DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF A PORTABLE

SOLAR WATER HEATER

EBUBECHUKWU JUDE UWAH

BU/17A/ENG/2416

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Baze University,

Abuja, Nigeria

December, 2020
 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF A PORTABLE
SOLAR WATER HEATER

EBUBECHUKWU JUDE UWAH

BU/17A/ENG/2416

Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of Bachelor of

Engineering degree in the Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Faculty of Engineering, Baze University,

Abuja, Nigeria

December 2020

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 DECLARATION

BAZE UNIVERSITY, ABUJA.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

I, Ebubechukwu Jude Uwah, confirm that this thesis and the results presented in it are my
own achievement and have not in any form been presented for the award of any degree
elsewhere. All information retrieved from published and unpublished sources are referenced
accordingly.

I have read and do understand the penalties associated with plagiarism.

Signature: .......................................................

Date: ...........................................................

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 CERTIFICATION
This is to certify that this thesis titled “DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF A
PORTABLE SOLAR WATER HEATER” is fully adequate in scope and quality as an
undergraduate project for the award of degree of Bachelor of Engineering in Mechanical
Engineering.

----------------------------------------------------- ------------------
Signature Date
Dr. Bori Ige
Project Supervisor

This is to certify that this thesis satisfies the requirement as a graduation project for the award
of degree of Bachelor of Engineering in Mechanical Engineering.

------------------------------------------------ ------------------
Signature Date
Prof. Reyazul Haque Khan
Head of Department
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Endorsement of External Examiner

This is to confirm that this thesis satisfies the requirement as a graduation project for the award
of degree of Bachelor of Engineering in Mechanical Engineering.

------------------------------------------------ ------------------
Signature Date

External Examiner

Approval of the Faculty of Engineering

------------------------------------------------ ------------------
Signature Date
Dr. Nuradeen Tanko
Dean
Faculty of Engineering

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 DEDICATION
This thesis is dedicated to God, for his mercy in my life, and to my parents who have supported
me all the way.

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I am grateful to God Almighty for his guidance and mercy in my life, I acknowledge the support
of my supervisor, Dr. Bori Ige, whose advice and support have been invaluable throughout this
project. I also appreciate the contributions of Dr. Adamu Garuba to my work. I am grateful to
my parents and siblings for the support and advice they provided; I am indebted to them.
Finally, I appreciate Mr Sylvester Esochagba, who allowed me to use his workspace for testing
during the covid-19 pandemic.

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 ABSTRACT
The technology of solar water heating is an emerging field in Nigeria. Due to the epileptic
power supply in Nigeria, other energy sources are being sought. This project involves the
design and fabrication of a portable solar water heater. The design of the solar water heater was
done using relevant equations to size the major components of the system. The materials for
the components were then selected with consideration to the design calculations, machinability,
market availability and cost of the materials. The system was then constructed using the
selected materials. The system consists of a buffer tank, an insulated storage tank of 36 litres
capacity, a flat-plate collector with a single layer of glass on top, and a flow channel arranged
in a serpentine manner. The thermosyphon principle was applied to the system and an average
flow rate of 0.15 litres /min was recorded. The system was tested for six days, the first three
days of testing were during the late raining season and the last three days within the dry season.
From the first three days of testing during the late raining season, the highest outlet temperature
recorded was 650C. For the last three days of testing during the dry season, the highest outlet
temperature recorded was 79.3 0C. This difference clearly shows that the system performs
better during the dry season when the irradiance levels are higher. The highest irradiance
recorded was 940 W/m2 on the sixth day of testing. The highest efficiency recorded from the
system was 68.19% on the fourth day of testing.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION ........................................................................................................................................ iii
CERTIFICATION ....................................................................................................................................... iv
DEDICATION ............................................................................................................................................ v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .......................................................................................................................... vi
ABSTRACT.............................................................................................................................................. vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS............................................................................................................................ viii
LIST OF TABLES ....................................................................................................................................... xi
LIST OF FIGURES .................................................................................................................................... xii
NOMENCLATURE...................................................................................................................................xiv
ABBREVIATIONS ....................................................................................................................................xiv
CHAPTER ONE ......................................................................................................................................... 1
INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Background ............................................................................................................................. 1
1.2 Problem Statement ................................................................................................................. 3
1.3 Motivation for the Study......................................................................................................... 3
1.4 Scope of the Study .................................................................................................................. 4
1.5 Aim and Objectives ................................................................................................................. 4
CHAPTER TWO ........................................................................................................................................ 5
LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................................................................... 5
2.1 Solar Energy Potential for Water Heating..................................................................................... 5
2.2 Solar Insolation at System Site ...................................................................................................... 7
2.3 Operating Principles of a SWH Based on the Thermosyphon Principle........................................ 7
2.4 Types of Solar Water Heating Systems ......................................................................................... 8
2.4.1 Passive System ....................................................................................................................... 8
2.4.1.1 Batch System ................................................................................................................... 9
2.4.1.2 Thermosyphon System ................................................................................................... 9
2.4.2 Active System ...................................................................................................................... 10
2.4.2.1 Active Open Loop System ............................................................................................. 10
2.4.2.2 Active Closed Loop System ........................................................................................... 11
2.4.2.3 Drain back System ......................................................................................................... 12
2.5 Main Components of a Flat-Plate Solar Water Heater ............................................................... 13
2.5.1 Storage Tanks....................................................................................................................... 13
2.5.2 Flat-Plate Collector .............................................................................................................. 13
2.5.2.1 Primary Components of the Flat Plate Collector .......................................................... 14

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 2.5.2.2 Solar Collector Orientation and Tilt Angle .................................................................... 15
2.6 Sizing of a Solar Water Heating System ...................................................................................... 15
2.6.1 Daily Hot Water Requirement ............................................................................................. 16
2.6.2 Storage Tank Capacity ......................................................................................................... 16
2.6.3 Total Heat Load Estimation ................................................................................................. 16
2.7 Justification of Study ................................................................................................................... 17
CHAPTER THREE .................................................................................................................................... 18
MATERIALS AND METHODS .................................................................................................................. 18
3.1 Design and Dimensioning of the SWH ........................................................................................ 18
3.1.1 Design Assumptions ............................................................................................................ 18
3.1.2 Design Process ..................................................................................................................... 19
3.1.2.1 Determination of Hot Water Demand and Storage Tank Volume................................ 19
3.1.2.2 Determination of Thermal Energy Required................................................................. 19
3.1.2.3 Determination of Design Month ................................................................................... 20
3.1.2.4 Collector Sizing Based on Heat Energy Required .......................................................... 20
3.1.2.5 Determination of Flow Channel Diameter .................................................................... 21
3.1.2.6 Determination of Storage Tank Insulation Thickness ................................................... 22
3.2 Material Selection ....................................................................................................................... 23
3.2.1 Storage Tank ........................................................................................................................ 23
3.2.2 Storage Tank Insulation ....................................................................................................... 23
3.2.3 Flat-plate Collector .............................................................................................................. 23
3.2.3.1 The Absorber Plate........................................................................................................ 23
3.2.3.2 Absorber Plate Coating ................................................................................................. 24
3.2.3.3 The Collector Flow Channel .......................................................................................... 24
3.2.3.4 Transparent Cover ........................................................................................................ 24
3.2.3.5 Collector Casing............................................................................................................. 24
3.2.3.6 Collector Casing Insulation............................................................................................ 25
3.2.4 SWH Structural Support ...................................................................................................... 25
3.3 Construction of the Solar Water System .................................................................................... 25
3.3.1 Collector Casing................................................................................................................... 25
3.3.2 Absorber Plate ...................................................................................................................... 26
3.3.3 The Flow Channel ................................................................................................................ 26
3.3.4 The Transparent Cover......................................................................................................... 27
3.3.5 The Storage Tank ................................................................................................................. 27
3.3.6 The Storage Tank Insulation ................................................................................................ 28
3.3.7 The Supporting Frame ......................................................................................................... 28

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 3.4 Cost Estimation of System .......................................................................................................... 29
3.5 Testing Setup............................................................................................................................... 31
3.6 Testing Procedure ....................................................................................................................... 32
CHAPTER FOUR ..................................................................................................................................... 33
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION.................................................................................................................... 33
4.1 Results ......................................................................................................................................... 33
4.2 Discussion of Results ................................................................................................................... 43
CHAPTER FIVE ....................................................................................................................................... 44
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS............................................................................................. 44
5.1 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 44
5.2 Recommendations ...................................................................................................................... 44
APPENDIX .............................................................................................................................................. 49

