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10716283
10716283
Retaining Ring Failure at Comanche
Unit 2
Root Cause Analysis
TR-106640
1403-45; 9000-19
Final Report, July 1996
Prepared by
Structural Integrity Associates, Inc.
3315 Almaden Expressway, Suite 24
San Jose, CA 95118
Principal Investigators
L. S. Dorfman
P. C. Riccardella
D. A. Rosario
T. P. Sherlock
Prepared for
Electric Power Research Institute
3412 Hillview Avenue
Palo Alto, California 94304
EPRI Project Manager

J. Stein
Fossil Power Plants
Generation Group
10716283
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(A) MAKES ANY WARRANTY OR REPRESENTATION WHATSOEVER, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, (I) WITH RESPECT TO THE
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ORGANIZATION(S) THAT PREPARED THIS REPORT
Structural Integrity Associates, Inc.
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Electric Power Research Institute and EPRI are registered service marks of the Electric Power Research Institute, Inc.
POWERING PROGRESS is a service mark of the Electric Power Research Institute, Inc.
Copyright © 1996 Electric Power Research Institute, Inc. All rights reserved.
10716283
REPORT SUMMARY
A retaining ring failure at Unit 2 Public Service of Colorado's Comanche Station

occurred because of fretting fatigue from high level vibrations rather than from
intergranular stress corrosion cracking. Root cause analysis showed that the vibrations
were induced by power spikes from a local steel mill.
Background
Retaining rings are used in generator rotor construction to support the copper winding
end turns. There have been several retaining ring failures in the United States and
many more worldwide, all attributable to intergranular stress corrosion cracking.
Electrical phenomena also play a part, however. On January 11, 1994, the retaining ring
of Unit 2 of Public Service of Colorado's Comanche station failed with a loud bang.
Objectives
To discover the root cause of the failure of the retaining ring of Unit 2 at Public Service
of Colorado's Comanche station; to recommend actions to prevent reoccurrence of the
failure at Unit 1.
Approach
The project team conducted a detailed metallurgical investigation of the Comanche

Unit 2 retaining ring failure. They developed a stress and fracture mechanics model to
relate torsional stresses in the ring to the levels of rotational acceleration/deceleration
of the retaining ring with respect to the rotor. They also ran a series of on-line tests to
relate the torsional excitation of the ring with the operating modes of a nearby steel
mill.
Results
Detailed metallurgical investigations revealed no indication of intergranular stress

corrosion cracking. The cause of the cracking was fretting fatigue. Small, oscillatory,
relative motion between the rotor and the ring caused crack initiation. Due to
alternating, torsional stresses, the crack propagated at a 45° angle until failure. Upon
separation from the rotor, the rotor's high centrifugal forces unraveled the ring and
propelled it into the stator windings.
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Root cause analysis related the ring failure to high level rotor vibration caused by
frequency spikes at a nearby steel mill with two 50 MW arc furnaces. Under certain
low-power operating conditions, the mill's Static var Flicker Controller (SVFC) system
created a frequency spike between 114 and 118 Hz in the generator power. When the
spike coincided with the 114.5 Hz rotor resonance, it induced high level vibrations.
Unit 2 was more susceptible to this effect than Unit 1 because repairs had slightly
altered its natural resonances.
Modification of the generator by the installation of a "long ring" design in both units
has reduced the potential for fretting. Analysis indicates that the "long ring" design
nearly doubles the threshold for crack initiation. However, to eliminate all risk, the
SVFC system at the mill has been stabilized over it's entire operating range, and
continuous, on-line monitoring for both transverse and torsional vibration has been
initiated at both units of Comanche station. In addition, communication between the
utility and the steel mill have been improved to discuss any unusual observations from
the turbine-generator or changes in steel mill operation that might affect the SVFC.
EPRI Perspective
The ring failure at Comanche was not typical since it involved a large power unit and
substation in close proximity and relatively isolated from the rest of the grid. The
failure is nevertheless relevant to the long-term operation of other turbine generators,
for the chances of a resonant condition near 120 Hz are very real. Utilities that serve
large transient load facilities and/or have static var controllers for voltage stability may
experience serious problems as a result of even small changes in the forcing function
frequency.
TR-105729
Interest Categories
Turbines and generators

Fossil steam plant O&M cost reduction
Key Words
Root cause analysis

Generators
Rotors
Metallurgical analysis
Torsional stress
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EPRI Licensed Material
ABSTRACT
A root cause analysis was conducted of a 1994 failure of a retaining ring in the Unit 2
generator of Public Service of Colorado's Comanche station. Metallurgical examination
showed that the cause was not intergranular stress corrosion cracking. Fretting fatigue
had resulted in multiple cracks in the ring at the shrink-fit area near the hydrogen vent
scoops at both pole faces. Crack propagation occurred at a 45° angle indicating
torsional fatigue. A stress and fracture model was developed to relate torsional stresses
in the ring to the levels of rotational acceleration/deceleration of the retaining ring with
respect to the rotor. Levels of torsional excitation were associated with various
operating modes at a nearby steel mill. Under certain low-power operating conditions,
the mill's Static var Flicker Controller (SVFC) system created a frequency spike that
coincided with the 114.5 Hz rotor resonance of the generator and resulted in high level
vibrations. Several steps were taken to prevent a repeat of the ring failure, including an
improved ring design and changes in the mill's SVFC system.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The success of this program required expertise in many technical areas and the
cooperative, dedicated efforts of engineers representing several companies. EPRI would
like to acknowledge this achievement and express their appreciation to the following
people and companies:
Public Service of Colorado Company

Mr. Mark Andorka
Mr. Curtis Crowe
Mr. Rick Hellner
Mr. Fred Mitchell
Mr. Jerry Stone
Mr. Tom Yohn
Westinghouse Electric Corporation

Mr. Joe Hurley
Mr. Krys Rootham
General Electric Corporation

Mr. Matthew Greiner
Dr. Suresh Kapoor
Mr. Ed Owens
Engineered System Inc.

Mr. Eugene Johnson
Mr. Dan Henderson
Structural Integrity Associates
Mr. Larry Dorfman

Dr. Peter Riccardella
Mr. Darryl Rossario
Mr. Tom Sherlock
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CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................... 1-1

1.1 Retaining Ring Design Considerations............................................................... 1-1
1.2 Retaining Ring Operating History....................................................................... 1-1
1.3 Comanche Station Background.......................................................................... 1-2
1.4 Root Cause Analysis Results ............................................................................. 1-3
2 SYSTEM DESCRIPTION.......................................................................................... 2-1

2.1 PSCo/Steel Mill Electrical System ...................................................................... 2-1
2.2 Effect of Steel Mill Operation on the Comanche Generator ............................... 2-1
2.3 Static var Flicker Control .................................................................................... 2-2
3 ROOT CAUSE ANALYSIS ....................................................................................... 3-1

3.1 Metallurgical Investigation .................................................................................. 3-1
3.1.1 Overview...................................................................................................... 3-1
3.1.2 Material Property Data................................................................................. 3-2
3.2 Stress and Fracture Mechanics Analyses of Failed Ring (Short-Ring) .............. 3-3
3.2.1 Overview...................................................................................................... 3-3
3.2.2 Stress Analyses ........................................................................................... 3-3
3.2.3 Fracture Mechanics Analysis ....................................................................... 3-7
3.2.5 Effect of Cracking on Shrink-Fit/Vibrational Level........................................ 3-9
3.2.4 Discussion of Results................................................................................. 3-10
3.3 Stress and Fracture Mechanics Analyses of Long Ring Modification .............. 3-10
3.3.1 Overview.................................................................................................... 3-11
3.3.2 Stress Analyses of Long Ring.................................................................... 3-11
3.3.3 Fracture Mechanics Analysis ..................................................................... 3-13
3.4 Short Ring versus Long Ring Comparison Summary....................................... 3-14
4 TURBINE/GENERATOR RETAINING ON-LINE TORSIONAL VIBRATION TEST . 4-1

4.1 Background ........................................................................................................ 4-1
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4.2 Test Objectives .................................................................................................. 4-2

4.3 Test Conditions .................................................................................................. 4-3
4.3.1 Comanche Station Test Conditions ............................................................. 4-3
4.3.2 Steel Mill Operation ..................................................................................... 4-4
4.4 Data Acquisition System .................................................................................... 4-7
4.4.1 Magnetic Tape Recording and Analysis System ......................................... 4-7
4.4.2 Machine View Digital Monitoring System..................................................... 4-7
4.4.3 Sensor Description ...................................................................................... 4-8
4.5 Data Recording .................................................................................................. 4-9
4.6 Data Analysis ................................................................................................... 4-10
4.7 Test Results for Phase 1 and 2 ........................................................................ 4-13
4.7.1 Phase 1, Tests A - N.................................................................................. 4-13
4.7.2 Phase 2 Test Results (Tests A1 - L1) ........................................................ 4-18
4.7.3 Discussion of the Relationship Between the Vibration Amplitude and
Generator Power and Current ............................................................................ 4-23
4.8 Phase 3 Test Program ..................................................................................... 4-24
4.8.1 Introduction ................................................................................................ 4-24
4.8.2 Test Objective............................................................................................ 4-25
4.8.3 Instrumentation .......................................................................................... 4-25
4.8.4 Test Conditions.......................................................................................... 4-25
4.8.5 Test Results............................................................................................... 4-26
5 DISCUSSION............................................................................................................ 5-1
5.1 Summary............................................................................................................ 5-1
5.2 Failure Scenario ................................................................................................. 5-3
5.3 Discussion .......................................................................................................... 5-4
6 REFERENCES.......................................................................................................... 6-1
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1-1 Cantilevered Shrink-fit Design ........................................................................ 1-4
Figure 1-2 Damaged Stator Windings............................................................................... 1-4
Figure 1-3 Vibration History Heading to Failure............................................................. 1-5
Figure 2-1 Proximity of Substations to Steel Mill............................................................. 2-3
Figure 2-2 Line Diagram of Comanche Station and Steel Mill........................................ 2-4
Figure 3-1 Ring After Failure ........................................................................................... 3-18
Figure 3-2 The Main Crack............................................................................................... 3-19
Figure 3-3 Origin of the Fracture ..................................................................................... 3-20
Figure 3-4 Secondary Crack and Fatigue Origin............................................................ 3-21
Figure 3-5 Crack 180° from Main Fracture ..................................................................... 3-22
Figure 3-6 Schematic of the Retaining Ring/Rotor with Terminology ........................ 3-23
Figure 3-7 Fracture Toughness Data for 18Mn-5Cr Steel from EPRI RRing-Life
Computer Program..................................................................................................... 3-24
Figure 3-8 Cortest Fatigue Crack Growth Data Using the Secant Method .................. 3-25
Figure 3-9 Cortest Fatigue Crack Growth Data Using the Seven-point Incremental
Method ........................................................................................................................ 3-26
Figure 3-10 ASME Section XI Reference Fatigue Crack Growth Curves for Austenitic
Stainless Steels in Air Environments ........................................................................ 3-27
Figure 3-11 Comparison of Cortest and ASME Section XI Fatigue Crack Growth Data at
R-ratios of 0.5 and 0.91 ............................................................................................... 3-28
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Figure 3-12 Comanche Unit 2 Retaining Ring Dimensional Data ................................ 3-29
Figure 3-13 Comanche Unit 2 Retaining Ring 2-D Axisymmetric FE Model .............. 3-30
Figure 3-14 Enlarged View of Retaining Ring and Rotor Fe Model Fit Area Showing
Location of Gap Elements.......................................................................................... 3-31
Figure 3-15 Hoop Stresses in the Retaininig Ring At Speed (3600 Rpm) With Measured
Inboard/outboard Shrink-fits of 0.086/0.094 Inch on a Diameter......................... 3-32
Figure 3-16 Distribution of Radial Contact Forces at Standstill (0 rpm) and at Speed
(3600 rpm) for uniform (0.090 inch/dia) and Measured Non-uniform Shrink-fits
(0.086/0.094 inboard/outboard inch/dia.) .............................................................. 3-33
Figure 3-17 Ring/rotor displacements at 3600 rpm Illustrating almost complete

negation of ring inward displacements or bowing at standstill. ........................... 3-34
Figure 3-18 Three-dimensional FE Torsional Model with Adjusted Elastic Moduli for
Rotor Pole and Field Regions .................................................................................... 3-35
Figure 3-19 Two-dimensional FE Model of Ring/Rotor Cross-Section to Determine

Relative Tosional Stiffness Between the Pole and Field Regions ........................... 3-36
Figure 3-20 Unslotted Two-dimensional FE Model of Ring/rotor Cross-Section Used to

Determine Moduli Adjustments for 3-D FE Torsional Analysis............................ 3-37
2
Figure 3-21 Stress Intensity Distribution at Pole Center Due to 1000 rad/sec
Torsional Load ............................................................................................................ 3-38
Figure 3-22 Stress Intensity Distribution at Pole End (Location of Cracking)

2
Due to 1000 rad/sec Torsional Load ........................................................................ 3-39
Figure 3-23 Predicted Crack Growth Direction Based on Plane Normal To Maximum
Principal Stress From 3-D Torsional Model ............................................................. 3-40
Figure 3-24 Applied (Torsional) Versus Resisting (Shrink-fit) Shear Forces Along the
Shrink-fit Interface Summed Over 360° (Upper Plot) and Near the Vent Slot Where
the Primary Fracture Occurred (Lower Plot) for a Friction Coefficient of 0.1. ..... 3-41
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Figure 3-27 Crack Initiation Stress Amplitude Versus Cycles To Initiation Data For
18Mn4Cr Retaining Ring Steel (CEGB Data) And NiMoV Steel (EPRI Data)....... 3-44
Figure 3-28 Analytical Simulated Crack Growth in the Radial (Semi-Elliptic ID Surface)
and Axial (Quarter-Circular) Directions; Circular Arcs (a-e) Correspond to
Progression of Crack Growth Based on Actual Observations (Figure 3-3)........... 3-45
Figure 3-29 Schematics of Semi-Elliptic and Quarter-Circular Crack Models Used in the
Crack Growth Analyses ............................................................................................. 3-46
Figure 3-30 Mean and Alternating Torsional Stresses Used to Simulate Radial
and Axial Crack Growth............................................................................................ 3-47
Figure 3-31 Predicted Crack Growth and Critical Flaw Sizes....................................... 3-48
Figure 3-32 Stress Intensity Factor Versus Crack Size; Critical Flaw Size
Determination ............................................................................................................. 3-49
Figure 3-33 3-D FE Model to Evaluate the Effect of Cracking on Shrink-Fit............... 3-50
Figure 3-34 Reduction in Shrink-fit Forces Due to Cracking ........................................ 3-51
Figure 3-35 Lateral Vibrational Data at the #7 and #8 Generator Bearings for the
Two-month Period Prior to the Failure .................................................................... 3-52
Figure 3-36 Illustration of Tooth Top Cracking in Short-Ring Design......................... 3-53
Figure 3-37 Schematic Illustrating the Long-Ring Modification................................... 3-53
Figure 3-38 2-D Axisymmetric FE Model of the Long-Ring ........................................ 3-54
Figure 3-39 Enlarged View of Long-Ring/rotor FE Model Fit Area Showing

Location of Gap Elements.......................................................................................... 3-55
Figure 3-40 Distribution of Radial Contact Forces at standstill (0 rpm) and at

speed (3600 rpm) for uniform and measured tapered shrink-fits in the
long ring design.......................................................................................................... 3-56
Figure 3-41 Long Ring/rotor Displacements at 3600 Rpm Illustrating Inward

Bowing of the Ring Due to Increased Shrink-Fit..................................................... 3-57
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Figure 3-42 Hoop Stresses in the Long Ring at Speed (3600 Rpm) Using Measured
Shrink-Fits of 0.086/0.094 inch/on a diameter........................................................ 3-58
Figure 3-43 Long Ring/rotor three-dimensional FE Torsional Model with Adjusted

Elastic Moduli for Rotor Pole and Field Regions .................................................... 3-59
Figure 3-44 Two-dimensional FE Model of Long Ring/rotor cross-section to

Determine Magnitude and Location of Peak Torsional Stresses............................ 3-60
Figure 3-45 Stress Intensity Distribution at Long Ring Pole Center Due to
1000 rad/sec2 Torsional Load .................................................................................... 3-61
Figure 3-46 Stess Intensity Distribution at Long Ring Pole End (Predicted Crack
Initiation Location) Due to 1000 rad/sec2 Torsional Load ...................................... 3-62
Figure 3-47 Applied (Torsional) versus resisting (Shrink-Fit) Shear Forces Along
the Long Ring Shrink-Fit Interface Summed Over 360° (Upper Plot) and Near
the Vent Slot Where Crack Initiation is Expected (Lower Plot) for a Friction
Coefficient of 0.1 ......................................................................................................... 3-63
Figure 3-48 Applied (torsional) Versus Resisting (Shrink-Fit) Shear Forces Along the
Long Ring Shrink-fit Interface summed over 360° (Upper Plot) and Near the
Vent Slot Where Crack Initiation is Expected (Lower Plot)for a Friction
Coefficient of 0.2 ......................................................................................................... 3-64
Figure 3-49 Applied (Torsional) Versus Resisting (Shrink-Fit) Shear Forces Along the
Long Ring Shrink-Fit Interface Summed Over 360° (Upper Plot) and Near the
Vent Slot Where Crack Initiation is Expected (Lower Plot) for a Friction
Coefficient of 0.4 ......................................................................................................... 3-65
Figure 3-50 Analytically Simulated Crack Growth in the Long Ring Based on
Torsional Stress Results (Figure 3-46)....................................................................... 3-66
Figure 3-51 Mean Alternating Torsional Stresses Used to Simulate Initial (0.05 to
0.5 inch) and Axial Crack Growth (0.5 to 5 inches) for the Long Ring Design..... 3-67
Figure 3-52 Predicted Crack Growth in the Long Ring Using ASME and
Cortest Data................................................................................................................. 3-68
Figure 3-53 Stress Intensity Factor Versus Crack Size; Long Ring Critical Flaw Size
Determination. ............................................................................................................ 3-69
Figure 4-1 Steel Mill Electrical Line Diagram................................................................. 4-41
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Figure 4-2 Retaining Ring Vibration Test Sensor Locations.......................................... 4-42
Figure 4-3 Retaining Ring Vibration Test Instrumentation, Magnetic Tape

Recording System ....................................................................................................... 4-43
Figure 4-4 Retaining Ring Vibration Test Instrumentation, Comanche High Speed
Digital Data Acquisition System ............................................................................... 4-44
Figure 4-5 Velocity Sensor Installation Schematic ......................................................... 4-45
Figure 4-6 Torsional Mode Shapes & Resonant Frequences ......................................... 4-46
Figure 4-7 Example of Low Amplitude Vibration Data, Unit 1 Angular Velocity ..... 4-47
Figure 4-8 .Low Amplitude Vibration Data, Unit 2 Angular Velocity......................... 4-48
Figure 4-9 Low Amplitude Vibration Data, Unit 1 & 2 Power ..................................... 4-49
Figure 4-10 Low Amplitude Vibration Data, Unit 1 & 2 Current................................. 4-50
Figure 4-11 Medium Amplitude Vibration Data, Unit 1 Angular Velocity................. 4-51
Figure 4-12 Example of Medium Amplitude Vibration Data, Unit 2 A

ngular Velocity ........................................................................................................... 4-52
Figure 4-13 Example of Medium Amplitude Vibration Data, Unit 1 & 2 Power........ 4-53
Figure 4-14 Example of Medium Amplitude Vibration Data, Unit 1 &2 Current ...... 4-54
Figure 4-15 High Amplitude Vibration Data, Unit 1 Angular Velocity....................... 4-55
Figure 4-16 Example of High Amplitude Vibration Data, Unit 2 Angular Velocity .. 4-56
Figure 4-17 Example of High Amplitude Vibration Data, Unit 1 & 2 Power.............. 4-57
Figure 4-18 Example of High Amplitude Vibration Data, Unit 1 & 2 Current ........... 4-58
Figure 4-19 Test Results Summary .................................................................................. 4-59
Figure 4-20 Angular Velocity Time History Representation of Intermittent High

Level Vibration ........................................................................................................... 4-60
Figure 4-21 Angular Velocity Frequence Spectra Representation of Intermittent

High Level Vibration ................................................................................................. 4-61
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Figure 4-22 Power Time History Representation of Intermittent High

Level Vibration ........................................................................................................... 4-62
Figure 4-23 Power Frequency Spectra Representation of Intermittent High Level

Vibration...................................................................................................................... 4-63
Figure 4-24 Waterfall Plot of Angular Velocity Frequency Spectra for High Level
Vibration Transients................................................................................................... 4-64
Figure 4-25 Waterfall Plot of Power Frequency Spectra for High Level Vibration
Transients .................................................................................................................... 4-65
Figure 4-26 Waterfall Plot of Angular Velocity for the Transient Decay..................... 4-66
Figure 4-27 Waterfall Plot of Power Frequency Spectra for the Transient Decay....... 4-67
Figure 4-28 Waterfall Plot of Angular Velocity Frequency Spectra for the
Transient Onset........................................................................................................... 4-68
Figure 4-29 Waterfall Plot of Power Frequency Spectra for the Transient Onset ....... 4-69
Figure 4-30 Decay Transient for Angular Velocity and Power at 114.7 Hz................. 4-70
Figure 4-31 Onset Transient for Angular Velocity and Power at 114.7 Hz ................. 4-71
Figure 4-32 Relationship Between Generator Power and Steel Mill Current ............. 4-72
Figure 4-33 Vibration Response from Switching Arc Furnace Tap to Tap 5 ............... 4-73
Figure 4-34 Vibration Response from Switching Arc Furnace Tap to Tap 3, 4, 5,
& 6 with Two Furnace Operation ............................................................................. 4-74
Figure 4-35 Vibration Response from Switching Arc Furnace Tap to Tap 3, 4, 5,
& 6 with One Funace Operation................................................................................ 4-75
Figure 4-36 Vibration Response for seventh Harmonic Filter Off-line,

