Akomolafe Burnt Brick On Ekiti State Soil in Replacement For - 1

Assessment of Burnt Bricks as an Alternative for Sandcrete Blocks for Low-cost Housing in Nigeria
BY
AKOMOLAFE IDOWU DANIEL
CVE/12/0825
SUBMITTED TO
THE DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING,
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OYE EKITI, EKITI STATE.
IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE

AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
(B.ENG) CIVIL ENGINEERING
JULY, 2019
1
CERTIFICATION
This is to certify that this Project (Assessment of Burnt Bricks as an Alternative for Sandcrete Blocks for Low-cost
Housing in Nigeria BURNT BRICK ON EKITI STATE SOIL IN REPLACEMENT FOR SANCRETE
BLOCKS) was undertaken ing by Akomolafe Idowu Daniel and meets the requirement for the award of the
degree of Bachelor of Engineering (B.Eng) in Civil Engineering, Federal University Oye -Ekiti, Ekiti state.
------------------------------------------- ------------------------
C.A Fapohunda (Project Supervisor)??? Date
------------------------------------------- ------------------------
Dr Ndububa (Head of Department)??? Date
2
DEDICATION
This work is dedicated to parents Mr and Mrs Akomolafe.
3
DECLARATION
I hereby declare that this Project has been composed by me and that it is a record
of my own research work. It has not been accepted in any previous publication.
All sources of information not originally mine, are as specifically by means of
references.
AKOMOLAFE IDOWU DANIEL
JULY, 2019
4
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The success of this project attributed to the Almighty God for his love, Kindness,
protection and for giving me the required strength throughout my study and other life
endeavors.
I wish to express my profound gratitude and appreciation to my project supervisor Dr
C.A Fapohunda ??? for his support, encouragement and rich advices in relation to this
work. My regards goes to the Head of Department Dr Ndububa ??? and all other
members of staff in the Department for their immerse contribution to my academic
pursuit. I am highly indebted to my Lecturer Dr Adetayo for his immerse contribution to
my academic pursuit as well.
5
TABLE OF CONTENT PAGES\
Table of Contents is too long. See back/last page to see modification for chapters 1 - 5
CERTIFICATION… i
DEDICATION…............................................................................................................ii
DECLARATION….....................................................................................................iii
ACKNOWLEDGMENT...............................................................................................iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS..............................................................................................v
ABSTRACT...................................................................................................................x
LIST OF TABLES.........................................................................................................xi
LIST OF FIGURES.......................................................................................................xii
LIST OF PLATES........................................................................................................xiii
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION.
1.2.0.0 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM...................................................................5
1.3.0.0 AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY…...................................................6
1.4.0.0 SCOPE.................................................................................................................7
1.5.0.0 LIMITATION…..................................................................................................7
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW.
2.1.0.0 DEFINITION…................................................................................................10
6
2.1.1.0 LOCALLY PRODUCED CLAY BURNT BRICK…......................................11
2.1.2.0 EARTH AS BUILDING MATERIAL..............................................................11
2.3.0.0 LATERITE SOIL IN NIGERIA.......................................................................12
2.4.0.0 PROPERTIES OF LATERITE.....................................................................13
2.4.1.0 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF LATERITE............................................13
2.4.2.0 GEO-PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF LATERITE SOIL..............................13
2.4.3.0 GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION…................................................................14
2.4.4.0 PLASTICITY….............................................................................................15
2.4.5.0 SPECIFIC GRAVITY…...............................................................................16
2.5.0.0 STRENGTH CHARACTERISTICS OF LATERITE SOIL.........................17
2.5.1.0 COMPRESSIBILITY…..................................................................................17
2.5.2.0 COHESION…...............................................................................................18
2.6.0.0 LATERITE AS CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL..........................................18
2.7.0.0 BURNT CLAY BRICKS AND ITS PREPARATION….............................19
2.8.0.0 INDUSTRIAL BURNT CLAY BRICKS PREPARATION…........................20
2.8.1.0 BRICKS EARTH PREPARATION…..........................................................21
2.8.2.0 WINNING….................................................................................................21
2.8.3.0 GRINDING…................................................................................................21
2.8.4.0 TEMPERING….............................................................................................22
7
2.8.5.0 MOULDING OR FORMINMG OF BURNT BRICK...................................22
2.8.6.0 DRYING OF BURNT BRICKS....................................................................22
2.8.7.0 BURNING/FIRING OF BURNT BRICKS....................................................23
2.9.0.0 TYPES/SIZE OF BURNT BRICK.................................................................23
2.10.0.0PROPERTIES OF BURNT BRICKS............................................................25
2.10.1.0FIRE RESISTANCE.....................................................................................25
2.10.2.0THERMAL INSULATION…..........................................................................26
2.10.3.0SOUND TRANSMISSION…............................................................26
2.10.4.0AVAILABILITY…................................................................................26
2.10.5.0VERSATILITY…...................................................................................26
2.10.6.0STRENGTH…........................................................................................26
2.10.7.0DURABILITY….....................................................................................27
2.10.8.0COST.......................................................................................................27
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY.
3.0.0.0 PROCEDURE TO MANUFACTURE LOCAL BURNT BRICKS.................28
3.1.0.0 STRENGTH ANALYSIS.................................................................................28
3.2.0.0 MATERIAL QUANTITIES.............................................................................29
3.2.1.0 QUANTITY OF LOCALLY BURNT BRICKS...............................................29
3.2.2.0 QUANTITIES OF 9” SANDCRETE BLOCKS................................................31
8
3.3.0.0 COST ANALYSIS.............................................................................................32
.......................................................
3.3.1.0 COST OF 9” SANDCRETE BLOCKS, m2 32
.........................................................
3.3.2.0 COST OF 6” SANDCRETE BLOCK, m2 33
3.3.3.0 COST OF LOCALLY PRODUCED BRICKS....................................................35
3.4.0.0 DURABILITY ANALYSIS................................................................................37
3.4.1.0 PROCEDURE.....................................................................................................37
9
ABSTRACT
The cost of building materials has become a barrier for the provision of low cost
housing, with the downturn in the Nigerian economy, Cost consideration has
become an important factor in any form of building construction. Cement
technology though convenient is rather expensive and the need for a cheaper
alternative to cement is becoming pronounced. An alternative material to cement
will encourage the provision of an affordable but comfortable housing scheme for
the greater population of Nigerians. This research was carried out to assess the
extent at which locally produced burnt bricks could be an alternative to sandcrete
blocks with respect to cost, strength, and durability for the provision of low cost
Housing scheme in the study area and Nigeria at large. The work is based on
properties of locally produced burnt bricks obtained from three bricks producing
areas of Vandeikya Benue State???. The costs per square meter of construction
with bricks/blocks will be considered and sixty bricks/blocks, thirty??? from each
factory are (will be) used for strength analysis. Some samples of houses
constructed with each of these materials are used (will be considered) for
durability analysis. From the outcome of the analysis, some suggestions and
recommendations are made for solving low cost housing problems in Nigeria.
]The government should:

1. Encourage, and give incentives to private entrepreneurs to start the
manufacturing of cheap building materials
2. Give more emphasis on research for the use of these materials. A ‘Federal
Building Research Institute’ may be established for further research in this
direction and its application in actual construction.
3. Start using these materials and the construction techniques and should give an
example to general public on how much cost is reduced, how costly materials
are replaced by the use of local materials and still the traditional character is
maintained by giving modern comfort.
4. Instead of constructing a few houses with a limited amount of fund available,
10
it is more desirable to provide site and essential services and amenities and
give them construction materials and allow them to construct as per their
requirement. This self- help will save labor and more people will be benefited.
There will be no slums and housing problem will not be so acute.
5. On the side of local expert, producing locally burnt bricks, surface evenness
should be improved in order to reduce mortar and plaster consumption. Thus
reducing the cost per square meter of construction.]
11
LIST OF TABLES
zTABLE 2.1 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF TYPICAL LATERITE

SOIL..............13
TABLE 2.2 PROPERTIES OF SOME NIGERIAN LATERITE
………………………17
TABLE 4.1: RESULT OF COST OF THE TWO (THREE CATEGORIES)
??? WALLING MATERIALS 50
TABLE 4.2: RESULT COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF AYA LOCAL

BURNT BRICKS 51
TABLE 4.3: RESULTS OF COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF

AHILEJIME LOCALLY BURNT BRICKS.
………………………………51
TABLE 4.4: RESULT OF COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF

UKYAAGU LOCAL BURNT
BRICKS....................................................52
TABLE 4.5: RESULTS OF COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF AUDU

BLOCKS.......52
TABLE 4.6: RESULTS OF COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF J & J

BLOCKS...........53
TABLE 4.7: RESULTS OF COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF
UBAGIDIBLOCKS.
………………………………………………………53
TABLE 4.8: RESULT OF DURABILITY OF LOCAL BURNT
12
BRICKS...................55
TABLE 4.9: RESULT OF DURABILITY OF SANDCRETE
BLOCKS.....................56
Table 4.10: MAIN CENTER?? OF COST items? OF A TYPICAL BUILDING

IN URBAN AREAS 59
13
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE 3.1 LOCAL BURNT BRICKS CAPED WITH MORTAR 30
FIGURE 4.1: MAP OF NIGERIA SHOWING BENUE STATE … ???……………………….42
FIGURE 4.2: MAP OF BENUE STATE SHOWING LOCAL GOVERNMENT

OF THE STUDY AREA 43 ???
FIGURE 4.3: MAP OF VANDEIKYA LOCAL GOVERNMENT AND

LOCATION OF THE STUDY SITE ???
………………………………………..44
14
LIST OF PLATES
Most of these should be in the Appendix

PLATE 4: WINNING- BRICKS MOULDING… 46
PLATE 4.5: ARRANGEMENT OF BRICK FOR KILN PRE- PREPARATION ……47
PLATE 4.6: CLAMP KILN MAKING… 47
PLATE 4.7: BURNING/FIRING OF LOCALLY PRODUCED BURNT