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 LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1 Estimated hot water use in buildings ....................................................................... 16

Table 3. 1 Monthly irradiance averages, Abuja ....................................................................... 20

Table 3. 2 Storage Tank Cost................................................................................................... 29

Table 3. 3 Collector Cost ......................................................................................................... 29

Table 3. 4 Supporting Frame Cost ........................................................................................... 30

Table 3. 5 Buffer Tank Cost .................................................................................................... 30

Table 4. 1 Readings for the first day of experiments ............................................................... 33

Table 4. 2 Readings for the second day of experiments .......................................................... 34

Table 4. 3 Readings for the third day of experiments .............................................................. 36

Table 4. 4 Readings for the fourth day of experiments............................................................ 37

Table 4. 5 Readings for the fifth day of experiments .............................................................. 39

Table 4. 6 Readings for the sixth day of experiments.............................................................. 40

Table 4. 7 Outlet temperature for the six days of testing ......................................................... 42

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 LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2. 1: Typical flat-plate solar collector............................................................................. 8

Figure 2. 2: Batch solar heating system ..................................................................................... 9

Figure 2. 3: Thermosyphon solar heating system .................................................................... 10

Figure 2. 4: Direct hot water system ........................................................................................ 11

Figure 2. 5: Indirect hot water system ..................................................................................... 11

Figure 2. 6: Drain back hot water system ................................................................................ 12

Figure 2. 7: Flat-plate solar collector ....................................................................................... 15

Figure 3. 1: Collector casing with styrofoam........................................................................... 25

Figure 3. 2: Painted absorber plate and pipe ............................................................................ 26

Figure 3. 3: Bent copper pipe ................................................................................................... 26

Figure 3. 4: Glass installed on collector frame ........................................................................ 27

Figure 3. 5: Storage tank .......................................................................................................... 27

Figure 3. 6: Fibre glass insulation ............................................................................................ 28

Figure 3. 7: Supporting frame ................................................................................................. 28

Figure 3. 8: Fabricated solar water heater ................................................................................ 31

Figure 4. 1 Temperature against irradiance for day one .......................................................... 33

Figure 4. 2 Temperature against efficiency for day one .......................................................... 34

Figure 4. 3 Temperature against irradiance for day two .......................................................... 35

Figure 4. 4 Temperature against efficiency for day two .......................................................... 35

Figure 4. 5 Temperature against irradiance for day three ........................................................ 36

Figure 4. 6 Temperature against efficiency for day three ........................................................ 37

Figure 4. 7 Temperature against irradiance for day four ......................................................... 38

Figure 4. 8 Temperature against efficiency for day four ......................................................... 38

Figure 4. 9 Temperature against irradiance for day five .......................................................... 39

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Figure 4. 10 Temperature against efficiency for day five ........................................................ 40

Figure 4. 11 Temperature against irradiance for day six ......................................................... 41

Figure 4. 12 Temperature against efficiency for day six ......................................................... 41

Figure 4. 13 Outlet temperature for the six days of testing ..................................................... 42

Figure A. 1: Supporting Frame ................................................................................................ 49

Figure A. 2: Collector .............................................................................................................. 49

Figure A. 3: Storage tank ......................................................................................................... 50

Figure A. 4: Solar water heater ................................................................................................ 50

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 NOMENCLATURE
VSt = Storage tank volume in litres
H = Storage tank length (m)
dSt = Storage tank diameter (m)
QSt = Amount of thermal energy (kWh)
m = mass (kg)
Cw = Specific heat capacity of water (J/kg/ 0 C)
To = Outlet temperature (0 C)
Ti = Inlet temperature (0 C)
ρ = Density of water (kg/m3 )
η = Efficiency (%)
I = Solar irradiance (W/m2)
Ac = Collector area (m2 )
T = Total heating time in hours
n = Number of flow cycles
tn = Heating time per flow cycle (s /cycle)
V̇ = Volumetric flow rate (m3/s)
Af = Flow area (m2)
U = Flow velocity (m/s)
dp = Pipe diameter (m)
QL = Amount of thermal energy lost (W)
K = Thermal conductivity of the insulation material (W/m °C)
N = Length of the cylinder (m)
r1 = Radius of the cylinder (m)
r2 = Radius of the insulation material (m)
X = Thickness of the insulation material (m)

ABBREVIATIONS
SWH - Solar water heater
HWD - Hot water demand
Ghi - Global horizontal irradiance
P - People

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xv
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
The world relies heavily on fossil fuels for most of its energy demands, and this has caused a
lot of harm to the Earth. The increase of green-house gas levels in the atmosphere is largely
due to the combustion of fossil fuels as a source of energy. This has caused global warming
which has led to climate change, floods, forest fires, rising sea levels and the melting of
glaciers. These are just some consequences of the over-reliance on fossil fuels for our energy
demands. Solar energy provides an alternative and environmentally friendly energy source to
the fossil fuels used for our energy needs. Over the last few decades, solar energy systems have
gained more recognition because they can provide energy at a low long-term cost and minimal
environmental damage. Researchers have developed several techniques for harnessing solar
energy, these techniques include applications for space heating, water heating, electricity
generation and many others.

Solar energy is generated by the fusion reaction of hydrogen atoms in the sun. This fusion
reaction results in the release of high-energy particles called gamma rays. Gamma rays are
transmitted as electromagnetic radiation to the Earth, which is at about 150 million kilometres
from the sun. Electromagnetic radiation comes in three forms: infrared rays, visible light, and
ultraviolet rays. Solar energy reaching the Earth’s surface can be harnessed directly by using
photovoltaics (solar cells) and solar concentrators. Photovoltaics are used for electricity
generation, while solar concentrators are used as a source of thermal energy. The utilization of
solar energy collectors (concentrators) to transform radiation into heat energy is the basis of
the solar water heating technology. A simple solar water heater consists of a collector, a tank,
and the flow channel through which the working fluid is transported.

1
Records show the solar water heater (SWH) was first invented in the Roman empire around
200 B.C.E (Gong & Sumathy, 2016). The Romans had a simple system, they used the solar
heating concept to heat their public baths to enable a reduction in using coal and the labour
required. These systems were not self-sufficient, but every innovative idea starts somewhere,
and the solar water heating concept began here. After the Roman empire collapsed, humans
forgot the concept of using the sun to heat water for over a millennium. It was in the late 18th
century (1767) that a Swiss natural scientist, De Saussure, re-introduced the concept of using
solar energy for water heating (Gong & Sumathy, 2016). He built an insulated box with two
glass panes covering the surface, the bottom of the box was painted black to increase solar
radiation absorption. This is the prototype for all solar water heaters. De Saussure found that
whenever the insulated box was exposed to solar radiation, the insides reached temperatures
greater than water’s boiling point. He had shown the green-house effect for the first time by
doing this (Perlin, 2008). De Saussure hoped researchers would find his innovative device
useful, but it took over a century for this to happen.

In 1891, Clarence Kemp, an American manufacturer, patented the world’s first commercial
SWH called Climax (Gong & Sumathy, 2016). It was a simple system in which he put the black
coated metal tank in an insulated box which had comparable designs to that of De Saussure’s.
This metal tank served as both the solar energy collector and storage. The major issue with
Kemp’s invention was that the water was stored and heated in the same tank. Hence, when
exposed at night and in poor weather, the water sometimes cooled down to an undesired
temperature. William J. Bailey solved this drawback in 1909 by developing a system which
had the collector and the tank separate from each other. The solar collector he built comprised
fluid tubes connected to a black-coated metallic plate in a box with a transparent surface. The
storage tank for the system was placed above the collector. It was the first system in history
that transported the working fluid using the thermosyphon principle. This principle made it
possible for water to circulate without the use of a mechanical pump. William Bailey’s
company was called the Day and Night SWH Company, emphasizing the advantage his solar
water heating system had over that of Clarence Kemp’s. By the 1920s, the discovery of natural
gas and oil in southern California led to the emergence of gas water heaters. This crippled the
solar water heating industry. Reductions in electricity cost and the copper scarcity during the
second world war replaced whatever was left of the solar industry.

2
In the 1970s, about half a century later, the SWH got global attention again, revitalized by the
OPEC embargo which caused a major oil crisis and a hike in oil prices. Ever since, the solar
water heating industry has expanded all over the world. Growing concerns about the planet’s
increasing carbon emissions, global warming and climate change have flared up interest in the
solar water heating industry. As of 2018, the SWH market was valued at over a billion dollars,
the yearly installation is expected to surpass three million units by 2025 (Gupta, 2019).