Angular Velocity ........................................................................................................ 4-76
Figure 4-37 Vibration Response for Seventh Harmonic Filter Off-line, Power ........... 4-77
Figure 4-38 Vibration Response for Seventh Harmonic Filter Off-line, Currrent ....... 4-78
Figure 4-39 Vibration Response for Seventh Harmonic Filter Off-line,

Angular Velocity ........................................................................................................ 4-79
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Figure 4-40 Vibration Response for Seventh Harmonic Filter Off-line, Power ........... 4-80
Figure 4-41 Vibration Response for Seventh Harmonic Filter Off-line, Current......... 4-81
Figure 4-42 Angular Acceleration versus Power at 114.7 Hz........................................ 4-82
Figure 4-43 Angular Acceleration versus Current at Hz............................................... 4-83
Figure 4-44 Dynamic Magnification Response for the 114.7 Hz Torsional

Vibration Mode........................................................................................................... 4-84
Figure 4-45 Comanche/Steel-Mill Phase 3 Instrumentation Location ......................... 4-85
Figure 4-46 Summary of Test Results for Phase 3 .......................................................... 4-86
Figure 4-47 Representation of Sidebands for 230KV Bus Current................................ 4-87
Figure 4-48 Phase 3, Acceleration (114.5 Hz) Versus Generator................................... 4-88
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1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Retaining Ring Design Considerations
Retaining rings are used in generator rotor construction to support the copper winding
end turns. Most modern rotor designs use a cantilevered shrink-fit to maintain the
position of the ring on the rotor body (Figure 1-1). Because of the high stresses due to
the shrink-fit, copper and centrifugal loading, the rings need to be of very high strength
material (>140 ksi [965.2 MPa] yield strength). Electrical considerations require that the
ring be non-magnetic, and the popular 18 Mn-5Cr alloy has been used in most units for
the past 30 years. EPRI sponsored a workshop in 1987 [1], at which the various aspects
of retaining ring design were discussed by OEMs. At the time, the major problem was
the susceptibility of the 18Mn-5Cr material to Intergranular Stress Corrosion Cracking
(IGSCC) in moist H2 environments. A newer alloy, 18Mn-18Cr had been developed
which negated the IGSCC problem and recommendations were made to change old
rings to the new alloy.
1.2 Retaining Ring Operating History
There have been several retaining ring failures in the U.S. and many more worldwide,
all attributable to IGSCC. In 1990, an 18Mn-5Cr ring failed at Consolidated Edison's
Astoria station [2], resulting in considerable damage to the stator. The failure analysis
demonstrated that the root cause was IGSCC associated with moisture ingress into the
generator during operation. This was the only failure of an 18Mn-5Cr retaining ring in
the U.S. A Gannaloy retaining ring failed at Long Island Lighting Company's Barrett
station in 1989, also due to IGSCC. These are the only two known recent failures in the
U.S. In 1990, EPRI sponsored a project to develop the RRing-Life computer code [3],
which allows users to evaluate the probability of 18Mn-5Cr ring failure, based on their
ring type and operating experience. Combining these evaluations with a periodic
inspection program has permitted utilities to avoid ring replacement with 18Mn-18Cr
until such time as the generator needs other modifications.
While IGSCC has been the major cause of failure of retaining rings, the effects of
electrical phenomena have not been neglected. In 1991 [4], Nippes Professional
Associates prepared a report for EPRI discussing experience with overheating of
generators due to unbalanced loads, asynchronous operation and other causes. This
report showed evidence of overheating of the retaining rings and also arcing between
1-1
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Introduction
the ring and the rotor teeth caused by off-frequency current loading. Damage to
retaining rings was reported by a few of the respondents to the survey. In 1965 [5],
General Electric published a paper which discussed the potential effects of unbalanced
loads on ring heating and presented results of factory tests showing that the effect
could be severe and result in loss of shrink-fit. Two possible consequences were
discussed in this paper: 1) following the disturbance, the retaining ring may return to
the body in a cocked position, and 2) pitting and burning may occur as a result of
arcing at the shrink-fit surface. While damage to retaining rings was recognized as a
possible consequence of electrical disturbances, no catastrophic failures occurred.
1.3 Comanche Station Background
The Comanche station of PSCo consists of two units, #1 rated at 350 MW began
operation in 1973 and #2 rated at 350 MW began operation in 1975. Both turbine-
generator units are Westinghouse designs. The Comanche site was selected, in part,
because a Steel Corporation had decided to locate a mill with two 50 MW arc furnaces
in nearby Pueblo. Of concern at the time was the potential that the arc furnaces would
cause rapid voltage changes (flicker) [6] on the PSCo system and a high-speed static var
control system was installed at the steel mill to reduce the potential for flicker.
In 1986, Unit 2 experienced vibration problems over the course of several months,
which could not be remedied by rotor balancing. In 1987, the generator rotor was
removed and thoroughly inspected, and large cracks were found in the turbine end
shaft under the coupling. The cracks were analyzed and found to be fatigue, initiated in
an area of fretting where the shrunk-on coupling contacted one of the six round
keyways used to prevent the coupling from rotating. Crack initiation was at the bottom
of the keyway where it intersected with a step change in the rotor shaft. The analysis of
the cracking concluded that there were significant torsional stresses associated with
crack propagation. The rotor was repaired in the vendor's shops and returned to service
with a new coupling.
On January 11, 1994, a high-vibration alarm of 7.5 mils [0.191 mm] was received from
the Unit 2 turbine generator. Plant personnel were in the process of evaluating the
high-vibration alarm when a loud bang was heard coming from the generator. The
machine tripped off and coasted down with no obvious damage to the generator
housing was found. After removing the end bells, the exciter end retaining ring was
found fractured, destroying the stator copper and iron (Figure 1-2). There was no
hydrogen fire, as in previous retaining ring failures. After the failure, the vibration
trend revealed small vibration increases since December 1993 and a step change of
about 2 mils [0.051 mm] on January 4, 1994. Following this step change, the vibration
level did not stabilize, but increased each day until the time of failure (Figure 1-3).
Investigation of the root cause of the failure was begun by PSCo personnel, with the
assistance of EPRI and Structural Integrity Associates.
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Introduction
1.4 Root Cause Analysis Results
A detailed metallurgical investigation of the Comanche Unit 2 retaining ring failure

was conducted by Public Service of Colorado personnel [7] which is summarized later
in this report. The metallurgical analysis showed that the cause of cracking was fretting
fatigue and that multiple cracks were initiated in the ring, at the shrink-fit area near the
hydrogen vent scoops at both pole faces. Propagation of the cracks was entirely by
high-cycle fatigue and the primary crack which caused the failure extended completely
through the ring thickness for an axial distance of 4 to 5 inches [101.6 - 127 mm] before
the ring fractured. The crack propagation occurred at a 45° angle to the axis of the ring,
indicative of torsional fatigue. There was no indication of IGSCC, which was a surprise,
as all previous ring failures were attributed to this phenomenon. The fretting and
cracking pattern suggested that the stresses which caused failure were of a high
frequency torsional variety. The fact that the crack grew so large before final failure
provided a good correlation with the increase in vibration leading up to the failure.
Analysis and testing thus provided confidence that Unit 1 could continue to operate as
long as the vibration was monitored and the unit taken off line if any unexpected
increase in vibration occurred. Similar fretting damage and one small crack were found
on the rotor in the vicinity of the vent scoop, providing even more evidence of a reverse
torsional stress being responsible for the failure as the constant amplitude stresses in
the cracked area of the rotor are very low at running speed.
To further corroborate the root cause of the failure, a stress and fracture mechanics
model was developed to relate torsional stresses in the ring to the levels of rotational
acceleration/deceleration of the retaining ring with respect to the rotor. A parallel
effort was begun to establish the level of torsional excitation associated with various
operating modes at the nearby steel mill. Several series of on-line tests were run in
which torsional excitation was studied for various combinations of plant and steel mill
operating configuration. The remainder to this report discusses the metallurgical
evaluation, the stress and fracture mechanics, the results of the torsional vibration
testing, and the ultimate root cause of the ring failure at comanche Unit 2. The report
also discusses recommended actions to prevent reoccurrance of the failure at the
Comanche station, as well as its industry-wide implications.
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Introduction
Figure 1-1 Cantilevered Shrink-fit Design
Figure 1-2 Damaged Stator Windings
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Introduction
Figure 1-3 Vibration History Heading to Failure
1-5
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2
SYSTEM DESCRIPTION
2.1 PSCo/Steel Mill Electrical System
Figure 2-1 shows the proximity of substations and generating stations to the Steel Mill
and Figure 2-2 shows an electrical one-line diagram of the of the PSCo system in the
vicinity of the Comanche plant and the steel mill. The Comanche plant delivers power
to the system via three 230 kV transmission lines, one of which delivers power to the
mill directly. The distance to the mill (3 miles [4.83 Km]) and to the next nearest
generating station (81.5 miles [131.3 Km]) and the ratio of power consumption by the
mill (100 MW) to a single operating generator (350 MW) makes the PSCo/Steel Mill
relationship unusual, if not unique, for generating plants in the United States.
A 1972 paper presented at the American Power Conference [6] described the static var
control system that was installed by the steelmaker to control the voltage flicker caused
by furnace load swings on the bus which is common to both the arc furnace load and
other utility customers. The furnace requirements were estimated to be 42 MW at 70
percent power factor or 60 MVA, and a tie- in to the existing system would limit the
furnace load to 50 MVA because of limited short circuit capacity. The dilemma was
resolved when PSCo elected to build a 350 MW unit near the plant, increasing the short
circuit capacity and supplying power with a low impedance inter-tie with other
generating facilities in the state. With the new unit, the system short circuit capability
was still marginal with respect to the desired furnace power rating, so the static var
control system was installed.
2.2 Effect of Steel Mill Operation on the Comanche Generator
The steel mill has two nominal 50 MW AC arc furnaces, which during the intense bore-
in process causes very large load fluctuations on the overall grid and in particular the
nearby Comanche generators. During melting of the steel scrap, the load drawn by the
furnace rapidly fluctuates in a random manner due to electrical impedance changes as
the electrodes are lowered toward the scrap and the arc/melt process initiates. The
magnitude and frequency of these load swings vary with arc length, electrode control,
composition of the scrap, selected voltage tap and physical furnace characteristics.
The furnace loads combined with the thyristor based static var flicker controller are a
rich source of harmonics and significant imbalance to the three phase system
potentially creating high levels of negative sequence current on the grid. In this unique,
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System Description
geographical situation the negative sequence currents will mostly act on the power
source, Comanche generators. Negative sequence currents which are oscillatory are a
potential source of heating and torsional vibration of the rotor. Rotor heating may cause
reduction of the retaining ring shrink-fit.
There exists the real possibility that negative sequence currents greater than permissible
are being generated in the Comanche rotor, decreasing the effective shrink-fit between
the retaining ring and the rotor, which when coupled to the torque variations applied
to the rotor could contribute to the fretting and fatigue crack initiation/propagation
during periods of rotor torsional accelerations/decelerations.
2.3 Static var Flicker Control
In order to reduce the effects of flicker on the grid, a static var flicker control system
was installed by the Steel Mill. The system is designed to reduce voltage fluctuations by
at least 50% and to maintain an average load power factor of 0.98 or better over the
furnace-related duty cycle. The 50 MVA reactive compensation equipment for each
furnace consists of six 8.3 MVA air-core reactors, arranged in two in series per phase.
The thyristor controller and reactors operate at the 34.5 kV level and are connected as
shown in Figure 2-2. The delta connection was chosen to minimize the current
requirements of the thyristors and reactors. When the system is balanced, the delta
circuit also serves to keep the third harmonic currents from flowing into the system.
The thyristor controllers are located between the two reactors in each phase so that they
will not be subjected to system fault currents.
The capacitor bank for power factor correction is also rated at 50 MVA and is split into
three 16.7 MVA wye-connected banks which are tuned to provide harmonic filtering
for the second through seventh harmonic currents. The third harmonic must be filtered
in this case, because the furnace does not always operate as a balanced three-phase
load. When the furnace does present an unbalanced load, the three thyristor controllers
operate on a single-phase basis to correct this unbalance. This would allow third
harmonic current to flow into the power system if it were not filtered out. Harmonic
currents above the seventh are one percent or less of the fundamental current and
should not be objectionable. The tuned capacitor banks also serve to filter out the major
harmonic currents generated by the furnace and are beneficial for that purpose as well.
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System Description
Figure 2-1 Proximity of Substations to Steel Mill
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System Description
Figure 2-2 Line Diagram of Comanche Station and Steel Mill
2-4
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3
ROOT CAUSE ANALYSIS
3.1 Metallurgical Investigation
3.1.1 Overview
The metallurgical investigation was conducted by the PSCo Materials Laboratory. A

detailed report [7] has been prepared which is summarized in this section. After the
ring was removed from the stator (Figure 3-1) the main fracture faces and secondary
cracks were removed from the ring for investigation. Two important pieces of evidence
were immediately obvious:
1) The main crack (Figures 3-2 and 3-3) and secondary cracks (Figures 3-4 and 3-5)
were oriented at an angle to the axis of the turbine. The angle changed from almost
0° at the initiation point to 45° as the crack moved away from the initiation point.
This meant that the stress driving the crack was a combination of hoop and torsion
as the crack progressed.
2) The initiation site was at the mid-point of the outboard shrink area (see Figure 3-6
for terminology) near where the ring contacted the vent scoop on the pole face.
Considerable surface disturbance was noted at the initiation point and at other
contact points in the outboard shrink area. This surface condition was produced by
fretting, or microscopic movement between the ring and the rotor. Both the
initiation and propagation of the crack was almost entirely transgranular, showing
that the mechanism was not IGSCC.
This evidence was very important to the subsequent stress and fracture mechanics
analyses, as earlier ring/rotor models used for predicting stress corrosion cracking
behavior in the EPRI RRing-Life program [3] would not be adequate to explain the
observed cracking.
Several other observations were made which provided clues as to the root cause of the
failure. While fretting damage was apparent at all of the ring/rotor interfaces on the
outboard shrink area, the inboard shrink area was free of damage, except when the
outboard area cracked. Thus, the cracking of the ring relieved local shrink pressure on
the outboard area, causing some of the fit (and fretting damage) to be transferred to the
inboard area. It was thought that this cracking and shifting of the shrink-fit could have
been responsible for the increase in vibration noted in the weeks before failure.
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Root Cause Analysis
The major crack and the one 180° opposite started at 0° to the rotor axis. All other
cracks started at an angle approaching 45°. The relief of shrink-fit when the first crack
started lowered the hoop stress, and the torsional component became more significant.
This may explain why the secondary cracks didn't grow as fast.
The rotor and the turbine end retaining ring were examined at the OEM shops. Fretting
damage was found on the rotor at both the exciter and turbine ends and also on the
turbine end retaining ring, but no cracks were observed in the retaining ring.
There was one small crack in the rotor at the exciter end pole face, opposite the main
crack in the ring. Dimensions taken on the turbine ring were used for stress analysis of
the failed ring.
3.1.2 Material Property Data
The chemical composition, tensile properties, impact properties and hardness tests
were determined by PSCo. There was variability in the properties throughout the ring,
due to the cold expansion process used to obtain the high strength levels. This
variability was also noted in the Astoria ring. The chemical composition met ASTM
Specification A-289 and impact properties at room temperature varied from 25 ft-lbs
[33.9J] at the ID to 51 ft-lbs [69.16J] at the OD. An average yield strength of 128.7 ksi
[887.3 MPa] ksi and an average ultimate tensile strength of 169.3 ksi [167 MPa] were
measured. In summary, the property tests showed that the ring was of normal
composition, strength and toughness for this grade of material.
Fracture mechanics properties for the failed ring were obtained from testing performed
by Cortest Columbus Technoligies, Inc. in August 1994 [8]. Testing included fracture
toughness measurements and fatigue crack growth tests in dry and wet H 2 at R-ratios
(max/min stress) of 0.5 and in air at R- ratios of 0.5 and 0.1.
Fracture toughness values are summarized in Table 3-1. Specimens tested in air had
significantly higher toughness values (238, 252 ksi´ inch [261.8, 277 MPa m ]) than
those tested in hydrogen gas (164, 186 ksi´ inch [180, 205 MPa m ]). This data
compares favorably with fracture toughness data for 18Mn - 5Cr retaining ring material
from the RRing-Life computer program [5] shown in Figure 3-7. The measured yield
strength of 128.7 ksi [887 MPa] is superimposed on this figure yielding statistical lower
bound, mean and upper bound fracture toughness estimates of 131.5, 163.4 and 202.8
ksi´ inch [144.7, 179.7 and 223.1 MPa m ].
Fatigue crack growth da/dn vs K ∆ plots are shown in Figures 3-8 and 3-9, for da/dn
values computed using the secant method and seven-point incremental polynomial
method, respectively. Less variability is shown for the seven-point method (Figure 3-9)
and Paris law fits to this data are also shown in this figure. The data for dry and wet H 2
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Root Cause Analysis
followed the same general trend and fell slightly below the comparable data (R=0.5) for
air. The lowest crack growth rates measured were at a stress ratio, R, of 0.1 in air. For
comparison, fatigue crack growth curves for austenitic stainless steel from the ASME
Section XI Code were superimposed on the test data. The ASME data is shown in
Figure 3-10 along with data for Ni-Mo-V rotor steel from [9]. ASME and Cortest test
data are compared in Figure 3-11. Crack growth rates predicted using ASME data are
approximately 60% higher than the Cortest data in wet hydrogen at R=0.5. Because of
the high mean stress in the retaining ring at speed, actual R-ratios average about 0.91.
The Cortest data at R=0.5 was then extrapolated to R=0.91 using a factor of 4.95 from
the ASME data, and these data are also shown in Figure 3-11. Use of this data in
simulating fatigue crack growth for the failed ring is discussed in Section 3.3.
3.2 Stress and Fracture Mechanics Analyses of Failed Ring (Short-Ring)
3.2.1 Overview
Stress and fracture mechanics analyses were performed to confirm and support the
metallurgical conclusions. Specifically, analyses were performed addressing torsional
fatigue loading of the rotor, the torsional load transfer mechanism from the rotor to the
retaining ring, and its capacity to produce the observed fretting and fatigue cracking
phenomena. Wherever possible, the analyses were benchmarked with respect to
physical failure observations, such as crack initiation sites, crack propagation and
shape, critical crack size at fracture, and vibration measurements prior to the failure.
The analytical results are consistent with the metallurgical failure hypothesis of fretting
fatigue crack initiation and torsional fatigue propagation, both associated with
electrically-induced torsional vibration of the shaft. Analytical projections of the
number of fatigue cycles and the elapsed time for crack initiation and propagation are
consistent with the unit operating history, the metallurgical observations, and the pre-
failure vibration measurements. A direct, fully-quantitative relationship between
applied load on the ring and plant electrical load disturbances has not yet been
derived, however, as additional monitoring is needed to better quantify these effects.
3.2.2 Stress Analyses
3.2.2.1 Shrink-fit and Centrifugal Loads
Finite element stress analyses were performed to determine stresses in the ring due to
shrink-fit and centrifugal loading effects, both in the original, as-installed condition,
and in the presence of cracks of various sizes. Ring dimensions for the analysis were
taken from the standard Westinghouse 40- inch diameter, two-pole rotor geometry
contained in the EPRI RRing-Life computer program, which are summarized in Figure
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Root Cause Analysis
3-12. Dimensions critical to the analysis (i.e. shrink-fit interferences) were verified
through measurements on the disassembled rotor and turbine-end ring.
A two-dimensional, finite element model (Figure 3-13) was used to determine shrink-fit
and centrifugal stresses in the uncracked ring. This model included the retaining ring, a
portion of the rotor, and a series of gap elements along the shrink-fit interface between
the two (Figure 3-14). This axisymmetric model is predicted to simulate the interaction
between the ring and rotor due to shrink- fit effects reasonably well, because the
difference in stiffness between the pole and winding region is offset at running speed
due to the inertial load of the winding and also due to ovalization of the rotor cross-
section. In addition to stresses, compression forces in the gap elements were
determined, which can be multiplied by a coefficient of friction to estimate the
maximum possible torque transmitted through the shrink-fit interface. Figure 3-15
presents a contour plot of resulting circumferential stresses at the rotor end of the ring,
due to centrifugal plus shrink-fit stresses. Figure 3-16 presents plots of radial contact
forces along the shrink-fit interface. The upper curve in Figure 3-16 represents the
shrink-fit only case at standstill (0 RPM), while the lower curve illustrates the reduction
in contact forces which occurs at synchronous speed (3600 RPM). In the shrink-fit only
case, the inboard shrink-fit sustains most of the contact force, even though it has a
lower nominal interference, due to inward bending deformation of the ring. At
synchronous speed centrifugal forces due to the inertia of the ring and copper windings
contained by the ring, displace the ring radially outward. This radially outward
displacement, almost completely negates the inward bending of the ring as shown in
Figure 3-17. Weights of the retaining ring, balance ring and copper windings contained
by the ring were estimated to be 3600, 250 and 2500 lbs [7920, 550 and 5500 Kg],
respectively. At 3600 rpm, transfer of inertial contact force from the windings to the
ring was simulated by an equivalent contact pressure of 6300 psi [43.4 MPa] applied to
the ID surface of the ring. The radial contact force distribution at 3600 rpm now shifts
from the ring inboard end to the outboard end as shown in Figure 3-16. These contact
forces at speed must be overcome for fretting to occur. A discussion of the fretting
phenomenon is provided later on in this section. The effect of cracking on shrink-fit is
also addressed separately in this section.
3.2.2.2 Torsional Loads
Metallurgical results confirmed that torsional fatigue was the primary failure
mechanism. The only possible torsional loading of the retaining ring relative to the
rotor is due to rotational acceleration inertial effects. Analyses were therefore
performed to estimate torsional fatigue stresses in the ring due to oscillatory shear
loads transmitted through the shrink-fit connection of the ring to the rotor. Torsional
stresses were determined using a 360° three-dimensional finite element model, a half-
section of which is shown in Figure 3-18. The rotational inertia of the end (balance) ring
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Root Cause Analysis
and copper windings not shown in the 3-D torsional model were incorporated by
artificially increasing the ring inertia by a factor of 1.663.
The change in torsional stiffness of the pole region (0° ≠ 30°) relative to the field region
was simulated by reducing the elastic moduli by a factor of 0.9 for the pole region to
account for the vent scoop and a factor of 0.018 to account for the reduced torsional
stiffness of the slotted field region. These moduli adjustments were estimated from
detailed 2-D evaluations of the ring/rotor cross- section using slotted and unslotted FE
models shown in Figure 3-19 and 3-20. These evaluations predicted that, for the actual
slotted geometry, 85.7% of the torsional shear load would be carried by the pole region
with only 14.3% carried by the field region. The elastic moduli for the unslotted model
were adjusted to yield the same shear load distribution between the pole and field
regions as the actual slotted geometry. The 2-D model also identified peak stress
locations at the vent scoop and pole-end regions as shown in Figure 3-19, consistent
with observed crack initiation sites. Crack initiation is further discussed in the fracture
mechanics analysis section of this report.
In the 3-D torsional model, the ring elements were coupled to the rotor elements at the
shrink-fit zone, and a unit angular acceleration of 1000 rad/sec2 was applied to all
retaining ring elements. Shear contact was simulated at all ring-rotor interface nodes
having non-zero radial contact force, per Figure 3-16. Contour plots of torsional shear
stress intensity in radial-axial planes through the pole-center and pole-end are shown
in Figures 3-21 and 3-22, illustrating the elevation in stress level near the pole-end
where crack initiation occurred. The location of the maximum shear stress at
approximately the center of the outboard shrink region is consistent with the observed
crack initiation site for the main fracture. These 1000 rad/sec2 unit load results can be
scaled up or down to obtain actual torsional stresses for any torque applied to the ring
(or rotor angular acceleration).
The torsional loading case was also used to predict the expected orientation of crack
propagation, assuming that torsional fatigue was responsible for the cracking. This
prediction is illustrated in Figure 3-23, which is a plot of the plane normal to maximum
principal stress direction from the three dimensional torsional model. In accordance
with this model, the cracking would propagate at approximately a 45° angle to the axis
of the ring, which is essentially identical to actual crack propagation direction of the
major cracks, as described in Section 3.1. The favorable comparison adds further weight
to the torsional fatigue failure hypothesis.
Finally, the shear loading distribution along the shrink-fit interface for the 1000
rad/sec2 unit load case was determined from this analysis, for use, as described below,
in estimating the magnitude of the applied torsional loading.
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Root Cause Analysis
3.2.2.3 Applied Loading Estimate and Assessment of Fretting
Since no direct measurements of the electrical load disturbances or associated torques at

