FINAL EXAMINATION OF GEOTHERMAL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

ROTOKAWA GEOTHERMAL FIELD

Submitted to fulfill one of the final assignments of the Geothermal Science and Technology
Course which is addressed by:

Sari Widyanti & Dicky Ahmad Zaky

Submitted by :

Group 12

Fitrah Tedi (101116045)

Edwin Brilliant (101117004
M. Aldi (101117011)
Farah Zhafirah Nasution (101117031)
Amril Dearsil (101117033)
Bena Werdaningsih T. (101117061)

FAKULTAS TEKNOLOGI EKSPLORASI DAN PRODUKSI

PROGRAM STUDI TEKNIK GEOFISIKA
UNIVERSITAS PERTAMINA
JAKARTA
2020
 BAB 1

INTRODUCTION

The Rotokawa geothermal field is located within the Taupo Volcanic Zone (TVZ) a
centre of active rifting in the North Island of New Zealand. The resource potential of the
Rotokawa field was first identified from numerous surface thermal features, including acid
sulphate fumaroles, steaming ground and bi-carbonate springs, and from resistivity surveys
(Schlumberger soundings). Exploratory drilling undertaken from 1965 to 1986 by the New
Zealand government (RK1 – RK6, RK8) confirmed the presence of a large, high temperature
(>300 ˚C) geothermal resource. Early geology (e.g. Grindley et al., 1985; Browne, 1989),
geochemistry (e.g. Hedenquist et al., 1988) and reservoir engineering (e.g. Grant, 1985) based
on data from these wells was used to form an early understanding of the hydrology within the
field that is largely consistent with the current understanding.

In this report, the author will examine the Rotokawa geothermal field based on :

1. Explanation of geothermal systems based on 3G Studies (Geology, Geochemistry,

Geophysics) and Conceptual Model.
2. Analysis on calculating reserves with volumetric methods.
3. Explanation on production facilities used on the geothermal field.
4. Explanation related to the development of geothermal fields such as social, technology,
direct use, and regulation.
 BAB II

GEOLOGY, GEOCHEMISTRY, AND GEOPHYSICS

A. GEOLOGY
a. Geologi Regional
Like most other New Zealand geothermal fields, Rotokawa is situated in the
Taupo volcanic zone which hosts a number of major rhyolitic calderas. Rhyolitic
volcanism commenced about 1.0 m.y. ago (Murphy and Seward, 1981). Rotokawa, as
well as several other geothermal areas, is closely related to the Maroa caldera, the
largest caldera within the Taupo volcanic zone, mea- suring about 47 km in diameter
Recent exploration of the Rotokawa field has yielded drill hole evidence which
suggests that two buried ring fractures are actually passing through the field.
Southwestward from the caldera center, a cluster of resurgent rhyolitic domes occurs.
These domes probably date back to the last glaciation stage (13,000-27,000 yrs. ago)
whereas the rhyolite domes extruded from the caldera ring fracture (Mokai ring
complex) are re- garded as older, dating into the penultimate glacial period (GrindIcy,
1960; Ewart, 1967.)

Figure 1. Taupo Volcanic Zone With The Major Geothermal Fields. T = Taupo
Volcanic Center, M = Maroa Caldera, R = Rotorua Caldera, O = Okataina Caldera,
Insert: Plate Tectonic Framework Of The Taupo Volcanic Zone.
b. Surface and Features
Surface features are generally located in two areas of the Rotokawa Geothermal
Field. The southern area includes the lagoon on the NE shore of Lake Rotokawa, the
acid–sulphate–chloride springs on the Parariki Stream, and the flood plain of the
Parariki stream which hosts a rare setting where silica rich, acid fluid discharge forms
sinters in a number of microbially mediated facies.
The northern area contains a group of chloride–bicarbonate springs on the banks
oftheWaikato River, and a small area of steaming ground north of the Waikato River,
near well RK8. In the north of the field, surface geology is dominated by the
Oruahineawe and Kaimanawa rhyolite domes and surrounding pumice breccias.
In the east, it is dominated by the 0.71 Ma andesites of Rolles Peak. In the west
by rhyolite lavas exposed at the Aratiatia Dam and Rapids. Elsewhere, alluvium derived
from Taupo Pumice forms terraces near the Waikato River, and exposures of Wairakei
breccia can be found between the Waikato River and Lake Rotokawa.

