MODULE2

Sy
ll
abus:
Ty
pesofNat
ural
Disast
ersI
-Ear
thquakes,
Landsl
i
des.Nat
ureofi
mpact
s.

EARTHQUAKES
Earthquakeisoneoft hemostdestruct
ivenat
uralhazard.Theymayoccuratanyti
meoft he
year,dayorni ght
,withsuddeni mpactandlit
tlewarning.Theycandest r
oybuil
dingsand
i
nfrastruct
ureinseconds,ki
l
li
ngorinjuri
ngtheinhabi
tants.Ear
thquakesnotonl
ydestroyt
he
enti
rehabitati
onbutmayde- stabi
li
zethegovernment,economyandsoci alstr
uct
ureofthe
country.
Defi
nit
ion:I
tisthesuddenshaki
ngoftheear
thcr
ust.Theimpactofanear
thquakei
ssudden
andthereishar
dlyanywarni
ng,maki
ngiti
mpossi
bletopredi
ct.
Globally,earthquakesresultinal ossofabout50, 000l i
vesev eryyear.Earthquakesover5.5
magni tudeont heRi chterscal ear epr ogressivelydamagi ngt opr opert
yandhumanl ife.
Howev er,there are many ot herf actorst hati nfluences t he damage pat tern.Massive
earthquakes gener al
ly occurneart he juncti
on oft wo t ectonic plat
es,e. g.,al
ong the
Himal ayanrange, wheretheIndi anplat egoesbelowEur asianpl ate.TheIndiansub-conti
nent
sit
uatedont heboundariesoft wocont i
nentalplatesi sv erypr onet oeart
hquakes.Someof
themosti ntenseearthquakesoft hewor l
dhav eoccur r
edi nI ndia.Fort
unately,noneofthese
haveoccur r
edi nanyoft hemaj orcit
ies.Accor di
ngt ol atestsei smiczoningmapbr oughtout
bytheBur eauofI ndi
anSt andar d(BIS),over65per centoft hecount ryi
spr onet oear
thquake
ofintensityModi fi
edMer call
iIntensit
yScal e( MSK)VI Iormor e.
Indi
ahasbeendi vi
dedi ntof ourseismi czonesaccor dingt ot hemaxi mum i ntensi
tyof
earthquakeexpected(Figurebelow).Oft hese,zoneVi sthemostact ivewhi chcompr i
sesof
whol eofNortheastI
ndia,thenor t
hernpor ti
onofBi har,
Ut tar
akhand,Hi machalPr adesh,J&K,
Gujaratand Andaman & Ni cobarI slands.I ndia has hi ghly populous ci t
ies and t he
constructi
onsintheseciti
esar enotear t
hquaker esist
ant.Regul at
orymechani smsar eweak,
thusanyear t
hquakest r
iki
nginoneoft heseciti
eswoul dt urnintoamaj ordisast er.Si
xmaj or
earthquakeshavestruckdiff
erentpartsofI ndi
aov eraspanoft helast15y ears.

1|
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1|
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Modul
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TheentireHi
malayanRegioni
sconsider
edtobev ulnerabletohi
ghintensi
tyear
thquakesofa
magnitudeexceedi
ng8.0ontheRicht
erscal
e,andinar elati
vel
yshortspanofabout50y ear
s,
foursuchmajoreart
hquakeshav
eoccurredi
nt heregion

Somesi
gni
fi
cantear
thquakesi
nIndi
a

THECI
RCULATI
ONI
NSI
DEEARTH

– Conv ect i
oncur rent sdev elopinthev i
scousMant l
e,becauseofpr
evai
l
inghi
ght
emper
atur
eand
pressur egradient sbet weent heCr ustandt heCor e,l
ikethe
conv ectivefl
owofwat erwhenheat edinabeaker .
– Theseconv ectioncur rentsresulti
naci rculati
onoft he
earth’smass; hotmol tenlav acomesoutandt hecold
rockmassgoesi nt otheEar th.Themassabsor bed
event uall
ymel tsunderhi ght emper atur
eandpr essur
e
andbecomesapar toftheMant l
e
– Manysuchl ocal circulati
onsar etakingpl aceatdi ff
erent
regi
onsunder neat htheEar th’ssurface,leadingt o
dif
ferentpor t
ionsoft heEar thunder goi
ngdi f
ferent
dir
ect ionsofmov ement sal ongthesur face.
PLATETECTONI
CS
– Germansci enti
stAlfr
edWegener ,i
n1915pr oposedt hat
,200mi l
li
onyearsagotheearth
hadonlyonecont i
nentcal
ledPangaea.
– Pangaeabr okeintopiecesthatslowlydri
ftedint
ot hepresentconfi
gurat
ionofconti
nents.
– Theconv ecti
veflowsofMant lemat eri
alcausetheCr ustandsomepor ti
onoftheMant l
e,
tosl
ideont hehotmol t
enoutercore.
– Thi
sslidi
ngofEar t
h’smasst akesplaceinpiecescalledTectonicPlat
es.
– Thesurfaceoft heEarthconsistsofsevenmaj ortectoni
cplatesandmanysmal lerones

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(
a) Eur asi
anPlate
(
b)I
ndo–Aust ral
i
anplate
(
c)Pacif
icpl
ate
(
d)North–Amer i
canPlat
e
(
e)South–Amer i
canPlat
e
(
f)Afri
canPl
ate
(
g) Ant
arct
icPl
ate Maj
orTect
oni
c
Plat
es

– Thesepl
atesmoveindi
ff
erentdi
rect
ionsandatdi
ff
erentspeedsf
rom t
hoseoft
he
nei
ghbour
ingones.
(
a)ConvergentBoundar
ies:Sometimes,t
he
pl
ateint hef
ronti
ssl
ower ;t
hen,thepl
ate
behi
ndi tcomesandcoll
i
des( and
mountainsarefor
med).
(
b)Diver
gentBoundari
es:someti
mestwo
pl
atesmov eawayfrom oneanot
her(
and
ri
ft
sarecreated)
.
(
c)Tr
ansfor
m Boundar i
es:Twopl
atesmove
si
de-by-
side,
alongthesamedir
ecti
onor
i
nopposit
edirecti
ons.
– Theconv
ergentboundar
yhasapecul
iar
it
y(l
i
keatt
heHi
mal
ayas)t
hatsomet
imesnei
ther
oft
hecoll
idi
ngplat
eswantstosi
nk.
ELASTI
CREBOUNDTHEORY
– Tectoni
cpl atesaremadeofel asti
cbutbritt
lerockymat eri
al.
– Hence,elasticstr
ainenergyisst or
edinthem dur i
ngt her elat
ivedef
ormat
ionsthatoccur
duetothegi ganti
ctectonicplateacti
onst aki
ngpl aceint heEar t
h.
– Whent her ockymat er
ial
alongt heint
erfaceoft heplatesi ntheEart
h’sCr
ustreachesit
s
str
ength,itfract
uresandasuddenmov ementt akespl acet here