1.2 Problem Statement

Considering the epileptic nature of electric power supply in Nigeria, the reliance on solar
applications for water heating will lead to better reliability of service for hot water needs and
will have minimal negative impact on the environment. This would reduce the reliance on
electric heaters, which have higher operational costs and depend on fossil fuels as a primary
energy source.

1.3 Motivation for the Study

A lot of research has gone into the solar energy field over the past few decades. This is mostly
because of the increased world-wide acknowledgement of the environmental effects that the
use of fossil fuel as an energy source comes with. This current study would result in the design
and construction of a portable solar water heating system which would provide hot water. The
use of locally sourced materials would reduce the financial resources required compared to the
importation of these materials. With Nigeria going through a recession and a pandemic which
has further impacted the nation’s economy, the availability of locally made solar water heating
systems would help boost the local economy and curb the rate of importation.

3
1.4 Scope of the Study
This study is limited to the design and construction of a portable flat-plate solar water heating
system operating on the thermosyphon principle. The application of the thermosyphon
principle eliminates the need for an electric pump, thereby reducing the cost of the SWH. The
material resources required for the construction of a flat-plate collector operating on the
thermosyphon principle are readily available in Nigeria.

1.5 Aim and Objectives

The aim of this project is to design and construct a portable solar water heater. The objectives
are:

1. To design a portable solar water heater .

2. To construct the portable solar water heater.
3. To carry out the performance evaluation of the constructed solar water heater.
4. To obtain a baseline cost of a locally built solar water heater.

4
 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Solar Energy Potential for Water Heating
The solar energy that the Earth receives in a day is far greater than the total amount of energy
that humans use up in the same time period. Eighteen days of the incident solar radiation on
Earth would give an equivalent amount of energy when compared to all the planet's reserves
of natural gas, coal and oil (Union of concerned scientists, 2015). Outside the earth’s
atmosphere, solar radiation contains about 1,300 watts per square meter. A third of this gets
reflected into space once it reaches the earth’s atmosphere, the rest travels toward the surface
of the earth. On average, over the earth’s surface, every square meter receives about 4.2
kilowatt-hours of solar energy in a day (Union of concerned scientists, 2015).

Although the solar energy received by the Earth daily is greater than amount used by humans,
the intensity of this solar energy or radiation incident on the Earth’s surface depends on some
factors. These factors include the geographic location and its inherent climate, the weather
patterns or season and the time of day. At certain periods within the year, the Earth is near the
sun, this is because the Earth revolves elliptically around the sun. When the Earth is nearer the
sun, its surface receives a higher amount of solar radiation. Earth’s rotation around the sun is
on a tilted axis of 23.5° and this plays a role in determining the incident radiation at a given
location. For the six months within the two equinoxes, the Earth’s tilted rotation brings about
longer daytime in the northern hemisphere. The southern hemisphere on the other hand, has
longer days for the six months after the fall equinox. The southern parts of the United Kingdom
and other middle latitudes get higher amounts of radiation during summer due to the longer
days. However, during winter, regions around the middle latitude receive lower amounts of
solar energy because the solar rays are incident at a tilted angle during winter in middle latitude
regions (Office of energy efficiency and renewable energy, 2013). The intensity of the solar
radiation received on the earth’s surface depends on the angle the sun’s rays make with the
earth’s surface. This angle ranges from 0°: when the sun is just above the skyline, to 90°: when
the sun is directly overhead. The greatest intensity of solar radiation striking the Earth’s surface
can be observed at solar noon. This is when the sun is at its highest position (90°) in the sky,
on a clear, cloudless day (Energy information administration, 2020). At angles less than 90°,

5
the solar rays travel longer distances through the atmosphere, making them less intense by the
time they reach the Earth’s surface.

As solar rays travel through the Earth’s atmosphere, some rays get absorbed or reflected and
others get scattered. Various elements such as the air molecules, water vapour, the clouds, dust
particles and volcanoes influence whether the solar rays get absorbed, reflected, or scattered.
Based on this, solar radiation is classified into two components, diffuse and direct beam solar
radiation. Direct beam rays reach the earth’s surface without being diffused. Diffuse rays get
scattered, absorbed or reflected by the dust particles, air molecules or water vapour in the
Earth’s atmosphere (Adefarati & Bansal, 2019). When the solar collector of a SWH is inclined,
the diffuse rays striking it comprises the sky diffuse radiation, and a third component of solar
radiation: Ground reflected radiation (Ineichen et al., 1990). The ground reflected radiation
reflects off the earth surface and strikes the collector. The direct radiation gets affected by
atmospheric conditions, on a clear, dry day it can reduce by up to 10% and during thick, cloudy
days, by up to 100% (Office of energy efficiency and renewable energy, 2013). Global solar
radiation is the total amount of solar energy the earth’s surface receives, it is equivalent to the
sum of the diffuse, direct beam and ground reflected radiation. While concentrating solar
systems require direct beam solar radiation to function properly, the flat-plate collector system
functions properly with both the diffuse and direct beam solar radiation (Energy information
administration, 2020).

Scientific researchers record the amount of solar radiation incident on specific locations at
various periods during the year. These values are used to estimate the amount of solar radiation
incident in other locations with similar latitudes and local weather. Solar energy measurements
are usually expressed as the total amount of solar radiation on a horizontal surface, or as the
total solar radiation on a surface tracking the sun. Solar radiation data is usually represented as
kilowatt-hours per square meter (Office of energy efficiency and renewable energy, 2013).

6
2.2 Solar Insolation at System Site
It is important for the geographical location selected as the site for a solar powered system to
be studied. The performance of any solar powered system is reliant on the insolation available
at the system’s site. The insolation available at different geographical locations vary, therefore
the meteorological data of the area where the system is located is necessary for the system
design. The federal capital of Nigeria, Abuja, is in the northern part of the country. It has a
latitude of 9.0765o N and a longitude of 7.3986o E. The states in the northern region of Nigeria
have higher insolation values due to their proximity to the Sahara, among other factors.

(Osinowo et al., 2015) carried out an analysis of the global solar irradiance data for the climatic
zones in Nigeria. Satellite measured data over a twenty-six-year period was analysed from
twenty-five locations which were grouped in to five climatic zones. In their results, high values
of global solar irradiance were observed in the northern regions, compared with the lower
values observed in the southern regions.

(Lilian et al., 2018) developed a model that forecasts the solar radiation for Abuja, Nigeria
using computer neural networks. In their results, they discovered that Abuja has higher solar
radiation during equinoxes, with midday values exceeding 600 W/m2 compared to the midday
values at solstices, which sometimes dropped below 500 W/m2.

2.3 Operating Principles of a SWH Based on the Thermosyphon Principle

When exposed to sunlight, solar radiation passes through the transparent cover of the solar
collector and strikes the black-coated metallic plate which absorbs the incident solar radiation
as heat. This causes an increase in the internal energy of the solar collector and causes it to
become hot. The working fluid in the piping system, firmly bound to the black-coated metallic
plate, absorbs this heat. This working fluid, then expands due to the heat addition, hence it
reduces in density. Based on the thermosyphon principle, the heated fluid rises by natural
convection, through the pipes at the top of the collector into the storage tank, while the cool
fluid from the storage tank flows into the collector by gravity. Hence, the heated water gets
transported due to an increase in both temperature and volume (Ogie et al., 2013). The cycle
continues in this manner till the water in the storage tank is at the required temperature. When
the required temperature is achieved, the valves can be closed manually, or a thermostat can be
used to monitor and control the cycle. Figure 2.1 shows a typical flat-plate collector.

7
 Figure 2. 1: Typical flat-plate solar collector (Alternative Energy Tutorials, 2015)

2.4 Types of Solar Water Heating Systems

Based on the means by which the heat transfer fluid flows through the SWH, solar water
heating systems are either passive systems or active systems. The heat transfer fluid could be
water or an antifreeze agent. A passive system relies on gravitational force and natural
convection to circulate water or the heat absorbing fluid through the system. An active system
uses an electrical pump to circulate the working fluid around the system (Layton, 2009).

2.4.1 Passive System

Passive systems do not use pumps to circulate the working fluid, it relies on the forces of nature.
These systems cost less, are more reliable, have a low maintenance requirement and may last
longer than active systems because of their simple nature. However, the efficiency of a passive
system is significantly lower than that of an active system (U S Department of Energy,
2012b).The batch or integral-collector system and the thermosyphon system are the two types
of passive systems.