Figure 2. Q-Map Surface Geology.

c. Subsurface Stratigraphy
Basement rock within the Rotokawa Geothermal Field is composed of Late-
Palaeozoic to Late-Mesozoic, fine, silty, greywacke sandstone and argillite rocks of the
Torlesse Supergroup. Overlying the basement is a laterally extensive, thick (up to 2200
m), andesite unit,the Rotokawa Andesite. Rotokawa Andesite complex is centred on
the Rotokawa Geothermal Field, with limited lateral extent to both the north and south
The Rotokawa Andesite varies laterally and vertically, and is comprised of
several eruptive flows of massive to slightly flow-banded andesite lavas. Above the
Rotokawa Andesite sequence lie the volcaniclastic and sedimentary deposits of the
Reporoa Group (Tahorakuri and Waikora Formations.
The Waikora Formation is a rounded to sub-rounded pebble conglomerate (up
to 250 m thick) that is largely comprised of eroded greywacke sandstone and argillite
siltstone deposited in a fluvial environment. The Tahorakuri Formation atthe Rotokawa
Geothermal Field consists of a white, crystal–vitric–lithic tuff, or ignimbrite of variable
thickness (up to 250 m), which can contain pumice fiamme, greywacke and andesite
lithics, and minor sedimentary deposits.
The Tahorakuri Formation atthe Rotokawa Geothermal Field consists of a
white, crystal–vitric–lithic tuff, or ignimbrite of variable thickness (up to 250 m), which
can contain pumice fiamme, greywacke and andesite lithics, and minor sedimentary
deposits.
The Waiora Formation is overlain by locally derived Parariki hydrothermal
eruption breccias (consisting of quartz-feldspar rich, tuffaceous breccia in a silty-clay
matrix) and finely laminated mudstones, siltstones, and pumiceous sandstone,
lacustrine deposits of the Huka Falls Formation.
Intercalation of the Parariki hydrothermal eruption breccias and Huka Falls
Formation deposits occurs on the southern side of the Waikato River in the Rotokawa
Geothermal Field (Rae, 2007). These units are in turn overlain by the 26–27 ka Oruanui
Formation(20–50 m thick) comprised of pumice tuff containing rhyolite lava lithic
clasts and quartz and feldspar crystals (Rae, 2007).
d. Structure
There is several active structure in Rotokawa field. A number of fault lines and
large fracture zones have been identified by mapping, photogeologic studies, and drill
core interpretation. The extensional stress regime of the Taupo volcanic zone has
created a set of northeast-southwest-striking nor-mal faults which can be shown to
displace the Oruanui Breccia dated at 20,000 yrs, causing some striking effects in
topography such as the east-northeast-west- southwest scarp south of the Waikato
River, which confines the alluvial deposits alongside the river.
For instance, active NE–SW striking, fault traces are observed in the northwest
(Aratiatia Fault Zone), northeast, and to the west of Lake Rotokawa. NE–SW alignment
of hydrothermal eruption vents (including Lake Rotokawa) and the Rotokawa Fumarole
is presentinferring a NE–SWstructural alignment control. At depth, this particular fault
plane probably merges into one of the buried ring fractures of the Maroa caldera. The
second buried caldera fault farther south is assumed on the basis of similar reasoning.

Figure 3. Geologic Map Of The Rotokawa Geothermal Field.

 B. Geochemistry
a. Geochemistry of Rotokawa Geothermal Field

Figure 3. Above shows the current geothermal field layout, which shows the location of
production and injection wells by linking it with intermediate aquifers and shallow monitoring
wells in Rotokawa. Where the conceptual model that will be made is based on the cross section
(A-A).