– Theinterfacebet weent hepl ateswher ethemov ementhast akenpl ace(call

edthefault
)
suddenlysl i
psandr eleasest helar geel asti
cst r
ainenergyst or
edi nther ocksatt he
i
nterf
ace.
– Thesuddensl ipatthef aultcausest heear thquake-av iolentshakingoft heEart
hduring
whichlargeel ast
icstrainener gyreleasedspr eadsoutint heform ofseismi cwavesthat
tr
avelthr
ought hebodyandal ongthesur faceoft heEart
h.
– Aft
ert heear thquakei sov er,t hepr ocessofst rai
nbuild-upatt hismodi fi
edinter
face
betweent hetectonicplatesst artsall overagai n.
– Eart
hscient i
stsknowt hi sast heEl asticReboundTheor y.
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SEI
SMI
CWAVES
Largest
rai
nenergyrel
easedduringaneart
hquaketravel
sasseismi
cwav
esi
nal
ldi
rect
ions
thr
oughtheEar
th’
slayer
s,ref
lect
ingandref
ract
ingateachint
erf
ace.
Thesewav
esar
eoft
wot
ypes-bodywav
esandsur
facewav
es
Thesurf
acewavesar
er est
rict
edt oneart
heEarth’
ssur
face(SeeFig.below)
.Bodywav
es
consi
stofPri
maryWaves( P-waves)andSecondar
yWav es(
S-waves),andsurf
acewav
es
consi
stofLov
ewaves(L-waves).

Ar
ri
valofSei
smi
cWav
esataSi
te
(
a)TheP-
waves
– Thesear
ealsocal
ledpr
imarywaves,pushandpull
wav es.
– Thesear
ethefast
estwavesinwhichthepart
icl
esvi
bratei
nthedirect
ionofpropagat
ion.
– Thevel
oci
tyofP-waveisrel
atedtotheri
gidi
tyoft
hemedi um andit
sdensit
y.
(
b)TheS-waves
– Theseareal
socal
l
edsecondar
ywav es.
– Inthesewav
espar
ticl
esv
ibr
ateri
ghtanglest
othedi
rect
ionofpr
opagat
ionoft
hewav
e.
(
c)TheL-
wav es
– Thesewav esal
socal l
edLongwav esorsurf
acewaves.
– Thesewav esaresluggishandrecordedonlyaf
tert
hearri
val
ofthePandSwav es.
– S-wavesdonott r
avelthroughl
iqui
ds.
– S-wavesinassociati
onwi t
heff
ectsofLov ewavescausemaximum damaget
ost r
uct
ures
RECORDI
NGOFEARTHQUAKES
– Theinstrumentusedt orecordt hemot ionofsei smi cwav esiscal
ledsei smograph
– Therecor dpr oducedbyt heinstrumenti scal l
edSeismogr am
– Aseismogr aphi sdesignedf orrecordi
ngei therthehor i
zontalorthev erti
calcomponent
ofgroundmot ion
– Aseismogr aph, hasthreecomponent s–t hesensor ,therecorderandt het i
mer.
(a)TheSensor :Thependul um mass, string,magnetandsuppor t
(b)TheRecor der:Thedr um,penandchar tpaperconst i
tutetherecorder ;
and
(c)TheTi mer :themot orthatrotatesthedr um atconst antspeedf or
mst hetimer.
– Pendulum t ypesei smogr aphsar egenerallyused.
– Pri
ncipleofSei smogr aph
 Apenat tachedatt het i
pofanosci ll
atingsimpl ependulum (amasshungbyast ring
fr
om asuppor t)mar ksonachar tpapert hatisheldonadr um rot ati
ngataconstant
speed.
 Amagnetar oundt hestri
ngpr ovidesr equireddampi ngtocont r
ol theamplit
udeof
oscil
lations.
4|Page CE488–Di
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– Onesuchi
nst
rumenti
srequi
redi
neachoft
het
woor
thogonal
hor
izont
aldi
rect
ions.
–Formeasuringverticaloscillations,thestringpendulum isreplacedwithaspring
pendul
um osci
l
lat
ingaboutaf
ulcr
um.

– Today,di
gitali
nstrument susingmoder
ncomputert
echnol
ogyaremorecommonlyused.
– Thedigit
ali
nstrumentr ecordsthegr
oundmot
iononthememor yoft
hemicropr
ocessor
thati
sin-buil
tintheinstrument.

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TERMI
NOLOGY
Thepointonthefaultwheresli
pstart
sistheFocusorHy pocenter,andt hepoi
ntvert
ical
ly
abovethi
sont hesurfaceoftheEart
histheEpicenter(Seefig.bel
ow) .Thedepthoffocus
from t
heepi
center,cal
ledasFocalDepth.Mostofthedamagi ngearthquakeshaveshall
ow
focuswithfocaldepthslessthanabout70km.Di stancefrom epi centertoanypointof

i
nter
esti
scal
l
edepi
cent
raldi
stance.
MAGNI
TUDEOFEARTHQUAKE
– Magni tudeisaquant i
tati
vemeasur eoftheactual Sizeoftheearthquake.
– Magni tudeofanear thquakei sameasur eofitssize
– Prof
essorChar l
esRi chternoticedt hat,
(a)Att hesamedi stance, seismogr amsofl argerearthquakeshav ebiggerwave
ampl it
udethant hoseofsmal l
erearthquakes; and
(b)Foragi venearthquake, sei smogramsatf artherdistanceshavesmal l
erwave
ampl i
tudethant hoseatcl osedistances.
– Thesepr ompt edhimt opr oposet henowcommonl yusedmagni tudescal e,t
heRicht
erscal
e.
– I
tisobt ainedfrom thesei smogr amsandaccount sforthedependenceofwav efor
m
amplitudeonepi centraldistance.Thi sscaleisalsocal l
edLocal Magnitudescale.
– Eart
hquakesar eclassifi
edbasedonmagni tudeas