the time of failure were available, an attempt was made to bound the magnitude of
such loading through frictional force limitations at the shrink-fit interface, and through
correlation with on-line, torsional field tests conducted at the plant in 1989 and recently
in September 1994.
The magnitude of the applied load can be estimated assuming that fretting occurs when
this load exceeds the resisting frictional forces due to shrink-fit. Applied versus
resisting nodal shear forces along the shrink-fit interface for various acceleration levels
and friction coefficients of 0.1, 0.2 and 0.4 are shown in Figures 3-24, 3-25 and 3-26,
respectively. Referring to Figure 3-24, resisting forces for a friction coefficient of 0.1 and
applied forces are compared on a global (0° to 360°) basis, shown in the upper plot, and
for the local region near the vent slot where cracking initiated, shown in the lower plot.
Radial shrink-fit forces at speed (3600 rpm) were multiplied by a friction coefficient of
0.1 to yield the resisting load, while the unit 1000 rad/sec 2 load case was scaled
appropriately to yield load levels required for first slip (i.e., localized to the outboard
fit area) and complete slip (i.e., slip at both inboard and outboard fit areas). From a
fretting and crack initiation standpoint it is more appropriate to focus on the lower plot
applicable to the vent scoop region, where acceleration levels required to initiate
fretting are less than half that required if there were no circumferential variation in
torsional shear between the pole and field regions (upper plot). Applied versus
resisting load comparisons are repeated for friction coefficients of 0.2 and 0.4 to account
for variability in surface friction. An estimate of friction level can be obtained from a
review of measured acceleration levels discussed below.
A second means of determining the actual load magnitude was obtained from torsional
field tests conducted on the Comanche generators in 1989 and more comprehensively in
the recent September 1994 tests. The 1989 torsional field tests were subsynchronous i.e.,
to investigate vibration levels at or below 60 Hertz (3600 rpm). These tests indicated
subsynchronous torsional modes of 11.4 and 21.6 Hertz in the Unit 2 generator, which
were excited to significant levels by system electrical disturbances, particularly those
associated with arc furnace operation at the neighboring steel mill. The maximum
measured velocity deviations of these two modes were .11% (0.415 rad.sec) and .045%
(0.170 rad/sec) of synchronous speed, respectively. The resulting angular accelerations
in these two modes were 29 and 22 rad/sec2, which combine to yield a maximum
measured acceleration in the test program of 51 rad/sec2. This maximum acceleration
is well below the minimum level of 95 rad/sec 2 (Figure 3-24) required for fretting,
assuming a friction coefficient of 0.1. It was recognized that the principal limitation of
the 1989 subsynchronous tests was that higher modes of vibration which could yield
the required acceleration levels to cause fretting, were not examined. To correct this
deficiency, a series of more comprehensive testing was performed in September 1994.
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Root Cause Analysis
Test results summarized in Figure 4-10, indicate that the highest angular acceleration
level measured was 324 rad/sec2 for Unit 2 (Test L) with Unit 1 off-line and the 7th
harmonic filter out of service. With the 7th harmonic filter in, torsional vibrations
reduce by one-third (108 rad/sec2) which is considered typical for this type of
generator design. It should be noted that these tests were performed after the unit was
returned to service. In the absence of pre-failure torsional vibration data it was
assumed that acceleration levels did not exceed 350 rad/sec 2 based on the post-failure
testing.
Assuming therefore that normal acceleration levels did not exceed 108 rad/sec 2 and
that the only significant acceleration levels contributing to fretting initiated cracking
were about 350 rad/sec2 in magnitude, the friction coefficient from Figures 3-24, 3-25
and 3-26 is predicted to be in the range of 0.35 to 0.4. These values are typical for steel
on steel, lending additional plausibility to the analysis of applied and resisting
torsional shear loads. The peak stress intensity at an acceleration of 350 rad/sec 2
(Figure 3-22) is only 5.4 ksi therefore implying that at acceleration levels below 100
rad/sec2 it would be hard to explain the occurrence of cracking at such low stress
levels.
3.2.3 Fracture Mechanics Analysis
Fracture mechanics analyses were performed to estimate crack initiation and growth
rates and critical crack size for unstable fracture of the ring. Stresses from the foregoing
finite element analyses, along with material properties from Section 3.2 were used as
inputs to the analysis.
3.2.3.1 Crack Initiation Analysis
Crack initiation data for 18Mn4Cr steel from CEGB [10] compares favorably with data
for Ni-Mo-V turbine rotor steel from EPRI [9], as shown in Figure 3-27. This data
includes a fatigue strength reduction factor of 5 to account for fretting. References [11]
and [12] report fretting fatigue reduction factors in the range of 4 to 5. To account for
the high mean stress at speed the following correction using the Gerber parabola [13]
was employed.
∆σ
∆σ ′ =
 σ 2
1 −  m  
  σ ut  
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Root Cause Analysis
where:
∆σ ′ is the stress amplitude adjusted for mean stress effect
∆σ is the unadjusted stress amplitude
σ m is the mean stress, and
σ ut is the ultimate tensile strength
For a mean stress of 80 ksi [551.5 MPa] and a tensile strength of 169 ksi [1165 MPa] the
computed stress magnification factor was 1.289.
The 3-D torsional analyses do not explicitly account for local stress concentrating effects
due to discontinuous or finite contact regions between the rotor tooth-tops and the ring.
Therefore, the slotted and unslotted 2-D models (Figures 3-19 and 3-20) were examined
to determine the ratio of maximum stress intensity in the ring at the end of the pole for
the two models. The comparison showed that the slotted condition yielded a 5.2%
increase in maximum stress over the unslotted condition with adjusted moduli.
Combined with the mean stress correction this yields a net stress increase factor of 1.356
of the 3-D torsional results. Additionally, the 2-D results revealed that maximum tensile
stress in the vent scoop was approximately equal to the magnitude of the stress
intensity. The 3-D torsional results at 1000 rad/sec2 (Figure 3-22) yield a peak surface
stress intensity of 15.32 ksi [105.6 MPa]. At 350 rad/sec2 with a net correction factor of
1.356, yields a stress amplitude of 7.27 ksi [50.1 MPa] for initiation calculations. Using
the initiation data shown in Figure 3-27, which incorporates a fatigue strength
reduction factor of 5 for fretting, initiation lives of 32 million cycles for the CEGB data
and 16.5 million cycles using the EPRI data are predicted. Assuming that the most
significant cycles occur near 120 Hz, this corresponds to crack initiation 38 hours within
(CEGB data) and 74 hours (EPRI data) if continuous operation. Actual operating data
indicates a resonance period of approximately 18-50 minutes per day expecting failure
within 3-8 months.
3.2.3.2 Crack Growth Analysis
Consistent with the observed crack growth (Figure 3-3) analytically simulated growth
is shown schematically in Figure 3-28 employing two crack models as illustrated in
Figure 3-29. The first model simulates initial growth (0.05 to 0.5 inch [1.27 to 12.72 mm]
depth) of a semi-elliptic crack radially outward from the ID of the ring. After a depth of
approximately 0.5 inch [12.72 min] or half the wall thickness of the ring is reached, a
quarter-elliptic crack model was used to more accurately represent growth in the axial
direction to failure. Mean and torsional stresses used to simulate radial crack growth
(semi-elliptic crack model) are shown in Figure 3-30 and stresses for axial growth
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(quarter-elliptic crack model) are shown in Figure 3-30. It should be noted that stresses
are normal to the crack surface; i.e., in the hoop direction for initial radial growth and
normal to a 45° plane for axial growth. Fatigue crack growth rate was calculated using
both ASME data and the test data for wet hydrogen adjusted for a mean R-ratio of 0.91
(Figure 3-11) as described in Section 3.1.2.
Predicted crack growth rates are shown in Figure 3-31. The circular arcs labelled a
through e in Figure 3-28 correspond to discrete points in the crack growth analysis,
identified by the same labels on the crack growth curve in Figure 3-31. A starting crack
of 0.05 inch [1.27 mm] was assumed, and the cycles and time periods (under various
loading assumptions) required for the crack to grow to reach each arc are summarized
in Table 3-2. Figure 3-31 also presents a set of critical flaw size estimates derived below.
3.2.3.3 Critical Crack Size Analysis
Stress intensity calculations were also performed for the shrink-fit plus 3600 RPM
stresses of Figure 3-15, to determine the crack size at which they would be predicted to
cause unstable fracture of the ring. These were compared to the minimum and
maximum measured fracture toughness values of 164 and 186 ksi´ inch [180.4 and 205
MPa m ] in hydrogen gas, as reported in Section 3.1.2. The resulting critical crack size
estimates are presented in Figure 3-32, and are compared to the actual critical crack size
which produced failure of the Comanche ring, as measured on the fracture surface. It is
seen from this figure that the average measured fracture toughness of 175 ksi´ inch
[192.5 MPa m ] in hydrogen, agrees well with the observed failure crack size of 5
inches [127.2 mm]. This agreement provides further confidence in the analytical
fracture mechanics models used in this study.
3.2.5 Effect of Cracking on Shrink-Fit/Vibrational Level
A three-dimensional, 180° symmetry, model of the ring and rotor (Figure 3-33) was
used to evaluate the loss of shrink-fit due to the presence of a crack. Once again, both
the retaining ring and a portion of the rotor were modeled, and gap elements were
used to represent the shrink-fit interface. Figure 3-34 illustrates the effect of the
cracking on shrink-fit contact forces in the 30° segment immediately adjacent to the
crack. The cracking is seen to have a dramatic effect on the interface loads in this region
resulting in localized 8.2% and 13.8% decreases in shrink-fit forces for the medium (size
d) and pre-failure (size e) cracks, respectively. On an overall basis (0° to 360°) the
reduction in shrink- fit predicted was 4.2% and 7.1% for crack sizes d and e,
respectively.
A review of measured lateral vibrational data was performed in an attempt to correlate

the severity of cracking with pre-failure vibrational levels. This data, shown in Figure
3-35, indicated that the transverse vibration of the generator rotor measured at the
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exciter-end bearing began to increase above its nominal 0.0028" [0.071 mm] level
approximately two months prior to the failure, reaching 0.0035" [0.089 mm] about one
month prior to the failure, and ramping up dramatically from 0.0045" [1.14 mm] to
0.0075" [0.19 mm] during the final week prior to the failure. To relate lateral shaft
vibration to ring imbalance or wobbling would require more complex modelling of the
rotor train. However, given that a fairly large crack size is required to reduced the
shrink-fit and therefore lateral stability, indicates that most of the crack propagation
occurred due to torsional vibrations and that crack propagation in the final week prior
to failure was due to the additional contribution of high lateral vibrational loads. This
period of rapid crack propagation was not simulated in the crack growth analyses
described above because it represents a very small fraction of the total crack growth
time (one week versus approximately two years).
3.2.4 Discussion of Results
A number of analyses were performed in support of the root cause failure investigation
of the Comanche Unit 2 retaining ring, all of which support the general conclusions of
the metallurgical analysis. Analysis of the stress and interface loads in the ring were
performed under nominal operating conditions and under assumed torsional loads in
the ring due to torsional vibration of the rotor. These support the plausibility of
torsional fatigue as both the crack initiation and propagation mechanism, with a
reduction in fatigue crack initiation strength due to fretting of the shrink interface
surface from the same mechanism. An attempt to correlate the magnitude of the
loading with measured torsional vibration levels indicated that a friction coefficient of
0.35 to 0.4 must have existed at the ring/rotor interface, lending further credence to the
analytical results. The predicted location, shape and orientation of the cracking were
also consistent with the metallurgical observations.
Fracture mechanics calculations predicted a critical flaw size which agreed reasonably
well with the observed crack front. Crack initiation and growth studies were
performed, based on measured torsional loading magnitude and frequency, which
indicated a period of approximately 3 - 8 months of operation or 38 to 74 hours at the
troublesome 120 Hz frequency, to initiate the cracking and approximately 3 months to
fail to grow the crack to failure once initiated. These estimates assume operation at an
2
acceleration level of 350 rad/sec for several finite periods associated with severe
electrical load fluctuations on the system.
The effect of cracking on shrink-fit revealed that a fairly large crack was required to
significantly reduce the shrink-fit (7.1% for crack size e). Because frictional forces
developed due to shrink-fit resist lateral motion or wobble of the ring it was estimated
that the crack size associated with the high vibration levels just prior to the failure was
large (d or e). Therefore it was estimated that the majority of the crack growth occurred
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at high levels of torsional vibration, consistent with the metallurgical results and
analytical crack growth predictions.
3.3 Stress and Fracture Mechanics Analyses of Long Ring Modification
3.3.1 Overview
Westinghouse developed a modified retaining ring referred to as a "long ring" as part

of a repair method for generator rotor tooth top (T-head) cracking shown in Figure 3-36
[14,15]. The repair, illustrated in Figure 3-37, requires removal of the affected tooth tops
and relocation of the retaining ring fit, thus eliminating low-cycle high-stress cycling
from standstill to synchronous speed which is the root cause of the crack initiation. The
original fit area is machined down removing the original T-head fillet, leaving headless
splines over this length. This new land area now supports the compressive loading of
the retaining ring at standstill. The nose area of the longer ring facilitates axial keying
of the ring further inboard of the rotor body.
The failed Comanche Unit 2 ring has been replaced with the modified "long ring"
design described above. To assess the susceptibility of the long ring to the torsional
fretting/fatigue failure mechanism of the original (short) ring, analyses similar to those
performed on the failed ring were repeated for the long ring design. Specifically,
analyses were performed to determine contact loads due to shrink- fit and centrifugal
effects, torsional fatigue loading of the rotor, analysis of fretting susceptibility and
fracture mechanics initiation and growth calculations. Following the evaluation of the
long ring design, a summary comparing the original (short) and modified (long) ring
designs is provided.
3.3.2 Stress Analyses of Long Ring
3.3.2.1 Shrink-fit and Centrifugal Loads
Finite element stress analyses were performed to determine contact forces and stresses
in the long ring due to shrink-fit and centrifugal loading effects. Dimensions and
shrink-fit information for the long ring design were obtained from on-site measurement
data provided by PSCo. This information is considered proprietary and specific values
are therefore not provided in this report. Both the original inboard/outboard shrink-fit
regions and the new splined region had tapered fits with a much higher interference
than the short-ring design.
An axisymmetric two-dimensional, finite element model of the long ring design used to
determine shrink-fit and centrifugal contact forces and stresses is shown in Figure 3-38.
This model included the retaining ring, a portion of the rotor, and a series of gap
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elements along the shrink-fit interface regions labelled "new", "inboard" and "outboard"
as shown in Figure 3-39. As in the short ring analysis, compression forces in the gap
elements were determined, which can be multiplied by a coefficient of friction to
estimate the maximum possible torque transmitted through the shrink-fit interface.
Figure 3-40 compares radial contact forces along the shrink-fit interface for the long
ring design with those for short ring (Figure 3-16). The distribution between the new
fit, inboard and outboard regions at speed is 60%, 9% and 31%, respectively. It is
predicted that the 33% increase in shrink-fit for the long ring design (approximate)
yields a two-fold increase in the total radial contact force; 453.21 kips/rad for the long
ring versus 210.15 kips/rad for the short ring. Part of the increase in contact force is
attributable to the 36.4% increase in ring thickness (2.25 [57.15 mm] versus 1.65 [41.9
mm] inch for the short ring) at the location of the splined fit region where the tooth tops
have been removed. The long ring deformation at speed is shown in Figure 3-41 for
direct comparison with the short ring (Figure 3-17) indicating a slight dishing or
bowing effect due to the increased shrink-fit.
Figure 3-42 presents a contour plot of resulting circumferential stresses at the rotor end
of the ring, due to centrifugal plus shrink-fit stresses. A peak stress of 107.7 ksi [577.7
MPa] was computed at the ID of the long ring representing an 29% increase over the
peak stress of 83.8 ksi for the short ring.
3.3.2.2 Torsional Loads
Consistent with the short ring analysis, torsional contact loads and stresses in the long
ring design were determined using a 360° three-dimensional finite element model, a
half-section of which is shown in Figure 3-43. The change in torsional stiffness of the
pole and field regions was simulated with elastic modulus reduction factors of 0.9 and
0.018 as before. Using the 2-D cross-sectional model of the ring/rotor shown in Figure
3-44, peak stress locations at the vent scoop and pole-end regions were also identified.
Shear contact was simulated at all ring-rotor interface nodes having non- zero radial
contact force, per Figure 3-40. Contour plots of torsional shear stress intensity for an
2
acceleration of 1000 rad/sec at radial-axial planes through the pole-center and pole-
end are shown in Figures 3-45 and 3-46. As with the short ring, elevation in stresses are
predicted near the pole-end where crack initiation is expected to occur. The maximum
shear stress location for the long ring is predicted to be at the extreme outboard end of
the ring.
3.3.2.3 Applied Loading and Assessment of Fretting
Similar to the short ring analyses, applied versus resisting nodal shear forces along the
shrink-fit interface for various acceleration levels and friction coefficients of 0.1, 0.2 and
0.4 are shown in Figures 3-47, 3-48 and 3-49, respectively. Comparing Figure 3-49 with
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Figure 3-26 for the short ring it is seen that for the same coefficient of friction of 0.4, an
2
acceleration level of 563 rad/sec is required to initiate fretting for the long ring design
2
versus 378 rad/sec for the short ring; i.e., an improvement factor of 1.5, making the
long ring design less susceptible to fretting.
3.3.3 Fracture Mechanics Analysis
Crack initiation, growth rates and critical crack size for the long ring design were
computed for comparison with the short ring results presented earlier; material
properties were assumed to remain the same for both designs.
3.3.3.1 Crack Initiation Analysis
For a mean stress of 107.7 ksi [742.5 MPa] and a tensile strength of 169 ksi [164 MPa] the
computed mean stress magnification factor per Equation 1, was 1.684. A factor of 1.19
was determined to account for local stress increases near the vent slot (from Figure 3-
2
44), yeilding a net stress amplitude of 5.25 ksi [36.2 MPa] at 350 rad/sec for initiation
calculations. Using the initiation data shown in Figure 3-27, which incorporates a
fatigue strength reduction factor of 5 for fretting, initiation lives of 8.53E8 cycles using
the CEGB data and 1.68E8 cycles using the EPRI data are predicted or 1974 and 388
hours of operation at 120 Hz.
3.3.3.2 Crack Growth Analysis
Consistent with torsional stresses (Figure 3-45) analytically simulated growth is shown
schematically in Figure 3-50 employing a quarter circular crack model. Mean and
torsional stresses used to simulate early growth (0.05 to 0.5 inch [1.27 - 12.7 mm]) and
axial growth (0.5 inch [12.7 mm] to failure) are shown in Figure 3-51. Predicted crack
growth rates for ASME and Cortest data (Figure 3-11) are shown in Figure 3-52. Long
ring and short ring crack growth results are compared in Table 3-3. Figure 3-52 also
presents a set of critical flaw size estimates derived below.
3.3.3.3 Critical Crack Size Analysis
Stress intensity calculations were also performed for the shrink-fit plus 3600 RPM
stresses of Figure 3-42, to determine the crack size at which they would be predicted to
cause unstable fracture of the ring. The resulting critical crack sizes at 164, 175 and 186
ksi´ inch [180, 193, 205 MPa m ] are presented in Figure 3-53. Smaller critical crack
sizes for the long ring are predicted due to higher shrink-fit stresses.
3.4 Short Ring versus Long Ring Comparison Summary
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A comparative summary between the short ring and long ring design results is
provided in Table 3-4. As seen in the table, the key factor responsible for the improved
resistance of the long ring to acceleration induced fretting is the higher shrink-fit level
and associated radial contact forces (2.16 times higher) for the long ring. Because of
lower contact stresses in the long ring due to increased fit area, an improvement in
crack initiation life by a factor of 26.6 is predicted. From a crack propagation to failure
perspective, lower critical crack sizes for the long ring are offset by lower crack growth
rates yielding crack growth lives that are better than the short ring design by a factor of
at least 10. In conclusion, the increased shrink-fit in conjunction with a larger fit area
results in a substantial improvement in resistance to the torsional acceleration induced
fretting fatigue failure for the long ring design.
Table 3-1
Fracture-Toughness Test Results for the Failed Ring
Parameter Dry H2 Wet H2 Air Air
KQ, ksi´ in 164 186 124 122

