. 800 W

D. Answer 4

Check Answer

44
Electric drill

A cordless drill is an electric drill which uses rechargeable

batteries. These drills are available with similar features
to an AC mains-powered drill. ... They are available in the
hammer drill configuration and most have a clutch,
which aids in driving screws into various substrates
while not damaging them.

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Power Transformer

A transformer is a static electrical device that transfers electrical energy between two or
more circuits through electromagnetic induction. ... Faraday's law of induction discovered in
1831 described this effect. Transformers are used to increase or decrease the alternating
voltages in electric power applications.

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Standards

Standards may be classified as (1) government or statutory agency standards and

specifications enforced by law, (2) proprietary standards developed by a firm or
organization and placed in public domain to encourage their widespread use, and (3)
voluntary standards established by consultation and consensus

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Tenders

an offer to carry out work, supply goods, or buy land, shares, or another asset at a stated
fixed price.

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Tools

a device or implement, especially one held in the hand, used to carry out a particular
function.

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