Gr
oup Magnit
ude
Gr
eat 8and
higher
Major 7–7. 9
Str
ong 6–6. 6
Moder at
e 5–5. 9
Li
gh 4–4. 9
t
Minor 3–3.9
VeryMinor <3.
0

I
NTENSI
TYOFEARTHQUAKE
– I
ntensi
tyisanindicatoroftheseveri
tyofshaki
nggener atedatagivenl
ocat i
on
– I
ntensi
tyisaqual i
tati
vemeasureoft heact
ualshakingatal ocat
iondur
inganear t
hquake,
andisassignedasRomanCapi t
alNumer al
s.
– Therearemanyi nt
ensityscal
es.Twocommonl yusedonesar etheModifiedMercall
i
Int
ensi
ty( MMI)Scaleandt heMedv edev
–Sponheuer –Karnik(MSK)Scale.
– Bothscalesarequitesimil
arandrangefrom I(
leastperceptiv
e)toXII(
mostsev ere)
.
6|Page CE488–Di
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– Thei ntensi
tyscalesarebasedont hreefeaturesofshaking,
(
a)Per cepti
onbypeopl eandani mals,
(
b)per for
manceofbui ldings,and
(
c)Changest onaturalsurroundi
ngs.
– Thedi stri
buti
onofintensit
yatdi ff
erentplacesduringanearthquakei
sshowngr
aphi
cal
l
y
usi
ng
i
soseismals,li
nesjoi
ningpl aceswithequal seismi
cintensit
y

CLASSI
FICATI
ONOFEARTHQUAKES
(
a)Depthoffocusasbasi
s:
i.Shall
ow :Dept
hoff
ocusl
i
esupto60km bel
owthesurface
i
i.I
ntermedi
ate :Dept
hoff
ocusl
i
esbet
ween60-300km bel
owt hesurf
ace
i
i
i.Deepseated :Dept
hoff
ocusl
i
esbet
ween300-700km bel
owt hesurf
ace
(
b)Magni
tudeasbasi
s(Seecl
assi
fi
cat
ionabov
einMagni
tude)

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Modul
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(
c)Causeoforiginasbasis:
i. Tect
oni ceart
hquakes:Causedduet orel
ati
vedispl
acementsofbl
ocksoft
he
cr
ustoft heeart
halongt herupt
urepl
anes
i
i. Non-tectoni
cearthquake:Causedduetovolcani
cerupt
ions,at
omi
c
expl
osionslandsl
idesandsubsidence.

SEI
SMI
CHAZARDS
Damageoccur sto humanset t
lement,bui
ldi
ngs,str
ucturesandinf
rast
ructur
e,especi
ally
br
idges,elev
ated r
oads,rai
lways,watertowers,pi
peli
nes,el
ect
ri
calgenerati
ng f
acil
it
ies.
Aft
ershocks ofan eart
hquake can cause much great
erdamage to alr
eadyweakened
st
ructur
es.

Secondar yeffectsincludefires,dam fail

ureandlandslideswhi chmaybl ockwat erwaysand
al
socausef looding.Damagemayoccurt of acil
it
iesusi ngormanuf acturi
ngdangerous
material
sr esult
ing in possi ble chemicalspill
s.Ther e may also be a br eakdown of
communi cati
onf acil
i
ties.Theef fectofanear t
hquakei sdi ver
se.Ther earelar
genumberof
casualti
esbecauseoft hepoorengi neeri
ngdesignoft hebui l
dingsandcloseprox i
mit
yofthe
people.About95per centoft hepeoplewhoar ekill
edorwhoar eaffect
edbyt heeart
hquake
i
sbecauseoft hebui ldingcol l
apse.Thereisalsoahugel osst othepublichealthsyst
em,
tr
anspor tandcommuni cati
onandwat ersuppl
yintheaf fect
edar eas.

Thehaz
ardsassoci
atedwi
thear
thquakesar
easf
oll
ows

1.GroundShaki ng
Groundsurfacemayshif
tdur
inganear
thquake(especi
all
yiff
ocusi
sshal
l
ow)
.
Vert
ical
displacement
sofsur
facepr
oducefault
s

2.Struct uralHazar ds
Frequencyofshaki ngdi ff
ersf ordi ff
er entseismicwav e.Hi ghfrequencybodywav es
shakel ow bui l
di ngsmor e.Low f r
equencysur f
acewav esshakehi ghbui ldingsmor e.
Intensityofshaki ngalsodependsont ypeofsubsur facemat erial
3.Liquef action
– Dur i
ngear thquake, t
hest r
engt hoft hesoilisreduceddr ast i
cal
lytoapoi ntwher eitis
unabl et osuppor tstructur
es.
4.Lat eralSpr eadi ng
– I tisaphenomenonchar acteri
z edbyi ncrement aldisplacement st hatr angef rom
negl i
gibletoqui telargedur i
ngear t
hquakeshaki ng.
5.Landsl i
des
6.Lifeli
neHazar ds
– Thenet wor koff acil
i
tiesli
keel ectri
calpowerandt el
ecommuni cations,tr
anspor tati
on,
wat erand sewage,oi land gas di str
ibuti
on,and wast e stor age sy stem hav e
collectivel
ycomet oknownasl i
feli
nes.
– Li feli
nef ailuresnotonl yhav esev ereeconomi cconsequencesbutcanal soadv er
sely
affectt heenv ir
onmentandqual ityofl i
fefoll
owinganear t
hquake.
7.Tsunami andSei cheHazar ds
– Rapi dv erti
calseaf loormov ement scausedbyf aultrupt ureduringear thquakecan
producel ongper i
odseawav escal ledtsunami s.Inopensea,Tsunamit rav elgreat
distancesathi ghspeeds.
– Ear t
hquakei nducedwav esinencl osedwat erbodies(inal akeorr eservoir)ar ecall
edSeiche.
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POSSI
BLERI
SKREDUCTI
ONMEASURES:
Communi
ty pr
epar
edness:Communit
y prepar
edness i
sv i
talformi
ti
gati
ng ear
thquake
i
mpact
.Themosteff
ecti
vewaytosav
ey oueveninasli
ghtestshaki
ngi
s'DROP,
COVERand
HOLD'
.