The Rotokawa geothermal system generally consists of three main hydrostratigraphic

units:

1. Shallow Aquifer - A shallow groundwater system consisting of steam-heated, sulfuric

acid-Cl springs, and diffuse neutral-Cl discharges mixed with cold ground water. This
unit is located on shallow surface deposits, the Oruanui formation, and the Parariki
Breccia above the Huka Falls formation.
2. Intermediate Aquifer - An aquifer consisting of a mixture of migratory liquids from
shallow systems, boiling saline reservoirs migrating upward through the clay cap
reservoir area (between RK1 and RK3), condensate vapor, conductive and marginal
groundwater where this aquifer is located in the Waiora Formation and Haparangi
Rhyolites.
3. Deep Reservoir - around ~ ~ 500 to -700 mRL, has a temperature of 300-340 ° C,
neutral-Cl (850- 450ppm), geothermal reservoir with a very large geochemical gradient
from south to north with respect to Cl, Cl / B, non-condensable gas (NCG), and liquid
geothermometry (TQtz and TNKC). Where is bounded by a clay zone in Wairakei
Ignimbrite and the basal layer in the Waiora Formation. The main permeable reservoir
is hosted within the Andesite Rotokawa, Waikora Formation, Tahorakuri Formation,
and greywacke basement.
 b. Shallow and Intermediate Aquifer

The interaction of fluid and conceptual model elements in shallow and intermediate
aquifers can be seen in Figure 4. Where the fluid moves from the deep reservoir ([1]) which
increases the permeability of the clay cap reservoir ([2]) so that it allows deep reservoir fluids
to rise to the intermediate aquifer and boiling occurs ([1] and [3]). In the process, the fluid loses
CO2 and proportionally holds more dissolved H2S. H2S-rich vapor condenses into shallow
groundwater, creating an acid-SO4-Cl liquid area around Lake Rotokawa ([4]). Some
components of the brine reservoir ([5]) reach very shallow levels as evidenced by the Cl
component in the acid-SO4-Cl spring (520ppm; Cl; New West Pool). This liquid partly flows
back down to produce further argillic changes in RK4 / RK2 ([6]).

Boiling liquids inject large amounts of CO2 and H2S into the condensate of steam formed
at the bottom of Huka Falls and Parariki Breccia ([7]). While groundwater migrates down
conductively so that it heats up and mixes with steam condensate ([8]). The mixing process,
oxidizes and removes H2S in the form of dissolved SO4, leaving a liquid that is rich in carbonic
acid which is very corrosive ([7]). This liquid is the cause of casing damage and corrosion in
RK1, RK2, RK3, RK4, RK5, and RK9.

Figure 4. Cross section N-S through RK2, RK5, and RK6 with wells RK1, RK3, RK4,
RK9, RK13, and RK14 projected to section A-A '.
 c. Deep Reservoir

Initially due to the large differences in geochemistry between the southern and northern
sectors, the Rotokawa reservoir was classified into two geochemical groups, namely northern
Rotokawa and southern Rotokawa. Where this is estimated because there are differences in
fluid supply between the two. And significant efforts have been made in the literature for the
Rotokawa system to become a fluids supply based on isotope fluids, gases, and geochemical.
Initially the initial interpretation of the enthalpy-Cl relationship had difficulty connecting RK2
/ RK3 to RK4 and to the northern reservoir but based on the CO2 / H2S boiling model, it was
possible to connect all fluid reservoirs based on the geochemical parent. By using the ternary
system plot H2O-CO2-Cl so that on this basis it is estimated that the system has more than one
different source of geochemical fluids for RN and RS and there are many sources of fluid that
cannot be ruled out. However, several important characteristics of reservoir fluids, namely N2-
He-Ar gas data, can include research.