[180.4] [704.6] [136.4] [134.2]
[MPa m ]
J , lb/in — — 1920 1720
Ic
[N/mm] [336] [301]
K , ksi´ in — — 238 252

Jc
[261.8] [277.2]
[MPa m]
Notes:
1. Values of KQ were calculated using the maximum load.
2. For testing in air, specimens showed significant ductility and K Ic values were
estimated from JIc values using the expression,
12
 E 
K Jc =  J Ic 
 ( 1− v2 ) 
with, E=30,000 ksi and poisson ratio, υ , of 0.3.
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Table 3-2
Crack Initiation and Growth Time Estimates for Failed Ring
Crack Initiation
Crack Crack Cycles Hours

Arc Size, @350 @ 120 Hz
in [mm] rad/sec2
Initial 0.05 [1.27] 32.1e+06 74.3
Crack Growth
Sect. XI Wet H2 Gas
Cycles Hours Cycles Hours

@350 @ 120 Hz @350 @120 Hz
rad/sec2 rad/sec2
a 0.5 [12.7] 0.85e+06 1.96 1.22e+06 2.81
b 1 [25.4] 3.85e+06 8.91 5.22e+06 12.08
c 2.1 [53.3] 6.85e+06 15.86 9.77e+06 22.62
d 3.5 [88.9] 10.25e+06 23.73 15.72e+06 36.39
e 5 [127] 12.85e+06 29.75 20.75e+06 48.03
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Table 3-3
Comparison of Short Ring Crack Growth Results and Long Ring
Parameter Crack Growth Laws
ASME Section XI Wet H2, R=0.91 (extrap.)
Coeff., C 11.59E-10 8.22E-10
Exponent, n 3.3 3.2427
Growth Range Number of Torsional Cycles @ 350 rad/sec2 (millions)
Short-ring Long-ring Short-ring Long-ring
0.1 to 0.5 in. 0.85 10.12 1.22 18.19
0.5 to failure 12.00 108.50 19.54 217.00
Total 12.85 118.62 20.76 235.19
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Table 3-4
Short-ring vs. Long-ring Comparison Summary
Parameter Short-ring Long-ring Ratio

(Long/short)
Shrink-fit (in/dia, avg.) [mm/dia.] 0.090 [2.29] 0.120 [3.05] 1.33
Radial Contact Forces 210.15 453.21 2.16

kips/rad. [kN/rad.] [937] [2017]
(shrink-fit + 3600 rpm)
Torsional Shear Forces 46.25 [206] 48.25 [215] 1.04

kips/rad. [kN/rad.]
(1000 rad/sec2)
Accel. Level for First Slip 378 563 1.49

(rad/sec2)
Steady Hoop Stress, ksi 83.8 107.7 1.29

(shrink-fit + 3600 rpm)
Torsional Stress int., ksi 15.3 7.5 0.49

(1000 rad/sec2)
Kt (for 3-D tors. model) 1.05 1.19 1.13
Crack Initiation, cycles 3.21E7 8.53E8 26.6
Critical Crack Size (in.) [mm] 4.8 [122] 2.4 [61] 0.50
Crack Propagation 0.05 to acrit:
ASME data 12.85E6 118.62E6 9.23
Cortest Data (R=0.91) 20.76E6 235.19E6 11.33
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Root Cause Analysis
This photo shows the ring after it

had been removed from the
generator. The main fracture is on
the right side of the photo. Note
also the second large crack on the
ring 180° from the main fracture.
The shrink area is the first few
steps in ring diameter at the “up”
side as shown in the photo. Note
also the remnants of the coppper
coil markings at the ring ID. These
show that the main fracture
started near the pole face.
This photo shows the

impressions of the rotor teeth in
the “outboard” shrink area
(outboard of the center of the
ring). Visual inspection of this
area lead us to believe that it
was due to fretting. It is also
noted that there is very little of
this fretting on the inboard
shrink area.
Figure 3-1 Ring After Failure
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Root Cause Analysis
A close-up of the main fracture

face after the ring was removed
from the unit. Note the texture
change in the facture face, with
smooth, flat fracture
proceeding out of the
outboard/inboard shrink area
(first two steps) and becoming
more irregular and rough as the
crack became critical and grew
rapidly through the remaining
ring cross section.
Another view of the main

fracture which shows the
angularity of growth. The crack
starts in a path perpendicular to
the hoop direction, but changes
over to a 30° to 45° angle as it
proceeds through and down
the ring, away from the
outboard shrink area. Note also
the inboard tooth associated
with the initiation of the main
crack is also fretted, while the
other areas are not fretted.
Figure 3-2 The Main Crack
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Root Cause Analysis
After cleaning, the fracture

surface shows a classic pattern
of fatigue. The origin is in the
outboard shrink area (see
below) and the series of “beach
marks” show the progression of
the crack front. The lower
photo, taken at a higher
magnification, shows a close-up
of the origin. On the outboard
shrink area ID, about 75% of
the way toward the axial
locking groove.
This photo shows a close-up of

the cracking on the inboard
shrink area of the main fracture.
Note that the main crack went
back to perpendicular to the
hoop direction, but then turned
at an angle as it proceeded down
the ring. Again, the fretting has
shown the contact pattern with
the rotor teeth and there is a
second crack associated with this
fretted area.
Figure 3-3 Origin of the Fracture
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Root Cause Analysis
This photo shows a crack on the

outboard shrink area at the
tooth location next to the main
fracture. This crack had a
definite angle of propogation
on the shrink area and proceeds
at 45° to the radial direction as
it propagates through
thickness. This secondary crack
was removed and broken open
to examine the fracture
morphology.
This photo shows the “beach

marks” associated with this
crack. Again, this is the
appearance of classical fatigue,
which shows that this crack did
start and stop over time, as the
pattern suggests crack
arrest/reinitiation occurred
several times during growth. The
slight discoloration of the
various patterns is probably a
light oxide formed during
operation.
Figure 3-4 Secondary Crack and Fatigue Origin
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Root Cause Analysis
These photos show the

appearance of the large
secondary crack found 180° from
the main fracture. The upper
photo shows how the crack
progressed in a manner similar
to the main fracture, but at more
of a 45° angle to the hoop
direction. Again, fretting is
found on the inboard shrink
area, much the same as the main
fracture.
Note the secondary cracks in the

inboard shrink area. These appear
as “thumbnails” and probably
initiated perpendicular to the
hoop stress and then propageted
at some angle to the hoop stress.
There is considerable deformation
associated with these cracks, most
probably as a result of the ring
trying to straighten itself out after
the main crack caused failure.
Figure 3-5 Crack 180° from Main Fracture
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Figure 3-6 Schematic of the Retaining Ring/Rotor with Terminology
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Figure 3-7 Fracture Toughness Data for 18Mn-5Cr Steel from EPRI RRing-Life
Computer Program
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Figure 3-8 Cortest Fatigue Crack Growth Data Using the Secant Method
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Figure 3-9 Cortest Fatigue Crack Growth Data Using the Seven-point Incremental
Method
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Figure 3-10 ASME Section XI Reference Fatigue Crack Growth Curves for Austenitic
Stainless Steels in Air Environments
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Figure 3-11 Comparison of Cortest and ASME Section XI Fatigue Crack Growth Data at
R-ratios of 0.5 and 0.91
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Figure 3-12 Comanche Unit 2 Retaining Ring Dimensional Data
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Figure 3-13 Comanche Unit 2 Retaining Ring 2-D Axisymmetric FE Model
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Figure 3-14 Enlarged View of Retaining Ring and Rotor Fe Model Fit Area Showing
Location of Gap Elements
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Figure 3-15 Hoop Stresses in the Retaininig Ring At Speed (3600 Rpm) With Measured
Inboard/outboard Shrink-fits of 0.086/0.094 Inch on a Diameter
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Figure 3-16 Distribution of Radial Contact Forces at Standstill (0 rpm) and at Speed
(3600 rpm) for uniform (0.090 inch/dia) and Measured Non-uniform Shrink-fits
(0.086/0.094 inboard/outboard inch/dia.)
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Figure 3-17 Ring/rotor displacements at 3600 rpm Illustrating almost complete

negation of ring inward displacements or bowing at standstill.
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Figure 3-18 Three-dimensional FE Torsional Model with Adjusted Elastic Moduli for
Rotor Pole and Field Regions
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Figure 3-19 Two-dimensional FE Model of Ring/Rotor Cross-Section to Determine

Relative Tosional Stiffness Between the Pole and Field Regions
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Figure 3-20 Unslotted Two-dimensional FE Model of Ring/rotor Cross-Section Used to

Determine Moduli Adjustments for 3-D FE Torsional Analysis
3-37
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Figure 3-21 Stress Intensity Distribution at Pole Center Due to 1000 rad/sec 2 Torsional
Load
3-38
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Figure 3-22 Stress Intensity Distribution at Pole End (Location of Cracking) Due to 1000
rad/sec2 Torsional Load
3-39
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Figure 3-23 Predicted Crack Growth Direction Based on Plane Normal To Maximum
Principal Stress From 3-D Torsional Model
3-40
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Shrink-fit Interface Summed Over 360° (Upper Plot) and Near the Vent Slot Where the
Primary Fracture Occurred (Lower Plot) for a Friction Coefficient of 0.1.
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3-43
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Figure 3-27 Crack Initiation Stress Amplitude Versus Cycles To Initiation Data For
18Mn4Cr Retaining Ring Steel (CEGB Data) And NiMoV Steel (EPRI Data).
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Figure 3-28 Analytical Simulated Crack Growth in the Radial (Semi-Elliptic ID Surface)
and Axial (Quarter-Circular) Directions; Circular Arcs (a-e) Correspond to Progression
of Crack Growth Based on Actual Observations (Figure 3-3)
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Figure 3-29 Schematics of Semi-Elliptic and Quarter-Circular Crack Models Used in the
Crack Growth Analyses
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Figure 3-30 Mean and Alternating Torsional Stresses Used to Simulate Radial and
Axial Crack Growth
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Figure 3-31 Predicted Crack Growth and Critical Flaw Sizes
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Figure 3-32 Stress Intensity Factor Versus Crack Size; Critical Flaw Size Determination
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Figure 3-33 3-D FE Model to Evaluate the Effect of Cracking on Shrink-Fit
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Figure 3-34 Reduction in Shrink-fit Forces Due to Cracking
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Figure 3-35 Lateral Vibrational Data at the #7 and #8 Generator Bearings for the Two-
month Period Prior to the Failure
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Figure 3-36 Illustration of Tooth Top Cracking in Short-Ring Design
Figure 3-37 Schematic Illustrating the Long-Ring Modification
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Figure 3-38 2-D Axisymmetric FE Model of the Long-Ring
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Figure 3-39 Enlarged View of Long-Ring/rotor FE Model Fit Area Showing Location of
Gap Elements
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Root Cause Analysis
Figure 3-40 Distribution of Radial Contact Forces at standstill (0 rpm) and at speed
(3600 rpm) for uniform and measured tapered shrink-fits in the long ring design.
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Figure 3-41 Long Ring/rotor Displacements at 3600 Rpm Illustrating Inward Bowing
of the Ring Due to Increased Shrink-Fit.
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Root Cause Analysis
Figure 3-42 Hoop Stresses in the Long Ring at Speed (3600 Rpm) Using Measured
Shrink-Fits of 0.086/0.094 inch/on a diameter..
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Figure 3-43 Long Ring/rotor three-dimensional FE Torsional Model with Adjusted

Elastic Moduli for Rotor Pole and Field Regions
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Figure 3-44 Two-dimensional FE Model of Long Ring/rotor cross-section to Determine

Magnitude and Location of Peak Torsional Stresses.
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Figure 3-45 Stress Intensity Distribution at Long Ring Pole Center Due to 1000 rad/sec 2
Torsional Load
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Root Cause Analysis
Figure 3-46 Stess Intensity Distribution at Long Ring Pole End (Predicted Crack
Initiation Location) Due to 1000 rad/sec2 Torsional Load
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Root Cause Analysis
Figure 3-47 Applied (Torsional) versus resisting (Shrink-Fit) Shear Forces Along the
Long Ring Shrink-Fit Interface Summed Over 360° (Upper Plot) and Near the Vent Slot
Where Crack Initiation is Expected (Lower Plot) for a Friction Coefficient of 0.1
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Root Cause Analysis
Figure 3-48 Applied (torsional) Versus Resisting (Shrink-Fit) Shear Forces Along the
Long Ring Shrink-fit Interface summed over 360° (Upper Plot) and Near the Vent Slot
Where Crack Initiation is Expected (Lower Plot)for a Friction Coefficient of 0.2
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Root Cause Analysis
Figure 3-49 Applied (Torsional) Versus Resisting (Shrink-Fit) Shear Forces Along the
Long Ring Shrink-Fit Interface Summed Over 360° (Upper Plot) and Near the Vent Slot
Where Crack Initiation is Expected (Lower Plot) for a Friction Coefficient of 0.4
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Root Cause Analysis
Figure 3-50 Analytically Simulated Crack Growth in the Long Ring Based on Torsional
Stress Results (Figure 3-46).
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Root Cause Analysis
Figure 3-51 Mean Alternating Torsional Stresses Used to Simulate Initial (0.05 to 0.5
inch) and Axial Crack Growth (0.5 to 5 inches) for the Long Ring Design
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Root Cause Analysis
Figure 3-52 Predicted Crack Growth in the Long Ring Using ASME and Cortest Data.
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Root Cause Analysis
Figure 3-53 Stress Intensity Factor Versus Crack Size; Long Ring Critical Flaw Size
Determination.
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4
TURBINE/GENERATOR RETAINING ON-LINE
TORSIONAL VIBRATION TEST
4.1 Background
The root cause analysis described in Section 3.0 indicated that the cause of the retaining
ring failure was fretting-fatigue, induced and propagated by rotor torsional vibration.
Operation of the steel mill's arc furnaces creates large, transient disturbances on the
electrical lines connected directly to the Comanche generators. These disturbances were
previously investigated, 1988 [16], as a source, through electrical/mechanical coupling,
that may have excited the sub-synchronous rotor torsional vibration modes (11 and 22
Hz) precipitating fatigue cracking in the rotor shaft at the coupling keyway. These
electrical fluctuations were suspected as the source of the vibration causing the
retaining ring failure.
The oscillatory motion, deceleration and acceleration of the vibrating rotor, if of

sufficient amplitude can overcome the shrink-fit forces and cause a small relative
motion of the retaining ring to the rotor introducing fretting. The 1988 testing measured
sub-synchronous angular velocities for the predominate 11 and 22 Hz modes of 0.42
and 0.17 radian/second, respectively. Upon differentiation these velocities produce a
total angular acceleration of 37 radian/second2 (square root of the sum of the squares).
The root cause analysis revealed that the measured angular acceleration level was not
sufficient to produce the relative motion necessary to produce fretting. Contribution
from the super- synchronous (greater than 60 Hz) torsional modes was suspected.
If the super-synchronous torsional modes experience the same or greater torsional

velocity levels as those measured for the lower modes, then the effect of the higher
frequency through the differentiation process would produce significantly larger
accelerations. For example if the velocity for the 11 Hz mode were 1 rad/sec, the
acceleration would be 69 radian/second2; if the same amplitude occurred at 110 Hz,
the acceleration would be 690 radian/second2, a factor of 10 greater for equal
amplitude velocity.
Based on the results of the root cause analysis, the 1988 vibration testing and review of
all the operational modes and system conditions which exist during turbine/generator
operation a test program was designed with the cooperation of PSCO, the steel mill,
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Turbine/Generator Retaining On-Line Torsional Vibration Test
Westinghouse and Structural Integrity Associtates to investigate the cause of the Unit 2
retaining ring failure. A description of the test paramaters, instrumentation and test
results follow.
Initially, a single set of tests were planned. These tests recreated conditions which
resulted in sufficient vibration to produce the failure, but did not identify the cause.
Two additional sets of tests were required to determine the cause and eliminate it. The
third set of tests required the services of General Electric Company.
4.2 Test Objectives
The primary objective of the test program was to find the combined steel mill arc
furnace and PSCO turbine/generator operating conditions which induced torsional
vibration of the rotor of sufficient amplitude to fail Unit 2's retaining ring. A secondary
objective was to determine the differences between the torsional response of Unit 1 and
Unit 2 such that the susceptibility of Unit 1's retaining ring to the same failure mode
may be evaluated.
The final objective was to reduce the vibration amplitude to a level below concern
either through elimination of the source of the vibration or minimizing the vibration
response.
4.3 Test Conditions
The 1988 testing indicated power fluctuations on the grid generated by the steel mill
induced torsional oscillations of the rotor. Suspicion that the same mill operation was a
source of the vibration causing the retaining ring failure led to establishing the test
conditions based on the steel mill operation modes. Effects of exciter settings on the
torsional vibration response were also explored.
Though vibration can be induced through mechanical forces from instabilities in the
turbines or other power train components, these components had not been observed to
be malfunctioning and were not considered as a source of vibration.
Table 4-1 provides a chronology of events and changes to the Unit 1 and 2 rotors. Test
conditions were established through thoroughly assessing these changes, as well as, the
operation of the turbine/generator and steel mill arc furnaces. The test conditions are
listed in Table 4-2 and described below.
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4.3.1 Comanche Station Test Conditions
4.3.1.1 Turbine/Generator Operation
Comanche Station normally operates with both units at near full power (350
Mwatts/unit). A test condition which exhibited higher level vibration in the 1988
testing was with only one unit on-line. This condition was established with each unit
operating while the other was off-line. Steel mills operated normally during these
conditions.
4.3.1.2 Turbine Generator Exciter
The generators response to sudden load changes is controlled by the exciter. The exciter
controls the field excitation to maintain a satisfactory AC line voltage level. Line
transients initiated by the exciter's response to the load changes were considered as a
potential source of torsional vibration.
Unit 1 and 2 currently have different types of exciters. Unit 1 has been equipped with a
brushless exciter throughout its operation. Unit 2 upgraded from a brushless to a static
exciter in 1989. Each exciter operates differently such that separate test conditions were
established. The test conditions established based on exciter operation are as follows:
a. Unit 2 exciter's automatic voltage regulator (AVR) in manual control (constant