Planning:TheBur eauofI ndianStandar

dshaspubl i
shedbuil
dingcodesandgui deli
nesfor
safeconst ruct
ionofbuildingsagainsteart
hquakes.Beforethebuil
dingsareconstructedthe
buil
dingpl anshav etobecheckedbyt heMuni cipal
it
y,accor
dingtot helaiddownby l
aws.
Manyex i
stinglif
eli
nebuildingssuchashospi t
als,school
sandf ir
est at
ionsmaynotbebui l
t
with earthquake safety measur es.Theirearthquake safet
y needs t o be upgraded by
retr
ofit
ti
ngt echniques.

Publiceducati
oniseducat i
ngthepubli
concausesandcharacter
ist
icsofanearthquakeand
preparednessmeasur es.I
tcanbecreatedthr
oughsensi
ti
zati
onandt raini
ngpr
ogrammef or
communi ty,archi
tects,engi
neers,bui
lder
s,masons,teacher
s,gov ernmentfuncti
onari
es
teachersandstudents.

Engineeredst r
uctures:Bui ldi
ngsneedtobedesi gnedandconst ruct
edaspert hebuil
dingby
l
awst o withstandgr oundshaki ng.Archit
ecturalandengi neeri
ngi nputsneedt o beput
togethertoi mprovebui ldingdesignandconst r
uctionpracti
ces.Thesoi ltypeneedst obe
analyzedbef or
econst ruction.Bui
ldi
ngstr
ucturesonsoftsoilshouldbeav oided.Bui
ldingson
softsoilaremor eli
kelytogetdamagedev enifthemagnitudeoft heearthquakeisnotst r
ong
asshowni nFigurebel ow.Si mil
arprobl
emsper sistint
hebui l
dingsconstructedont heriver
bankswhi chhav eall
uv i
al soil
.

QUAKERESI
STANTBUI
LDI
NGS
Consi
dert
hef
oll
owi
ngpar
tsofbui
l
ding:

1.Thefoundat
ions
2.Thebody
3.Theroof
1.Thef oundati
ons
– St ructur
eonLoosesedi mentsweakr ocksissubject
edt ogreat
erri
sk as
compar edt ostr
uctur
esonhar drocks
– Soi l
parti
clesundergosettl
ementduringeart
hquake
– Foundat i
onsshouldbeex cavat
edt othesamelevel
– Thesuper struct
ureshouldbethoroughl
ytiedwit
hthefoundati
onsbyintr
oduci
ng
reinfor
cement stopreventsl
idi
ng
CE488–Di
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2.Thebody
– Wal l
sshoul dbepr operl
ydesignedforresi
sti
nglat
eralf
orces
– Wal l
sshoul dbel i
ghtinweightandmadeupofwoodorl i
ghtweightaspossi
ble
– User ei
nforcement sinthewalls
3.Theroof
– Flatroofsgivesbet t
erresi
stanceascompar edtoslopi
ngroofs
– Careshoul dbet akentomi ni
mizethelater
alstr
esseswhent i
l
esandcor r
ugated
sheetsareusedi nfl
atroofs
– Projecti
onsbey ondr oofli
kechimneysshouldbeavoided
Gener
all
yspeaki ng:
– Ent
ir
estructur
eshouldactsasaunit
– Uni
form hei
ghtshouldbegiv
entothest
ruct
ure
– Par
apets,Canti
lev
ers,ar
chesanddomesshoul
dbeav
oided
EARTHQUAKEHAZARDMI
TIGATI
ON
Unli
keot herdi
sast
ers,thedamagescausedbyeart
hquakesaremor edev
ast
ati
ng.Sinceit
alsodestroysmostofthet r
anspor
tandcommunicati
onli
nks,pr
ovidi
ngti
mel
yr el
i
eftot he
vict
imsbecomesdi ffi
cult.I
tisnotpossi
blet
opreventtheoccurr
enceofanear t
hquake;
hence,t
henex tbestopt i
onistoemphasi
sondisast
erprepar
ednessandmiti
gati
onrather
thancurati
vemeasuressuchas:

(i) Establishing ear thquake moni t

oring cent r
es ( seismol ogicalcentr es)f orregular
moni tor i
ngandf astdi ssemi nati
onofi nformat i
onamongt hepeopl ei nthev ul
nerable
areas.Use ofGeogr aphicalPosi ti
oning Sy stem ( GPS)can be ofgr eathelpi n
moni tor i
ngthemov ementoft ectonicplates.
(i
i) Prepar ingav ul
ner abi l
it
ymapoft hecount r
yanddi ssemi nati
onofv ul
nerabi
li
tyrisk
i
nfor mat ion among t hepeopl e and educat ing t hem aboutt heway sand means
minimi singtheadv er seimpact sofdi sast
ers.
(
ii
i) Modi fying the house t ypes and bui l
ding desi gns i nt he v ul
nerable areas and
di
scour agingconst ructi
onofhi gh-ri
sebui l
dings,l argeindust r
ialestabli
shment sand
bi
gur bancent resi nsuchar eas.
(
iv) Fi
nal l
y ,maki ngi tmandat oryt oadoptear thquake- resi
stantdesi gnsandusel ight
mat erialsinmaj orconst r
uctionact i
viti
esinthev ul
ner abl
ear eas.
10|Page CE488–Di
sast
erManagement
 Modul
eII
MASSMOVEMENT
Inmanyr egi
onsoftheworl
dat empor
aryi
nstabil
i
tyofsuper
fi
cialmassofsoilandrockhas
alwaysbeenanacut eprobl
em.Thesesuperfici
almassmayl eav
etheirorigi
nalposi
ti
on
abruptl
yorextremelysl
owlyandstar
tthei
rdowngr ademovementorv ert
icall
ydownward
sinki
ng.
ThisMov ementofthegroundmayent aill
osstopr oper
tyandlif
e,especi
all
ywhenthey
happentooccurinorneart hepopulatedareas,al
onghighways,rai
l
wayl i
nes,damsand
reser
voi
rs,t
unnel
sorunderheavyst
ructures.
Suchmov ement
soft hesuperf
ici
almasseshavebeenter
medi
ncommonl
anguageas
l
andsl
idesorl
andsl
ips,
techni
cal
l
ytermedasMassMovement.