BRICKS 49
PLATE 4.8: ABANDON BUILDING CONSTRUCTED WITH

LOCALLY PRODUCED BURNT BRICK, THE 57
PLATE 4.9: CONSTRUCTION WITH BURNT BRICKS IN WATER LOG

AREA......58
PLATE 4.10: SOCK AWAY BEEN CONSTRUCTED WITH LOCALLY

PRODUCED BURNT BRICK 58
PLATE 4.11: BUILDING CONSTRUCTED WITH LOCALLY PRODUCED

BURNT BRICKS USING GOOD WORK MEN (WORK MAN
SHIP).......60
PLATE 4.1.2: BUILDING CONSTRUCTED WITH LOCALLY PRODUCED

BURNT BRICKSWITHOUT RENDERING (PLASTERING) 60
PLATE 4.13: FENCE AND A STORY BUILDING UNDER CONSTRUCTION USING

LOCALLY BURNT BRICKS 61
PLATE 4.14: R.C.M. CHURCH AUDITORIUM SHACHI CONSTRUCTED 61
PLATE 4.15: NKST CHURCH AUDITORIUM GBOKO CONSTRUCTED WITH THE

BRICKS …………………………62
15
CHAPTER ONE
1.0.0.0 INTRODUCTION
Oral tradition has made it abundantly clear that “necessity is the mother of
invention”, the truth of which is borne out of the tendency of man over time to
carry out more research, study, work and consequently make improvements in the
area in which need is most pressing.” The necessity of shelter has always been
one of the most basic needs of man and the major components of any kind of
shelter are its walling material (World Civilization, 2005). From very early
historical records, a burnt brick was the favoured walling material in the
Mesopotamian civilization, while hewn rock was used in Chinese civilization
(Construction Materials, 2005).
These present the earliest civilization recognized by man. delete

The kind of walling material used always reflected the nature of raw materials
available within the region and this trend has continued though successive
civilizations up to modern times. The discovery of limestone and the consequent
development of the technology for cement manufacture in Britain during the 19 th
century marked the high point of building civilization. The relative ease of
construction resultant from this led to a revolution as it were in the building
industry.
The use of alternative walling material to cement in its various forms continued
almost quietly alongside the development of cement and also witnessed a
significant degree of development in form and use. The major alternative to
cement based walling especially in Nigeria and also in other parts of the world is
the clay bricks. Developed originally from laterite materials, various processes
16
and techniques have led to the burnt brick in various areas, and this is as a result
of the different customs, civilizations and availability of raw materials in these
regions. In Nigeria, however, these burnt bricks can roughly be grouped into two
viz; Factory produced burnt bricks and locally produced burnt bricks.
With the downturn in the economy, cost consideration has continued to be an

important factor in any form of construction. One effective way of reducing high
housing cost is to encourage the use of local building materials in housing
construction. Public policy is already convenience of the efficacy of the measure.
Besides reducing the cost of housing construction and therefore hopefully reducing
rents, use of locally produced building materials would save substantial foreign
exchange for the country. In pursuit of these objectives, the Federal Government of
Nigeria has taken a number of measures: among other things, it has: planned the
establishment of seven clay brick factories in the country (at Enugu, Jos, Kaduna,
Kano, Ibadan, Lagos and Maiduguri) to produce burnt bricks. Over half of these have
actually been completed. The bricks to be produced are envisaged as effectively
replacing cement blocks for building materials and are out of reach of the great
majority of the people. Besides, good clay for bricks producing is available in
abundant qualities and quantities almost everywhere in Nigeria.
Unlike cement blocks, clay bricks require neither rendering nor painting. This attribute
in itself is evidently a cost-reducing one. Explaining why the Federal Government of
Nigeria embarked upon the establishment of these brick factories, for example, the
then Head of State stated:
17
“The Government embarked on the brick works project through-out the Federation
when it became obvious that we could not meet up with the cement requirements to
successfully undertake our housing programme. Then we were looking for all
possible ways and means to achieve our objectives to shelter a maximum number of
our people, but it became almost impossible to come by cement and we had to invite
the Ministry of Mines and Power to do something about it.
It was then suggested that brick factories, which would use local materials like clay
was going to be the answer and the Ministry of consequently undertook to finance the
programme”.
The above if properly managed and execuded would try to achieve the goal as stated
in the National Housing Policy (February 1991) for Federal Republic of Nigeria.
“Nigeria should gradually and systematically develop appropriate capabilities to
reduce construction cost and achieve self-sufficiency in the production of basic
building materials and components from local resources at affordable cost by the year
2000”.
Construction with these factories produced burnt bricks was common all over the
country and was sustained for a number of years. But due to lack of spare parts and
maintenance experts, high rate of capital recovery and inefficient resource usage
arising from inadequate managerial capacity, which result in lack of consistent
availability of the burnt brick and hence its inability to compete favourably with the
cement (sandcrete) block. Consequently, attention was reverted back to cement
18
walling despite its high cost of production. Thus the hope of the average Nigerian to
own his house was fast becoming a mirage as many Nigerians had to abandon hope
for building and owning own houses. At about the same time however, there was a re-
emergence of local clay bricks into local building industry.
The locally produced, non-standardized, burnt clay bricks are an alternative to the
factory produced, standardized clay bricks. They are non-standardized because the
production processes and mix productions vary from maker to maker. The technology
for their production is almost wholly indigenous and requires a relatively lower
impute in terms of machinery, scientific skill and organization. These bricks are
highly favoured because of their cheap cost, durability and continuity of satisfactory
and pleasing appearance even after long-term weathering.
Dreams for construction of houses, which were hitherto abandoned, are now
becoming realized as a result of re-emergence of local clay brick. The term re-
emergence is used in reference to these bricks because they were once very popular
within the local construction industry with their presence in Nigeria dating back to the
turn of the century. Structures constructed around this period can still be seen around.
Examples of these are structures like the Government College, Umuahia and Holy
Ghost Cathedral. Makurdi as well as Chief Ayoosu house, Mbakyaha Ute, Vandeikya.
In spite of the great and commendable efforts being made at official levels to
popularize the use of indigenous and locally produced burnt bricks, some problems
still inhibit the acceptance of these materials for building.
These are: -
i. The strength of this brick as obtained by the local production technology.
19
ii. The durability or long-term behaviour of this brick when used in construction.
iii. The interactive cost of this brick with other building materials as compared to
that of cement blocks.
iv. The versatility of this brick in various forms of building construction such as a
multi-storey building.
These questions??? concerns we intend to analyze in this study.
Wayne Nelson once said “This is a great step towards making housing affordable, so
that everyone God has created can have at least a simple and decent place to live.”
Therefore, the study seeks to break new grounds in the housing industry with the
main aim of mass production of housing units to alleviate average Nigerian need for
shelter. (Shelter to the rich is not a problem)
Everyone is urged to embrace the available local material as alternative to cut-down
construction and life-span cost of building and ensuring a viable economy in local
building material sector.
1.2.0.0 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
The major problem of housing in urban and rural areas is high cost of building
materials as a result of over dependence on imported materials. This result is
uncontrollable frequent price hike in cement, giving birth to high cost of
buildings.
In Nigeria, efforts by various governments to provide adequate shelter for the
people have not yielded the desired results. This can be attributed to a number of
reasons; prominent among which is the failure to base the execution of housing
programme on locally available materials. Most construction works being carried
20
out in Nigeria use Sandcrete (cement) blocks, instead of using locally burnt bricks
as an alternative in the low-cost housing scheme. This study therefore encourages
the use of locally burnt bricks as compared to sandcrete blocks because of its cost
effectiveness, strength and durability in solving the problem of high cost of
building.
The research will then offer recommendations to the both parties participating in
low-cost housing scheme. delete
1.3.0.0 AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
Aim
To assess the Potential of Bricks as Walling Replacement of Sandcrete Blocks in Low-Cost Housing
Objectives
To obtain burnt brick and sandcrete block samples from 3 factories / manufacturers in Nigeria
To determine the strength, durability, abrasion and water absorption properties of the locally burnt bricks
To analyze the results and the cost effectiveness of locally burnt bricks as walling materials compared to the
sandcrete blocks
To make recommendations based on the results and findings
[This study attempts to assess the extent to which locally burnt bricks can help in
reducing the cost of building construction.
This can be achieving through the following objectives: -
i. To examine the strength and durability of locally burnt bricks as walling
materials.
ii. To examine compare the cost of locally burnt bricks as compared to the
sandcrete blocks in a walling unit.
iii. To use the test results analyses and the aesthetics quality in assessing the potential of burnt
bricks for low-cost housing.
iv. Treating locally burnt bricks like any other commercial product and subject
it to market strategies so that investors may be motivated.
v. To make recommendations on how Government and private organization
can improve on this locally available material.]
21
1.4.0.0 SCOPE
This work covers the method/process of development production of locally burnt

bricks and an analytical comparison between representative samples of locally
produced non-standardized burnt bricks and sandcrete blocks of standard
dimensions.
i. The durability or long-term behaviour for each of the two walling material
types shall be determined by considering 30 houses each constructed with
each of the materials.
ii. The strength analysis was made between locally produced burnt bricks
and sandcrete blocks chosen from three places in Vandeikya.
iii. The cost analysis was made from the cost per square meter for
construction with brick 6” (150mm) and 9” (225mm) sandcrete blocks and
locally produced burnt bricks.
1.5.0.0 LIMITATION
The project is limited to the analysis of the geotechnical and structural properties and cost
comparison of the bricks and sandcrete blocks.
(Due to financial and time constraints as well as absence of accessibility to
archeological laboratory, archeological on each of these materials has not been
carried out to ascertain the decay period (life span), and its thermal properties.)
1.6.0.0 RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS
The following research hypotheses are used to guide the study.
Locally produced burnt bricks are stronger and more durable as well as of higher
aesthetic value than sandcrete blocks. Also the cost of construction and
maintenance with locally burnt bricks is less when compared to sandcrete blocks.
22
1.7.0.0 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
The timely re-emergence of the local clay bricks into the local construction
industry then meant that projects, which have hitherto been shelved due to
high cost, could be realized and the use of this brick in local construction is
spreading rapidly. The wide spread use of these bricks has a potential of
replacing sandcrete blocks for low-cost housing with burnt bricks.
(also generated a number of questions pertaining to this bricks. These were

questions with regards to: -
i. The strength of these bricks as obtained by the local production technology.
ii. The interactive cost of this bricks with other building materials.
iii. The durability or long-term behaviour of this brick when used in construction.
iv. The versatility of this brick in various forms of building construction, such as
multi-storey buildings.
These questions were intended to analyze this study, and provide
recommendations appropriately at the end of the research work.)
1.8.0.0 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