excitation)
b. Unit 2 exciter's AVR in 'fast' response mode, normal mode is slower
c. Unit 2 exciter's AVR line drop compensator in-service providing feedback to the
voltage regulator based on reactive component of generator current, normally out of
service
d. Unit 1 exciter's power system stabilizer out of service removing voltage regulator
compensation for generator speed deviation.
4.3.1.3 Negative Sequence Currents
Negative sequence currents may effect the generator in two ways: heating of the rotor
and 120 Hz current oscillations which may drive vibration. The negative sequence
currents are caused by any unbalanced condition on the system grid. Typically, the
negative sequence currents are less than 3% and do not cause a problem, but that
number is an average and could locally be larger causing local hot areas and loss of
shrink-fit.
A loss of shrink-fit due to these currents would reduce the contact load leading to a
reduced angular acceleration threshold for overcoming the shrink-fit and generating
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fretting. If the rotor had a 120 Hz torsional mode at the generator, an additional
concern would be the increased dynamic torsional loading at 120 Hz.
Negative Sequence currents were measured for the Comanche's generators using a high
speed fault recorder in the switchyard where the PSCo grid, steel mill and Comanche
power lines intersect.
4.3.2 Steel Mill Operation
4.3.2.1 Electrical
A line schematic of the steel mill is provided in Figure 4-1. Power is fed to the mill from
PSCO on the 230kV bus and reduced to 34.5kV across the system transformer. The
34.5kV bus powers the two 50 MW electric Arc Furnaces, (AF3 and AF4), the 6 MW
Casting Foundary Induction Furnace, (IF), and the 10 MW ladle treatment station,
(LTS).
The static var flicker control (SVFC) system balances the harmonically tuned capacitor
bank which contains the 2nd through 7th harmonic filters (2nd harmonic filter was out
of service during testing) with the thyrisor switched reactor (inductor) to balance the
var consumed through operation of the arc furnaces. The SVFC is typically set to a net
power factor of 0.98 for the furnaces/SVFC installation as measured at the 34.5 kV
delivery point. The near unity power factor minimizes the reactor real power draw
from the PSCo grid and minimize var generation. In reality, vars are generated by the
rapid shorting and opening of the arc furnace electrodes and the SVFC compensates
every half cycle by measuring the reactive power and switching the reactor on at
different times in the cycle.
4.3.2.2 Melt Cycle
A melt cycle begins with one of the two scrap buckets, total of 146 tons of metal,
dumped into the furnace. The electrodes are lowered near the scrap and the bore-in
begins on the high power transformer tap, Tap 1. The initial high intensity arcing and
shorting lasts about 2 to 5 minutes then settles down to lower activity for
approximately two hours. During that period the second bucket is loaded into the
furnace and the power oscillation will increase for a short period of time. During the
latter stage of the melt, the power may be lowered typically to 26 MW, Tap 3, and/or
10 MW, Tap 5. After two hours the power is dropped to zero, the electrodes are
removed and the furnace is emptied into the ceramic ladle for material testing. After
about 1 hour the molten metal is either transfered to the Caster for final product
forming or the Ladle Treatment System (LTS) for more refining then transfered to the
caster. After transfer to the ceramic ladle, the furnace can be reloaded with a new heat.
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The casting foundary induction furnace is used separately to produce casting molds for
the caster.
Both furnaces operate on a separate schedule and at times coincide for a dual bore-in.
4.3.2.3 Arc Furnaces
The general operation status of the steel mill throughout the testing was single furnace
bore-in (initial phase of the melting process) with the second furnace in a later stage of
melt, periodically the cycles line up such that there is a simulataneous bore-in. The
operating condition that was expected to exhibit the largest line transients was the
double bore-in, both furnaces beginning a melt at the same time. Typically, the melt
cycles are at different stages of the cycle, but periodically the melts lineup such that a
simultaneous bore-in occurs. Test conditions were established to assure data with a
double bore-in.
The intensity of melt, as related to the amount of power required and the amplitude of
the line transients, is dependent on the types of metals in the melt. This was not a
controlled variable during the test program.
4.3.2.4 Arc Furnace Transformer Tap Power Load
Each stage of the melting process requires different load levels. To provide the power
necessary the transformer is switched to the appropriate tap (refer to Table 4-2). The
taps switch through a neutral (open circuit) position between power levels. Tap
position and power level as a source of line transient were investigated during the
vibration testing.
4.3.2.5 Static var Flicker Controller (SVFC)
The constantly varying power load during arc furnace operation causes rapid active
and reactive load demands on the system grid. The steel mill installed a Static var
Flicker Controller (SVFC) to minimize the reactive load demands on the Comanche
generators which in turn minimizes local system flicker. Every half cycle, 120 times per
second, the SVFC measures the reactive load and adjusts the Silicon Controlled
Rectifier (SCR) firing angle to maintain the power factor setting, near unity.
During furnace operation the SVFC switches in and out the reactor to balance the var
generation of the harmonically tuned capacitor bank. Ideally, the SVFC will maintain a
unity power factor, but in practice the steel mill power factor is close to 0.98, with vars
lagging.
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Operation of the SVFC was considered a source of line transients. Various operation
modes of the SVFC were investigated to determine its influence on the rotor vibration.
The SVFC modes of operations tested are as follows:
a. Normal: automatic operation with a power factor set at near unity
b. Off-line: reactor and capacitor bank out of the system, the power factor varies
according to furnace demands
c. Manual: constant SCR during angle, the reactor and capacitor banks are on-line
throughout the test, power factor varies
d. Power factor setting: normal operation, power factor set to 0.90 to 0.98 with lagging
vars and 0.94 with leading vars.
4.3.2.6 Ladle Treatment Station (LTS)
The ladle treatment station is used during the the latter stages of the melt cycle to
transfer the molten metal to the casting forms. The LTS is a small arc furnace which
produces a 10 MW load to maintain the melt temperature. The LTS is manually
controlled in an on- or off-line mode. The LTS loads became significant during the
Phase 2 testing when the effect of low load conditions were explored.
4.3.2.7 Casting Foundary Induction Furnace (IF)
The casting foundry induction furnace is used to maintain a controlled cool down of
the molten metals. The induction furnace draws 5 MW of power to control the cool
down and is controlled manually in either an on- or off- line mode. The IF loads
became significant during the Phase 2 testing when the effect of low load conditions
were explored.
4.3.2.8 Seventh Harmonic Filter (SHF)
The seventh harmonic filter is a component of the reactive load balance system
capacitor bank. During furnace operation the entire capacitor bank is on-line to balance
the systems inductive loads. At low loads, less than 26 MW, the SHF is automatically
taken off-line per the requirements of Table 4-4. The effect of the SHF on the rotor
vibration became significant during the Phase 2 testing and was tested in an on- and -
off line condition at low and high load.
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4.4 Data Acquisition System
A data acquisition system (DAS) [17] including sensors, signal conditioning and
permanent recording and display instruments was assembled to measure and store
Unit 1 and 2 angular velocity, generator current and generator power. Specifications for
the DAS emphasized measurement and recording of all the sensors simultaneously
over a frequency bandwidth of 2 to 200 Hz for a period of at least 30 minutes. This
assured measurement of the super-synchronous modes with the corresponding current
and power over the same bandwidth for the purpose of correlating perturbations in the
generator load with rotor torsional vibration. Also, the long recording periods allowed
for complete records of the steel mill melt processes in case unusual or unplanned
events occurred which may excite rotor vibration.
The sensor locations are protrayed in Figure 4-2 with an electrical schematic of the
magnetic tape recording and analysis system provided in Figure 4-3.
4.4.1 Magnetic Tape Recording and Analysis System
The 10 sensors were connected to signal conditioners which demodulated, filtered, and
amplified the input voltage signals. The sensors were connected along with a time code
to a 16 channel magnetic tape recorder for simultaneous recording. Continuous
recording of the signals over a frequency bandwidth of 0 to 250 Hz were made for each
test condition for periods of up to 2 hours per tape. In parallel to the tape recorder the
data channels were connected through filters to a high speed, eight channel strip chart,
oscilloscope, spectrum analyzer and digital voltmeter for calibration, system setup and
real-time monitoring during the test and for playback from the recorder for additional
data analysis.
4.4.2 Machine View Digital Monitoring System
The magnetic tape system was assembled for the test phases, only; PSCO purchased a
PC based high speed, digital DAS, designed particularly for rotating machinery by
Machine View, a subsidary of CSI, Inc. Machine View is primarily an on-line
monitoring system with a variety of alarm, recording and data storage capabilities. It
can record up to 16 channels (expandable) of high speed analog data from a variety of
sensors including accelerometers, proximity probes and general voltage type devices.
The real time data may be graphically displayed in engineering units in a variety of
forms including time histories, frequency spectra, tabulated amplitudes of selectively
filtered or unfiltered data and historical trends. The system provides up to four levels
of alarm with relay capabilities anunciators and panel lights. Time histories and
frequency spectra can be recorded automatically for sensors that exceeded user
prescribed alarm levels. Acquisition rates and FFT resolution is variable.
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The analog signals are filtered, amplified and converted to digital signals (A/D
conversion) for processing. A transient recording mode permitts recording of signals
for up to 16 minutes with either a manual or automatic trigger.
Machine View provides the software to perform two channel time series analysis which
includes time histories, Power Spectrum Density, Cross Spectrums, Transfer functions,
Coherence, X-Y and orbit plots. The data is displayed on the CRT and plotted on the
computer's printer.
The system recorded and monitored eight data channels: angular velocity, generator
power and current for both units as shown in Figure 4-4. The system was setup during
the first phase of testing and used extensively during the second phase. The data
sample rate was set at 1000 samples per second per channel with the data stored to a
separate buffer then transfered to the systems hard drive for permanent storage.
During non-test periods Machine View Monitors both Unit 1 and 2 Turbine- generators
and alarms on large amplitude excursions.
4.4.3 Sensor Description
Table 4-5 provides the sensor identification, sensitivity and recording and analysis
information.
4.4.3.1 Torsional Vibration
Torsional vibration of the rotor was measured at the Turning Gear, High Pressure
Turbine-end and Exciter-end for both units as shown in Figure 4-2. These locations
were choosen based on accessibility and adequacy of assessing the vibration amplitude
at the exciter-end retaining ring. Though the locations are not at the exciter-end
retaining ring, the vibration response at the retaining ring can be determined through
scaling the measured vibration amplitudes for the predominate resonant frequencies to
the location of interest using the calculated mode shape for determing the scaling ratio.
The torsional mode shapes [19] and their resonant frequencies between 11 and 169 Hz
are provided in Figure 4-5.
The Turning Gear, High Pressure Turbine-end and Unit 2 Exciter-end are equipped
with a 60 or 98 tooth precision gear which provides a means to measure the angular
velocity using magnetic pickup sensors. The Unit 1 Exciter-end permanent magnet
generator (PMG) simulates a 7 tooth gear for angular velocity measurements.
The magnetic transducers are mounted on existing protection covers directed at the
tooth end of the precision gears as shown in Figure 4-6. The magnetic transducer
measures the change in magnetic fields due to the sequential passing of the top and
bottom of the gear teeth and produces a voltage proportional to the magnetic field
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change. The voltage time history appears as a pulse train with a each pulse
representing a passing tooth. The angular velocity due to torsional vibration modulates
the 3600 rpm rotor rotation providing a frequency modulated signal to the signal
conditioner which FM demodulates to produce a voltage proportional to the angular
velocity amplitude.
For a 3600 RPM turbine operating at a constant speed with a 60-tooth gear, the
magnetic transducer will exhibit 3600 pulses per second. A decrease (<3600 RPM) or
increase (>3600 RPM) in rotor speed will be observed as a modulated change in the
pulse rate. The rotor responds to torsional vibration in a similar manner; that is, a
torsional vibration will cause change in rotor speed at a rate equal to the vibration
modal frequency where the instantaneous rotor speed will be proportional to the
torsional velocity amplitude.
For example, a 10 Hz sinusoidal torsional vibration with a 1% of rotor speed angular

velocity (36 RPM or 3.77 radian/second) variation will cause the rotor rotation speed to
change between 3564 and 3636 RPM at 10 Hz.
4.4.3.2 Generator Power
Instantaneous power for each generator was measured using an unfiltered, 3-phase, 3-
wire hall-effect watt transducer which combines the generator current (CT) and voltage
(PT) to provide a voltage proportional to the power.
4.4.3.3 Generator Current
Generator current for the A and B phase of Unit 2 was measured from the CT for each
phase. A current loop with a 0.1 ohm resistor was formed such that a voltage
proportional to the current across the resistor was produced.
4.5 Data Recording
The tape recorder and stripchart recorded continuously throughout the testing to
assure that any a typical events, as-well-as the prescribed test conditions, which might
occur would be observed and available for more detailed analysis off-line at the end of
the testing. Detailed test logs were kept registering the tape identification, date, time
and description of the test condition and/or event. Both the tape recorder and strip
chart are time stamped for the purpose of correlating events.
On-line data displays were used to guide the test progression. Selected sensor outputs
were displayed on the strip chart and the two channel spectrum (frequency) analyzer.
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The strip chart output was calibrated in engineering units and time (seconds/mm).
The frequency content of any two selected channels was observed on the spectrum
analyzer, typically, the turning gear torsional velocity for Units 1 and 2. The spectrum
analyzer was used in an instantaneous mode where the spectrum is continuously
updated or in a peak-hold mode where the maximum value for each frequency is
maintained over the entire data gathering period. The amplitude of the spectrum
display is in voltsrms; to convert to Engineering Units a conversion factor is applied.
All sensors were calibrated prior to testing by insertion of known input signals.
4.6 Data Analysis
Data analysis was performed both on-line during the testing and upon the completion
of the test sequence. Time histories provided information pertaining to the overall level
of vibration activity during each test condition. The signals were contaminated with
electrical noise at 60, 120, 180 and 240 Hz due to the close proximity to large elecrical
fields near the generator. Bandpass filters and frequency analysis were necessary to
distinguish actual vibration data from the noise. Discrete vibration frequencies and
amplitudes were used for the detailed comparisons of the test conditions through the
calculation of an angular acceleration, A, in radian/second2 from the measured angular
velocity.
Theoretically, the angular acceleration at a point on a structure and at an instant in time

is determined by the superposition of the modal amplitudes as a function of time,
frequency and the phase relationships between the mode shapes which can be
functionally represented as
A(V , Φ, ω , t ) = ( ΣV , Φ, ω , t )
where:
V = modal velocity
Φ = relative phase angle
ω = modal frequency
t = time
i = mode number
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Transformation into the frequency domain through the Fourier transform provides the
frequency composition of the time history over a time period. The resulting frequency
spectrum is composed of the time averaged, rms modal amplitudes and frequencies of
the structure.
The frequency analysis provides the angular velocities ,Vi, at the modal frequencies, fi.
This data was used to calculate an angular acceleration using the square-root-of-the-
sum-of-the-squares approximation for an overall, effective acceleration. The velocity
amplitudes were the maximum value observed over the entire test period. A peak-to-
rms factor, P, converted the measured voltage from rms to peak. The sensor sensitivity,
S, converted the measured voltage to engineering units. The above equation is then
reduced to
1
 P 2
A (V , ω ) =  Σ   V , ω , 
  S 
where:
ω = 2pf
P = 1.4
S = 0.4562 Volt/radian/second (typical sensitivity)
Application of the data analysis technique is illustrated for three examples

characterizing data for low, medium and high angular acceleration levels for three
separate test conditions. These examples are typical for similar levels observed
throughout the testing. Each example illustrates the time history and frequency spectra
for angular velocity at the Unit 1 Turning Gear and High Pressure end, Unit 2 turning
gear and exciter-end, Unit 1 and 2 power and Unit 1 and 2 current.
The three test conditions are as follow. The relationship between vibration level and arc
furnace operation will be discussed later in the report.
a. Low Level Vibration (Test H1)

Both arc furnaces operating with transformer Tap changes from 1 to 6 on one
furnace.
b. Medium Level Vibration (Test A1)

Both arc furnaces are operating with the SVFC in the Manual mode of operation.
c. High Level Vibration (K1)

Both furnaces are off.
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The time histories and frequency spectra for each example are observed in Figures 4-7
through 4-9. Table 4-6 provides information used to quantify each test condition for the
three examples. The turning gear velocity provides the most significant data due to its
close proximity to the retaining ring and it is at a location of near maximum amplitude
for the torsional modes which may excite the retaining ring.
Figure 4-9b, Unit 2 Turning Gear Velocity, displays amplitudes for the resonant
frequencies of 11, 114.7 and 164.5 Hz used in calculating the angular acceleration.
Figures 4-9c and d display unexpected spectral peaks near 120 Hz for generator power
and near 60 Hz for generator current, important to the understanding of this problem..
The amplitude at exactly 60 Hz component and its harmonics observed in the spectra
are either electrically induced noise or the expected power and current frequency
produced.
Comparison of the three examples (Table 4-6) provides an overall perspective on the
sensitivity of the measurements in determining the events and conditions which cause
high amplitude torsional vibration. Significant increases, factor of 10, are observed for
the 114.7 Hz component for Unit 2 with less increase for the 123.5 component for Unit
1. The subsynchronous component at 11 Hz also changes for these conditions.
Observation of the power and current spectra show an increase in the overall spectra
broadband energy (0 to 200 Hz) with development of peaks near the 60 Hz component
for the current and 120 Hz component for the power.
The time history data for all the sensors is masked with electrically induced 60 Hz and
its harmonics, yet for the turning gear the periods of high torsional vibration can be
distinguished from the periods of lower activity as shown in Figure 4-9b. The vibration
levels do not maintain the high level throughout the tests, but appear to occur
periodically for up to two or three minutes.
In addition to observation of the time history and frequency spectra, the angular
acceleration is calculated for each test condition from the equation derived previously.
This calculation is illustrated for the Unit 2 high level vibration example, Figure 4-9b
where the angular velocity values are 0.03, 0.28, 0.02 radian/secondrms for 11, 114.7,
164.5 Hz, respectively. A is calculated from,
[ ]
1
A = Σ(8.8Vi fi )
2 2
=283 radian/second2.
A is calculated for the three examples above and provided in Table 4-6. Differences in
the Unit 1 and 2 angular acceleration responses are discussed in the Test Results.
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4.7 Test Results for Phase 1 and 2
The results in this section pertain only to the Phase 1 and 2 tests; Phase 3 tests which
were run at a later date and under different conditions are discussed in their entirety in
a separate section, Section XX.
An overall summary of the test results for Phase 1 and 2 is provided in Table 4-7. The
table provides test identification, test conditions, angular acceleration, generator power
and current amplitudes at critical frequencies. The generator current data was available
only for the Phase 2 testing, while the power data was available for Phases 1 and 2, but
only analyzed for the specific Phase 1 tests identified in the table.
Several of the Phase 1 tests have the same test conditions which were maintained for
long periods, but revealed different torsional responses and were identified with
different test sequence numbers.
The normal operating conditions for the SVFC is in the Automatic mode with the
power factor, set near 1 with the vars produced by furnace operation lagging. In
application the power factor is 0.98 with lagging vars. The operation status of the Ladle
Treatment System (LTS), Induction Furnace (IF), and the Seventh Harmonic Filter
(SHF) was not maintained in the Test Log until considered important in the latter
stages of Phase 2. Reconstructed status conditions from the steel mill records are
inserted in the table for completion where possible.
A visual representation of angular acceleration at the Turning Gear for all the test
conditions is provided in the graph in Figure 4-10. The graph displays the maximum
angular acceleration for each test condition differentiated by unit. All the Phase 2 tests
were run with both Units on-line, while the Phase 1 tests included Unit 1 and 2 off-line.
The angular acceleration predicted from the stress and fracture mechanics analysis
which may initiate retaining ring cracks is indicated for both the 'short' and 'long'
retaining ring designs. At the time of the retaining ring failure, Unit 1 and 2 were
equipped with the short ring design. During the testing, Unit 2 had the long ring
design while Unit 1 had the short ring. Currently, Unit 1 and 2 have the long ring
design. The ring design will not affect the rotor torsional vibration.
4.7.1 Phase 1, Tests A - N
4.7.1.1 Results
Phase 1 testing took place over a three day period varying the steel mill operating
conditions and exciter settings as described in Table 4-2 and 4- 6. The tests were
exploratory recreating the conditions and torsional responses that were observed in the
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1989 testing at the subsynchronous frequencies of 11 and 22 Hz (1 st and 2nd torsional

mode shapes), but looking for some unusual vibration conditions which would provide
the higher accelerations necessary to create fretting/fatigue crack initiation. This
condition based on the fracture mechanics analysis focused the on-line analysis with
the spectrum analyzer to the supersychronous modes particularly the 6th mode (Figure
4-5) with maximum torsional amplitude near the retaining ring. Some test conditions
were held for several hours as the steel mill went through the whole melt cycle.
Data was recorded continuously on the magnetic tape and observed real-time on the
spectrum analyzer and strip charts. Angular acceleration calculated for the pertinent
modal amplitudes by differentiation of the angular velocity measured at the turning
gear provided a sensitive measure for test comparisons and is provided in Table 4-7 for
each test.
The initial conditions Tests A-E were expected to provide large responses due to high
furnace activity, particularly Test A with dual arc furnace bore-in. In actuality the tests
provided relatively low level response at the supersynchrounous modes and responses
comparable to the 1989 tests at the subsynchronous modes. Test C, arc furnace tap
restriction to Tap 3, showed some higher level sporadic responses which were not
necessarily tied into the initial, high electrical activity bore-in phase of the melting
process. Typically, during these tests both Unit 1 and 2 were responding in the range of
75 to 110 radians/second2 with the exception of the short time during Test C where the
response was as high as 188 radians/second2 for Unit 2. At the high response the most
significant spectral peak was at 114.5 Hz, Unit 2's 6th mode. At this point in the testing
the conditions which caused the high vibration were not obvious and did not appear to
be related to the initial bore-in period of the arc furnace. During tests A to C variations
to the settings of the exciter and associated equipment (AVR, PSS) were made without
any changes to the vibration levels.
Tests D and E were run with the SVFC initially in an off condition (D), no power factor
control, then after a period it was switched on (E), normal, automatic operation. With
the SVFC switched off for over one hour and both furnaces in a staggered melt cycle;
the highest Unit 1 and Unit 2 response, was 92 and 80 radian/second2, respectively.
With the SVFC switched on there was an instantaneous, significant increase in the Unit
2 response, a factor of three, with a slight decrease in the Unit 1 response; the maximum
Unit 1 and 2 response was 77 and 276 radian/second2, respectively. Again, the Unit 2
response showed the maximum amplitude to be at 114.5 Hz and characterized as
intermittent and varying in amplitude. Unit 1 did not appear to respond to the SVFC
change.
Observation of the abrupt change in the torsional response between Tests D and E
indicated the source of the increased torsional response to be associated with the SVFC
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operation and not internally generated in the turbine/generator or the associated