8
2.4.1.1 Batch System
Another name for this is integral-collector storage system. It is just one or more black-painted
storage tanks inside an insulated box with a glass cover. The water gets heated inside the tank,
and then either gravity or natural convection (the tendency of a hot fluid to rise) transports the
water from the tank to the desired destination (Layton, 2009). Figure 2.2 below shows a batch
system.

Figure 2. 2: Batch solar heating system (House Energy, n.d.)

2.4.1.2 Thermosyphon System

The thermosyphon system works on the thermosyphon principle, enabling the flow of water
without a mechanical pump. In this system, the storage tank is separate from the solar collector.
The solar collector must be installed below the storage tank for the thermosyphon effect to
work properly. Cold water from the tank flows down by gravity to the bottom header of the
solar collector. It flows into the pipes attached to the absorber plates and gets heated due to the
solar radiation incident on the absorber plate. It expands and becomes less dense than the cool
water in the storage tank. Natural convection transports this heated water in the collector pipes
into the storage tank through the pipes at the top of the collector. Cold water from the tank
simultaneously descends to the pipes at the bottom of the solar collector, and the cycle
continues (Ogie et al., 2013). The thermosyphon system can be seen in Figure 2.3.

9
 Figure 2. 3: Thermosyphon solar heating system (Eschenbach, 2015)

2.4.2 Active System

Active systems have a higher efficiency relative to the passive systems. They are categorized
into active open-loop systems, active closed-loop systems and drain back systems.

2.4.2.1 Active Open Loop System

This is also known as a direct system, in this system, a pump is used to circulate water through
the solar collector and into the storage tank after it has been heated. A small photovoltaic cell
instead of electricity from the grid can power the pump to make the system greener. These
systems are usually used in warmer climates with few cold days. It can be used in colder
climates but must be drained in winter to stop the water in the pipes from freezing. Chemicals
like antifreeze cannot be added to the water to stop this freezing because the water would be
unsafe for use with such chemicals (Alternative Energy Tutorials, 2015). This is where the
indirect system comes in. The direct hot water system is shown in Figure 2.4.

10
 Figure 2. 4: Direct hot water system (Abdunnabi et al., 2018)

2.4.2.2 Active Closed Loop System

For the indirect or active closed loop system, a chemical or heat transfer fluid such as antifreeze
is heated by the solar collector instead of water. The antifreeze flows into the sealed piping of
a heat exchanger, where it is surrounded by water. The heat exchanger can either be a copper
coil inside the lower part of the storage tank or a flat plate exchanger outside the storage tank
(Alternative Energy Tutorials, 2015). The heat from the antifreeze is then transferred to the
water, however, the water does not mix directly with the antifreeze. The heated water is then
pumped into a storage tank (Layton, 2009). Figure 2.5 shows the indirect hot water system.

Figure 2. 5: Indirect hot water system (Valentine Eastern Sierra Reserves, n.d.)

11
2.4.2.3 Drain back System
This system is similar to the indirect system except that it uses water as the heat transfer fluid.
When the pump is turned off, the water is drained from the pipes to prevent freezing. In addition
to the components an indirect system has, the drain back system has a reservoir where the heat
transfer fluid is stored (Heat Streamer, 2016). As seen in Figure 2.6 below, there are two pumps.
The HTF pump is used to circulate the heat transfer fluid while the DHW pump is used to
circulate the domestic hot water.

Figure 2. 6: Drain back hot water system (API Energy, n.d.)

12
2.5 Main Components of a Flat-Plate Solar Water Heater
2.5.1 Storage Tanks
Solar water heating systems require a storage tank to store water after it has been heated. These
tanks must be properly insulated to reduce heat loss to the minimum. Insulation also helps to
improve the efficiency. Heat losses from all sides of the tank should be eliminated, some
insulation material includes sawdust, wood shavings, glass wool and Styrofoam (Ogie et al.,
2013). Depending on the fabrication process and material used, they may also require
preventive coating to prevent corrosion and leakages. The tank materials commonly used are
mild steel and stainless steel. Mild steel is susceptible to corrosion, so it requires a metal rod
(anode) down the centre of the tank. This anode must be replaced periodically to prevent
corrosion. Stainless steel is not as susceptible to corrosion and requires less maintenance, but
it is not recommended for areas with poor water quality (Ksenya, 2011).

(Hasan, 1997) investigated the effect of the storage tank volume and configuration on the
efficiency of a thermosyphon SWH. This was carried out by simulating the SHW using the
TRYNSYS program. It was discovered that the tank configuration has no effect on system
performance.

(Zeghib & Chaker, 2011) modelled a solar water heating system consisting of a flat-plate
collector with a surface of 2 m² and a storage tank of 200 litres. The influence of the
thermosyphon flow and the thermal stratification of the tank was analysed using a simulation
software. (Zeghib & Chaker, 2011) concluded that the stratified storage tank has an advantage
of obtaining a higher heat energy output when compared to a conventional fully mixed hot
water storage tank.

2.5.2 Flat-Plate Collector

The solar collector is the major component of a solar water heating system. It captures solar
radiation, converts it in to heat energy and transfers it to the working fluid (water) after which
it is transported to the storage for later usage.

(Ogie et al., 2013) designed and constructed a flat-plate solar water heating system using
locally sourced materials. The piping system was installed under the absorber plate and placed
in an insulated case with a transparent cover. The system used a dual tank storage for hot and

13
cold water, and it operated on the thermosyphon principle. The maximum fluid output
temperature achieved was 55 °C on a sunny day with a solar irradiance of 1,480 W/m2.

(Nshimyumuremyi & Junqi, 2019) investigated the thermal efficiency and carried out the cost
analysis of a SWH made in Rwanda. The absorber plate was optimized by replacing galvanized
iron sheet with a black painted aluminium sheet. The results showed that the efficiency of the
solar collector is highly dependent on the design and material of absorber plate. From the cost
analysis, the payback period was estimated to be about two years, lower than the payback in
other compared literature.

2.5.2.1 Primary Components of the Flat Plate Collector

Flat-plate solar collectors are the most commonly used type of solar collectors for the hot water
generation worldwide (Nshimyumuremyi & Junqi, 2019). The fundamental parts of a flat plate
collector are:

1. The absorber plate: Aluminium, copper and mild steel are the most common materials
used for absorber plates. The absorber plate is usually painted black to increase the rate
of solar radiation adsorption. Copper is the most suitable material for an absorber plate
because of its high thermal conductivity, but it is quite costly compared to the other
materials. Aluminium is a suitable alternative because it is cheaper than copper, but is
still a good conductor of heat (Ogie et al., 2013).

2. A transparent cover: the primary function of the cover is to transmit the incident solar
radiation to the absorber plate while not allowing the heat energy to escape through the
collector surface. It is usually made from a plastic material or glass. Plastic has the
advantage of being cheap, but glass has a higher transmittance to solar radiation.

3. The flow channel: This is usually made from copper, but galvanized steel pipes can
also be used because of its rigidity and resistance to corrosion (Ogie et al., 2013). The
working fluid in the pipe absorbs the heat energy as it passes through it. The flow
channel can be above or below the absorber plate, depending on the design.

14
 4. Collector casing: It is the structure that houses all the collector components, the
material used can be black coated mild steel or wood. The collector casing must be
properly insulated to reduce heat losses.

Figure 2. 7: Flat-plate solar collector (Witmer, 2017)

2.5.2.2 Solar Collector Orientation and Tilt Angle

The orientation and tilt angle of a solar collector determine the amount of solar radiation it
receives and influences the efficiency of the SWH. For Nigeria, which is in the northern
hemisphere, the most favourable orientation for a solar collector would be true south. Studies
in this area of the field have however shown that depending on the geographical location and
the collector inclination, the solar collector can still perform optimally when directed 90º east
or west of true south (U S Department of Energy, 2012a). If the solar collector is roof mounted,
it is also vital to consider the orientation of the roof. Other factors to consider are the local
landscape features like trees or hills that might put a shade on the collector and the seasonal
weather conditions (dry and rainy seasons for Nigeria) that affect the insolation or solar
irradiance. The inclination or tilt angle of a solar collector is dependent on the latitude of the
region where it is in use. The optimal tilt angle for a solar collector is an angle equal to the
latitude of the location (U S Department of Energy, 2012a).