CLASSI
FICATI
ON
Manyclassi
fi
cat
ionhasbeensuggestedforMassmovementsatt
ribut
edtoanumberof
fact
orssuchasvari
etyofgeol
ogi
calsit
uati
ons,
nat
ureofsur
face,speedwit
hwhi
chfail
ure
occurset
c.
Ont
hebasi
soft
ypeoff
ail
ure,
massmov
ement
sar
edi
vi
dedi
nto3t
ypes,
1.Fl
owage
2.Sl
idi
ng
3.Subsi
dence

1.Fl
owage
 By f lowage i s under stood a downgr ade
mov ementofmassal ongnodef ini
tesurf
aceof
fail
ur e.
 Massi nvolvedinthi
st ypeoff ai
l
ureisprimaril
y
unconsol i
datedorloosel ypackedorr endered
so by nat ur
al processes of decay and
disintegrati
on.
 Ther esultisthatthemov ementisdistri
buted
throughoutt hemassandi nahi ghl
yirregul
ar
 manner

CE488–Di
sast
erManagement 11|
Page
Modul
eII
 Flowagei sfurtherdi sti
nguishedintosl owandr apidflowage.
 Intheslowf l
owage, fail
ureisnoteasi lyper
cept ibl
e.Thegr oundmaybemov i
ng
downslopeatassuchl owr atesasf ewcent imet er
say earorev enl ess.
 Inrapidf l
owage, howev er,t
hemov ementoff ail
ingmassmaybeeasi lyv i
sibl
eandt he
massmayt ravelaf ewmet ersormor eaday .
2.Sl
idi
ng
 Truelandslidei sat y peofmassf ailureinwhi chasuper f
icialmassf ail
sbymov i
ngas
awhol ealongadef initesurfaceoff ail
ure.
 Thesur faceoff ailuremaybepl anarorsemi cir
cularinout l
ine.
 Itisoft
enchar acteristicofal andsli
det hatthemassabov ethefailuresur faceis
unstablewher east hemat eri
allyi
ngbel owthi ssurfacei sgenerallyst able.
 Inunconsol i
dat eddeposi ts,l
oosei nherentl
yweakr ockmasses, sl
idingcommonl y
takesplaceal ongcur vedshearsur faces.

 Butwhent hemassinv olvedishard,br

it
tleandcoherent
,
suchasmassi ver
ocks, shearsur
facesarebroadl
yplanar
i
nnat ure.I
nsuchcases,asetofj oi
ntplanesorbedding
planes orfaultpl
anes may be t he mostconv eni
ent
natural
planesoff
ail
ure.

 TypesofLandsl i
de
Onthebasi soft het ypeofmov ementi nvolv
edi nt hefail
ure:
(a)Translationalsl i
des
 The sur f
ace off ailurei s generall
y planari n
charact er,speedoff ai
lur eisquiterapid
 Thenat ureofmassi nv olvedi nfail
ingmaybe
rockbl ocks,r ocksl abs,debr i
sandsoi lcov eror
evenami xtureofal loft hem.
 Thesesl i
desar equi tefr equentinsl opesmade
upofr ocksandcohesi v esoi l
.
(b)Rot at
ionalsl i
des
I nsuchsl i
des, thef aili
ngsur faceisgener ally
curvedi nchar acterandt hespeedoff ailure
i
sal soqui t erapid
 Becauseoft henat ureoft hef ail
i
ngsur face,
themov ementoft hemasst akesthef orm of
asor tofr otation,rathert hant r
anslati
on.
 The mat eri
al i nv olved i n f ail
ure t il
ts
downwar dsatt her earendandheav esupat
thefrontort oe.
12|Page CE488–Di
sast
erManagement
 Modul
eII
(
c)Rocktoppli
ngandf all
s
 These are grouped al ong with sli
des although
theremaybel ittl
eornosl idi
nginvolvedi ntheir
fail
ure(sincetheyar ecommonl yassoci atedor
accompani edwit hlandslides)
 Theyareessent iall
yasl ope-fai
lur
ephenomenon.
I nthefall
s,thereisal mostaf r
ee,suddenandf ast
decentfrom ast eepsl ope.
 Thesecondi ti
onsar efavoredf orthi
st ypeoff ailur
eisweather
ingofr
ockson
theslopesduet ocl imat i
cchangese. g.frostaction,ex
pansi
onandcontr
act
ion,
leachi
ngofnat uralbinder setc.
3.Subsidence
I
ti sdef i
ned assinking orsett
li
ng oftheground in
al
mostv ert
ical
lydownwar ddi
rect
ionwhichmayoccur
because of r emovalof naturalsupportfrom t he
undergroundorduet ocompactionoftheweakerrocks
undertheloadf r
om over
lyi
ngmass.

Def
ini
ti
ons
LandslideHazar
drefer
stothepotent
ialofoccur
renceofadamagingl
andsli
dewithi
nagiven
area;suchdamagecouldi
ncludelossofli
feorinj
ury,pr
oper
tydamage,soci
alandeconomic
di
sruption,
orenvi
ronment
aldegradat
ion.
Landsl
ideVulner abi
li
tyref
lectstheextentofpotenti
allosst ogiv
enel ements(orsetof
el
ement s)wit
hint heareaaffect
edbythehazard,expressedonascal eof0( noloss)t
o1
(t
otalloss);vulnerabi
li
tyis shaped by physi
cal,social,economic and envi
ronmental
condi
ti
ons.
LandslideRiskreferstot hepr obabi
li
tyofharmfulconsequences- theexpectednumberof
l
iveslost,per
sonsi nj
ured,extentofdamaget opropertyorecologicalsystems,ordisr
upt
ion
ofeconomi cacti
vit
y
–withinalandsl
idepronear ea.Ther i
skmaybei ndi
vidualorsocietalinscope,resul
ti
ngfr
om
aninteract
ionbetweent hehaz ar
dandi ndi
vi
dualorsociet
alvul
ner abi
lit
y.
Landsl
ideRiskEval uati
on i
stheappli
cat
ionofanal y
sesandj udgment
s( encompassi
ng
physi
cal,soci
al,and economic di
mensi
ons ofl andsl
ide vul
ner
abil
i
ty)t
o determi
ne ri
sk
managemental ter
nat i
ves,whi
ch may i
nclude determinat
ion t
hatthe l
andsli
de r
isk i
s
accept
ableortol
erable.