equipment (exciter, PSS, AVR) which when tested by taking off-line or changing
settings did not effect the torsional response.
Tests F through H, Unit 2 off-line and the steel mill operating normally, ran for several
hours; the different test identifications (F, G, H) were used to indicate different test
periods during this condition. The worst case Unit 1 condition, 132 radians/second2,
was higher than any condition with two Units operating and may be attributed to the
one operating Unit absorbing the full torsional forcing energy rather than shared with
two Units. The spectral peaks for both the subsynchronous and supersynchronous
modes are comparable.
Tests I-N were similar to F-H except Unit 1 was off-line and Unit 2 was on-line. Data
was recorded continuously and analyzed at the various periods where the amplitudes
were high. The high level vibration was characterized by the predominant spectral
peak at 114.5 Hz. Both the Unit 2 generator power and torsional velocity at the turning
gear were observed during these tests on the two channel spectrum analyzer in a real
time mode. The generator power spectra was observed to have a 114.5 Hz frequency
peak which varied in amplitude with time similar to the torsional velocity. The two
parameters were well correlated and appeared for short periods then diminished with
only a low amplitude 114.5 Hz value left.
Overall, the maximum angular acceleration obtained for Unit 2 was three times greater
than Unit 1. The high amplitude response was independent of the stage in the melt
cycle; for example, the simultaneous bore-in melt, Test A, exhibits an angular
acceleration for Unit 2 of 75 radian/second2 during the initial, high, intensity melting
phases where the steel mill load was approximately 100 Mwatts, and power swings,
both active and reactive, were large due to electrodes arcing and shorting. Compare
that value to Test E with Unit 2 = 276 radian/second2 where the melt in AF3 has not
begun and AF4 is in the lower power, end of melt phase. Similar melt conditions
existed for test conditions for Tests L, M and N with Unit 1 off-line and Unit 2
accelerations of 324, 308, and 254 radian/second2, respectively. In fact, the highest
power load and swings, Test A, which prior to the test were expected to produce the
largest vibration levels proved the opposite and produced the lowest levels for Unit 2.
Unit 1 in general maintained relatively low vibration levels between 68 and 132
radian/second2 and appeared to react opposite to Unit 2's response with lower
responses for Test C and E where Unit 2 had elevated response.
Bore-in on Tap 3 for AF3, instead of the normal bore-in on Tap 1, Test C, produced the
first high level torsional response for Unit 2's, 188 radian/second2. The test condition
which contributed to this response did appeared related to AF3 operating on Tap 3, but
did not occur during the initial bore-in period where the large power surges take place.
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The result was significant, but unexplainable. Up to this point in the testing the
torsional levels had been relatively low amplitude.
4.7.1.2 Relationship Between Torsional Response and Generator Power
The results up to this point have compared the test conditions by observing differences
in the overall angular acceleration. Further insight into the physical nature of the
problem is obtained through investigation of the time and frequency character of the
torsional response and generator power.
The high amplitude torsional response which may cause fretting/fatigue damage to the
retaining ring is characterized as intermittent bursts occurring for periods from several
seconds to minutes then repeating intermittently as shown for the Unit 2 Turning Gear
velocity, Test L, in Figure 4-11. The torsional velocity remains steady at 0.05
radian/second for several seconds, then suddenly changes to a pulsing, unsteady
signal with a peak value of 0.6 radian/second. This is a snapshot in time which repeats
itself for long periods depending on the steel mill's system operating conditions. The
testing period represented by covered several hours of steel mill normal operation with
the Unit 2 turbine/generator, only, operating Tests I through N. The tests were
recorded at periodic instants of high vibration. Test L is representative of these tests
and has the largest response.
For a structure to vibrate, a forcing function must be present. A steady forcing function
will produce a steady response; transient forces will produce transient responses. The
rise and decay time of the vibrational response for a transient is dependent on the
structure's mechanical characteristics: mass, stiffness and damping, as well as, the wave
shape characteristics of the forcing function. The turbine/generator rotor's torsional
response is coupled to the power generated through the rotor's time varying torque.
The torque/power relationship is reciprocal; that is, a change in torque will produce a
change in power and, vice versa, a change in load will cause a change in torque. The
torque/power time characteristics has both a static and oscillatory components.
Examination of the torsional vibration response and the generator's power provides an
understanding of the cause of the intermittent high amplitude torsional response.
The frequency composition of the angular velocity for the steady and unsteady
conditions in Figure 4-11 are provided in Figure 4-12 for Test L. The spectra indicates
peak responses at 11.2, 60, 114.7, 120, 164.5 and 180 Hz with the amplitudes provided in
Table 4-7. The 60, 120 and 180 Hz amplitudes are due to electrical noise while the 11.2,
114.7, and 164.5 Hz peaks are the torsional modal responses shown in Figure 4-5. The
generator power time history and spectra, Figures 4-13 and 4-14, for Unit 2 can be
observed for the same conditions as the angular velocity. The generator power spectra
shows a dramatic increase in the overall, broadband power with identical peaking as
the velocity at 11.2 and 114.7 Hz.
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The significant increase in the torsional response for 11.2 and 114.7 Hz is directly
related to the increase in the power at the same frequencies. To determine which
parameter, power or velocity, causes the problem, detailed examination of the time
relationships between the two was performed as described below.
The Waterfall graphs in Figures 4-15 and 4-16 portray a three-dimensional view of the
velocity and power as a function of time and frequency. The two parameters tend to
follow directly over the entire length of the run for the 11 and 114 Hz peaks. Expansion
of the Waterfall plots at the end of the first transient condition (4.5 seconds), Figure 4-17
and 4-18, and the onset of the second transient condition (29 seconds), Figure 4-19 and
4-20 provides a more detailed examination of these periods to determine which
parameter leads the other.
Figure 4-18 shows the power at 114 Hz decreases sharply to near zero at 5.0 seconds
while the velocity, Figure 4-17, begins its decay and continues to near 16 seconds.
Figure 4-21 plots the 114.7 Hz amplitude as a function of time for both the power and
velocity during this decay. The initiation of the long exponential decay of the velocity
upon the sudden reduction in the power is characteristic of the decayed response of a
low damped, vibrating structure after the removal of the forcing function.
Observation of the expanded onset transient is less obvious as to which parameter

increases first. Yet, looking at the 114.75 Hz component for both the power and velocity
over this onset period, Figure 4-22 with a logarithmic ordinate, shows overall, the
power at 114.75 Hz increase coinciding with the velocity increase, but a initial power
excursion occurs prior to the velocity's excursion.
In both the onset and decay of the intermittent torsional response, the generator power
change leads the rotor vibration response.
4.7.1.3 Phase 1 Test Results Conclusions
Intermittent power oscillations excite large amplitude, torsional vibration modes,

particularly the 6th (114.5 Hz mode) of the Unit 2 turbine/generator rotor at the turbine
end retaining ring. The lower modes, 11 and 22 Hz are, also, excited during these
excursions. The source of the power oscillations appears to be associated with the
operation of the SVFC at the steel mill. Large amplitude torsional vibration response
are not due to the turbine/generator exciter settings, but directly correlate to power
oscillations on the grid. The effect of running only one Unit nominally increases both
the operating Unit's torsional response. Unit 1 has increased torsional response at its 6th
mode (123.5 Hz), but at levels 1/3 the amplitude of Unit 2 and does not correlate with
SVFC operation.
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4.7.2 Phase 2 Test Results (Tests A1 - L1)
Phase 2 testing pursued the cause of these power oscillations through a more detailed
focusing on the arc furnaces' melt cycle in conjunction with operation of the SVFC.
The angular accelerations, Table 4-7, for both Units are in the same range as those
found in the Phase 1 testing. This implies that by adjusting the steel mills equipment to
establish specific test conditions during Phase 2, the resulting amplitudes bound the
exploratory Phase 1 results. Unit 1 continued to exhibit 1/3 or less of the levels as Unit
2.
Tests A1 through F1 involved variation of the steel mill's system power load through
arc furnace tap changes and power factor settings which affects the timing of the SVFC
thyristor firing . The tests produced low level angular accelerations: 48 to 124
radian/second2 for Unit 2 and 28 to 100 radian/second2 for Unit 1.
Concern for the operating status of the LTS, IF and SHF which are activated in the
latter, lower power consumption stage of the melt cycle were not considered to
contribute to the power oscillations at this point in the testing. Their status, as shown in
the table, were determined, where possible, after Phase 2 completion.
Observation of the Unit 2 generator current spectra was added to the data analysis
during this Phase of testing. Figure 4-23 illustrates the frequency relationship between
generator power and current for Test K1. Power and current spectra indicate dominate
frequency components, other than the expected electrical components of 60 and 120 Hz
at 114.7 Hz and 54.7 Hz, respectively. The 54.7 Hz in the current evolves into the 114.7
Hz in the power through the relationship between power and the current:
The instantaneous voltage, current and power ares
v = V cos ( ωt )
i = I cos ( ωt + Φ )
p = vi = VI cos ( ωt )cos ( ωt + Φ )
and
ω = 2πf
where
v = Line Voltage
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i = Line Current
p = Active Power
V = constant value
I = constant value
f = frequency
t = time
ø = phase angle between V and I
By the trigonmetric identity for the multiplcation of two cosine functions, the power
becomes
p = VI/2 cos (2ω + Φ) + cos Φ
To simplify for the purpose of this discussion assume the power is only composed of
active power then,
Φ= 0
and
p = VI/2 cos (2 ω t)
If
f = 60 Hz
then
ω = 2πf = (2π )60
and
p = VI/2 cos[2 (2 π ) 60t] = VI/2 cos [(2 π p)120t]
Thus the combination of voltage and current, two cosine waves at 60 Hz, produces the
power at 120 Hz for a single phase. Three phase power is the summation of three
phases, each phase separated by 120 degrees. Assuming each phase consists of voltages
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and currents of constant value, providing balanced power. The summation produces
power at a constant value equal to the summation of the average power for each phase.
For unbalanced power, that is the component of current or voltage from one phase to
another vary, the resultant power will have a constant value with the addition of a 120
Hz component "riding" on top of it. Also, if the current or voltage consists of more than
one frequency then the output power for three phase unbalanced power will include
the 120 Hz unbalance in addition to the component at the superposition of 60 Hz and
the other frequency as is shown below.
Assume that one of the three phases has the addition of a frequency component, w2, in
the current, then
I = [I1cos ( ω 1t) + I2cos ( ω 2t)]
and
p = VI1cos ( ω 1t) cos ( ω 1t) + VI2 cos( ω 1t)cos ( ω 2t)
using trigonometric identities
p = V/2{I1[1+cos(2 ω 1t)] +I2[cos( ω 1t - ω 2t) + cos( ω 1t + ω 2t)]}
Using frequency values from the testing of
f1 = 60 Hz, f2 = 54.7 Hz
then the instantaneous power as a function of time will be
p = V/2{I1 [1+ cos (2p2f 1t)] + I2 [cos (2pf1t - 2pf 2t) + cos (2pf1t + 2pf 2t)]}
substituting for f1 and f2
p = V/2{I1 [1+ cos (2p120t)] + I2 [cos (2p 60t - 2p54.7t) + cos (2p 60t + 2 π 54.7t]}
which can be reduced to
p = V/2{I1 [1+ cos (2p120t)] + I2 [cos (2p5.3t) + cos(2p114.7t)]}
A frequency spectra of p will show components at 5.3, 114.7 and 120 Hz where the
114.7 and 120 Hz components are due to the sum of the individual current components,
54.7 and 60 Hz, with the 60 Hz voltage component.
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All the Phase 2 tests except A1, E1, H1 and L1 have combination of inter-harmonics and
harmonics. The exceptions where the power and current did not exhibit the inter-
harmonic peaks and exhibited low torsional response.
A significant observation of tests A1 to F1 is that without a 54.7 Hz component in the

current and 114.7 Hz component in the power, the Unit 2 angular acceleration
amplitudes are low and equal to the largest amplitudes found for Unit 1, less than 125
radian/second2. Unit 1 has not incurred any type of mechanical damage throughout its
life at this level of vibration. Peaks in the current and power at other than 114.7 Hz do
not contribute significantly to the angular acceleration.
During Test G1, an arc furnace tap change to lower load, Unit 2 responded with a high
level vibration similar to Phase 1 testing. Surprisingly, this occurred late in the melt
cycle when the power swings are minimal and in this case one arc furnace was off-line
and the other in a liquid temperature, hold condition. Up to this point in the testing,
both furnaces were on-line with at least one furnace in a bore-in stage. The angular
velocity during this condition suddenly increased to an angular acceleration of 232
radian/second2 with concentrated spectral energy in both the power and angular
velocity at 114.7 Hz. Up to this point in time, it was assumed that high furnace activity
would lead to high torsional vibration; the increase in torsional response at low power
levels of melt activity was unexpected though it had been pointed out in discussions
that SVFC control instability may cause vibration and could occur at low or high
system load.
A thorough investigation of the plant's operation, particularly the SVFC controls, found
the latter stages of the melt cycle at times has one or both furnaces off with one or both
the LTS (10 MW) and IF (5 MW) on-line. The furnaces in the latter melt stages require
lower power which is satisfied through reducing the arc furnace transformer tap from
position 1 (highest power) to 3, 4, 5, or 6. Coordination of the steel mill's recording
charts of furnace load versus time and the vibration strip charts (Figure 4-24) for Test
G1 showed that the high level vibration coincided exactly with the change to Tap 5 and
ended when Tap 5 was removed. Tap 5 with only one furnace operating corresponded
to a plant load of 10 MW. Also, it can be observed that at near zero power, the vibration
is near zero. Another indication of the relationship of the torsional vibration to the steel
mill operation. Referring to Figure 4-25, with both furnaces operating, one on Tap 1 and
the other on Tap 5, the plant load was near 60 MW and the torsional response was low.
The conclusion drawn from this information was that a condition exists at low load
levels which excites the high level torsional vibration.
Additional tap tests directed at substantiating the previous result were performed. Test
H1 (two furnace operating) and I1 (one furnace operating), provided further evidence
that events at the lower plant load induce the high level vibration. The results from H1
showed no change in vibration amplitude as function of tap setting. Test I1, Figure 4-26
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resulted in high level responses with the amplitude dependent on the load level (tap
setting). The maximum response was at the Tap 5 setting with a maximum amplitude
of 259 radians/second2 (0.36 radians/second) and a 15 MW load. The lowest vibration
amplitude occurred at the highest load level, Tap 1.
Implications from these tests were that the tap acts only to switch the available power
and is not a source in itself of the power perturbations. Therefore, the power
oscillations are due to plant equipment interaction with the SVFC at low powers and
may not be related to the high power, high furnace activity.
To test this hypothesis that the 50 MW arc furnaces are not a primary cause of the high
level vibration the next test, J1, was run with both arc furnaces off-line and the LTS and
IF drawing 16 MW. The results of this test produced high level torsional fluctuations,
202 radian/second2.
Discussions with the steel mill revealed that the only changes in the SVFC operation
that occur at this low level of load is the removal of the seventh harmonic filter (SHF) as
the load drops below 26 MW (two to one furnace operation) with the SHF returning as
the load increases above 60 MW (one to two furnace operation). The reason for the
removal is to decrease the system capacitance to minimize the var output. The SHF is
the only filter in the harmonic filter bank which is automatically switched. Normal
operation maintains all the filters in service. Table 4-4 describes the SHF operation
conditions; notice the deadband range where the SHF may be in or out depending on
the plant's operation mode.
A final set of tests followed, a repeat of test J1 with deliberate SHF withdrawal (K1) and
insertion (L1). Comparison of the velocity, power and current time history and
frequency spectra (Figures 4-27 through 4-29 for K1 and Figures 4-30 through 4-32 for
L1) for these two tests indicate a dramatic decrease in the vibration (283 to 62.5
radian/second2) and power (2.4 to 0.4 MW) at 114.7 Hz and current (94.3 to 16.7 amps)
at 54.7 Hz with the SHF on-line. The response was immediate and repeatable.
The SHF deadband, 26 to 60 MW, precipitated the random, unexplainable occurrence

of the high level response observed throughout the testing because depending which
direction and stage of the melt cycle the plant is in the SHF may be on - or off - line.
The above testing led to a temporary solution to the damaging, high vibration. The
solution removed the automatic SHF mode and manually maintained the SHF on-line
at all times. The effect of the SHF on the SVFC is not understood; Phase 3 testing to be
discussed in a later section was performed to investigate this instability.
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4.7.3 Discussion of the Relationship Between the Vibration Amplitude and

Generator Power and Current
Table 4-7 provides the peak frequency and amplitude found in the frequency spectra in
the 114 to 118 Hz bandwidth for Phase 1 and 2 testing for generator power and current.
Review of the frequencies indicates that the power frequency varied between 114.7 and
117.2 Hz and the current frequency varied between 54.7 and 57.6 with the largest
torsional response occurring for the conditions where the angular velocity and power
coincided at 114.7 Hz (current, 54.7 Hz).
During the arc furnace tap tests it was noted that different tap settings produced
different peak frequncies in the range of interest (refer to Table 4-7, "Expansion Test
Condition I1"). Tap 1 did not produce a peak; the data at 114.7 Hz represents the
amplitude at that frequency. Also, the vibration response varied with tap setting.
Figures 4-33 and 4-34 are graphs of the above data where the angular acceleration
amplitude at 114.7 Hz is plotted as a function of the peak frequency amplitude for
power and current, respectively. The angular acceleration where the frequency
component of the power and current coincide (indicated by the diamonds) with the
114.7 Hz torsional frequency has a linear relationship with the power and the current.
The values in the graphs which do not fit the linear relationship have peaks in the
power and current at frequencies near, but not exactly, at 114.7 Hz or 54.7 Hz and are
indicated on the graphs as squares with the frequency value in parenthesis. The circled
value on each graph does not fit the linear relationship, yet has most of its energy at
114.7 Hz but with nearly the same energy at 115.2 Hz which implies that all the forcing
energy is not focused at the 114.7 Hz resonance, therefore responding at a lower
vibration amplitude.
From the graphs it is obvious that as the forcing frequency moves away from the 114.7
Hz resonance, the effect on response decreases rapidly. That is for the same amplitude
of power or current at a non-coincident frequency the torsional response is significantly
less depending on the proximity to the resonant frequency value. For example, Figure
4-33 indicates four acceleration values for the same power near 2 MW. The lowest
amplitude is for the power corresponding to 115.7 Hz with the largest at 114.7 Hz, for a
response difference of nearly a factor of 4, yet the frequency of the forcing function is
only 1 Hz from the resonance.
This behavior is representative of a extremely low damped structure. Damping for the
114.7 Hz torsional mode of the Comanche rotor is calculated using the logarithmic
decrement technique for the vibration data represented in Figure 4-21. The calculated
critical damping ratio is 0.07 for the higher vibration amplitudes decreasing to 0.03 at
the lower vibration amplitudes.
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This response is typical of hysteresis damping of a single degree of freedom system