Figure 5. N2-He-Ar ternary diagram for the Rotokawa Fumarole and natural-state deep
well discharges.
 Based on the ternary diagram above, it can be seen that the N2 / Ar ratio decreases from
RK4> RK9> RK14> RK5> RK6. This data shows the distribution along the mixing line
between groundwater (RK4) and air-saturation groundwater (ASW; N2 / Ar = 38), so that RK6
has almost 75% ASW and fluid at 25% RK4. While in fumaroles, the N2 / Ar ratio for
Rotokawa is similar to RK4 where fumaroles seem to be more correlated with reservoir fluids
in the southeast and south. The CO2 / Ar-H2 / Ar relationship also determines the direct
relationship between fumarole gas and reservoir fluid.

Figure 6. Classification of Rotokawa Geothermal Fluid.

Based on the geochemical data plot of sulfate, bicarbonate, and chloride water using
ternary diagrams, the following results were obtained:

a. Areas of bicarbonate water dominance: RK 1, Lake, Spring 1 and Spring 4.

b. Chloride water dominance areas: RK 4a, RK 4b, RK 4c, RK 5a, RK 5b.

Areas with the presence of chloride water are identified as having a reservoir
underneath because the dominant chemical composition in the reservoir is chloride. Whereas
the area dominated by sulfate water is characterized by the presence of mud pool. Sulfate water
usually forms at shallow depths as a result of condensation of steam near the surface, is acidic,
and cannot be used as a geothermometer. Whereas bicarbonate water forms on the periphery
of the geothermal area near the surface, this water may be present due to the presence of
limestone beneath the surface. Rotokawa geothermal reservoir fluids are dominated by chloride
water, except for the RK-1 well. However, due to data limitations, not all exploratory well data
are plotted in the ternary plot.
 Table 1. Analysis of Geothermal Fluids (Total Discharges) and Thermal Waters

Figure 7. Rotokawa Geothermal Field Geothermometer

Geothermometer data used is Na-K-Mg. Based on geothermal data, it can be seen that
the temperature. Rotokawa geothermal reservoirs range from 200oC - 350oC located around
wells LK4a, LK4c, LK5a, and LK5b. The heat source of the Rotokawa geothermal field is
thought to originate from the Taupo volcanic zone. While the recharge area of Rotokawa
geothermal can be known from the chemical relationship and the evolution of geo-thermal
fluids in Rotokawa. Where the hot fluid released from RK5 rises in the middle of the thermal
plume and conductive heated groundwater and enters the system through the shallow recharge
zone from the south (2460 m).
 d. Conceptual Geochemical Model

Figure 8. Conceptual geochemical model of Rotokawa based on the A-A ’cross

section. The conceptual fluid flow path is indicated by an arrows.

This conceptual geochemical model is located along the A-A 'cross section. Where the
conceptual model combines heat elements, the two up flow phases in the southern area of Lake
Rotokawa to a depth of more than 4 km ([1]). This liquid will rise [2] in the Lake Rotokawa
area under RK2 and RK3. When the liquid boils adiabatically and rises through a weakly clay
cap between RK3 and RK1X ([3]), they lose CO 2 and retain it more steam which is rich in
H2S and B. H2S- and B experiences steam into shallow ground water creating an area
containing B-, acid-SO4 – Cl in the fluid around the lake ([4]) which is partially moving
downward ([5]) through permeable features ([3]) in the fault region (CFF; [6]) for resulting in
continued changes in argillic alteration observed in RK4 and RK2. Deep reservoir fluid flows
northward ([7]) and is increasingly conductive (steam heated) ([8]). At this depth, marginal,
aqueous fluid causes geochemical gradient samples in the well from south to north.
 And the fault ([6]) produces a permeable zone that allows the reservoir fluid to rise and
experience boiling or partial exit from the surface system via Rotokawa Fumarole. Some of
this liquid injects high concentrations of CO 2 and H2S ([9]) into the steam condensate in the
Huka Fm formation. And Parariki breccias ([10]). While groundwater migration ([11]) is
heated conductively and mixed with this steam condensate. The mixing process oxidizes and
removes H2S in the form of SO 4 which dissolves, leaving a liquid which is rich in carbonic
acid which is very corrosive ([10]). This liquid causes casing or corrosion damage to RK3,
RK2, RK4, RK1, RK9, and RK5.