2.6 Sizing of a Solar Water Heating System

The sizing of a solar water heating system depends on the daily hot water requirement, the
required capacity of the storage tank, collector area sufficient for the heating load, and the solar
irradiance at a particular location (O’Hegarty et al., 2014).

15
2.6.1 Daily Hot Water Requirement
The daily hot water requirement depends on the location: residential buildings, office buildings
or industrial settings and the number of people in these buildings or settings. The National
Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) located in Colorado, USA, came up with an estimate
of the daily hot water requirement in different settings. This is shown in Table 2.1 below.

Table 2.1 Estimated hot water use in buildings (Dean, n.d.)

Type of Building Estimated consumption per person per day

Residence 15.8 gallons
Hotel 20.0 gallons
Hospital 52.0 gallons
Office 1.1 gallons
Restaurant 2.4 gallons
School 0.5 gallons
School with showers 1.9 gallons

The above table is a model that can be used to estimate a conducive storage tank size.

2.6.2 Storage Tank Capacity

The size of a storage tank has a direct relation with the amount of heat transferred, this means
that it has a major effect on the amount of heat energy absorbed by the working fluid. The
capacity of the storage tank depends on the number of people in a building that require hot
water and the amount of hot water they require per day.

2.6.3 Total Heat Load Estimation

The total heat load (amount of solar energy) needed to heat the cool water at the collector inlet
to the required temperature is determined by the hot water consumption rate, the inlet water
and the desired water temperature, the location of the solar system and its orientation (Atia et
al., 2012).

16
2.7 Justification of Study
From the review of past studies, it is evident that the solar water heating technology is still an
emerging field in Nigeria. Hence, studies like this one are vital to the growth of the field in
Nigeria. It is also relevant to determine the cost of a locally produced solar water heater within
the current recession. This would inform whether the importation of solar heating technologies
is cost effective. The solar water heating technology also has the benefit of reducing energy
cost in the long run and has low maintenance requirements.

17
 CHAPTER THREE

MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 Design and Dimensioning of the SWH
The SWH was designed and dimensioned to enable the selection of materials suitable for the
design needs. The key components considered during the design process are the flat-plate
collector, the storage tank, and the flow channel.

3.1.1 Design Assumptions

The following assumptions were made in the design and dimensioning of the SWH:

1. Flow inside the tubes is laminar and uniformly distributed.

2. The radiation incident on the collector is uniform.

3. The numerical parameters assumed in the system design and dimensioning include:

• Total heating time, t = 5 hours

• Number of flow cycles, n =5

• Ambient temperature, Ti = 22 0C

• Desired outlet temperature, To = 70 0C

• Collector efficiency, η = 58 %

𝐻
• Storage tank diameter to height ratio, =3
𝑑𝑆𝑡

18
3.1.2 Design Process
3.1.2.1 Determination of Hot Water Demand and Storage Tank Volume
The daily hot water demand is required for the design of a solar water heating system.
Considering a domestic setting of a couple without any children where hot water is used for
bathing, 15 litres of water is estimated to meet each individual’s demands. The daily hot water
demand is used to determine the storage tank volume as seen in Equation 3.1 (Of, 2011):

VSt = [(P * HWD)] * 1.2 3.1

Where VSt is the storage tank volume in litres, P is the number of people and HWD is the daily
hot water demand for a single person in litres. The equation is multiplied by a factor of 1.2 to
account for unforeseen circumstances. From this, VSt is calculated to be 36 litres. Hence a
storage volume of 36 litres would meet up with the daily hot water demand.

𝐻
Taking 𝑑 = 3, the required storage tank diameter and length is calculated using Equation 3.2:
𝑆𝑡

𝜋𝑑𝑆𝑡 2
VSt = H 3.2
4

Where 𝑑𝑆𝑡 is the storage tank diameter in m and H is the storage tank length, 𝑑𝑆𝑡 is
calculated to be 0.25 m and H is determined to be 0.75 m.

3.1.2.2 Determination of Thermal Energy Required

The amount of thermal energy required to heat up 36 litres of water is given by:

QSt = (m Cw ( To – Ti )) /3600 3.3

Where QSt is the amount of thermal energy in kWh required to heat up the total volume of water
from the inlet temperature Ti to the desired outlet temperature To, m is the total mass in kg of
the water to be heated and Cw is the specific heat capacity of water in J/kg 0C. Since mass is a
function of volume and density, Equation 3.3 can be rewritten as:

QSt = (ρ VSt Cw ( To – Ti )) /3600 3.4

Where ρ is the density in kg/m3 of the fluid being heated, in this case water, Ti is assumed to
be 22 0C and the desired output temperature is 70 0C. From Equation 3.4, QSt = 2 kWh

19
3.1.2.3 Determination of Design Month
From an observation of Table 3.1, June, July, and August have the lowest values of irradiance
yearly. The use of irradiance values from these three months in the system design would enable
for better performance during other months of the year. Hence, they were selected as the design
months. Their average values gives an irradiance (I) of 4.5 kWh/m2/day as the design value.

Table 3. 1 Monthly irradiance averages, Abuja (Solcast, n.d.)

Month Global horizontal irradiance (Ghi)

(kWh/m2/day)
January 5.49
February 5.46
March 5.66
April 5.32
May 5.33
June 4.97
July 4.4
August 4.14
September 5.02
October 5.27
November 5.91
December 5.38

3.1.2.4 Collector Sizing Based on Heat Energy Required

The solar collector is sized according to the amount of heat energy required by the system. The
irradiance values at the system site and the collector efficiency are also important in the
determination of the collector area. Efficiency of the collector can be calculated by:

heat output 𝑄𝑠𝑡

η= = 3.5
heat input 𝐼 𝐴𝑐

Where I is the solar irradiance in kWh/ m2 /day, η is the collector efficiency and Ac is the
collector area in m2. Re-arranging Equation 3.5 to determine the collector area gives:

𝑄𝑠𝑡
𝐴𝑐 = 3.6
𝜂𝐼

According to (Rikoto & Garba, 2015), collector efficiency is between 0.4 - 0.6, hence assuming
an efficiency of 58% for the system design and with I = 4.5 kWh/m2/day, the collector area
required to attain the thermal energy of 2 kWh was determined to be 0.76 m2.

20
3.1.2.5 Determination of Flow Channel Diameter
The pipe diameter was determined based on the flow process type. For water flow in copper
tubes, where temperatures routinely exceed 60 0C, it is recommended that flow velocity does
not exceed 0.6 m/s (Engineering ToolBox, 2005). Considering this, a flow velocity, U of
0.1m/s was chosen for the system design. The heating time per flow cycle, tn is given by:

𝑡
tn = ( ) 3600 3.7
𝑛

Where t is the total heating time (5 hours), and n is the number of flow cycles (5). With these
values, tn was determined to be 3600 s /cycle.

The volumetric flow rate, V̇ is determined by:

𝑉𝑆𝑡/1000
V̇ = 3.8
𝑡𝑛

Where VSt is the already determined storage volume of 36 litres and tn is the heating time per
flow cycle in seconds/ cycle. This gives the volumetric flow rate as 1*10-5 m3/s.

For fluid flow, volumetric flow rate (V̇) is expressed as:

V̇ = Af U 3.9

Where V̇ is in m3/s, Af is the flow area in m2 and U is the flow velocity of 0.1 m/s.

Equation 3.9 can also be expressed in terms of the pipe diameter as:

4 𝑣̇
dp = √ 3.10
𝜋𝑈

Where dp is the pipe diameter in metres, 𝜋 is a constant equal to 3.142, from Equation 3.10,
the pipe diameter was determined to be 0.0113 m.

Comparing this value with pipe sizes available in the market, half inch pipe (0.0127 m) was
selected as the closest alternative.

21
3.1.2.6 Determination of Storage Tank Insulation Thickness
For heat transfer across a cylindrical wall, the heat loss is given by:
2𝜋𝐾𝑁(𝑇𝑜 – 𝑇𝑖 )
QL = 3.11
Ln(𝑟2/𝑟1)

Where QL is the amount of thermal energy lost in watts, K is the thermal conductivity of the
insulation material in W/m °C, N is the length of the cylinder in metres, r1 is the radius of the
cylinder in metres and r2 is the radius of the insulation material in metres.