where the damping is attributed to the material itself, not external viscosity or friction
damping. Figure 4-35 is a graph of the dynamic magnification factor for a low damped,
single-degree of freedom system using the damping ratio observed in the rotor. The
dynamic magnification, torsional response output for unit genrator power input, is
significantly reduced as the forcing function moves a fraction of a Hz from the resonant
peak.
Consequently, for the rotor to respond at the high amplitudes, greater than 250
radian/second2, the forcing function, power, must have adequate energy in a narrow
bandwidth near the 6th torsional mode. There was no significant peaks found above
120 Hz which explains why Unit 1, with the 123.5 Hz 6 th mode resonance, does not
respond with high level vibration. Unit 1, as well as Unit 2, does respond
proportionately to the broadband increases in power energy, but without the power
peaks at the structural resonant frequency these increases are not of sufficient
amplitude to cause damage.
4.8 Phase 3 Test Program
4.8.1 Introduction
Results of the Phase 1 and 2 testing indicated the primary contributor of the high level
torsional vibrations which failed the Unit 2 retaining ring was associated with the
operation of the SVFC during the low power portion of the melt cycle. The SHF had to
be out of the system for the SVFC to produce an inter-harmonic frequency (54.5 Hz
current, 114.5 Hz power) which coincided with the sixth mode torsional resonance of
the generator (114.5 Hz).
The temporary solution to assure minimal rotor vibration was for the steel mill to
insure that the SHF was removed from automated operation and maintained in the
system on a continuous basis. This fix was not completely satisfactory to PSCo because
understanding of the conditions which triggered the inter-harmonic frequency was not
complete and any change in the steel mills electrical system may have the potential to
trigger the phenomenon leaving the Unit 2 and possibly the Unit 1 turbine at risk.
Phase 3 testing pursued a more detailed investigation of the SVFC during various steel
mill operating conditions. The testing sought the mechanism/circuit within the SVFC
which caused the damaging oscillations. GE, the SVFC manufacturer, was retained by
PSCo to direct the testing including identifying measurement points. GE, PSCo, SI and
the steel mill worked together to perform the testing in July 1995.
Between October 1994, Phase 2 testing, and July 1995 the steel mill had replaced the
Ladle Treatment Station with a Ladle Refinement Furnace (LRF) and removed the
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Induction Furnace. The effect of the new LRF on the system response was not expected
to have an effect on the mechanism which triggers the excitation of the inter-harmonic
frequency.
This section of the report summarizes the test and integrates the results with Phase 1
and 2. For more details of the testing, particularly the SVFC circuitry, the reader is
referred to the GE test report (Reference XX).
4.8.2 Test Objective
The test objectives were to identify the presence of the inter-harmonic frequencies in the
various system and control elements within the SVFC and identify the mechanism
which creates them. Also, the negative sequence currents (additional heating to the
retaining rings) of the Comanche generators were to be measured for various steel
mill/SVFC conditions.
4.8.3 Instrumentation
Similar instrumentation used in the earlier testing was supplemented with additional
voltage, current and power measurements at the steel mill and the generators as
indicated in Figure 4-36. Table 4-9 lists the instruments at both locations. The data at
each location, steel mill and Comanche, was simultaneously recorded on analog
magnetic tape recorders with selected channels from the Comanche location recorded
on the Machine View Digital Data Acquisition System. The data at each location was
time synchronized through recording an IRIG standard time code broadcast from a
single source.
4.8.4 Test Conditions
Test conditions were established that would isolate the effect of a steel mill system by
producing an on/off state which would excite and calm the high level vibration. These
conditions are listed in Table 4-10.
Many of these conditions were run previously, but without the instrumentation at the
steel mill. New tests examined the sixth harmonic filter operation, isolation of the SVFC
power factor regulator circuit and electrode vibration as a source of current
modulation. Repeats of the normal operation and the SHF testing at low power (arc
furnace transformer tap 5 position) were repeated to establish continuity with previous
testing.
The SVFC is composed of two circuits the primary loop and the power factor regulator.
The primary loop is a feed forward system which maintains the system voltage level
within acceptable limits. The primary loop does not have feedback, but compares
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voltage readings to a setpoint. The power factor regulator measures the reactive power
and provides adjustment of the SVFC to maintain a power factor setting between 0.9
and 1.0. The power factor regulator does have feedback from reactive power
measurements. With the power factor circuit off line the power factor is not controlled
and varies with operational conditions.
Arc furnace electrodes are known to vibrate due to arcing and insertion position
control. The frequency of vibration may be near 5 Hz and may induce that frequency
into the system current which when coupled with the 60 Hz current could produce 55
and 65 Hz sideband frequencies through modulation. Two tests were performed to
isolate a potential vibration source: electrode regulator on/off and "dipping" of the
electrodes into the melt to stop the vibration.
4.8.5 Test Results
Test data for the Phase 3 tests are provided in Table 4-11 and Figure 4-37. Conditions
similar to the Phase 1 and 2 testing produced both low and high vibration in Unit 2.
Tests A3 through D3 with the steel mill operating at the high power conditions, one or
two furnaces operating, exhibit Unit 2 vibration levels less than 53. With the steel mill
operating in a combination of low power, less than 15 MW, and the SHF out and/or the
Sixth HF out of the system (Tests E3 through K3) the Unit 2 vibration amplitudes are
greater than 112 radians/sec¨. For similar conditions established with the SHF, the sixth
HF was removed with the SHF in operation, test I3, resulting in even higher level
vibrations 220 radians/sec¨.
Prior to tests C3 and D3 the SHF was inadvertently taken out of operation and there
were indications of the inter-harmonic frequency at 117 Hz. The vibration response
under these conditions were relatively low which is attributed to the non-coincidence
between the power and the torsional resonance, 114.5 Hz.
The test, J3, with the SVFC switched from Manual to Automatic repeats the results
observed in the Phase 1 and 2 testing and indicates the source of the vibration to be
with the SVFC. With the SVFC in manual mode the acceleration level is 12 radians/sec¨
which instantaneous increases in the automatic (normal operation mode) 92
radians/sec¨.
Tests with the arc furnace electrode regulator switched to manual (H3) did not indicate
a change in the vibration level. Also, dipping the electrode into the molten steel proved
to be inconclusive because it also dropped the power to zero which eliminated the
forcing function.
At this point in the testing there was conclusive evidence both from the Comanche data
and the newly acquired steel mill data that under a particular set of operation
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conditions the SVFC causes high level vibration of the Unit 2 turbine-generator. Review
of the SVFC circuitry pointed to the operation of the power factor regulator at low
power as the probable source of the inter-harmonic frequencies between 114 to 120 Hz
observed in the testing. A test was designed to remove the power factor regulator from
operation during a low power, Tap 5, condition with the SHF out. Tests K3 (on) and L3
(off) were run congruently with all other conditions held constant. The results
produced instantaneous changes in vibration, current and power response at the inter-
harmonic frequencies as shown in the table. The vibration decreases from 92 to 1
radians/sec¨ .
The relationship between the power factor regulator and creation of the inter-harmonic
frequencies is described in detail in the GE test report, reference [18]. In summary,
under the low power conditions with the SHF or sixth HF out, which triggers the inter-
harmonic frequencies, a variable low frequency, less than 6 Hz, oscillation in the SVFC
current is created by the power factor regulator circuit. This frequency modulates the
60 Hz current to provide sidebands around 60 Hz at frequencies between 54 to 60 Hz
and 60 to 66 Hz at the steel mill and 54 Hz to 60 Hz at the Comanche generators. The 60
to 66 Hz sideband does not transmit to Comanche for reasons currently unknown. With
the power factor regulator turned off there is an instantaneous decrease to zero
amplitude of the low frequency oscillation and the sidebands.
An example of this mechanism is illustrated in Figure 4-38 where the low frequency
and sidebands are present in the Comanche 230 kV bus current and power and the
generator current. The modulation frequency in this case is 4.5 Hz which produces 55.5
and 64.5 Hz sidebands. The 4.5 and 55.5 Hz components are observed in the current
graphs with 55.5, 64.5 and the 115.5 Hz present in the power graph. The origin of the 8
MW 115.5 Hz power component which is directly related to the applied rotor torque is
for a single phase the multiplier of current (30 amps at 55.5 Hz) and the bus voltage
(230 kV at 60 Hz) which equals 6.9 MW. The accuracy would be improved by
considering the contribution of all three phases.
Throughout the Phase 3 testing it was observed (Table 4-11) that the turbine-generator
current and power never coincided with the 114.5 Hz rotor resonance as observed in
Phase 1 and 2 testing. Consequently the torsional response is generally less for reasons
explained in the previous section and shown in Figure 4-39 where the results of Phase 3
are plotted over the a linear representation of the combined Phase 1 and 2 graph of
torsional acceleration at 114.5 Hz as a function of generator power (Figure 4-33).
Associated with the acceleration and power is the frequency value of the power; two
frequencies indicates the frequency peak is between these values. The graph shows the
sensitivity of the response to the frequency of the power. As little as a quarter Hertz off
the resonance will decrease the response appreciably illustrating the effect of the low
dampening on the rotor response.
4-27
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The difference in the frequency content of the previous testing compared to Phase 3
was associated with the tuning of the SVFC during May of 1995 when the LRF was
installed. The response time of the power factor regulator had been adjusted which
would influence the low frequency oscillation, near 5 Hz. Also, around this time PSCo
had noticed a definite, unexplainable decrease in torsional response on the torsional
vibration monitor. This was attributed to the tuning of the SVFC away from the 114.5
Hz torsional frequency.
Table 4-1
Chronology of Events for Comanche 1 & 2
Turbine/Generator
Date Generator Condition/Event Generator Super-sync,
Unit 1 Unit 2 Steel Mill Torsional Mode 6
Frequency, Hz
Unit 1 Unit 2
Nov-73 Start Up - 122.4 -

Nov-75 - Start Up 2nd Harm. filter 122.4 119.97
added
Apr-87 - Rotor Crack @ 122.4 119.97
Coupling
Oct-88 Off-Line Response - 122.4 119.97
Test
Oct-88 On-Line Vibration Online Vibration 122.4 119.97
Testing Testing
Jun-89 Machine Turning Gear - 123.5 119.97
Nov-89 - Off-Line Response 123.5 119.97
Testing
Dec-89 - Machine Turning 123.5 120.9(P)
Jan-93 - Gear 123.5 120.9(P)
Jun-93 - Exciter Failure 123.5 118 (P)
7-Jul-93 - Temporary Exciter 2nd Harm. 123.5 118 (P)
- failed/fixed
7-Jan-94 - 2nd Harm. 123.5 118 (P)
- - failed/not fixed
11-Jan-94 - 123.5 118 (P)
June 1994 - Retaining Ring 123.5 114.5
Failure
Mar-95 Installed Long Ring Tuned Rotor & 122.75 114.5
Installed Long Ring
-
4-28
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Note:(P1)=Predicted Resonant Frequency
4-29
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Table 4-2
Table of Test Conditions
Phase 1 Test Series, September 13 - 16, 1995
1. Arc Furnaces Operating Simultaneously
2. Arc Furnaces Operating Staggered In Time
3. Unit 2 On-Line, Unit 1 Off-Line
4. Unit 1 On-Line, Unit 2 Off-line
5. Unit 2 Exciter's Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR) In Fast Response Mode
6. Unit 2 Exciter's AVR In Manual Mode, Constant Excitation
7. Unit 2 Exciter's AVR Line Drop Compensator On-Line
8. Unit 1 Exciter's Power System Stabilizer Off-Line
9. Steel Mill Arc Furnace Tap Restricted To Tap 1
10. Static var Flicker Control (SVFC) On-Line/Off-Line
Phase 2 Test Series, October 12 - 14, 1995
11. SVFC In Manual Mode, Constant Firing Angle
12. SVFC In Automatic Mode with Power Factor Changes, Lead and Lag
13. Steel Mill Arc Furnace Tap (Load) Changes, Tap 1 through 6 (High to Low Load
Capacity)
14. Steel Mill Arc Furnaces Off-Line, Ladle Treatment System Arc Furnace On-Line
(Low Power Operation)
15. Tuned Harmonic Capacitor Bank's Seventh Harmonic Filter On-Line/Off-Line
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Table 4-3
Arc Furnace Tap Load Capacity
Tap Number Active Power, MW Reactive Power, Mvar
1 48 48
2 43 48
3 26 31
4 21 24
5 16 18
6 11 12
Table 4-4
Operation Requirements of the Steel Mill Seventh Harmonic Filter (SHF)
Start Up of Arc Furnaces
1. Two Furnaces Off-Line, SHF Off-Line (0 MW)
2. One Furnace On-Line, SHF Off-Line (46 MW)
3. Two Furnaces On-Line, SHF On-Line (90 MW)

Shut Down of Arc Furnaces
1. Two Furnaces On-Line, SHF On-Line (90 MW)
2. One Furnace On-Line, SHF On-Line (46 MW)
3. Two Furnaces On-Line, SHF Off-Line (0 MW)
Note: There is an operational deadband between 26 and 60 MW.
4-31
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Table 4-5
Sensor Data
Sensor Type Measure Location Sensi- Band-

ID tivity width
HP1 MP Angular Unit 1 High 0.457 200 Hz

Velocity Pressure End r/s/Volt
HP2 MP Angular Unit 2 High 0.457 200 Hz
Velocity Pressure End r/s/Volt
TG1 MP Angular Unit 1 Turning 0.457 200 Hz
Velocity Gear r/s/Volt
TG2 MP Angular Unit 2 Turning 0.457 200 Hz
EXC1 PMG Angular Unit 1 Exciter 1.790 200 Hz
EXC2 MP Angular Unit 2 Exciter 0.457 200 Hz
PE1 Hall Instantaneous Generator PT, 100 200 Hz
Power CT MW/Volt
PE2 Hall Instantaneous Generator PT, 101 200 Hz
Power CT MW/Volt
IA2 CT Instantaneous Generator CT 24KAmps 200 Hz
Power Generator CT /Volt
IB2 CT Instantaneous Time Code 24KAmps 200 Hz
Power Generator /Volt
TC - Time NA NA
4-32
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Table 4-5
Sensor Data (continued)
Recording & Analysis
Mag Machine View Spec Strip Chart

Tape Anal
Phase Phase Phase Phase Phase Phase

1&2 1 2 1&2 1 2
Y Y Y Y Y
Y Y Y Y
Y Y Y Y
Y Y Y Y Y
Y Y
Y Y
Y Y Y Y Y
Y Y Y Y Y
Y Y Y Y Y
Y Y Y
Y Y
4-33
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Table 4-6
Example of Three Vibration Levels
Plant Turning Gear Measurement Amplitude
Low Medium High

Unit 1
Velocity, (rad/sec)P-P 0.375 0.85 0.75
0.01 0.04 0.044
Velocity, (11 Hz), (rad/sec)rms
0.01 0.083 0.054
Velocity, (123.5 Hz), 0.002 0.03 0.014
(rad/sec)rms 10.3 100.1 62
Velocity, (164 Hz), (rad/sec)rms
Unit 2
Acceleration, rad/sec2 0.18 0.4 0.9
0.0075 0.0035 0.03
Velocity, (rad/sec)P-P 0.024 0.061 0.28
Velocity, (11 Hz), (rad/sec)rms 0.002 0.03 0.02
Velocity, (114.75 24.4 82.4 283
Hz),(rad/sec)rms
Unit 1 and 2 Velocity, (164 Hz), (rad/sec)rms 0.5 0.5 2.33
8.7 53 90
Acceleration, rad/sec2
Power (near 120 Hz), Mwrms

Current (near 60Hz),AMPSrms
4-34
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Table 4-7
Test Results Summary
Test Test Description AF 3 AF 4 SVFC LTS IF SHF
Phas
e A Double Bore-In on on Auto
1 B U2 AVR Fast Settting on on Auto
C Tap Restriction, 1/3 Auto
D SVFC Off off
E SVFC On Auto
F U2 off, U1 on Auto
G U2 off, U1 on Auto
H U2 off, U1 on Auto
I U2 on, U1 off Auto
J U2 on, U1 off Auto
K U2 on, U1 off Auto
L U2 on, U1 off Auto
M U2 on, U1 off Auto
N U2 on, U1 off Auto
A1 SVFC changed to Manual on on Manual

2 B1 SVFC PF changed on on Auto
C1 Repeat with Tap 1,5 on on Auto
D1 Repear with Tap 1,5 on on Auto
E1 SVFCC PF changed on on Auto
F1 Repeat on on Auto
G1 SVFC normal, Tap 1,5 on on Auto out
H1 SVFC normal, Tap 3,4,5,6 on on Auto in
I1 SVFC normal, Tap 3,4,5,6 off on Auto off out
J1 SVFC normal. Low Power off off Auto on on out
K1 SVFC normal, IF off, SHF off off Auto on off out
L1 SVFC normal, SHF in off off Auto on off in
Expa
nsion
of l1 off Tap 1 Auto out
l1 off Tap 3 Auto out
l1
4-35
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Table 4-7
Test Results Summary (continued)
Acceleration Power Current

Rad/Sec2
Unit 1 Unit 2 MWatts Freq., Hz Amps Freq., Hz
110 75
102 98
68 188
92 80 0.441 114.7
77 276 2.6 114.7
119 na
86 na
132 na
na 172
na 129
na 251
na 324 2.673 114.7
na 308
na 254 2.05 114.7
100.1 82.4 0.51 114.7 53 64.9

50.6 100.1 1.6 117.2 78.6 57.6
28.3 48.4 1.74 117.2 78.6 57.6
40.3 124.6 2 115.2 83 55.2
87.1 82.4 0.55 114.7 60 64.7
81.7 99.7 0.8 115.7 44 55.7
48 232.1 1.8 114.7 71 54.7
10.3 24.4 0.4 114.7 6 54.7
35.2 216.6 1.86 114.7 75 54.7
26.5 202 1.5 114.7 58.5 54.7
62.2 283 2.36 114.7 94.3 54.7
20.8 62.5 0.41 114.7 16.7 54.7
24.1 0.36 114.7 5 54.7

60.4 2 115.7 89 55.7
98.7 1.96 115.2 83 55.2
216.7 1.87 114.7 75 54.7
146.1 1.62 114.7 57 54.7
4-36
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Table 4-8
Comparison of Steady to Intermittent Torsional Response
Velocity Velocity Power Power
Frequency, Steady Transient Steady Transient

Hz Response, Response, Response, Response,
rad/sec rms rad/sec rms rad/sec rms rad/sec rms
11.23 0.005 0.06 0.17 0.8
60 0.015 0.016 6.91 6.9
114.75 0.01 0.311 0.0055 3.0
120 - - 7.4 7.7
164.5 0.001 0.006 - -
180 0.03 0.03 0.67 0.53
4-37
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Table 4-9
Phase 3 Test Instruments
Signal Description Steel Mill Comanche
Mag Tape Mag Tape Machine View
34.5 KV Bus Voltage, Phase A Y
34.5 KV Bus Voltage, Phase B Y
34.5 KV Bus Voltage, Phase C Y
34.5 KV Bus Current, Phase A Y
34.5 KV Bus Current, Phase B Y
34.5 KV Bus Current, Phase D Y
TCR Current, Phase A Y
TCR Current, Phase B Y
TCR Current, Phase C Y
Totalizer Current, Phase A Y
Totalizer Current, Phase B Y
Totalizer Current, Phase C Y
Arc Furnace 3 Current, Phase A Y
Arc Furnace 4 Current, Phase A Y
Ladle Arc Furnace Current, Phase A Y
Time Code Y
230 KV Bus, Power Y Y
230 KV Bus Current, Phase A Y Y
230 KV Bus Current, Phase B Y
230 KV Bus Current, Phase C Y
Unit 2 Turning Gear Torsional Y Y
4-38
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Signal Description Steel Mill Comanche
Mag Tape Mag Tape Machine View

Velocity
Unit 2 Current, Phase A Y Y
Unit 2 Current, Phase B Y
Unit 2 Current, Phase C Y
Unit 2 Volts, Phase A Y
Unit 2 Volts, Phase B Y
Unit 2 Volts, Phase C Y
Unit 1 Turning Gear, Torsional Y Y

Velocity
Unit 1 Current, Phase A Y Y
Unit 1 Current, Phase B Y
Unit 1 Current, Phase C Y
Time Code Y
Unit 2 Exciter, Torsional Velocity Y
Unit 1 Exciter, Torsional Velocity Y
4-39
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Table 4-10
Phase 3 Testing Test Conditions
Test Id Description
A3 Normal Operatoin (0.96 PF) with single furnace, on; LRF, off; SHF, in; Sixth HF, in
B3 Normal operation with staggered bore-in; LRF, on; SHF, in
C3 Normal operation with single furnace, on; LRF, on; SHF, out; Sixth HF, in
D3 P F changed to 0.90, lagging with single furnace, on; LRF, off; SHF, out; Sixth HF, in
E3 Transfomer tag test (1–5) with single furnace on; LRF, off; SHF, out; Sixth HF, in
F3 Transformer tap test (6) with single furnace, on; LRF, off; SHF, out; Sixth HF, in
G3 Normal operation with both arc furnaces, off; LRF, on; SHF, in/out; Sixth HF, in
H3 Single arc furnace, on (tap 5); electrode regulator, auto/manual; LRF, off; SHF, out; Sixth
HF, in
I3 Both furnaces; off; LRF, on; SHF, in; Sixth HF, in/out/in
J3 Single arc furnace, on (tap 5); SVFC, manual/aout; LRF, on; SHF, out; Sixth HF, out
K3 Single arc furnace, on (tap 5); Power Factor regulator, on; LRF, off; SHF, out; Sixth HF, in
L3 Single arc furnace, on (tap 5); Power Factor regulator, off; LRF, off; SHF, out; Sixth HF, in
** Single arc furnace, on (tap 5); Electrodes dipped into melt; LRF, off; SHF, out; Sixth HF,
in
(This test was not recorded on Machine View, but data was available for this report from
the online strip chart)
Note: Normal operation is with the SVFC in automatic mode with a power factor
setting of 0.96.
4-40
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Table 4-11
Phase 3 Test Results Summary
Table 4-11, Phase 3 Test Results Summary
Accelerati Generator Generator 230 KV 230 KV

on, Power Current Bus Power Bus
2
Rad/Sec Current
Test Description AF AF LRF SHF Sixt Unit Unit M Freq., Amps Freq, M Freq, Amp Freq,
ID 3 4 h HF 1 2 watt Hz Hz watts Hz s Hz
s
A3 Normal operation, 45 MW Off On Off In In 0.0 38.3 0.7 117 24.5 57 5.4 117 11.6 58
B3 Bore-in on AF 4, AF 3 in On On On In In 0.0 52.4 0.4 114.5 10.0 54.5 3.2 114.5 6 54.5
melt
C3 Unusual 117 Hz Response On Off ?? Out In 0.0 31.2 0.9 117.5 34.5 57.5 4.8 117.5 15.5 57.5
D3 Power Factor to 0.9, Off On Off Out In 16.3 19.6 1.1 118 45.7 58 5.96 117.5 21.4 57.5
Lagging
E3 Tap Test: 3, 4, 5 Off On Off Out In 53.2 111.8 1.9 116 82.0 56 11.4 116 36.5 56
F3 Tap 6 Off On Off Out In 39.1 127.0 1.6 115 68.0 55 8.6 115.5 31 55.5
G3 All Off but LRF, SHF Off Off On Out In 52.1 144.0 1.8 115 78.0 55 9.9 115.5 33.5 55.5
off/on, 10MW /In
H3 AF electrode in manual, Off On Off Out In 64.1 113.8 2.2 115 93.9 55 12.1 115.5 40 55.5
Tap 5
I3 Sixth HF out/in, SHF in Off Off On In Out 154.3 220.6 2.3 115 101.2 55 14 115 42.4 55
/In
J3 SVFC ino Manual, Off On On Out Out 32.6 12.1 0.2 114.5 2.7 54.5 0.9 118 4.9 58
K3 PF regulator on Off On Off Out In 61.9 91.7 2.2 115.5 93.6 55.5 10.7 115.5 35 55.5
L3 PF regulator off Off On Off Out In 4.3 1.0 0.2 115.5 1.4 55.5 0.1 115.5 0.2 55.5
4-41
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Figure 4-1 Steel Mill Electrical Line Diagram
4-42
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Figure 4-2 Retaining Ring Vibration Test Sensor Locations
4-43
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Figure 4-3 Retaining Ring Vibration Test Instrumentation, Magnetic Tape Recording
System
4-44
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Figure 4-4 Retaining Ring Vibration Test Instrumentation, Comanche High Speed
Digital Data Acquisition System
4-45
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Figure 4-5 Velocity Sensor Installation Schematic
4-46
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Figure 4-6 Torsional Mode Shapes & Resonant Frequences
4-47
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Figure 4-7 Example of Low Amplitude Vibration Data, Unit 1 Angular Velocity
4-48
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Figure 4-8 .Low Amplitude Vibration Data, Unit 2 Angular Velocity
4-49
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Figure 4-9 Low Amplitude Vibration Data, Unit 1 & 2 Power
4-50
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Figure 4-10 Low Amplitude Vibration Data, Unit 1 & 2 Current
4-51
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Figure 4-11 Medium Amplitude Vibration Data, Unit 1 Angular Velocity
4-52
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Figure 4-12 Example of Medium Amplitude Vibration Data, Unit 2 Angular Velocity
4-53
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Figure 4-13 Example of Medium Amplitude Vibration Data, Unit 1 & 2 Power
4-54
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Figure 4-14 Example of Medium Amplitude Vibration Data, Unit 1 &2 Current
4-55
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Figure 4-15 High Amplitude Vibration Data, Unit 1 Angular Velocity
4-56
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Figure 4-16 Example of High Amplitude Vibration Data, Unit 2 Angular Velocity
4-57
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Figure 4-17 Example of High Amplitude Vibration Data, Unit 1 & 2 Power
4-58
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Figure 4-18 Example of High Amplitude Vibration Data, Unit 1 & 2 Current
4-59
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Figure 4-19 Test Results Summary
4-60
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Figure 4-20 Angular Velocity Time History Representation of Intermittent High Level
Vibration
4-61
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Figure 4-21 Angular Velocity Frequence Spectra Representation of Intermittent High