C. GEOPHYSICS

Geophysics, including studies of microseismicity, magnetotellurics, electrical

resistivity, magnetic anomalies, and self-potential surveys, has been utilised extensively at
Rotokawa for early exploration drilling through to field development and operations.

Microseismicity

Figure 9. Microseismicity within 200 m of cross-section B-B’ (see Figure 1 for location)
from October 2008 to December 2012. The vast majority of the microseismicity occurs on
the injection side of the Central Field Fault between -1500 to -3000 masl.
 Based on the figure, the effective base of reservoir permeability for the numerical model
was estimated to be between -3000 to -4000 masl based mostly on microseismic data. The
majority of the microseismic activity at Rotokawa occurs at approximately the same depth as
injection feedzones (-1500 masl to -3000 masl), and since the activity is mostly driven by
cooling, this suggests that injected fluid does not sink much below the injection feed zones
(Figure 1). This could be due to either the southern greywacke having poor vertical
permeability or the injected fluid being quickly reheated to >300 °C preventing further sinking.

The microseismicity is sharply constrained within a NE-SW, interpreted to represent a

large scale field structure known as the Central Field Fault. This microseismicity pattern,
together with tracer test results, suggests that injection flow is impeded across the central field
fault. Swarm-like seismic activity (>15 events per day) and larger magnitude seismic events
(magnitudes 2 - 3.5) are also observed along this NE-SW trending structure. It appears that
most of the observed microseismicity is due to thermal contraction of the rock associated with
low-pressure injection of cooler (80-120 °C) fluid into the hotter (330-340 °C) reservoir
although other inducing mechanisms are likely occurring.

MT Resistivity

Figure 10. MT resistivity cross-section D-D’ (see Figure 1 for location) with natural state
temperature and smectite content (Methylene Blue, %) logs shown in blue along well tracks.
 MT surveys, temperature profiles and clay type and content measurements show that
the deep Rotokawa reservoir is capped in most places by a zone of low permeability,
smectite/smectite-illite altered rock between approximately -400 to -750 masl (Figure 10). This
is most often within the Waiora Formation volcaniclatics and Wairakei Ignimbrite. Based on
conductive natural state temperature profiles, the thickness of the cap varies significantly, from
~100-1000 m. Low resistivity at Rotokawa correlates well with higher smectite clay levels (~5-
30 %) as determined from methylene blue tests of drill cuttings, as is observed in most high-
temperature, volcanic geothermal fields.

Correlation of these zones of low resistivity / high smectite clay content to natural state
well temperature profiles, show they are related to low permeability, indicated by linear, or
conductive, temperature profiles (Figure 10). These zones of high smectite clay content
represent altered rocks in the Rotokawa Geothermal Field that form low permeability caps for
the various aquifers. Resistivity increases below this cap, associated with decreasing smectite
clay content within the Haparangi Rhyolite lava and Waiora Formation, the geological units
which form the intermediate aquifer.

Higher resistivities persist to depth (~2 - 3 km) within the centre of the field, associated
with higher rank clay alteration (illite and chlorite) and near boiling-poin for-depth
temperatures in an area found between wells RK1, RK2, RK3, RK4, and RK11. A deeper
(~800-1200 m depth), low resistivity layer is observed at the margins of the field which is
associated with low permeability, smectite-altered rock overlying the deep reservoir.
 Figure 11. Deep MT conductance from 0 to -1000 masl (3D inversion) and isotherms of
temperature at the bottom of the intermediate aquifer. An area of weakly developed clay cap
in the south of the field (green-blue areas) coincides with boiling-point-for-depth conditions
within the intermediate aquifer. Modified from Sewell et al., (2012).