Re-arranging Equation 3.11 gives:

2𝜋𝐾(𝑇𝑜 – 𝑇𝑖 )
𝑄L
r2 = r1 (𝑒 𝑁 ) 3.12

𝑄L
Where is the heat loss per unit length in W/m, the fluid temperature, To is 70 °C, the
𝑁

temperature outside the tank, Ti is 22 °C, the insulation material is fibre glass, and its thermal
conductivity is 0.04 W/m °C. The tank diameter is 0.25 m, hence, radius of the cylinder, r1 is
0.125 m. From tables for heat loss from steel, the heat loss per metre for cylinders with a
diameter of 0.25 m with temperatures around 75 °C is 570 W/m (Engineering ToolBox, 2003).
Hence, for a 0.125 m length, the heat loss per unit length is given by:

(𝑄L
𝑁
) 0.125 m = (𝑄L
𝑁
)1m *N 3.13

𝑄L
Where ( 𝑁 ) 1 m = 570 W/m and N = 0.125. This gives the heat loss per unit length as 71.25
W/m. Putting this value in to Equation 3.13 gives r2 as 0.1480 m.

The thickness of the insulation material, X is given by:

X = r2 – r1 3.14

This gives the insulation thickness, X as 0.023 m. Comparing this value with the available
sizes of fibre glass in the market, fibre glass with a thickness of 0.020 m was chosen as the
nearest alternative.

22
3.2 Material Selection
The selection of the materials used for the components of the SWH are based on the design
specifications, material availability and cost, material properties, component function and the
manufacturing processes involved.

3.2.1 Storage Tank

The material selected for the storage tank is stainless steel. It is readily available and resistant
to hot water corrosion (Exergia, 2009). Stainless steel is costlier than other suitable materials
like galvanized mild steel, but it requires low maintenance, has easy formability, is temperature
resistant and is environmentally friendly (Eagle Stainless, n.d.). Its easy formability means it
can be easily rolled into a cylindrical shape and its high temperature resistance makes it suitable
for hot water storage.

3.2.2 Storage Tank Insulation

Fibre glass of 0.020 m thickness was used to insulate the storage tank against heat loss to the
environment. From the design calculations, 0.023 m is the required thickness but due to a lack
of market availability, fibre glass of 0.020 m thickness was used. It is cheap, readily available,
has low thermal conductivity and is non-combustible (Barry, 2018). Mild steel was used as the
enclosing chamber for the tank and fibre glass insulation. It has good weldability.

3.2.3 Flat-plate Collector

The flat-plate collector has various components with different functions, hence the materials
used for the various components are based on their different functions.

3.2.3.1 The Absorber Plate

The absorber plate’s main function is to absorb the solar radiation incident on the flat-plate
collector. Copper, mild steel and aluminium all have high thermal conductivity and
absorptivity, but aluminium is selected due to it being lighter than mild steel and its cost being
relatively lower than that of copper. It is also corrosion resistant, ductile and a good reflector
of visible light and heat (Liji Thomas, 2019).

23
3.2.3.2 Absorber Plate Coating
Coating the absorber plate is important as it increases the amount of the incident solar radiation
absorbed by the plate. Absorber plates are usually coated with black paint, they can also be
pre-treated to ensure good adhesion with the paint. Selective coatings reduce the heat loss from
the absorber plate, they are highly effective in absorbing solar radiation but do not emit thermal
radiation at a high level. Due to the lack of availability of good selective coatings like black
chrome, plain black paint was used with the aid of a spray paint machine.

3.2.3.3 The Collector Flow Channel

For the piping system tubes, copper is selected because it is tough, and does not fail easily
under tension or compressive stress, this makes copper suitable for tube forming or wire
drawing (Azom, 2005). The tubes are attached to the absorber plate by welding, fastening or
tight fitting the tubes into shaped sheet fins of the absorber plate (Exergia, 2009). The method
used was fastening the tubes to the absorber plate with bolts.

3.2.3.4 Transparent Cover

The requirements for the transparent cover are that it should have low reflectance, low
absorptance, and high transmittance. The material that fits this requirement is glass; it transmits
a high amount of the solar radiation incident on the collector and suppresses the convective and
relative losses from the top of the solar collector plate. Tempered glass with low iron content
is used in many solar collectors due to its strength, safety, and higher collector efficiency. It is
highly efficient and also has a higher mechanical strength compared to common glass (Exergia,
2009). Common glass was used due to the expensive cost of tempered glass.

3.2.3.5 Collector Casing

Mild steel was used for the collector casing; this is due to it being cheap and light. The collector
frame holds the absorber plate, piping system and the transparent cover. Mild steel also lasts
long when exposed to environmental conditions (Exergia, 2009).

24
3.2.3.6 Collector Casing Insulation
Styrofoam of 25 mm thickness was used to insulate the bottom and sides of the collector. The
Styrofoam was cut into the required sizes and fitted into the collector casing. It is cheap, readily
available and has good insulation properties (Ogie et al., 2013).

3.2.4 SWH Structural Support

Angle iron made from mild steel were used for the SWH support because it is affordable, easy
to work with, strong, available in multiple sizes and requires little maintenance.

3.3 Construction of the Solar Water System

3.3.1 Collector Casing
The collector casing was fabricated from mild steel of 2 mm thickness. A higher thickness of
mild steel would reduce the ease of machinability. The bottom dimension of 1040 by 840 mm,
the side dimensions of 1040 by 100 mm and 840 mm by 100 mm was marked using a scriber,
try-square and chalk. This dimension was cut out from the plate using a filing machine, bent to
shape with the aid of a clamp and welded with an electric arc welding machine using mild steel
electrodes. The casing was filed to remove rust and painted. A 25mm thick layer of Styrofoam
was used to insulate the bottom and sides of the collector casing. The collector casing is shown
in Figure 3.1 below.

Figure 3. 1: Collector casing with styrofoam

25
3.3.2 Absorber Plate
Aluminium plate was the material used for the absorber plate. The area of the absorber plate
is equivalent to the collector area of 0.76 m2. The absorber plate was painted black to increase
its heat absorptivity. Figure 3.2 shows the absorber plate in the collector.

Figure 3. 2: Painted absorber plate and pipe

3.3.3 The Flow Channel

The internal flow system was constructed using copper pipes. From the design calculation, the
required pipe diameter is 11.3 mm, but due to a lack of market availability, the closest
alternative of 12.7 mm copper pipe was used. Water was passed through the pipe with one end
closed to ensure there were no leakages. The copper tubing was then painted black and fitted
firmly on to the absorber plate. The bent copper pipe is shown in Figure 3.3.

Figure 3. 3: Bent copper pipe

26
3.3.4 The Transparent Cover
Glass with a thickness of 4 mm and dimension of 1035 by 835 mm was used as the transparent
cover. It was bound to the top of the collector casing with silicon. The edges of the casing
holding the glass were covered with 2mm thick angle irons welded together to form a covering
frame. The space between the covering frame and the glass was filled with rubber and had
silicon applied to ensure tightness. Figure 3.4 shows the transparent cover.

Figure 3. 4: Glass installed on collector frame

3.3.5 The Storage Tank

The storage tank was fabricated from stainless steel of 1.5 mm thickness. The tank capacity of
36 litres was fabricated from a cut out plate dimension of 75 mm by 50 mm. The plate was
rolled with a rolling machine and welded using stainless steel electrodes. The side plates were
marked and cut out. The holes for the flow channel pipes on the side plates were also marked
and cut open. Stainless rods of 30 mm diameter were drilled to a diameter of 17 mm, step
turned and internally threaded to enable easy attachment of the angle valves. They were then
welded over the holes for the flow channel pipes on the side plates. The storage tank was filled
with water and checked for leakages. The storage tank is shown in Figure 3.5

Figure 3. 5: Storage tank

27
3.3.6 The Storage Tank Insulation
The storage tank was insulated with fibre glass of 20 mm thickness. The fibre glass was put
into the enclosing chamber, then the storage tank was placed inside. This is shown in Figure
3.6

Figure 3. 6: Fibre glass insulation

3.3.7 The Supporting Frame

The supporting frame was constructed from angle irons of 4 mm and 2mm thickness with a
one and half inch wideness. The frame was constructed to enable for adjustment of the collector
and wheels were attached to allow for easy movement of the system. In Figure 3.7 below, the
supporting frame is shown. The frame was constructed with a distance of 490 mm between the
bottom of the storage tank and the top of the collector to ensure that the water flowed properly.

Figure 3. 7: Supporting frame

28
3.4 Cost Estimation of System
Tables 3.2 -3.5 show the cost estimate for the components of the solar water heater.