Level Vibration
4-62
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Figure 4-22 Power Time History Representation of Intermittent High Level Vibration
4-63
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Figure 4-23 Power Frequency Spectra Representation of Intermittent High Level

Vibration
4-64
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Figure 4-24 Waterfall Plot of Angular Velocity Frequency Spectra for High Level
Vibration Transients
4-65
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Figure 4-25 Waterfall Plot of Power Frequency Spectra for High Level Vibration
Transients
4-66
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Figure 4-26 Waterfall Plot of Angular Velocity for the Transient Decay
4-67
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Figure 4-27 Waterfall Plot of Power Frequency Spectra for the Transient Decay
4-68
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Figure 4-28 Waterfall Plot of Angular Velocity Frequency Spectra for the Transient
Onset
4-69
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Figure 4-29 Waterfall Plot of Power Frequency Spectra for the Transient Onset
4-70
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Figure 4-30 Decay Transient for Angular Velocity and Power at 114.7 Hz
4-71
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Figure 4-31 Onset Transient for Angular Velocity and Power at 114.7 Hz
4-72
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Figure 4-32 Relationship Between Generator Power and Steel Mill Current
4-73
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Figure 4-33 Vibration Response from Switching Arc Furnace Tap to Tap 5
4-74
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Figure 4-34 Vibration Response from Switching Arc Furnace Tap to Tap 3, 4, 5, & 6
with Two Furnace Operation
4-75
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Figure 4-35 Vibration Response from Switching Arc Furnace Tap to Tap 3, 4, 5, & 6
with One Funace Operation
4-76
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Figure 4-36 Vibration Response for seventh Harmonic Filter Off-line, Angular Velocity
4-77
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Figure 4-37 Vibration Response for Seventh Harmonic Filter Off-line, Power
4-78
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Figure 4-38 Vibration Response for Seventh Harmonic Filter Off-line, Currrent
4-79
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Figure 4-39 Vibration Response for Seventh Harmonic Filter Off-line, Angular Velocity
4-80
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Figure 4-40 Vibration Response for Seventh Harmonic Filter Off-line, Power
4-81
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Figure 4-41 Vibration Response for Seventh Harmonic Filter Off-line, Current
4-82
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Figure 4-42 Angular Acceleration versus Power at 114.7 Hz
4-83
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Figure 4-43 Angular Acceleration versus Current at Hz
4-84
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Figure 4-44 Dynamic Magnification Response for the 114.7 Hz Torsional Vibration
Mode
4-85
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Figure 4-45 Comanche/Steel-Mill Phase 3 Instrumentation Location
4-86
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Figure 4-46 Summary of Test Results for Phase 3
4-87
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Figure 4-47 Representation of Sidebands for 230KV Bus Current
4-88
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Figure 4-48 Phase 3, Acceleration (114.5 Hz) Versus Generator
4-89
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5
DISCUSSION
5.1 Summary
The root cause analysis of the catastrophic failure of the Comanche retaining ring
characterized the failure, uncovered the steel-mill/turbine-generator system conditions
which caused the failure and led to a solution which eliminated the source of vibration.
The root cause analysis consisted of three distinct tasks:
(a) metallurgical analysis for determining the type of failure
(b) stress and fracture mechanics analysis to develop an analytical model of the failure
mechanism
(c) torsional vibration testing to determine the operation conditions which caused the
abnormal vibration levels and characterize the vibration and forcing function.
The metallurgical examination gave evidence of a new type of retaining ring failure;
unlike previous failures of 18Mn - 5Cr retaining rings, there was no evidence of
intergranular stress corrosion cracking. Small, oscillatory, relative motion between the
rotor and the ring caused the crack to initiate due to fretting. Due to alternating,
torsional stresses the crack propagated on a 45 degree angle until failure. Upon
separation from the rotor, the high centrifugal forces (the 3000 pound ring on a 40 inch
diameter shaft rotating at 3600 rpm) unraveled and propelled the ring into the stator
windings.
The stress analysis determined the rotor/ring contact (shrink) forces and the torsional
forces (acceleration) levels necessary to overcome the shrink fit to initiate fretting and
develop a crack. The resultant analytical model suggests a dynamic failure mechanism
which produces a stop-start, relative motion between the ring and the rotor. Oscillating,
torsional acceleration/deceleration forces of the rotor acting on the exciter-end
retaining ring creates the conditions to overcome the shrink forces and generate
fretting. The model predicts that a torsional acceleration in the 350 radian/second2
range with a coefficient of friction in the 0.35-0.4 range would overcome the shrink fit
and initiate cracking. Fretting initiation was calculated at approximately 100
radian/second2 with the maximum stresses at the outboard end of the ring where
cracking was shown to initiate.
5-1
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Discussion
Torsional vibration tests were performed in three phases (Phase 1, 2 and 3). Phase 1
parametrically investigated the overall operation of the turbine-generator and the steel
mill with the objective to find any unusual vibration patterns which could cause failure.
The results of the Phase 1 testing uncovered intermittent, large amplitude vibration at a
super-synchronous resonant torsional frequency on Unit 2. The amplitude was
sufficient, based on the root-cause stress analysis, to cause fretting and initiate cracking.
Unit 1 indicated only one-third the amplitude and was considered below the threshold
for crack initiation. Phase 1 results, also, indicated a direct relationship between the
operation of the Static var Flicker Controller (SVFC) at the steel mill and the high level
vibration at the generator.
Phase 2 testing concentrated on determining the exact operation conditions within the
steel mill which excite the high level rotor vibration. It was found that at low power
operation with the seventh harmonic filter (SHF) off-line, the SVFC system (SCRs,
reactors, harmonic capacitors and the furnaces) created a condition where a frequency
spike between 114 and 118 Hz appeared in the generator power. The exact frequency
depended on plant load. When the power spike coincides with the 114.5 Hz rotor
resonance the torsional vibration vigorously increases producing a large amplitude
response.
Phase 2 testing led to a temporary "fix" of continous maintaining the SHF on-line
eliminating its automatic operation. To the extent this "fix" was maintained the
damaging rotor vibration was maintained at low levels. But due to unplanned steel mill
operation conditions, the SHF was periodically taken off-line, reactivating the high
level vibration.
A final solution was necessary such that the mill could operate without restriction and
Comanche could be assured of low level vibration. A detailed investigation of the steel
mill electrical system was undertaken in the Phase 3 testing. The results of these tests
revealed that under low power conditions with the seventh, sixth or both harmonic
filters off-line the SVFC's power factor regulator becomes unstable. It is this instability
which drives the high level vibration at the Comanche generator. With the power factor
regulator off-line, maintaining all other steel mill conditions constant, same the
vibration significantly diminishes.
Installation of the "long ring" design in both units has reduced the potential for fretting.
Analysis supported by the testing shows the "long ring" design to have nearly a factor
of 2 higher threshold for crack initiation.
The "long ring" design provides an adequate margin of safety, but to eliminate all risk
of this problem reoccurring the root-cause driving force was eliminated by stabilization
of the SVFC over it's entire operating range. Continuous, on-line monitoring of Unit 1 &
2 for both transverse and torsional vibration provides additional assurances. In
addition communication links are established between the utility and their client, the
5-2
10716283
Discussion
steel mill, to discuss any unusual observations from the turbine- generator monitoring
or changes in the steel mill operation which might affect the SVFC. It benefits both
companies for the turbine-generators to be healthy, meeting demand.
5.2 Failure Scenario
The chronology of events (refer to Table 4-1) which led to the Unit 2 failure began with
the failure of the original Unit 2 exciter after nearly 18 years of operation.. At the time
of the exciter failure , January 1993, the sixth mode frequency was 120.9 Hz, increased 1
Hz in 1989 from the original 120 Hz by removing mass from the turning gear to avoid
the effects of negative sequence currents at 120 Hz. A temporary exciter was installed in
June 1993 which reduced the resonance to 118 Hz and changed the sixth torsional mode
shape of the rotor at the exciter end from a fixed condition to a free condition as
observed in Figure 4.6. Six months later the Unit 2 retaining ring failed.
The change in mode shape allowed for a greater torsional response at the exciter end
for the same torque at the generator. Data from the 1989 off-line and the current on-line
testing supports this hypothesis. Data from the 1989 off-line, torsional response tests
[19] indicated a sixth mode torsional response of 189 radian/second2 for a 5.3%
negative sequence current input at 120 Hz (resonant frequency at the time of test). The
present on-line testing showed an approximate 1 % negative sequence current at 114.5
2
Hz resulted in a resonant response of 325 radian/second at 114.5 Hz (Table 4-10).
The relationship between the torque applied to the rotor and the stator current is the
torque is proportional to the stator current squared with the torsional acceleration
response proportional to the applied torque. Consequently, for the sixth mode where
the end conditions differ as described above the difference in response for the same
input load is a factor of 49 assuming similar torsional dampening. That is, for a 1%
negative sequence current input for the constrained and free, exciter- end mode shape,
the response for the free end will be 49 times that of the constrained.
Data from the 1988 on-line tests have generator power peaks at 118 Hz of similar
amplitude as the peak at 114.5 Hz. It can be assumed that a forcing function was
present during the last half of 1993 which could excite the 118 Hz sixth mode to
amplitudes in the critical crack initiation zone.
The Unit 2 generator operating for 18 years with a 120 Hz sixth mode resonance and a
negative sequence current of 3%, as measured in Phase 3, acting on the rotor at 120 Hz
would produce a torsional acceleration of 60 radian/second 2 compared to the 325
radian/second2 for the 1 % negative sequence current at the 118 Hz mode. The increase
in response placed the retaining ring in the crack initiation zone for the short ring
(Table 4-10) and explains the failure occurring six months after a change in rotor
response and not during the 18 years of operation at 120 Hz. The fracture mechanics,
5-3
10716283
Discussion
stress and metallurgical analysis of this failure supports this hypothesis and fits with
the concept that high cycle fatigue failures occur due to stress fields developing beyond
the fatigue endurance limit.
5.3 Discussion
The Comanche retaining ring failure illuminates an area of concern with the long term
operation of turbine-generators. Super-synchronous, torsional vibration due to
perturbations on the grid at non- harmonic frequencies with relatively low amplitudes
(less than 1% of total power) severely damaged a generator. The situation at Comanche
is relatively unique in that a large power user (100 MW) and the sub-station are in close
proximity and relatively isolated from the rest of the grid.
Though the "electrical" proximity of the steel mill to the sub-station may be unique, the
chances of the existence of a resonant condition near 120 Hz is not unique. It was
shown that for the failure to occur the forcing frequency and the resonant frequency
must coincide within less than ½ Hz to achieve a full resonant response otherwise the
low rotor damping diminishes the effect of the forcing frequency. This implies that
retaining rings or other turbine-generator components for utilities that serve large
transient load facilities and/or have static var controllers for voltage stability may be
within ½ Hz of a failure, waiting for a slight change in the forcing function frequency.
High cycle fatigue can occur quickly if the equipment is operating continuously at a
resonant condition with sufficient stresses or may linger on for months to years
depending on the transient nature of the forcing function. For example at 120 Hz and
6
with at a 24 x 10 cycles fatigue endurance limit (average value for the retaining ring
material with a stress level associated with 350 radian/second2), a fatigue failure could
occur within approximately 55 hours. But in many cases such as the Comanche failure,
the damaging vibration is intermittent such that the failure may be delayed from
months to years. Based on the current test data and conditions, the Unit 2 retaining ring
2
experiences high level vibration, above 250 radian/second from 20 to 50 minutes per
steel mill operating day, 6 days per week. For these conditions failure is calculated to
occur between 60 to 165 days which at 6 operating days per week is 3 to 7 months. The
failure occurred 6 months after the exciter exchange which fits within the expected
failure period.
Structural modifications, even if minor, to the turbine-generator may move a torsional

natural frequency(s) or change a mode shape such that turbine-generator components
which originally were below the endurance limit are now above the endurance limit.
Prior to making any structural modifications to the turbine-generator, it is
recommended that limited testing be conducted to characterize the generator power
and rotor torsional vibration response to assure that the modification does not move the
structure into a potentially damaging situation.
5-4
10716283
Discussion
Lessons learned from this failure are:
1. Mechanical resonances at or near 120 Hz need to be determined through testing or

analysis. If resonant frequencies are found, the load spectrum in this range must be
understood prior to rotor modification to assure non-coincidence of power and rotor
frequencies.
Loads that have large transients may need to be simulated (including the grid) to
ascertain they do not excite torsional resonant frequencies.
5-5
10716283
6
REFERENCES
1. EPRI EL-5825, "Proceedings: Generator Retaining Ring Workshop", Charlotte, NC,

September 15-17, 1987.
2. T. P. Sherlock and M. J. Jirinec, "Failure of a Non-Magnetic Retaining Ring in a

High-Speed Generator Rotor" ASM Handbook of Case Histories in Failure Analysis,
Volume 2, 1993.
3. P. C. Riccardella, et al "Development of a Generator Retaining Ring Life Assessment

Code”, Presented at EPRI Steam Turbine and Generator NDE, Life Assessment and
Maintenance Workshop, July 16-19, 1991, Charlotte, NC.
4. EPRI GS-7373, "Generator Unbalanced Load Capability", Nippes Professional

Associates, July 1991.
5. N. H. Jones, et al, "Design of Conductor Cooled Steam Turbine Generators and

Application to Modern Power Systems" Trans. IEEE, February 1965.
6. E. R. Johnson, et al, "Static High-Speed var Control for Arc Furnace Flicker
Reduction", American Power Conference, 1972.
7. Hellner, Rick, "Public Service of Colorado, Comanche Unit 2 Retaining Ring Failure
Metallurgical Analysis", MLRN-94-30, May 1994.
8. Letter Report from Dr. Carl Jaske, Cortest Columbus Technologies, Inc., re: "Fatigue-
Crack- Growth of 18Mn-5Cr Steel", August 8, 1994.
9. EPRI E1-3083, "Determination of Torsional Fatigue Life of Large Turbine Generator

Shafts, General Electric, April 1964.
10. M. A. McGuire, "Prediction of the Fatigue Crack Initiation Life of Notched

Components with Particular Reference to Alternator End-Ring Steels in Gaseous
Environments", Central Electricity Generating Board Report Number
OED/STSG/88/0032/R, November 1988.
11. H. O. Fuchs, Metal Fatigue in Engineering, J. Wiley & Sons.
12. National Material Advisory Board, "Control of Fretting Fatigue", Publication

NMAB-333, Washington, D. C. 1977.
13. J. E. Shigley and L. D. Mitchell, "Mechanical Engineering Design", Fourth Edition,

McGraw- Hill Book Company, 1983.
6-1
10716283
References
14. M. B. Londergan, R. L. Murphy and M. J. Metala, "Generator Rotor Tooth Top

Cracking: Experience and Diagnosis", PWR-Vol. 13, Design, Repair, and
Refurbishment of Steam Turbines, ASME 1991.
15. J. M. Foley, G. M. Norwood and M. A. Pringle, "Modernization Programs for

Generator Rotors", PWR-Vol. 13, Design, Repair, and Refurbishment of Steam
Turbines, ASME 1991.
16. J. D. Hurley, "Public Service of Colorado - Comanche Units 1 and 2 On-Line

Subsynchrorious Torsional Field Tests and Analysis", Westinghouse Electric
Corporation, EC-90023, 1990.
17. S. D. Hurley, K. M. Rootham, "Public Service of Colorado - Comanche Units 1 and 2

Supplementary On-Line Torsional Field Tests", Westinghouse Electric Corporation,
EC- 95014, 1995.
18. S. C. Kapoor, M. C. Greiner, E. L. Owen, "Public Service of Colorado System Testing

at Comanche Power Plant and Steel Mill", General Electric Company, 1996.
19. J. Mordente, "Public Service of Colorado, Comanche #2 Off-Line Torsional Field Test
and Analysis," Westinghouse Electric Corporation, EC-90012, 1990.
6-2
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10716283

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Final Report, July 1996

EPRI Project Manager

ORGANIZATION(S) THAT PREPARED THIS REPORT

Structural Integrity Associates, Inc.

A retaining ring failure at Unit 2 Public Service of Colorado's Comanche Station

The project team conducted a detailed metallurgical investigation of the Comanche

Detailed metallurgical investigations revealed no indication of intergranular stress

Turbines and generators

Root cause analysis

Public Service of Colorado Company

Westinghouse Electric Corporation

General Electric Corporation

Engineered System Inc.

Structural Integrity Associates

Mr. Larry Dorfman

1 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................... 1-1

2 SYSTEM DESCRIPTION.......................................................................................... 2-1

3 ROOT CAUSE ANALYSIS ....................................................................................... 3-1

4 TURBINE/GENERATOR RETAINING ON-LINE TORSIONAL VIBRATION TEST . 4-1

4.2 Test Objectives .................................................................................................. 4-2

Figure 1-1 Cantilevered Shrink-fit Design ........................................................................ 1-4

Figure 1-2 Damaged Stator Windings............................................................................... 1-4

Figure 1-3 Vibration History Heading to Failure............................................................. 1-5

Figure 2-1 Proximity of Substations to Steel Mill............................................................. 2-3

Figure 3-1 Ring After Failure ........................................................................................... 3-18

Figure 3-2 The Main Crack............................................................................................... 3-19

Figure 3-3 Origin of the Fracture ..................................................................................... 3-20

Figure 3-4 Secondary Crack and Fatigue Origin............................................................ 3-21

Figure 3-5 Crack 180° from Main Fracture ..................................................................... 3-22

Figure 3-17 Ring/rotor displacements at 3600 rpm Illustrating almost complete

Figure 3-19 Two-dimensional FE Model of Ring/Rotor Cross-Section to Determine

Figure 3-20 Unslotted Two-dimensional FE Model of Ring/rotor Cross-Section Used to

Figure 3-22 Stress Intensity Distribution at Pole End (Location of Cracking)

Figure 3-34 Reduction in Shrink-fit Forces Due to Cracking ........................................ 3-51

Figure 3-36 Illustration of Tooth Top Cracking in Short-Ring Design......................... 3-53

Figure 3-37 Schematic Illustrating the Long-Ring Modification................................... 3-53

Figure 3-38 2-D Axisymmetric FE Model of the Long-Ring ........................................ 3-54

Figure 3-39 Enlarged View of Long-Ring/rotor FE Model Fit Area Showing

Figure 3-40 Distribution of Radial Contact Forces at standstill (0 rpm) and at

Figure 3-41 Long Ring/rotor Displacements at 3600 Rpm Illustrating Inward

Figure 3-43 Long Ring/rotor three-dimensional FE Torsional Model with Adjusted

Figure 3-44 Two-dimensional FE Model of Long Ring/rotor cross-section to

Figure 4-1 Steel Mill Electrical Line Diagram................................................................. 4-41

Figure 4-2 Retaining Ring Vibration Test Sensor Locations.......................................... 4-42

Figure 4-3 Retaining Ring Vibration Test Instrumentation, Magnetic Tape

Figure 4-5 Velocity Sensor Installation Schematic ......................................................... 4-45

Figure 4-12 Example of Medium Amplitude Vibration Data, Unit 2 A

Figure 4-19 Test Results Summary .................................................................................. 4-59

Figure 4-20 Angular Velocity Time History Representation of Intermittent High

Figure 4-21 Angular Velocity Frequence Spectra Representation of Intermittent

Figure 4-22 Power Time History Representation of Intermittent High

Figure 4-23 Power Frequency Spectra Representation of Intermittent High Level

Figure 4-36 Vibration Response for seventh Harmonic Filter Off-line,

Figure 4-39 Vibration Response for Seventh Harmonic Filter Off-line,

Figure 4-42 Angular Acceleration versus Power at 114.7 Hz........................................ 4-82

Figure 4-43 Angular Acceleration versus Current at Hz............................................... 4-83

Figure 4-44 Dynamic Magnification Response for the 114.7 Hz Torsional

Figure 4-45 Comanche/Steel-Mill Phase 3 Instrumentation Location ......................... 4-85

Figure 4-46 Summary of Test Results for Phase 3 .......................................................... 4-86

Figure 4-47 Representation of Sidebands for 230KV Bus Current................................ 4-87

Figure 4-48 Phase 3, Acceleration (114.5 Hz) Versus Generator................................... 4-88

1.1 Retaining Ring Design Considerations