CAUSESOFMASSMOVEMENT
Therearemanyf actor
sinvolv
edi ncausi
ngmassmov ement
.Someofthem havedir
ectr
ole
andsomear eindirect
lyr
esponsiblefort
heinstabi
li
tyofl
andmass.Al
lsuchfactor
scanbe
groupedi
ntotwo, I
nter
nalfactor
s&Ext er
nalfactor
s.
A.I
nter
nalFact
ors
Thesei
ncl
udesuchcauses,
whi
cht
endt
oreducet
heshear
ingst
rengt
hofsoi
lorr
ockmass.
(
i)Nat
ureofSlope
 A greatmaj or
it
yofmassf ai
l
uresareconfi
nedtoslopesonly,i ti
sr easonableto
concludethatnatureofasl
opemaybeadeci di
ngfact
ori ndef
iningthest abi
l
ityofa
landmass.
 Bynat ur
eofsl opeitismeanther
e,thety
peofmat eri
alofwhi chthel andmassi s
madeup( soi
lorrock)andt
heangleatwhi
chthi
sparti
cularmassi si
nclinedwi t
hthe
 hor
izont
al(
theslopeangl
e).
 Anymassformingaslopeissubj
ectt
otwot
ypesoff
orces:

CE488–Di
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erManagement 13|
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Modul
eII
Fir
st,thosef orcesorst rengthbyv irt
ueofwhi chi tcanr etainthesoilmassinst able
positi
on( i
.e.shearst rengthofsoi )andsecond,
l thosef orceswhicht endtoinduce
fai
lureintoit.
 Shearst r
engt hofsoi lisgivenby : = +
 Wher eτ–shearst rength,c–cohesi ∅
on, σ–nor mal stressandϕ–angl eofinternal
fri
cti
onofmass
 Amongt hef orcest hattendt oinducef ai l
ureinamass, themosti mpor t
anti
st he
pullduetogr avit
ywhi chact sthrought hewei ghtoft hemat er
ial
.
 WhenFor cest endingt oinducef ailur
ei sgr eaterthanshearst rengthofsoil,
themassbecomesunst able.
 Thismaybeex pl
ainedi nasi mpl ecaseassumi ngamassM f ormingasl ope
angleβandr est i
ngov erapossi blesurf aceofpl anarfailure.

 For
cesresist
ingfai
lur
e,RF=cA+W cosβt anϕ
 For
cesInducingfai
lur
e,IF=W sinβ
 Wherec–Cohesi onofmass, W –Forceofmassact i
ngthroughit
,β–Angl
eofsl
ope,
 ϕ–Angl eofint
ernalf
ri
ctionandA–Ar eaofblockatcontact
 Thecondit
ionofli
miti
ngequili
bri
um i
ssati
sfi
edwhenI F=RF
 I
ntheanalysi
sofstabil
it
yconditi
onsforsl
opes,afact
orofsafety
,FSi
sexpr
essedas
=
Angleof
Repose

 I
thasbeenobser vedt hatmostmater
ial
sarest
ableuptoacer t
ainangleofslope.
 Thisiscall
edthecri
ticalangl
eofsl
ope(someti
mescal l
edangleofrepose)and
vari
esfrom 35ᵒforunconsoli
dat
edsedimentst
o90ᵒf orper
fectl
ycryst
all
ineun-
j
ointedrocks.
 Forparti
all
yjoi
ntedrocksitmayrangefr
om 60ᵒ-90ᵒ
.
(
ii
)RoleofWater
 Bothsur
faceandsubsurfacewaterhaveimportantrolei
ncausi
ngmassmovement.
 Watermaytoreducethesheari
ngst r
engthofar ockorsoil
massinanumberofways.
 Somegeneralcasesofroleofwateri
sdiscussedbel owunder4way
s:

(
a)Watert hatpenetrat
est hesoi landr ocksthroughseepageandmov esi ntot he
poresoft hemassmaybet hecauseofdev el
opmentofanupl iftorpore-pressure
wit
hi nthemassunderconsi der
ation.
Thispor epr
essure,“p”,reducethenor malstr
essofthemassandt herebyreduce
shearst r
engthofsoil.
(
b)Wat eraccumulatesatt hebackofamassmayexer tapr essure,intheopposi te
di
rect i
onofshearstr engththerebyreducethenetresi
sti
ngf orcesagai nstfail
ure
 andthuscausei
nst
abi
l
ity
.Suchwat
erpr
essur
ecausegr
eatr
educt
ioni
nthef
act
or
ofsafet
yofamass.