SOURCES OF DATA
i. Primary data:
The instruments, used to collect the primary data, were experimental and
personal observations. For the cost analysis, the cost per square meter for
construction with locally produced burnt bricks, 6” and 9” sandcrete
blocks were obtained.
23
The durability for each of the two walling materials types was determined
by considering the state of 30 houses each constructed with each of these
materials.
ii. Secondary Data:
The secondary data will be collected from both published and unpublished
works on bricks and sandcrete blocks studies.
They include: - Journals, periodicals, seminar papers, textbooks, and related
documents on subject matter and also administering of questionnaires.???
1.9.0.0 DATA ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION???
The data collected were analyzed for simplicity and to clarify the relationship
between and among variables. Therefore, the result is determined mathematically
and present in form of statement. delete
CHAPTER TWO
2.0.0.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1.0.0 BURNT CLAY BRICKS
Burnt clay bricks are produced with 100% locally sourced material –mainly clay
soil and firewood or other fuels depending on the method of firing used. These
bricks are strong, durable and unaffected to a large extent by water or fire as well
as other climatic conditions. Rendering or painting may not be necessary when
building with these bricks, as they are normally beautiful, Hendry (1987).
A suitable soil usually clay or laterite soil is mixed with water to create the paste,
which is the basis of the manufacture of bricks. The essential property of a
suitable soil is plasticity, which is imparted by the clay fraction of the soil. As
24
little as 30% clay fraction is enough to make a soil suitable for use. The
engineering properties in the mix, however increase with the proportion of clay in
soil, gives it shrinkage and cracking potential, thus rending it unsuitable for bricks
production. in the local process when precise temperature regulation in the kiln is
not possible, any soil with excess amount of clay while in the moulds becomes
difficult and also in the process of drying, they lose their hydra content resulting
into cracking in the mould before even the process of firing.
The characteristic colour of bricks is red, reddish brown, yellow and blue due to
some metallic oxide in the clay (for example iron, aluminum and magnesium
oxides) as well as burning procedure observed.
Locally occurring clay may have impurities such as limestone, which occur as
modules in the brick, which in turn expand with time and crack the brick. Other
25
soluble impurities such as gypsum and other salts can be dissolved and
redeposited on the brick surfaces as efflorescence, Zinas (2000).
2.1.1.0 LOCALLY PRODUCED CLAY BURNT BRICK
This is the type of burnt clay brick that utilizes the local process of moulding, sun
drying and use firing burning in hand-made kiln. These bricks are strong, durable
and unaffected to large extent by climate and fire and are as well bullet proof.
The clay material which is suitable for these processes of manufacture should not
be less than 35% salt content, 20 – 55% sand and 35% clay is chemically
composed of alumna and silica. The process setup for the manufacture includes:
brick earth preparation; molding or forming; drying; burning and cooling.
2.2.0.0 EARTH AS BUILDING MATERIAL
Over 100 centuries ago, man learnt to build houses; and earth has been
undoubtedly been one of the most widely used construction materials in most
parts of the world. Most countries have a heritage of buildings in unbaked earth.
Even in the present days, more than one third of the population lives in houses
built of earth Dimochowski (1990).
In 1900 BC civilization started in Egypt. The great pyramid of Giza was
constructed of earth by Pharaoh of the Bulifu Zoser dynasty and it is known as the
first pyramid in Egypt. It is also known that all the ancient civilizations in Egypt,
Greek and Rome were all known for beauty of their architectural designs and the
construction of their temples, palaces, theatres and dwelling places; using local
building materials of earth and stones Bricks (2007).
26
The present France particularly in the Danube region, 90% of the villages are
earth rammed called “pise”. In Africa there is a great usage of raw earth material
from the small buildings to luxury mansions, from palaces of emirs of the
northern Nigeria to Kasbahs of Morocco, from the mosques of Mali to almost all
parts of the Middle East to all parts of Asia.
In Benue state, the Tiv traditional architecture utilized mud bricks for their
building typologies ranging from dwelling houses to palaces and tombs
Dimochowski (1982).
2.3.0.0 LATERITE SOIL IN NIGERIA
Person (1970) noted that the location and distribution of laterite material has been
with temperatures and rainfall conditions that characterized earth surface between
latitude 350N to 350S. He also pointed, they may be expected at location where
they have not yet been discovered, but there are environmental conditions suitable
for their formation.
Nigeria falls within the tropics. It lies between 4 0N and 140N hence all necessary
conditions that aid the formation of laterite soil, namely high temperature and
abundant rainfall are prevalent in most parts of the country Eze (1997). Ajayi
(1985) outlined that except for lowland of the extreme south with annual rainfall
of over 200mm and mangrove swamp forest vegetation where sedimentary or
alluvial and recent soil deposit are generally encountered, the soil formation
process elsewhere in the country are products of weathering that lands to the
formation of laterite soil.
27
2.4.0.0 PROPERTIES OF LATERITE SOIL
2.4.1.0 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF LATERITE
Magnien (1996) outlined the higher proportion of some oxides of iron Fe 2O2 and
(Al2O2) relative to other chemical components as a typical feature of all grades of
laterite. Martin & Aidagasu (1976) analyzed laterite as having silica alumina ratio
(SiO2/Al2O2) less than 1:33 for true laterite, 1.33 – 2.00 of laterite and greater
than 2.0 as non-laterite tropically weathered soils.
Two groups of laterite materials are chemically identified; they are ferruginous
laterite soil and aluminous laterite soil in which non-oxide and alumina
predominate respectively.
TAble 2.1 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF TYPICAL LATERITE SOIL

TYPE LATE RITE FERRUGMOUS ALBUMINOUS BANOCITE
LATERITE LATERITE LATERITE
Locality Nigeria Ghana Ghana Ghana
Reference J.M.S J&J J&J J&J
SiO2 26.5 23.96 21.91 0.71
Al2O3 19.0 16.69 15.75 59.71
FeO3 36.7 43.58 45.13 8.4
FeO 0.32
MgO 0.21 0.28
CaO 0.24 0.31
Na2O -
K2O -
TiO2 1.1 2.17 3.25
H2O 13.60 13.60 27.95
Source: GidAgAsu, 1976.
From table 2.1 it can be seen that iron, silica and alumina are the major chemical
28
contents of laterite soil as given by Balogun (1962) as: -
SiO2 = 72.05%
Al2O2 = 16.3%
FeO3 = 4.9%
FeO = 6.3%
2.4.2.0 GEO TECHNICAL PROPERTIES OF LATERITE SOIL
Geo-technical properties of laterite soil varied from one laterite deposit to another
depending on the prevailing factors governing them. It is therefore hardly possible
to arrive at a universal representative values for all laterite soils as actual testing
will reveal differences from one laterite to another Ezen (1997).
It should be noted however, that an exhaustive properties of a soil is not always
necessary. It is important to be fully aware of four main properties, which are:-
The texture or gain size distribution of the laterite soil, the plasticity of the laterite
soil; the compactibility of the laterite soil or its specific gravity, the cohesion of
the laterite soil Guillard (1991).
Thus the Geo-technical properties of laterite soil are examined under the above-
mentioned four main properties.
2.4.3.0 GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION
This is measured by sieving the lager grains and particles – stones, gravels, sand,
silt or alluvia and by sedimentation for fine clay and colloidal particles. For
reference, the classification of grain sizes used by most laboratories is the ATSM
standard, which is as follows: -
i. Stone: 200mm to 20mm
ii. Gravel: 20mm to 2mm

iii. Coarse sand: 2mm to 0.2mm
iv. Fine sand: 0.2mm to 0.06mm
29
v. Silt (Alluvia): 0.06mm to 0.002mm
vi. Fine silt: 0.02mm to 0.002mm
vii. Clay: 0.002mm to 0mm.
The clay content of laterite soil is important deviation from the grain size
distribution and this is defined as percentage passing series No. 200. The extent of
this clay content in the laterite soil is very significant as it influences the other
properties of the soil. The value of this percentage is not fixed for all laterites.
2.4.4.0 PLASTICITY
Plasticity defined the capacity of a soil to be distorted without displaying

elasticity. It is defined by the various states (liquid, plastic or solid) of
consistency, which is measured by Alterberg limits on the “fine mortar” part of
the soil.
These various states of consistency or hydration correspond to certain limits and
indices, expressed as percentage, water contents by weight, which have been
defined by Swedish researcher, Alterberg, H. (1991). There are five (5) alterberg
limits, but the two main ones are the liquid limit (LL) and the plastic limit.
A. LIQUID LIMIT (LL)
30
The liquid limit refers to the point of transition between a plastic to a
liquid state i.e. the moisture content at which soil passes from plastic state
to liquid state.
B. PLASTIC LIMIT (PL)

The plastic limit refers to the point f transition from a plastic state to a
solid state, with shrinkage i.e. the moisture content at which a sem-solid
soil can be rolled into 3mm diameter threads without breaking.
C. PLASTIC INDEX (PI)