Natural state boiling-point-fordepth temperature conditions occur at Rotokawa in a

zone encompassing RK1, RK2, RK3, RK4 and RK11/12 (Figure 11). This matches well with
a zone of higher resistivity (low conductance) imaged in MT surveys. The MT is imaging a
zone of higher resistivity driven mainly by conversion of smectite and smectite-illite to higher
order, less electrically conductive clays (e.g. illite and chlorite) due to temperatures being
>200°C. The main connection between the reservoir and intermediate aquifer is suspected to
be along the Central Field Fault based on the gas geochemistry data from the Rotokawa
Fumarole, which occurs along the surface trace of the fault, and the sharp lateral change in
temperature within the intermediate aquifer between RK20/21/22/23/24 and RK2/3/4 (Figure
11).
 Figure 12. Shallow MT conductance from surface to 300 m depth (1D TE inversion) and
isotherms of temperature at the top of the intermediate aquifer. The intermediate aquifer is
capped by low resistivity (high conductance), smectite-altered formations. The area of
shallow high conductance coincides well with the extent of the 100 °C isotherm at the top of
the aquifer. Modified from Sewell et al., (2012).

The intermediate aquifer is a laterally extensive, regional aquifer that contains variably
mixed geothermal fluid and groundwater in the Rotokawa area. The aquifer is hosted within
the Haparangi Rhyolite and Waiora Formation. Upflowing, boiling geothermal fluid flows into
the intermediate aquifer through the zone of connection in the south (Figure 12). Cold, meteoric
groundwater flows into the aquifer from topographically high areas, generally driving flow in
the aquifer from south to north (Figure 11 & 12). The cooler flows largely occur within the
Haparangi Rhyolites that outcrop in topographically high areas in the north and east . Hot flows
rise buoyantly to the base of the intermediate aquifer cap and flow to the north. Overlying the
intermediate aquifer is another clay cap mostly within the Huka Falls Formation and Parariki
Breccia. Smectite content within the cap is particularly high, lowering resistivity values to <2
ohm.m (Figure 10). Buoyant, hot flow at the top of the intermediate aquifer is pushed
northward beneath the cap by groundwater flows. Steaming ground occurs in the north in the
area where MT surveys show the shallow clay cap ends (Figure 12).
Magnetik

Figure 13. Magnetic Anomaly Of Deep-Seated Magnetic

Interpretation of magnetic anomalies require the reduction of the normal magnetic field
and any disturbing regional effects. In volcanic such reduction can be complex, and the
reduction of the airborne magnetic data over the Rotokawa Field is a good example of the
complexity of the reduction process in this setting. The magnetic anomaly of the deeper- seated
magnetic at flight level across the Rotokawa Field are shown in Figure 13. It can be seen that
the horizontal gradient across the prospect is large. Completely demagnetised rocks in the
southern rotokawa Field occur down to sea level; all rhyolites of the Dome and deeper rocks
are completely demagnetised down to sea level (levelof outcropping rhyolitesis between 350
and m).
 Figure 14. Residual Magnetic Anomaly East 760 m a.s.l Over the Rotokawa Geothermal
Field

Magnetic modelling also allows a better understanding of the resistivity boundary

structure. The contour pattern in Figure 14, for example, indicates that demagnetised rocks
occur probably at shallow depth outside the low resistivity boundary in the northern most part
of the field (anomaly D). residual anomalies outline the local magnetic anomalies associated
with the of the upper part of the Rotokawa reservoir. Having defined the order residuals, it was
found that they contain important information about the reservoir structure.