14|Page CE488–Di
sast
erManagement
 Modul
eII
(
c)Ast i
lldi f
ferentwayi nwhichwat ermayweakent hesoilorrockmassi sthroughi t
s
repeat edchangeofst at
ewi thcl i
mat echanges.
Wat erf r
eez i
ngwi thinthepor esandot heropenspacesdur ingext remel ycold
weat herex pandsandexer tsconsi derablepressure.Thi smaybef oll
owedby
mel ti
ngort hawi ngofi cecrystal i
nfoll
owingsummer s.
Thewat ersopr oducedmaysat uratethemass.Thi spr ocessoff rostact ionmay
ber epeat edagai nandagai ni ncol dhumi dregionsr esulti
ngi ndisintegr at
ionof
l
ay ersofsoi lsandr ocks.Asaconsequencest ablesl opesofmassi venat uremay
changegr aduallyintounstablesl opes.
Flowage,whet hersl ow orrapi d,invar
iablyinvolvespr esenceofwat er.I ncold
regions, frostact i
onhasbeenf oundt obet hepr i
mar ycauseoff r
equentr ockfall
s
from hi ghst eepsl opes.
(
d)Wat eral sof acili
tatesmassf ai
luret hr
oughi t
slubr i
cat i
ngact i
on.
Thus, whengr oundwat erhappenst omov eal
ongapl aneofweakness( e.g.ajoi
nt
set,af aultpane,shearz oneandabeddi ngplaneet c.)withinamass,t hatplane
getsl ubricated, t
her ebydecreasingt hefri
cti
onf orcesandi taffectsthest abili
ty.
(
ii
i)Compositi
onofMass
 Materialsarestableinagi v
ensetofcondi ti
onsofslopeandwat ercontent
 Bycomposi ti
onoft hemassi smeanti nthepresentstudy :
(a)Whet hert hemassi sint heform ofsoilorar ock;rockf ormat i
onisstableas
compar edtosoi lf
ormation
(b)Ifsoil,
whet heriti
scohesi veornon-cohesi
v e,
andal so,ifiti
ssandy ,si
lt
yorclay ey
ora mi xtureoft wo ormor eoft hese component s;Cohesi v
e soilis st
abl e
compar edtonon-cohesi vesoil
(c)Ifrock,whet heriti sanigneousorsedi ment ar
yormet amor phi
crock,andal so,
withineachgr oup,t owhichpar ti
cul
arclassitbel ongs.Igneousr ockisstronger
rock
 Ther oleofcomposi t
ionofmassi nitsstabi
li
tybecomesi mpor tantbecauseabr oad
assessmentcanbemadeaboutt hestabil
it
yofamassi fitsexactcomposi t
ion( in
bothphy sicalandchemi calsense)isknown.
(
iv)GeologicalSt r
uct
ures
 Geol ogicalst
ruct
uresar eofgreatsi
gni
fi
cancein def
ini
ng t
hest
abi
l
ityofmass,
especi all
yinr
ocks.
 Rel ationshipofgeologi
calst
ruct
ureswi
ththest
abil
i
tyofmasshasbeendiscussed
belowunder3headi ngs:
(
a)Beddi
ngpl
anes
 Manysedi ment ar yrocksar el ay eredorst rati
fiedandt hi
cknessofl ayersmay
rangefrom f ew cent imet erst omanymet ers.Thebeddi ngpl ane( thesur face
betweenanyt woadj acentl ayer s)i sapl ane,wi thleastcohesi oninal ayered
mass.Thesel ay ersmaybehor izontal,inclinedatv ar
iousangl eswi tht he
hori
zontal (
di ppi ng)orev env erti
cal .Thedi pori ncl
inat i
onoft hest r
at i
fi
edr ocks
exert
sv eryimpor tanti nfl
uenceont hestabilit
yofsl opes.
 Thismaybeex pl ainedi ndifferentcasesasf oll
ows:
CASEI :Thel ay er sar ehor izont al(Di p=0° ).Suchr ocksf ormingt hesl opesof
thenaturalv alley sandar tif
icialcut sar establ eatalltheangl esupt o90° .When
theyfai
l,itmaybeduet opr esenceofsecondar yjointingorr el
atedf ractures.
CASEI I
:
Thelayer sar eI ncl i
ned.I nsuchasi tuat
ion, assumi ngt hatther ockisf reef r
om
anyothert ypesofdi scont i
nui t
ies( joint
s,shearandf aultzones) ,t
hest abili
tyof
aslope( natur al
CE488–Di
sast
erManagement 15|
Page
Modul
eII
theart
if
ici
al)wi
l
ldependpri
mari
l
yont hecondi
ti
onwhetherthel
ayer
sare
dippi
ngbackwardsi
ntothemountai
norforwar
dint
othev al
l
eyorthecut
.

#Whendi
ppi
ngi
ntot
hemount
ain,t
het
endencyofl
ayer
stosl
i
deal
ongt
he
beddingpl anesi sr esist
edbyenor mouswei ghtofthemount ai
nr esti
ng
againstthem.Hence, insuchasi tuat
ion,evenanearlyver
ti
calslopeshould
best abl
e.
#Whendi ppingi nt
ot hev all
ey,ther ewi l
lbetendencyoft hel
ayerstosli
deand
sli
dingmayt akepl acewher et hedi poft helayer
sisgreat
erthanangl eof
i
nternal f
riction,ϕ=30andt hesl opeangleβexceedst hedipangleα.
#Cutspar al
lelt ot hedipoft her ocksar emor esafeandstablecompar edto
thosepar alleltothest ri
keoft hel ayers.

(
b)TheMet
amor
phi
cst
ruct
ures

 Schi
stosit
y,foli
ationandcleavagest r
uctur
esasf oundinmet amor
phi
crocks
l
ikeschist
s,gneissesandslatesrespecti
vel
yandthusallbehav
eassurf
acesof
weaknessandpr omotethefai
lur
e.
(
c)TheJoint
ingStructures
 Joi
ntsreducet heshearstr
engthofsoilandrockf
or mat
ions

B.Ext
ernalfactors
 Ananalysisofmanysl opefail
uremakesi tcleart
hati nsomecasesanex t
ernal
fact
or
mighthavet r
iggeredt hesli
de
 Exter
nal f
actorsincludevibrat
ionsfrom arti
fi
cialandnatural
phenomenon.Vi brat i
onsduet oarti
fi
cial
causes-Heav yblast
ingand
heavytraffi
conhi llroadsVibrat
ionsduet onatur
al causes–Ear t
hquakes
16|Page CE488–Di
sast
erManagement
 Modul
eII
 Anot
herimport
antext
ernalfactori
st heremovalofthesuppor
tatt
hefootoft
he
sl
ope,dur
ingexcav
ati
onf orroadwidening.
 Removaloftr
eesisanotherisanotherexter
nalcauseformassmovement
ADVERSEEFFECTS
The most common el ements at r isk are t he
sett
lementsbuiltonthest eepslopes,buil
tatthet oe
andt hosebui
ltatthemout hofthest r
eamsemer ging
fr
om t he mount ai
n v all
ey. Allt hose bui l
dings
construct
ed withoutappr opri
atef oundation fora
giv
ensoi landinsloppyareasareal soatrisk.Roads,
communi cati
onlinesar
ev ulner
able.