The plastic index, which is obtained by subtracting PL from LL indicates
the PI, the more the material will be liable to change shape as a result of
swelling when moistured and shrinking when dry out.
Plasticity of soil may classified as low, medium, high, very high and
extremely high and Gidigusu (1976) outlined the factors affecting
plasticity as clay content of the soil, nature of exchange caution and
organic matter content. The natural moisture content, liquid and plastic
limit of the normal laterite soil ranges between 15 – 30%.
2.4.5.0 SPECIFIC GRAVITY
This is the ratio of the mass of a given volume of material to mass of an equal
volume of water. The specific gravity volumes are useful parameters needed for
calculations involving void ratio. Porosity, degree of saturation, compaction,
consolidation, permeability, shrinkage limit test and particle size distribution by
sedimentation.
31
According to Magmen (1966), laterite soil particles have a specific gravity of
between 2.55 – 4.6; however, average decomposed quartz-rich parent material
without a high degree of laterization has a specific gravity of between 2.55 – 3.00.
This is because quartz, which forms half or more of many types of clay and the
main constituents of most soil, has a specific gravity of 2.65.
2.5.0.0 STRENGTH CHARACTERISTICS OF LATERITE SOIL
According to Balodoon (1969), considerable studies have been reported on the

shear strength characteristics of the undisturbed, re-molded and compacted soil
formed during different weathering conditions, the strength characteristics are
generally influenced by the genetic and compositional factors.
Table 2.2 PROPERTIES OF SOME NIGERIAN LATERITE
Description A-1-A A-2-A A-4 A-6 A-7-6

Water content % 0.9 12.6
Liquid limit Non plastic 27 31.4 38.3 42.2
Plastic limit % “ 17 22.2 28.0 25.1
Plasticity index % “ 10 9.2 10.50 17.1
Specific gravity 2.7 2.8 2.6 28.5 2.7
Percentage passing serial No. 200 12.1 2.2 40.6 54.7 54
Group index 0 0 1.4 42.0 6.8
Optimum M.C % 9.5 14.3 13.2 17.0 19.5
Dry density 127.4 128.0 119.2 102.2 107.4
Percentage passing 2 – m 1.5 16.5 16 10 20
Source: Geo-technicAl pArticles in NigeriA, ISSMFZ Golden Jubilee.
32
2.5.1.0 COMPRESSIBILITY.
This expresses the maximum capacity of a soil to be compacted at a given rate of

humility known as the optimum water content (OWC). It is measured thanks to
proctor test. The more a soil can be compacted, the greater the reduction in its
porosity or the ratio of voids and the less water penetrates it. Soil is difficult to
compact at low moisture contents, low values for dry density are obtained and the
volume of air is high. Dry density maximum depends on the type of the soil and
its main characteristics,
Where for:
Clay soils: dry density max = 200 kg/m3
Sand soils: dry density max = 220kg/m3
Gravelly soil: dry density max = 250kg/m3
On average dry density max of a compacted soil ranges from 1700 to 230 kg/m3
2.5.2.0 COHESION
The cohesion of soil relates to the capacity of the “coarse mortar” particles (i.e.
2mm) which link the individual inert grains one of the other, to bind or stick. This
property is therefore very evident in the adhesiveness of clay. Coarse mortars may
be subdivided according to their tensile strength, which is determined by the wet
tensile strength test. Five main categories have been identified.
A. Sandy mortar
B. Weak mortar
C. Average mortar
D. Strong mortar
E. Clay mortar.
33
2.6.0.0 LATERITE AS CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL
According to Okoli (1998), laterite soils have been a major traditional building
material in the rural areas in Nigeria. Kamang (1998) stated that laterite as a
material has featured for a very long time in the construction of roads and
buildings. This is evident by the fact that majority of houses in the rural areas in
use today were built from laterite soil. Its use has varied according to location and
its properties. Some laterite soils are suitable for use in their natural state while
others require additives in order that they satisfy the purpose they are intended
for. Recent investigations have proffered information on the effective means of its
application in building and engineering constructions. Ola (1983), for example,
reveals that stabilization of laterite with cement, lime, bitumen etc. effecting
improved engineering properties of laterite soil both for road construction and low
cost housing.
Madedor & Ashallu (1987) pointed out that researchers to improve the
engineering properties of soil in Nigeria is advanced and in the last decade, have
geared towards improving the traditional technology for its use in construction
and also towards increasing the strength, durability and other performance
characteristics.
2.7.0.0 BURNT CLAY BRICKS AND ITS PREPARATION
Burnt clay bricks are produced with 100% locally sourced material –mainly clay
soil and firewood or other fuels depending on the method of firing used. These
bricks are strong, durable and unaffected to a large extent by water or fire as well
as other climatic condition. Rendering or painting may not be necessary when
building with these bricks, as they are normally beautiful.
Suitable soil usually clay or laterite soil is mixed with water to create the paste,
which is the basis of the manufacture of bricks. The essential property of soil is
34
plasticity which is imparted by the clay fraction of the soil. As little as 30% clay
fraction is enough to make a soil suitable for use. The engineering properties in
the mix, however increases with the proportion of clay in the soil, gives it
shrinkage and cracking potential, thus rending it unsuitable for bricks production.
In the local process when precise temperature regulation in the kiln is not
possible, any soil with excess amount of clay while in the moulds becames
difficult to mold and also in the process of drying as they lose their water content
resulting into cracking in the mould before even the process of firing.
The characteristic colour of bricks is red, reddish brown, yellow and blue due to
some metallic oxide in the clay (for example iron, aluminum and magnesium
oxides) as well as burning procedure observed.
Locally occurring clay may have impurities such as limestone, which occur as
modules in the brick, which in turn expand with time and crack brick. Other
soluble impurities such as gypsum and other salts can be dissolved and redeposit
on the brick surfaces as effervescence Zinas (2000).
2.8.0.0 INDUSTRIAL BURNT CLAY BRICK PREPARATION
The clay content, which is suitable for the manufacture of burnt clay bricks should
not be less than 30% silt content, 20 – 50% sand content, not more than 30% clay,
and is chemically composed of alumna and silica. Alumna the soft plastic part,
readily melts when fired. Pure clay may be found deficient in some of these
materials thus necessitating the addition of these to the clay during preparation.
The addition of lime causes the verification of the bricks. The steps involved in
burnt bricks manufacture are: - Bricks earth preparation; Moulding or formation,
Drying, Burning and cooling
35
2.8.1.0 BRICKS EARTH PREPARATION
This is the process of achieving suitability of the raw clay for brick production.
This process begins with soil selection; tests are usually carried out to determine
the different soil properties.
These tests include: -
i. Natural water content
ii. Plastic and liquid limits
iii. Mineral composition
iv. Water retaining properties
When the clay content is too high, bricks will experience shrinking and cracking
when dry, so it is necessary to ensure optimum clay proportion by mixing.
2.8.2.0 WINNING
Winning, which is the mixing procedure for clay is the initial process for reaching
clay. This procedure begins with un-soiling, which is the removal of topsoil on
the mining site. It is at this stage that the following points are ensured;
i. Water table should be at least 1.0m below the kilo floor.
ii. The site should be in conformity with town planning requirement.
The clay is then mixed and laid out. Depending on the specifications required, the clay is
mixed and left to weather or it is mixed just before use.
2.8.3.0 GRINDING.
In the factory production, therefore, this is done mechanically. The aim of

grinding is to ensure good particle sizes and to get better uniformity in the final
bricks.
36
2.8.4.0 TEMPERING
This process is achieved by adding water to the clay in a mill with mixing
chamber having one or two blades. Once the clay and water are thoroughly mixed
(pugged), the clay goes through a clearing machine to reduce the air voids.
2.8.5.0 MOULDING OR FORMING OF BURNT BRICKS.
This is a process of dividing the clay lump into regular sizes for the purpose of
firing. This can be achieved in industry by the machine, which is faster and more
efficient. It employs soft mud, stiff and dry press process for moulding.
In the stiff mud process, clay is mixed with just enough water to produce
plasticity – usually twelve to fifteen percent by weight. The clay is then extruded
in a column through dies in a brick-making machine.
The soft mud process is employed when the clay contains too much natural water
for the stiff mud process. Clay is mixed with 20-30% water with the units then
formed in moulds lubricated with sand or water. This is the oldest form of
producing bricks. Bricks formed by this method generally have a finer furnish
than those formed by other processes.
The dry press process is used where clays have very low plasticity, using a
minimum of water (not more the 10%). The units are formed in steel moulds
under high pressure dry pressed bricks are compact, strong well formed.
2.8.6.0 DRYING OF BURNT BRICKS
When wet clay bricks leave the moulding or cutting machines, the water content,
by weight, ranges from 7-30% depending on the process used for the formation.
This water content has to be reduced to the minimum before burning can begin.
This can be achieved in DRIED KILNS with temperatures between 100 – 4000F
(the normal factory production process).
37
2.8.7.0 BURNING/FIRING OF BRICKS
Burning or firing is the process through which the formed dewatered brick is
mechanical turned kilo whereas a clamp kiln is used in the local process.
Firing aims at achieving certain chemical reactions in the brick at high
temperatures. Drying usually effectively eliminates the free water contained in the
bricks often moulding. To remove water contained in the bricks however,
temperature of 4000C must be attained. The temperature is raised to and sustained
at 8000C – 10000C to ensure that microscopic ceramic bonds occur in the clay.
When this happens the bricks can no longer be affected by the higress of water.
In this process therefore, the turned kiln used is a continuous kiln. In this kiln
type, temperatures are sustained continuously within the kiln turned with the
highest temperatures around the middle and the lowest around the two ends.
2.9.0.0 TYPES/SIZES OF BURNT BRICKS
Bricks are manufactured in different sizes depending on the popularity and