Table 3. 2 Storage Tank Cost

S/N ITEM QUANTITY UNIT COST TOTAL COST

1 Half sheet of stainless steel 1.5 1 25,000 25,000
mm thickness
2 Half pack of stainless-steel 1 1300 1300
electrodes
3 Fibre glass of 20 mm thickness 1 3000 3000
4 Mild steel pan 0.5 mm thickness 1 3000 3000
5 A litre of white paint 1 1800 1800
6 Thermometer 2 3600 7200
7 ½ Inch angle valve 2 1000 2000
8 ½ Inch tap 1 1000 1000
9 Thread tape 3 300 900
10 Workmanship 15000
TOTAL 60,200

Table 3. 3 Collector Cost

S/N ITEM QUANTITY UNIT COST TOTAL COST

1 Half plate of mild steel gauge 2 1 8000 8000
mm
2 Half pack of mild steel electrode 1 1300 1300
3 Styrofoam of 25 mm thickness 4ft 1 4500 4500
by 8ft
4 1 m2 of aluminium plate 0.4 mm 1 1500 1500
thickness
5 Half roll of ½ inch copper pipe 1 8000 8000
6 Glass of 4mm thickness 1035 by 1 3000 3000
835 mm
7 Silicon 2 1000 2000
8 One litre of black paint 1 1800 1800
9 Thermometer 1 3600 3600
10 Flexible pipe 1000 mm length 2 2000 4000
11 Workmanship 20000
Total 57,700

29
 Table 3. 4 Supporting Frame Cost

S/N ITEM QUANTITY UNIT COST TOTAL COST

1 4 mm thick angle iron 5500 mm 4 3500 12000
by 38 mm
2 2 mm thick angle iron 5500 mm 4 1800 7200
by 38 mm
3 Black Paint 1 1800 1800
4 White Paint 1 1800 1800
5 Bearing (6202 2RS) 2 250 500
6 Labour 3500
Total 26,800

Table 3. 5 Buffer Tank Cost

S/N ITEM QUANTITY UNIT COST TOTAL COST

1 Buffer Tank 1 4500 4500
2 Float 1 2500 2500
3 Tank back nut 2 1600 3200
4 Flexible pipe 500 mm length 2 1000 2000
5 ¾ bushing 3 500 1500
6 ½ bushing 3 300 900
7 ½ Pipe nipple 5 70 350
8 ½ plug 2 70 140
9 ½ tee 2 150 300
10 Gum 1 2000 2000
11 4 mm Angle iron 1 3500 3500
12 Labour 1500
13 Total 22,390

Overall total cost = 167,090 Naira

30
3.5 Testing Setup
Figure 3.8 shows the fabricated solar water heater. The collector is tilted at an angle of 9o with
respect to the horizontal plane. Since Nigeria is in the northern hemisphere, the system is
directed south wise for the testing. The ambient temperature, the inlet and outlet temperature
from the collector were measured every hour from 10 am to 3 pm on three different days. It
should be noted that incessant rainfalls prolonged test duration. The flow rate was determined
by using a stopwatch and a calibrated container to obtain the volume of flow per minute. This
was done repeatedly, and an average value of 0.15 litres /min was gotten. The solar irradiance
data for the time period was also obtained from the solcast website.

Figure 3. 8: Fabricated solar water heater

31
3.6 Testing Procedure
1. The solar water heater was positioned southwards to ensure reception of solar radiation
throughout the testing period.

2. The storage tank was then filled with water using the buffer tank and connected flexible
pipes.

3. The ambient temperature was recorded, and the initial readings of the inlet and outlet
temperatures were taken from the attached thermometers.

4. The inlet valve to the collector was opened to start the cycle.

5. Step 3 was repeated every hour till the end of the heating period.

6. The irradiance values for the day were obtained from the solcast website.

32
 CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Results
The data required for the performance analysis of the SWH can be seen below. The experiments
were conducted in two sets on three different days. The first set during the late rainy season
and the second set during the dry season. Using the average flow rate of 0.0025 kg/s and the
other readings obtained during testing, the instantaneous system efficiency was calculated
using Equation 3.5 for each set of data.

Table 4. 1 Readings for the first day of experiments (23/09/20 readings)

Time Ambient Inlet Temp Outlet Irradiance Efficiency

(h) Temp. (0C) Temp (0C) W/m2 (%)
(0C)
10:00 25.00 25.00 27.00 565 4.89
11:00 27.00 30.00 30.50 603 1.15
12:00 28.00 30.00 31.10 704 2.16
13:00 28.00 30.00 50.00 826 33.45
14:00 28.00 32.00 65.00 681 66.95
15:00 29.00 30.00 37.00 543 17.81

70 900

800
60
700
50
600
Irradiance (W/m2)
Temperature (◦C)

40 500

30 400

300
20
200
10
100

0 0
10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00
Time (h)
Ambient Temp. Inlet Temp. Outlet Temp Irradiance W/m2

Figure 4. 1 Temperature against irradiance for day one

33
 70 80

60 70

60
50
Temperature (◦C)

50

Efficiency (%)
40
40
30
30
20
20

10 10

0 0
10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00
Time (h)

Ambient Temp. Inlet Temp. Outlet Temp Efficiency (%)

Figure 4. 2 Temperature against efficiency for day one

From Figure 4.1, it is seen that the outlet temperature slowly rises for the first few hours, but
then increases rapidly from midday till its peak at two pm. It is important to note that the
irradiance levels peak an hour before the outlet temperature peaks. From Figure 4.2, the highest
efficiency is observed at the time when the output temperature peaks. It can be deduced that
the outlet temperature and the efficiency have a close relationship.

Table 4. 2 Readings for the second day of experiments (25/09/20 readings)

Time Ambient Inlet Temp Outlet Irradiance Efficiency

(h) Temp. (0C) Temp (0C) W/m2 (%)
(0C)
10:00 26.00 26.00 28.00 519 5.32
11:00 26.00 26.00 46.80 604 47.58
12:00 27.00 27.00 53.00 615 58.41
13:00 28.00 27.00 50.10 749 42.61
14:00 27.00 30.00 61.00 683 62.71
15:00 27.00 32.00 53.80 493 61.09

34
 70 800

60 700

600
50

Irradiance (W/m2)
Temperature (◦C)

500
40
400
30
300
20
200

10 100

0 0
10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00

Time (h)

Ambient Temp. Inlet Temp. Outlet Temp. Irradiance (W/m2)

Figure 4. 3 Temperature against irradiance for day two

70 70

60 60

50 50
Temperature (◦C)

Efficiency (%)
40 40

30 30

20 20

10 10

0 0
10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00
Time (h)

Ambient Temp. Inlet Temp. Outlet Temp. Efficiency

Figure 4. 4 Temperature against efficiency for day two

35
Figure 4.3 shows the inlet temperature having a similar gradient to the ambient temperature till
the point where the irradiance peaks. At that point, the inlet temperature rises slightly while the
ambient temperature drops a bit. The irradiance levels peak an hour before the outlet
temperature just as in the first day’s testing. Figure 4.4 shows that the efficiency of the system
has a similar trendline to that of the outlet temperature. The maximum efficiency recorded on
day two was lower than the maximum on day one.

Table 4. 3 Readings for the third day of experiments (01/10/20 readings)

Time Ambient Inlet Temp Outlet Irradiance Efficiency

(h) Temp. (0C) Temp (0C) W/m2 (%)
(0C)
10:00 25.00 24.10 24.80 374 2.59
11:00 26.00 24.50 42.10 373 65.19
12:00 27.00 25.70 48.50 541 58.23
13:00 28.00 27.40 57.10 621 66.08
14:00 28.00 29.30 53.00 599 54.66
15:00 28.00 32.00 50.10 563 44.42

60 700

600
50

500

Irradiance (W/m2)
40
Temperature (◦C)

400
30
300

20
200

10
100

0 0
10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00
Time (h)

Ambient Temp. Inlet Temp. Outlet Temp. Irradiance (W/m2)

Figure 4. 5 Temperature against irradiance for day three

36
 60 70

60
50

50
40
Temperature (◦C)

Efficiency (%)
40
30
30

20
20

10
10

0 0
10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00
Time (h)

Ambient Temp. Inlet Temp. Outlet Temp. Efficiency (%)

Figure 4. 6 Temperature against efficiency for day three

Unlike the results from the first two days, Figure 4.5 shows that the irradiance levels peak at
the same time as the outlet temperature. This occurs at one pm, the same time the irradiance
levels peaked on the first two days. The inlet temperature rises consistently through the day
and the ambient temperature rises gradually until one pm then stays constant. From Figure 4.6,
It is observed that the efficiency dips a bit between eleven am and twelve pm, even as the output
temperature keeps rising. The efficiency then rises from twelve pm till its peak point by one
pm.