Di
str
ibut
ionalPat
ter
n:
Landsl idesconst it
uteamaj or
natur alhaz ardi nourcount ry,
whi ch account s for
consi der ablel ossofl if
eand
damage t o communi cat i
on
routes,human set tl
ement s,
agricul tur alf ieldsandf or est
l
ands. The Indi an
subcont inent , wi th di ver se
phy siogr aphi c, seismi c,
tectoni c and cl i
matologi cal
condi ti
ons i s subj ected t o
vary i
ng degr ee ofl andsl ide
haz ar ds; t he Hi mal ay as
i
ncl udi ng
Nor theast ern mount ai ns
ranges bei ng t he wor st
affect ed, f ol l
owed by a
sect ionofWest er nGhat sand
the Vi ndhy as. Remov al of
veget ation and t oe er osion
hav e al so t rigger ed sl i
des.
Tor rent ial r ainf all on t he
defor est edsl opesi sthemai n
factori nt hePeni nsularIndi a
namel yi nWest ernGhatand
Nilgiris.Human i ntervent i
on
bywayofsl opemodi fi
cat i
on
hasaddedt o
thi
sef f
ect .Figur eshowsl andslidehaz
ardzonat
ionmapofI
ndi
a.
MONI
TORI
NGOFMASSMOVEMENTS
 Detecti
onofpossibi
li
tyoff
ail
urebeforeit
soccurrencebynotingthepresentcondit
ionsi
s
cal
ledMonitor
ing.
 Moni t
ori
ngofslopesmaybeachievedbyusi ngconventi
onalsurv
eyingtechniques.
 Landormassmov ementcanbeascer t
ainedusi
ngel ect
roni
cequipment,laserequi
pment,
sett
lementgaugesandex t
ensometers.
 Porewat
erpressur
ecanbemeasuredusi
ngthePiez
omet
ersandt
huspossi
bil
i
tyof
fai
l
urebypor
ewat erpr
essur
ecanbeunderst
ood.

CE488–Di
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erManagement 17|
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Modul
eII
TECHNI
QUESTOREDUCELANDSLI
DEHAZARDS
Foll
owi ngar esomeofthet echniquesusedt oreducelandsli
dehazards.Thesemaybeused
i
nav arietyofcombinati
onst ohel ptosolv
ebot hexisti
ngandpot enti
allandsli
depr obl
ems.
Thet echniquesaregenerall
yapplicablet
oallty
pesofsur facegroundfail
ure,i
ncludingflows,
sl
idesandf al
ls.Theeffecti
venessofeachhaz ar
dr educti
onv ar
ieswit htime,pl aceand
personsi nvolv
edintheplanningandi mpl
ementingoft heProgrammef orreducingthehazard.

CONTROLOFMASSMOVEMENTS
1.Dr
ainage
 Wat erpr esencei stheoneoft hefactorthatleadst othemassmov ement .
 Av oidwat ercont enteit
herbysur faceorsub- surfacemet hods.
 Const ructser i
esofditches
 Backf i
llthepitsont hesoilsurfacewi t
hconcr eteorasphal ttopreventthewat
er
impoundi ng.
 Cov erthesl opesur f
acewi thgranularmat eri
al t
oremov eex cessrainf
all.
 Remov et hecracksandf issuresinthesur facebyf i
ll
i
ngwi thcement ,bi
tumenor
claymi xture.
 Const ructintercepti
ondrains( Toreducepor ewat erpressure)
 Oi li
ngofsl opesur f
aces
 El ectro-osmosi s
 Heat i
ngt hesl opesurfacetoav oi
dwat ercontent

18|Page CE488–Di
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 Modul
eII
2.Ret
aini
ngstr
uctures
 Constr
uctRetaini
ngwallsandbuttr
esses
 Thesearesuit
ablewhere:
(a)Thegroundisneit
hertoofi
nenort ooplast
ic.
(b)Thesli
dingmassislikel
ytoremaindry
(c)Themov ementisofashall
ownat ureandli
mitedex
tent

3.Sl
oper
einf
orcementbyr
ockbol
ti
ng
RockBol
ts
 Rockbol t
sareusedt otieupdi ff
erentr ockblockst ogethertherebyimprovi
ngthe
stabil
it
yofr ockmass.
 Ar ockbol ti
sast eelbarofsui t
abledi a(2-25mm)andl ength(60cm-5m)oneendof
whi chi
sdesi gnedf orexpandingandot herendi sthreadedt otakeanutandwasher .
 Suchabol tisinser t
edintoahol edr i
ll
edi nther ockatapr operanglewiththeplaneof
weaknessandi t
sendwi thintherocki smadet oexpandwher ebyitfi
tsti
ghtl
yintothe
rock.
 Theot herendi st iedonapl at
ewitht hehel pofanutandwasher .Therodisgenerall
y
pre-stressedandi salway splacedi ntension.
 Whenpl acedint heabov ef ashi
on,ther ockbol theldupwi thi
nt hetwoendsoft hebolt
getscompr essedandhencest abi
lizedagai nstfall
ing.

CE488–Di
sast
erManagement 19|
Page
Modul
eII

RockAnchor
s
 Rockanchor sar est ructur
alelementsmadeupofcabl es,bar s.Li
kebolts,i
tisalso
pl
acedinpr eviousl ydr i
ll
edholesandt henwhol eorpartofthem i sbondedtotherock
usi
ngapr opert echni que.
 Theymaybet ensi onedaf terplaci
ngint heholebeforeoraf tergrouti
ngwhichisan
i
ntegralpartofanchor agesy st
em.
 Anchorsy stem mayex ceed20- 30m inl engt
handoncei nstall
edtheymodi f
yt he
ori
ginal
stressf iel
doft herocktoaconsi derabl
eextent
.
 Usecorrosionr esistantmat eri
alsforr
ockanchor s
4.Sl
opet reat
ment
 Treatthetoplayersofformation
 Applyconcreteormor taronthetopsur f
ace.
 Themi xtur
eofcementandsand( 1:3)wi
thlit
tl
ewat eri
sappli
edont hefaceunder
pressureandthust heslopesgainssuffi
cientstr
engthonhardeni
ng.
 Fl
attentheslopet oensurestabil
it
y.
 Decreasingtheloadonsl opes(Forexampl eonhill
roads,r
educethetraf
fic)
 Providebenchesatt hefootoftheslope
 Promot eaff
orestati
on( Veget
ati
oncov erreducestheinf
il
tr
ati
onofwat er)

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erManagement