demand for particularly sizes. The size however should be such that it can be
uniformly fired and should not be too large as to make construction cumbersome
on account of its weight.
BS 3921 – defines the single standard metric size as
follows: Work size – 215 x 02.50 x 65.0mm
Format size – 225 x 112.50 x 75.0mm
The work size is the size with allowance for tolerance. The format size is the
actual size plus the thickness of mortar joints.
Bricks can be common, facing or engineering.
i. Common: Bricks are these with good load bearing capacities are available
in various crushing strength and can be used for general building work
though are not designed for aesthetic value.
ii. Facing: Bricks are those in which aesthetic qualities are paramount in
38
design. They can combine aesthetics and strength in construction and are
available in various features.
iii. Engineering: Are bricks designed to posses’ requisite engineering
properties. They have light load bearing qualities and can be employed
where strength consideration are paramount. In terms of quality, bricks are
classified into internal quality, ordinary quality and special quality bricks.
a. Internal quality bricks which are the best, suited for internal use, which
should not be exposed to normal atmospheric conditions.
b. Ordinary quality: these can be used in both internal and external area of
a building and are very durable when exposed to atmospheric conditions.
c. Special quality: these bricks are durable and can be used in extreme
conditions, such as water saturation without failing.
2.10.0.0 PROPERTIES OF BURNT BRICKS
2.10.1.0 FIRE RESISTANCE
Stone P. A (1980), wall serve a number of purposes. Where there is no frame the
form part of the structure as well as building. In non-frame buildings they carry
the floor and roof loads as well as acting as insulator and contribute to the
aesthetics of the building. The range of materials suitable for walls is very wide as
is their rate properties and cost. Appearance depends on texture, not just of the
material when it’s new but throughout its life. Material such as bricks, which
generally are very durable and which weather well usually require little
maintenance or cleaning, except in very dirty atmosphere. Their running cost are
this very low and in areas suitable for their production they tend to provide very
cheap walling which is cheap to erect and to maintain. Usually bricks provide
adequate insulation against rain, snow, and wind, against hot sunshine and
extreme cold, noise and fire. Its insulation properties can be fairly easily increased
by treating the internal face and by cavity construction. Concrete (sandcrete) can
possess many of properties of bricks but at an extreme cost.
Burnt clay bricks provide excellent fire resistance and brick walls are almost
39
always seen standing after fire. This is because the bricks are fired at temperatures
higher than those of the house fires.
2.10.2.0 THERMAL INSULATION
Being dense in composition, burnt bricks transmit heat faster than sandcrete
blocks and so are constructional less suitable under extreme weather conditions.
This draw back is overcome however, by laying in two parelled courses thus
providing an air space in between for insulation.
2.10.3.0 SOUND TRANSMISSION
The density of brickwork generally provides good barrier to sound transmission.
2.10.4.0 AVAILABILITY
Clay and other suitable soil for bricks production are abundant in Nigeria. The
local method for brick production, being direct and requiring a low level of
technological inputs, is very popular in all parts of the country, especially with
technical enlightenment scheme embarked upon by DFRRI (Directorate of foods,
Roads and Rural Institute) in the area of bricks production. Burnt bricks are
therefore very available locally.
2.10.5.0 VERSATILITY
Nash (1983) Burnt clay bricks are usable for different types of construction. They
can be used in almost any kind of construction above or below ground level
though in water retaining structures, the suitability of local burnt bricks is still in
construction.
40
2.10.6.0 STRENGTH
The average compressive strength of burnt clay bricks is high. The firing process
they pass through enhances microscopic ceramic bonds within the clay, which are
responsible for the high strength of the resulting bricks. Values of compressive
strength can be as high as 180N/mm, Ugbenyo (2004).
2.10.7.0 DURABILITY
Burnt clay bricks are among the most durable walling materials known to man.
The recent excavation of a building construction around 4000B.C showed the
burnt clay walls quite intact. They are not affected by the ingress of water and are
thus able to stand the test of weather and time. Bricks (2007).
2.10.8.0 COST
With abundant clay occurring in large deposit, all over the country, the raw
materials for burnt bricks production are cheap and available. There is also
sufficient local technology for burnt brick manufacture thus locally produced
burnt bricks is cheap. Benue State Government (2004).
41
CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
3.0.0.0 PROCEDURE TO MANUFACTURE LOCAL BURNT BRICKS
The method of manufacturing locally burnt bricks was observed in the field
(locally producing factory) as produced by the local expert.
Briefly describe steps/stages that you witnessed
3.1.0.0 STRENGTH ANALYSIS
This analysis is aimed at determining the mean compressive strength of locally

produced clay bricks and sandcrete blocks. The procedure outlined is in
accordance with BS 2028 (1953).
Total of 30 sandcrete blocks of size 225 x 154 x 450mm were used for this
analysis, 10 blocks each were collected from three different sites namely;
UGBAGIDI BLOCK, J & J BLOCK AND AUDU BLOCKS. Mention locations
30 local clay bricks were similarly obtained from three different sites as; AYA,
AHILEJIME and UKYAAGU SITES. Mention locations
TEST FOR COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH
Pre-requisite condition: the local clay bricks were immersed in water at room
temperature; they were first removed and caped with mortar to ensure surface
evenness and allowed to dry for 24 hours after which they were immersed for 72
hours. After this treatment, the specimens are ready for test.
The sandcrete block was immersed in cold water at room temperature (27 o + 2oC)
for 3 days of 72 hours.
Each test specimen with the ‘mortared’ face upward is placed on a horizontal
surface and placed on the compressive test machine. Load was then gradually
applied until failure.
The compressive strength is computed as
42
(N/mm2) = Maximum load at failure
Surface area of block/bricks mm2
3.2.0.0 MATERIAL QUANTITIES
The popular walling materials in the country are: -
1. 9” (225 x 225 x 450mm) sandcrete blocks,
2. 6” (225 x 150 x 450mm) sandcrete blocks,
They are compared with locally produced burnt bricks for effective cost analysis:
the various material quantities for 1m2 of wall are computed; for each of the three
material types. The components are the number of blocks/bricks, the volume of
mortar required for bonding and the quantities of materials (cement, sand, and
water) required for mortar.
3.2.1.0 QUANTITY OF LOCALLY BURNT BRICKS
The type of brick considered in this analysis is the 100 x 150 x 225mm size;
20mm thick mortar is placed on one side and face.
43
FIGURE 3.1 LOCAL BURNT BRICKS CAPED WITH MORTAR
150MM
100M
225MM
SOURCE; FIELD WORK
a. Number of bricks per m2 of wall = 30 bricks 34?
b. Volume of mortar required per m2 of wall.
Thickness of mortar = 20mm = 0.02m
Volume of brick with mortar = 0.27m x 0.15m x 0.12m
= 4.86 x 10 - 3 m3
44
Volume of brick without mortar = 0.25m x 0.15m x 0.10m
Volume of mortar per brick = (4.86 – 3.75) x 10 -3 m3
Total volume of mortar per m2 of wall = 30 x 1.11 x 10 -3m3
= 0.0333m3
3.2.2.0 QUANTITIES OF 9” SANDCRETE BLOCKS
a. Number of blocks per m2 of wall = 10 blocks 9?
= 0.47 x 0.245 x 0.05
(Assume that mortar covers entire top surface of block)
Volume of mortar required per m2 of wall.
b. Volume of mortar per block = (0.47 x 0.245
x 0.225) – (0.45 x 0.225) x 0.225 = 0.00313mm3
Total surface area of block = 101250mm2

Surface area of cavity = 35438mm2
Therefore Actual surface area
of block = (101250 – 35438) mm2 = 65812mm2
Actual volume of mortar for block = 65812 x 0.00313 = 2.03x10-3mm3

101250
Total volume of mortar per m2 of wall = 2.03 x 10-3m3 x10
= 0.0203m3
45
3.2.3.0 QUANTITIES OF 6” SANDCRETE BLOCKS
(a) Number of blocks per m2 of wall = 10 = 0.245 x 0.47 x 0.05
(b) Volume of mortar required for m2 of wall.
Volume of mortar per block = (0.245 x 0.47 x 0.15) – (0.225

x 0.45 x 0.15) =
0.0021m3
Actual volume of mortar per block = 43500 x 0.0021m3

67500x 10-3m3
= 1.35 x 10-3m2
Therefore, total volume of mortar per m3 of wall = 1.35 x 10-3m3 x 10 = 0.0135m3
3.3.0.0 COST ANALYSIS
The cost analysis is performed for sandcrete blocks (9” and 6”) and also
for local clay bricks. The cost analysis for mortar used in bonding is also
performed. Assuming; total cost of a material (T.C) = M + U + N
where
M = (cost of m2 of block/bricks + transportation + handling)
N = (cost of mortar per m2 of wall)
U = (cost of workmanship per m2)
N = (cost of cement + cost of sand +cost of water)
3.3.1.0 COST OF 9” SANDCRETE BLOCKS/M2
But N = cost of a mortar per m2.

Therefore, volume of mortar for 9” sandcrete block/m2 = 0.0183m3.
The mix ratio of cement to sand is 1:6.
46
Then the volume of cement = 1/7 x 0.0183m3 = 0.0026m3
But the unit weight of cement = 1440kg/m3

The weight of cement/kg = 0.0026 x 1440 = 3.744kg
Volume of sand = 6/7 x 0.0183m3 = 0.0157m3
If 3.744kg = 0.075 bag

50 kg bag of cement (with transportation and handling) = N2100.00
Cost of cement for mortar of m2 of 9” sandcrete block = 3.744 x 2100
50
Cost of cement = N 157.25
Sand:
Volume of sand in a mortar of m2 of 9” sandcrete
= 0.0157m3
If 2.5m3 = 1 trip = N2800.00
Cost of sand in m2 of wall (9” sandcrete) = 0.0147 x 2800

2.5
= N 16.46
If the cost of water for 0.65 mix water cement ratio is considered negligible.
N = N 157.25 + N 16.46
N = N 173.71
It is obvious that M = cost of m 2 of

block + transportation + handling.
Number of blocks/m2 = 10
Cost of block with transportation and handling = N 60.00? may be
N250 - 300
Cost of block/m2 of wall (9” sandcrete) M = 10 x 90 = N 900.00?
Workmanship (U)
47
Workmanship/blocks (U) = N 30.00
Workmanship/m2 (U) N 30 x 10
=
U = N 300.00
Total cost (TC) of material = M+N+U
= N 900.00 + N 173.71 + N 300

= N 1373.71
The total cost (TC) of wall/m2 (Sandcrete 9”) = N 1373.71
3.3.2.0 COST OF 6”SANDCRETE BLOCKS
But N = cost of a mortar per m2
Therefore, volume of mortar for 6” sandcrete block/m2 = 0.012m3

The mix ratio of cement to sand = 1:6
But the unit weight of cement= 1440kg/m3
The weight of cement/kg = 0.00171 x 1440 = 2.5kg
Volume of sand = 0.005 bags
If 50kg bag of cement (with transportation and handling) = N 2100.00
Cost of cement in mortar of m2 (of sandcrete 6”) block = 2.5 x 2100