Table 4. 4 Readings for the fourth day of experiments (28/10/20 readings)

Time Ambient Inlet Temp Outlet Irradiance Efficiency

(h) Temp. (0C) Temp (0C) W/m2 (%)
(0C)
10:00 29.00 28.80 30.30 805 2.57
11:00 30.00 29.70 50.10 908 31.04
12:00 32.00 31.50 77.40 930 68.19
13:00 33.00 36.70 74.50 868 60.17
14:00 33.00 42.90 70.80 731 52.73
15:00 33.00 45.10 63.30 531 47.35

37
 90 1000

80 900

70 800

700

Irradiance (W/m2)
60
Temperature (◦C)

600
50
500
40
400
30
300
20 200
10 100

0 0
10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00
Time (h)

Ambient Temp. Inlet Temp Outlet Temp Irradiance

Figure 4. 7 Temperature against irradiance for day four

90 80

80 70

70
60
60
Temperature (◦C)

50

Efficiency (%)
50
40
40
30
30
20
20

10 10

0 0
10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00
Time (h)

Ambient Temp. Inlet Temp Outlet Temp Efficiency (%)

Figure 4. 8 Temperature against efficiency for day four

38
Figure 4.7 shows a significant increase in the irradiance levels compared to the first three days
of testing. It is observed the irradiance peaks at twelve pm unlike the values from day one to
three. The outlet temperature also peaks at twelve pm and reached higher values compared to
results for the first three days. From Figure 4.8, it is noticeable that the efficiency ant the outlet
temperature have a close relationship as they peak at the same time. They both rise and fall
with similar gradients. This is in correlation to the trend observed for day one and three.

Table 4. 5 Readings for the fifth day of experiments (29/10/20 readings)

Time Ambient Inlet Temp Outlet Irradiance Efficiency

(h) Temp. (0C) Temp (0C) W/m2 (%)
(0C)
10:00 29.00 30.10 31.50 824 2.35
11:00 29.00 34.30 53.10 903 28.76
12:00 31.00 37.80 76.00 903 58.45
13:00 32.00 43.60 64.50 823 35.09
14:00 32.00 46.50 60.30 671 28.41
15:00 32.00 46.70 55.60 460 26.73

80 1000

900
70
800
60
700

Irradiance (W/m2)
Temperature (◦C)

50
600

40 500

400
30
300
20
200
10
100

0 0
10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00
Time (h)

Ambient Temp. Inlet Temp Outlet Temp Irradiance

Figure 4. 9 Temperature against irradiance for day five

39
 80 70

70 60

60
50
Temperature (◦C)

50

Efficiency (%)
40
40
30
30

20
20

10 10

0 0
10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00
Time (h)

Ambient Temp. Inlet Temp Outlet Temp Efficiency

Figure 4. 10 Temperature against efficiency for day five

For day five, Figure 4.9 shows that the irradiance rises between ten and eleven am, then stays
constant till twelve pm after which it gradually falls. This trend is unsimilar to those observed
on the previous days of testing. The outlet temperature peaks at twelve pm similar to day four.
Figure 4.10 shows that the efficiency and the outlet temperature both peak at the same time and
have similar trendlines. This shows a correlation with results from day four.

Table 4. 6 Readings for the sixth day of experiments (30/10/20 readings)

Time Ambient Inlet Temp Outlet Irradiance Efficiency

(h) Temp. (0C) Temp (0C) W/m2 (%)
(0C)
10:00 30.00 30.50 33.20 816 4.57
11:00 30.00 31.70 59.80 916 42.38
12:00 32.00 34.20 79.30 940 66.29
13:00 33.00 39.80 73.50 884 52.67
14:00 34.00 40.10 65.70 750 47.16
15:00 34.00 43.40 60.20 551 42.12

40
 90 1000

80 900

800
70
700
60

Irradiance (W/m2)
Temperature (◦C)

600
50
500
40
400
30
300
20
200

10 100

0 0
10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00
Time (h)

Ambient Temp. Inlet Temp Outlet Temp Irradiance

Figure 4. 11 Temperature against irradiance for day six

90 70

80
60
70
50
Temperature (◦C)

60
Efficiency
50 40

40 30
30
20
20
10
10

0 0
10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00
Time (h)

Ambient Temp. Inlet Temp Outlet Temp Efficiency

Figure 4. 12 Temperature against efficiency for day six

41
From Figure 4.11, The outlet temperature reaches a peak of 79.30C at noon. This is the highest
observes compared to the previous days of testing. The irradiance levels also peak at noon,
following with the trend from day four and five. For Figure 4.12, the relationship between the
efficiency and the outlet temperature is similar to that of day four and five. The maximum
efficiency observed on the last day’s testing was 66.29%.

Table 4. 7 Outlet temperature for the six days of testing

Time Day Day Day Day Day Day

(h) One Two Three Four Five Six
10:00 27.00 28.00 24.80 30.30 31.50 33.20
11:00 30.50 46.80 42.10 50.10 53.10 59.80
12:00 31.10 53.00 48.50 77.40 76.00 79.30
13:00 50.00 50.10 57.10 74.50 64.50 73.50
14:00 65.00 61.00 53.00 70.80 60.30 65.70
15:00 37.00 53.80 50.10 63.30 55.60 60.20

90

80

70
Temperature (◦C)

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00
Time (h)

Day One Day Two Day Three Day Four Day Five Day Six

Figure 4. 13 Outlet temperature for the six days of testing

Figure 4.13 shows a significant difference in the outlet temperatures for day one to three
compared to those for day four to six. The testing for day one to three was during the late rainy
season while those for day four to six was during the dry season. The peak outlet temperature
for day one to three occurred between one pm and two pm, while the peak for day four to six
occurred at noon. It is evident the system performs better in the dry season.

42
4.2 Discussion of Results
It is seen from the overall results that that the irradiance levels and the output temperature are
closely related. For the first three days of testing during the late raining season, an outlet
temperature of 65 0C was the highest temperature observed. However, for the last three days
of testing during the dry season, the maximum outlet temperature observed was 79.3 0C. This
clearly shows that the system performs better during the dry season. The system was designed
with a desired output temperature of 70 0C and the collector area used was 0.76 m2 obtained in
section 3.1.2.4 during the design process. The total volume of water heated up was 36 litres.

(Ekpo & Enyinna, 2017) designed a solar water heater to provide 75 litres of water at 60 0C
daily. From their design, the collector area required was 1.464 m2. However, they used an area
of 2.3m2 during the construction of their system and obtained a maximum output of 76 0C.
Comparing the two results shows that although (Ekpo & Enyinna, 2017) used a larger collector
area, their peak outlet temperature was slightly lower than the peak value obtained in this work.
This shows that using a larger collector area would not necessarily improve performance, the
irradiance available at the system site also plays a role on system performance.

The highest irradiance level of 940 W/m2 was observed on day six, the highest outlet
temperature of 79.3 0C was also observed on the same day and at the same time. The highest
rise in outlet temperature was observed on day four with a temperature rise of 47.1 0C between
ten am and noon. It is noteworthy that day three had the lowest irradiance levels. The highest
efficiency gotten from the system was 68.19 % on day four.

43
 CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Conclusion
In this work, the design and construction of a 36-litre capacity portable solar water heater has
been carried out. using relevant equations to size the major components of the system. The
materials for the components were then selected with consideration to the design calculations,
machinability, market availability and cost of the materials. The system was tested, and the
following results were observed. From the first three days of testing during the late raining
season, the highest outlet temperature recorded was 650C. For the last three days of testing
during the dry season, the highest outlet temperature recorded was 79.3 0C. This difference
clearly shows that the system performs better during the dry season when the irradiance levels
are higher. The highest irradiance recorded was 940 W/m2 on the sixth day of testing while the
highest efficiency recorded from the system was 68.19% .

5.2 Recommendations
Due to time and financial constraints, the following are recommended as future modifications
that should enhance system testing and performance:

1. Installation of a sensor to determine water level and control flow.

2. Installation of a flow meter to easily get flow rate of working fluid.

44
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48
 APPENDIX

Figure A. 1: Supporting Frame

Figure A. 2: Collector

49
 Figure A. 3: Storage tank

Figure A. 4: Solar water heater

50