50
= N 105.00
48
Sand:
Volume of sand in mortar m2 (6”

sandcrete) = 0.0103m3 If 2.5m3 =
1 trip = N2100.00
Cost of sand in mortar of m2 of wall (6” sandcrete) = 0.0103 x 2100.00

2.5
= N 8.65
If the cost of water for 0.65 mixes, water to cement ratio is considered negligible
N = N.105.00 + N 8.65
N = N 113.65
It is obvious that M = cost of m2 of block + transportation + handling
Number of blocksm2 = 10
Cost of block with transportation and handling = N 60.00? N150 - 200
Cost of block/m2 of wall (6” sandcrete) M = 60 x 10 = N 600.00
Workmanship (U)
Cost of workmanship/block = N 25.00
Cost of workmanship/m2 = N 25 x 10
= N 250.00
Total cost (TC) = M+N+U
= N 600 + N 113.65+ N 250.00
= N 963.65
3.3.3.0 COST OF LOCALLY PRODUCED BRICKS
But N = Cost of mortar per m2

49
Therefore, volume of mortar for bricks (100 x 150 x 250mm)
= 0.0333m3
The mix ratio of cement to sand is 1:6
The weight of cement = 1440kg/m3
Weight of cement kg = 0.00476 x 1440 = 6.85kg
The volume of sand = 6/7 x 0.0333m3
= 0.0285m3
But 6.85kg = 0.137bag
If 50kg of cement bag (with transportation and handling) costs N 2100.00
Cost of cement for mortar of m2 (bricks) = 6.85 x 2100 = N157.55

50
Sand:
Volume of sand in a mortar of m2 wall (100 x 50 x 250mm) bricks
= 0.0285m3
If 2.5m3 = 1 trip = N 2100.00
Cost of sand in m2 of wall (bricks) = 0.0285 x 2100.00 = N 23.94

2.5
If the cost of water is considered
negligible, N = N157.00 + N23.94
N = N180.94
50
But M = cost of m2 of brick + transportation + handling
Number of bricks/m2 = 30
Cost of brick with transportation and handling = N8.00

?
Cost of brick = N
6.00??
N100
Cost of transportation = N 2.00
M = N 8.00 x 30
M = N 240.00
Workmanship (U)
Workmanship (U) = N 5.00
Cost of workmanship/m2 (U) = 5.00 x 30 = N 150.00
Total cost (TC) = M+N+U
= N 240.00 + N 180.94 + N150.00 = N 570.94

From section 3.3, we have the following summary of cost for the two walling material types.
TAble 4.1: Result of cost of the two (three Categories) Walling Materials.
MATERIAL COST (N) PER M2 OF WALL
COST LOCAL BURNT 9” SANDCRETE 6” SANDCRETE
COMPONENTS BRICKS BLOCKS BLOCKS
Mortar 180.94 173.71 113.65
Block/Bricks 240.00 900.00 600.00
Transportation
handling
Workmanship 150.00 300.00 250.00
Total 570.94 1373.7151 963.65
3.4.0.0 DURABILITY ANALYSIS
Under this analysis, a statistical approach is employed to assess the

durability of the two walling material types considered.
The two significant forms of external deterioration which indicate poor
durability in walling are: -
I Plaster Cracks: These occur randomly on the wall surface and are
different from foundation or settlement cracks in that they do not run
longitudinally from top to bottom as in the case of the latter. They are also
thinner and generally discontinuous.
II Surface Raveling/Disintegration: Loosening of block/brick particles
over time.
3.4.1.0 PROCEDURE
Thirty (30) houses built with sandcrete blocks were considered alongside, thirty houses built
with locally burnt bricks.
i. Must have been constructed using at

least average quality of building
materials and
ii. Good construction Practice.
Ranks were assigned to each house based on its performance with respect
to each of the two houses conditions above. The ranking ranges between 1
- 5.
RANK CONDITION???
1. Negligible
2. Slight
3. Moderate
4. Serious
52
5. Severe.
Age factor were then multiplied by the ranks depending on their age. This
is necessary to cater for normal progressive deterioration resulting from
age.
FACTOR (δ) AGE OF BUILDING
1. 0- 8 years
0.9 8 – 10 years
0.8 10 – 14 years
0.7 14 – 18 years
0.6 18 years and above
RC = Rank with respect to cracking
RR = Rank with respect to raveling.
δRC = summation of δ RC
∑δRR = summation of δ RR
Computing (∑δRC + ∑δRR) for sandcrete block and local clay bricks and
comparing the two results; the walling material with the lower value of
(∑δRC + ∑δRR) is the better walling material with respect to durability.
53
CHAPTER 4
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

From section 3.3, we have the following summary of cost for the two walling material types.
Table 4.1: Result of cost of the two (three Categories) walling materials.
MATERIAL COST (N) PER M2 OF WALL
COST LOCAL BURNT 9” SANDCRETE 6” SANDCRETE
COMPONENTS BRICKS BLOCKS BLOCKS
Mortar 180.94 173.71 113.65
Block/Bricks 240.00 900.00 600.00
Transportation
handling
Workmanship 150.00 300.00 250.00
Total 570.94 1373.71 963.65
OBSERVATION AND DEDUCTION

From the result obtained, walling material with 9” sandcrete blocks is the most costly with local
bricks wall being the cheapest.
4.4.0.0 STRENGTH ANALYSIS

From the compressive test carried out to evaluate the compressive strength, the following were
obtained.
4.4.1.0 LOCAL BURNT CLAY BRICKS AYA SITE
Table 4.2: Results of Compressive Strength Tests on AYA Locally Burnt Bricks.
SAMPLE LENGTH BREATH SURFACE LOAD AT COMPRESS
NUMBER (MM) (MM) AREA FAILURE IVE
(MM2) (KN) STRENGTH
N/MM2
1. 240 120 2.88 x 104 50 1.736
2. “ “ “ 60 2.083
3. “ “ “ 48 1.667
4. “ “ “ 100 3.478
5. “ “ “ 80 2.772
6. “ “ “ 70 2.430
7. “ “ “ 80 2.778
8. “ “ “ 50 1.736
9. “ “ “ 65 2.257
10. “ “ “ 80 2.778
Σ23.715
54
AHILEJIME BLOCK SITE
Table 4.3: Results of compressive strength of AHILEJIME locally burnt bricks.
SAMPLE LENGTH BREATH SURFACE LOAD AT COMPRESSI
NUMBER (MM) (MM2) AREA FAILURE VE
(MM2) (KN) STRENGTH
N/MM2
11. 250 140 3.50 x 104 40 1.143
12. “ “ “ 40 1.143
13. “ “ “ 60 1.714
14 “ “ “ 100 2.857
15. “ “ “ 50 1.428
16. “ “ “ 55 1.576
17. “ “ “ 50 1.428
18. “ “ “ 80 2.286
19. 1.714
20. 2.286
Σ17.575
UKYAAGU SITE
Table 4.4: Result of Compressive Strength of UKYAAGU LOCALLY BURNT BRICKS.
SAMPLE LENGTH BREATH SURFACE LOAD AT COMPRESSI

NUMBER (MM) (MM2) AREA FAILURE VE
(MM2) (KN) STRENGTH
N/MM2
21. 290 150 4.35 x 104 65 1.494
22. “ “ “ 60 1.379
23. “ “ “ 60 1.379
24. “ “ “ 60 1.379
25. “ “ “ 70 1.609
26. “ “ “ 50 1.149
27. “ “ “ 70 1.609
28. “ “ “ 65 1.494
29. “ “ “ 70 1.609
30. “ “ “ 65 1.494
Σ14.575
From these results, mean compressive strength = ΣXn

= 23.715 + 17.575 + 14.575 = 1.863 N/mm2
30
55
where
ΣX = Summation of compressive strength values
n = Total number of samples.
4.4.4.0 SANDCRETE BOCKS AUDU BLOCKS
Table 4.5: Results of compressive strength of Audu BLOCKS
SAMPLE LENGTH BREATH SURFACE LOAD AT COMPRES

NUMBER (MM) (MM2) AREA FAILURE SIVE
(MM2) (KN) STRENGT
H N/MM2
11. 6.75 x104 2.4 x 104 4.35 x 104 10.00 0.230
12. “ “ “ 8.00 0.184
13. “ “ “ 10.00 0.230
14. “ “ “ 8.00 0.184
15. “ “ “ 10.35 0.238
16. “ “ “ 7.35 0.169
17. “ “ “ 4.00 0.092
18. “ “ “ 7.35 0.169
19. “ “ “ 3.00 0.069
20. “ “ “ 3.00 0.069
Σ1.541
Source: field work
J & J BLOCK
Table 4.6: Results of compressive strength of J & J BLOCKS
(MM2) (KN) STRENGT
H N/MM2
1 6.75 x 104 2.4 x 104 4.35 x 104 10.00 0.230
2. “ “ “ 14.62 0.336
3. “ “ “ 10.00 0.230
4. “ “ “ 14.62 0.336
5. “ “ “ 8.00 1.184
6. “ “ “ 5.00 0.115
7. “ “ “ 10.61 0.244
8. “ “ “ 5.00 0.115
9. “ “ “ 3.00 0.069
10. “ “ “ 9.61 0.221
Σ1.836
Source: field work
UBAGIDI BLOCKS SITE
Table 4.7: Results of compressive strength of UBAGIDIBLOCKS.

56
(MM2) (KN) STRENGT
H N/MM2
21. 6.75 x 104 2.4 x 104 4.35 x 104 10 0.230
22. “ “ “ 8 0.184
23. “ “ “ 10 0.230
24. “ “ “ 8 0.184
25. “ “ “ 8 1.184
26. “ “ “ 5 0.115
27. “ “ “ 4 0.092
28. “ “ “ 5 0.115
29. “ “ “ 3 0.069
30. “ “ “ 3 0.069
Σ1.380
Source: field work
Mean compressive strength

= Σ(x)
N
= 1.541 + 1.836 + 1.380
30
= 4.757 = 0.159N/mm2
4.4.2.0 OBSERVATION AND DEDUCTIONS
From the results and computations carried out, the average compressive strength
evaluated for the local burnt brick was 1.862N/mm where as that of sandcrete blocks
2
was 0.159N/mm . 2
From the above analysis, it indicates that the local burnt clay bricks are about 10 times
stronger than sandcrete blocks in terms of compressive strength.
4.5.0.0 DURABILITY ANALYSIS

For the sample size considered using the procedure described in section 3.4, the
following results were obtained, from sample buildings randomly collected in
Vandeikya and Gboko metropolis.
4.5.1.0 BUILDING OF LOCAL BURNT CLAY BRICKS WALLING

MATERIALS
RC – Rank assigned to building, which have cracked.
RR – Rank assigned to building, which have raveled or disintegrated.
ß – Age factor to cater for normal progressive deterioration with age.
Table 4.8: Result of Durability Assessment Houses built of local burnt bricks
Sample RC RR ß ß(RC +
Number RR)
2 2 0.6 2.4
2 1 1 0.8 1.6
3 2 1 0.8 2.4
4 2 2 0.7 2.8
5 2 2 0.7 2.857
6 2 1 0.6 1.8
7 2 1 0.6 1.8
8 2 3 0.6 3.0
9 2 3 0.6 3.0
10 3 2 0.6 3.0
11 3 2 0.6 3.0
12 1 1 0.8 1.6
13 2 1 0.8 2.4
14 2 1 0.9 2.7
15 2 2 0.8 3.2
16 2 1 0.6 1.8
17 2 1 0.9 2.7
18 1 1 0.7 1.4
19 1 2 0.8 2.4
20 1 1 0.9 1.8
21 2 2 0.6 2.4
22 3 2 0.6 3.0
23 2 2 0.8 3.2
24 2 1 0.7 2.1
25 2 1 0.8 2.4
26 1 2 0.8 2.4
27 2 1 0.9 2.7
28 2 2 0.6 2.4
29 1 1 0.9 1.8
30 2 2 0.8 2.4
Σ72.40
Table 4.9: Result of Durability Assessment of Houses

built of sandcrete blocks
Sample RC RR ß ß(RC +
Number RR)
2 2 0.6 3.4
2 1 1 0.8 2.6
3 2 1 0.8 3.4
4 2 2 0.7 3.8
5 2 2 0.7 3.8
6 2 1 0.6 2.8
7 2 1 0.6 2.8
8 2 3 0.6 4.0
9 2 3 0.6 4.0
10 3 2 0.6 4.0
11 3 2 0.6 4.0
12 1 1 0.8 2.6
13 2 1 0.8 3.4
14 2 1 0.9 3.7
15 2 2 0.8 4.2
16 2 1 0.6 2.8
17 2 1 0.9 3.7
18 1 1 0.7 2.4
19 1 2 0.8 3.4
20 1 1 0.9 2.8
21 2 2 0.6 58
3.4
22 3 2 0.6 4.0
23 2 2 0.8 4.2
24 2 1 0.7 3.1
25 2 1 0.8 3.4
26 1 2 0.8 3.4
27 2 1 0.9 3.7
28 2 2 0.6 3.4
29 1 1 0.9 2.8
30 2 2 0.8 3.3
Σ = 101.3
4.5.2.0 OBSERVATION AND DEDUCTIONS
The value Σß (RC + RR) evaluated for the local burnt bricks was 72.40, while sandcrete blocks
was 101.3. The two values indicate clearly a higher durability for the local burnt bricks.
4.6.0.0 NEED FOR THE USE OF LOCAL BURNT BRICKS

It is obvious that in order to solve housing problems in Nigeria, the use of local building materials
has to be encouraged. The use of local building materials is not really new in Nigeria. In fact,
most of the technologies are based on the sound building science and have survived to this
modern time. The high need for housing units required especially in urban areas means that
traditional building material and technologies have to be updated, whenever possible its
productivity is to match demand.
Before considering the improvement in traditional building materials and technologies, it is

necessary to consider the main center of cost of a typical building in urban areas. Nigeria
Building and Road Research Institute (NBRRI) sample studies Madedor (1989) of the bill of
quantities of a typical single storey low-cost housing project shows the cost break down for
various components in Table 4.10.
The main components of cost were found to be walls, roof and finishes. Hence, to reduce the cost
of house construction, attention needs to be focused on providing cheaper alternative walling and
roofing materials.
Table 4.10: Main Items/Center of Cost of A Typical Building in Urban Areas

ELEMENTS PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL
COST
Foundation 9
Floor 10
Wall 27
Roof 15
Door and window 9
Finishes 22
Internal 1
External 7
Total 100
59
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0.0.0 CONCLUSION/RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1.0.0 CONCLUSION
The following conclusions were reached with respect to each of the properties analyzed.
5.1.1.0 COST
The cost per square meter complied for each of the three walling materials revealed that 9”
sandcrete blocks were the most expensive walling materials, but the local burnt bricks were the
cheapest.
5.1.2.0 DURABILITY
The durability or long-term behaviour of the local burnt bricks was found to be better than that of
sandcrete blocks.
5.1.3.0 STRENGTH
The average compressive strength for local clay bricks was found to be 1.786N/mm 2, whereas
that for the sandcrete blocks was 0.167N/mm 2. The values for the local burnt bricks were thus
more than ten times higher than that for the sandcrete blocks.
The findings reveal that local burnt bricks are stronger, more durable and more cost-effective than
sandcrete blocks in the construction of walling units and therefore has a good potential of
replacing sandcrete blocks for low-cost housing.
5.2.0.0 RECOMMENDATIONS
i. The Government should encourage, and give incentives to private entrepreneurs to start the
manufacturing of cheap building materials viz bricks, tiles boards and so on, from the available
raw materials, with the use of local technology.
ii. The government should encourage the ‘Federal Building &Road Research Institute’ to put
more emphasis on research on the production and use of locally available materials like
bricks for the construction of low-cost housing.
iii. The appropriate Government Agency should start popularizing using these materials and
the construction techniques mentioned in the previous chapter.
iv. Instead of constructing a few houses with a limited amount of fund available, it is more
desirable to provide site and essential services and amenities and give them construction
materials and allow them to construct as per their requirement. This self- help will save
labour and more people will be benefit. There will be no slums and housing problem will not
be so acute. 60
v. On the side of local expert, producing locally burnt bricks, surface evenness should be
improved in order to reduce mortar and plaster consumption. Thus reducing the cost per
square meter of construction.
Make sure all the referenced materials are in the Biblography
BIBILOGRAPHY
Alan, E. (1970). Mitchell’s building construction. London: Oxford University press.
Atton, W. (1968). Estimating applied to building (Metric ed.). New York: Methuen, Inc.
Ayeni, J. O. (1987). Principles of tendering and estimating. Lagos: University Press.
Bawa, N. S. (1967). Manual on building materials “their availability and use”. Kumasi, Ghana:
Building and Road Research Institute.
Balogun, L. A. (1972). The use of laterite soil in structural concrete. Lagos: Paper presented on
1st Geotechnical conference held at University of Lagos.
Benue State Government. (2004). Information bulletin on low cost housing scheme. Makurdi:
Oracle printing press.
Birdie, G. S. (1980). Text book of estimating and costing (Civil Engineering). Cornwall: MPG
Books Ltd.
Buchan, R. D., Fleming, F. W. & Kelly, J. R. (1991). Estimating for builders and quantity
Surveyors. London: Oxford University Press.
Dimochowski, Z. R. (1990). An introduction to Nigeria traditional architecture (1st ed.) vol 2.

UK: Jolly and Barba Ltd.
Dimochowski, Z .R. (1982). Survey on traditional architecture. UK: Jolly and Barba Ltd.
Directorate of food – National Rural Housing Programme. (July 1988). Operation manual and
rural technical guidelines. DFFRI Technical series No. 14 Infrastructure.
Hendry, A. W., Sinha, B. P., & Davies, S. R. (1987). Load bearing brickwork design. (2nd ed.).
England: Ellis Horwood Ltd.
Iqbal, M. A., Wilson, T. K., & Thomas, R. J. (1977). The control of noise in ventilation systems
“a designer’s guide”. London: E. & F. N Span Ltd New Felter lane.
John, N. (1986). Building with earth. London: E. & F. N Span Ltd New Felter lane.
Linda, G. & Shewy, A. (2002). Architectural research methods. USA: John Wiley & Sons Inc.
Madedor, A. O. (1989). Local Building materials sourcing mass production and utilization. Paper
presented to the Association of Housing Cooperation of Nigeria, National Seminar on Rural
Development, Abuja, Nigeria. 61
Madedor, A. O. & Omange, G. A. (1985). A survey of bricks making industries in Nigeria.
NBRRI Report.
M. C. KAY, W. B. (1970). Building construction. London: Longman "World civilization."

Microsoft® Student 2005 [CD]. Redmond, WA:
Microsoft Corporation, 2004.
"Brick." Microsoft® Student 2007 [DVD]. Redmond, WA: Microsoft Corporation, 2006.
"Brick." Microsoft® Student 2007 [DVD]. Redmond, WA: Microsoft Corporation, 2006.
Nash, W. G. (1983). Brick work 2. Great Britain: Hutchinson & co. (Publisher) Ltd.
NBRRI (1994). Housing in Nigeria (A Book of Reading). A manual of proceedings of the seminar
on Poju Onibokun.
Ozo, A. U. (1990). Low cost housing strategies in Nigeria habitete. INT 2 Vol. 14. Nsukka:
Faculty of Environmental Sciences.
Odumodu, R. (1991). Clay Block industry in Nigeria, Problems and prospects. Engineering
Focus; Magazine of the Nigeria Engineer.
Rai & Jai, S. (1983). Advances in building materials and construction. (1st ed.). Rookie, India:
Central Building Research Institute Rookie.
Row & Chodlury. (1984). Engineering material. (4th ed.). London: Harper and Row Publishers
Inc.
Spence & Cook, D. J. (1983). Building materials in developing countries.

New York: John Wiley and Son Ltd.
Strahler, A. N. (1971). Earth sciences. (2nd ed.). London: Harper and Row Publishers Inc.
Self, G. R. (1980). The brick worker bible. U.S.A: TAB.
Stone, P. A. (1980). Building design evaluation, Cost in use. London: E &

F. N Span Ltd.
Scott, J. S. (1974). The pengium dictionary of building. London: Cambridge University Press. 96
62
APPENDIX
Put the pictures and /or plates of buildings /structures with burnt bricks and sandcrete blocks
in th Appendix.
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION.

BACKGROUND
1.2.0.0 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM...................................................................5
1.3.0.0 AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY…...................................................6
1.4.0.0 SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS….........................................................................7
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW.
2.1.0.0 DEFINITION…................................................................................................10
2.1.1.0 LOCALLY PRODUCED BURNT CLAY BRICKS…....................................11
2.1.2.0 EARTH AS BUILDING MATERIAL..............................................................11
2.3.0.0 LATERITE SOIL IN NIGERIA.......................................................................12
2.4.0.0 PROPERTIES OF LATERITE.....................................................................13
2.5.0.0 STRENGTH CHARACTERISTICS OF LATERITE SOIL.........................17
2.6.0.0 LATERITE AS CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL..........................................18
2.7.0.0 BURNT CLAY BRICKS AND ITS PREPARATION….............................19
2.8.0.0 INDUSTRIAL BURNT CLAY BRICKS PREPARATION…........................20

63
2.9.0.0 TYPES/SIZES OF BURNT BRICKS.............................................................23
2.10.0.0PROPERTIES OF BURNT BRICKS............................................................25
2.10.8.0COST.......................................................................................................27
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY.
3.0.0.0 PROCEDURE TO MANUFACTURE LOCAL BURNT BRICKS

.......................................................................................................................................28
3.1.0.0 STRENGTH ANALYSIS.................................................................................28
3.2.0.0 MATERIAL QUANTITIES.............................................................................29
3.2.1.0 QUANTITY OF LOCALLY BURNT BRICKS...............................................29
3.3.0.0 COST ANALYSIS.............................................................................................32
.......................................................
3.3.1.0 COST OF 9” SANDCRETE BLOCKS, m2 32
.........................................................
3.3.2.0 COST OF 6” SANDCRETE BLOCK, m2 33
3.3.3.0 COST OF LOCALLY PRODUCED BRICKS....................................................35
3.4.0.0 DURABILITY ANALYSIS................................................................................37
3.4.1.0 PROCEDURE.....................................................................................................37
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND ANALYSIS
4.1.0 COST ANALYSIS
4.2.0 STRENGTH
4.3.0 DURABILITY
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1.0 CONCLUSIONS
5.2.0 RECOMMENDATIONS
REFERENCES 64
APPENDIX
My earlier preliminary comments are reproduced below for your information. I have helped
you in rearranging what you sent to me. You do not need case studies.
The unit costs you used for the cost analysis are unrealistic. You should use the amounts
suggested,
Submit your final draft latest this Thursday. I need to submit the grades latest by Friday.
If you have any questions, you should call me on the phone.
JBA
Generally the write-up is fair but poorly organized.

1. Abstract: This should be rewritten and be not more than 500 words. It should reflect the
introduction, methodology of the actual work done, the result including any
information, its relevance and conclusions/ recommendations.
2. Table of Contents is too long. It should not be more than two pages at the most.
ORGANISATION OF REPORT
The report should be organized as follows:-
1. Cover
2. Title page
3. Abstract
4 Acknowledgement
5 Dedication
6 Certification
7. Table of contents
8. List of Abbreviations
9. List of Figures
10. List of Plates
11. List of Tables
Chapter 1:
Introduction (theoretical background, description of study area)
Problem Statement
Justification of the Study
Aim and Objectives of the Study
Scope and Limitations of the Study
Chapter 2: Literature review
Definitions and historical background of laterites, bricks, etc
Laterites: (formation, types, composition, properties, use, etc.)
Bricks (history, use, production, cost effectiveness, etc.)
Local and Industrial production
Properties
Cost and cost effectiveness
Chapter 3: Methodology
Explicit step-by-step procedure to achieve purpose to include
Materials used- type, location, how obtained, etc.
Geotechnical Properties 65 of the soils used for the Bricks
Experimental techniques if any, apparatus, descriptions, results
Volumetric calculations, Cost Analysis, etc.
Visual Assessment
Chapter 4: Analysis of Results and Discussion
Corresponding results should be presented using tables, graphs, charts,
diagrams etc. and properly discussed using relevant standards and references
Chapter 5: Conclusion and Recommendations
Discussions on the observations should be based on intelligent and relevant
interpretation of information obtained from the results.
References (APA Style)
References must be listed in alphabetical order of the surname of the author and be
referred to in the body of the report.
Appendices
Title: Assessment of Burnt Bricks as an Alternative for Sandcrete Blocks for

Low-cost Housing in Nigeria
1.8 Research Methodology and sources of data” should be delected. It should not
be part of Chapter1. So also is “1.9.0 Analysis and Presentation”
Basis of Assessment: Durability, Strength, Water Absorption, Aesthetics and cost
Materials include laterite, bricks, sandcrete blocks, etc.
Tests: geotechnical tests on the soils used for bricks to include moisture content,
Atterberg Limits, gradation tests
Tests on bricks and blocks to include strength (compression), water
absorption, durability tests
Determine cost per unit area and consider aesthetics
You need to explain the purpose of the case study in relation to the aim and
objectives of the project.
You should rewrite taking all the above into consideration. Next time, the draft
should be submitted in hard copy for ease of vetting.
Good luck
JBA
66

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Assessment of Burnt Bricks as an Alternative for Sandcrete Blocks for Low-cost Housing in Nigeria

IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE

(B.ENG) CIVIL ENGINEERING

This work is dedicated to parents Mr and Mrs Akomolafe.

AKOMOLAFE IDOWU DANIEL

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION.

1.2.0.0 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM...................................................................5

1.3.0.0 AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY…...................................................6

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW.

2.1.2.0 EARTH AS BUILDING MATERIAL..............................................................11

2.3.0.0 LATERITE SOIL IN NIGERIA.......................................................................12

2.4.0.0 PROPERTIES OF LATERITE.....................................................................13

2.4.1.0 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF LATERITE............................................13

2.4.2.0 GEO-PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF LATERITE SOIL..............................13

2.4.3.0 GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION…................................................................14

2.4.5.0 SPECIFIC GRAVITY…...............................................................................16

2.5.0.0 STRENGTH CHARACTERISTICS OF LATERITE SOIL.........................17

2.6.0.0 LATERITE AS CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL..........................................18

2.7.0.0 BURNT CLAY BRICKS AND ITS PREPARATION….............................19

2.8.0.0 INDUSTRIAL BURNT CLAY BRICKS PREPARATION…........................20

2.8.1.0 BRICKS EARTH PREPARATION…..........................................................21

2.8.6.0 DRYING OF BURNT BRICKS....................................................................22

2.8.7.0 BURNING/FIRING OF BURNT BRICKS....................................................23

2.9.0.0 TYPES/SIZE OF BURNT BRICK.................................................................23

2.10.0.0PROPERTIES OF BURNT BRICKS............................................................25

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY.

3.0.0.0 PROCEDURE TO MANUFACTURE LOCAL BURNT BRICKS.................28

3.1.0.0 STRENGTH ANALYSIS.................................................................................28

3.2.0.0 MATERIAL QUANTITIES.............................................................................29

3.2.1.0 QUANTITY OF LOCALLY BURNT BRICKS...............................................29

3.2.2.0 QUANTITIES OF 9” SANDCRETE BLOCKS................................................31

3.3.0.0 COST ANALYSIS.............................................................................................32

3.3.3.0 COST OF LOCALLY PRODUCED BRICKS....................................................35

3.4.0.0 DURABILITY ANALYSIS................................................................................37

]The government should:

zTABLE 2.1 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF TYPICAL LATERITE

TABLE 4.2: RESULT COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF AYA LOCAL

TABLE 4.3: RESULTS OF COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF

TABLE 4.4: RESULT OF COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF

TABLE 4.5: RESULTS OF COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF AUDU

TABLE 4.6: RESULTS OF COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF J & J

TABLE 4.8: RESULT OF DURABILITY OF LOCAL BURNT

TABLE 4.9: RESULT OF DURABILITY OF SANDCRETE

Table 4.10: MAIN CENTER?? OF COST items? OF A TYPICAL BUILDING

FIGURE 3.1 LOCAL BURNT BRICKS CAPED WITH MORTAR 30

FIGURE 4.1: MAP OF NIGERIA SHOWING BENUE STATE … ???……………………….42

FIGURE 4.2: MAP OF BENUE STATE SHOWING LOCAL GOVERNMENT

FIGURE 4.3: MAP OF VANDEIKYA LOCAL GOVERNMENT AND

Most of these should be in the Appendix

PLATE 4.7: BURNING/FIRING OF LOCALLY PRODUCED BURNT

PLATE 4.8: ABANDON BUILDING CONSTRUCTED WITH

PLATE 4.9: CONSTRUCTION WITH BURNT BRICKS IN WATER LOG

PLATE 4.10: SOCK AWAY BEEN CONSTRUCTED WITH LOCALLY

PLATE 4.11: BUILDING CONSTRUCTED WITH LOCALLY PRODUCED

PLATE 4.1.2: BUILDING CONSTRUCTED WITH LOCALLY PRODUCED

PLATE 4.13: FENCE AND A STORY BUILDING UNDER CONSTRUCTION USING

PLATE 4.14: R.C.M. CHURCH AUDITORIUM SHACHI CONSTRUCTED 61

PLATE 4.15: NKST CHURCH AUDITORIUM GBOKO CONSTRUCTED WITH THE

These present the earliest civilization recognized by man. delete

With the downturn in the economy, cost consideration has continued to be an

i. The strength of this brick as obtained by the local production technology.

1.2.0.0 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

This work covers the method/process of development production of locally burnt