Interpretation of the order residual anomalies by 3-D magnetic modelling shows that
rocks lying within the low resistivity area are either partially or completely demagnetised, at
least down to sea level. Details of the resistivity boundary in the northem most of the field can
be interpreted by shallow,demagnetised and conductive rocks which extend beyond the
resistivity boundary. Magnetic anomalies from ground magnetic surveys also allow abetter
understanding of a 'finestructure' of shallow, partially demagnetised rocks lying within the zone
of intermediate resistivity which defines the resistivity boundary.
Self potential

Figure 15. SP Anomaly Map of Rotokawa Geothermal Field (contour valuesin Mv)

At Rotokawa, the Waikato River flows through the prospect; hence, it can be expected
that an SP profile along the river would reflect data which are not greatly affected by terrain-
induced (cold) streaming potentials. The observed SP pattern shown in Figure 15, however,
indicates that, with reference to an assumed undisturbed potential at the outer eastern edgeof
the field,the potentid at the western edgeis still positive (about 100 to 120 mV). A well-defined
positive anomaly (+230 maximum) occurs 0.5 km to the N of Lake Rotokawa in an area with
significant surface discharge (steam and acid condensates).
 Figure 16. Observed SP values along a NNW-SSE trending profile across the Rotokawa
Field; for location of profile see Figure 15. Topography and inferred temperatures of
sectiondown to sea level (upperpart). Observed SP values and apparent resistivities along the
same profile (lowerpan).

A well-defined positive anomaly (+230 maximum) occurs 0.5 km to the N of Lake

Rotokawa in an area with significant surface discharge (steam and acid condensates). The SP
data along a N-S profile are plotted in Figure 16, together with an inferred temperature section
(using data from Krupp and Seward, 1987); the section indicates that the centre of the positive
SP anomaly coincides with an upflow centre of hot fluids. The Rotokawa SP anomaly appears
to be a good example of a "hot streaming potential" anomaly.

The SP surveys of the Mokai and Rotokawa geothermal prospects have shown that both
reservoirsare associated with a positive,large wavelength SP anomaly. At Mokai, this anomaly
is distorted by terrain-induced streaming potentials; at Rotokawa the terrain effect appears to
be small. The peak of the SP anomaly coincides with the upflow centre of thermal fluids.
Conceptual models

Figure 17. The inset shows the location of the field on the North Island of New Zealand.
Figure 18. Conceptual Model Cross-sections (see inset and Figure 17 for location)
 BAB III
VOLUMETRIC ANALYSIS

The volumetric method or heat stored method is applied in the calculation of reserves
in the initial stages of exploration by calculating the heat energy stored in rocks and reservoir
fluids, then the total heat energy will be converted into electrical energy. The following are the
results of calculations using the volumetric method for the Rotokawa geothermal area, New
Zealand.

Initial Final
Data
Conditions Condition
Area (km2) 18
Reservoir thickness (km) 2
Reservoir volume (m3) 36000000000
Porosity of rocks (fraksi) 0.1
Pore volume (m3) 3600000000
Rock Properties :
Heat capacity (kJ/kg C) 1
Rock density (kg/m3) 3100
Reservoir temperature (deg C) 320 286
Saturation pressure (bar) 112.8385589 70.17600399

Calculation of The Heat Stored in The Rocks Being Utilized, Q=mc T

Rock mass (kg) 1.0044E+14
Heat stored in rocks (kJ) 3.21408E+16 2.87258E+16
Heat in rocks that can be utilized, Q=mc T 3.41496E+15

Calculation of Heat Stored in Usable Fluid

Steam saturation 0.3 0.3
Water saturation 0.7 0.7
The volume of vapor in the porous media (m3) 1080000000 1080000000
The volume of water in the porous media (m3) 2520000000 2520000000
Vapor density (kg/m3) 64.61648475 36.62636021
Water density (kg/m3) 667.0833411 739.4096274
Steam mass (kg), mV 69785803532 39556469022
Water mass (kg), mL 1.68105E+12 1.86331E+12
Energy in steam (kJ/kg), vV 2526.039558 2580.740077
Energy in water (kJ/kg), vL 1445.135797 1258.851821
Heat stored in steam (kJ) 1.76282E+14 1.02085E+14
Heat stored in water (kJ) 2.42935E+15 2.34563E+15
Heat stored in fluid (kJ) 2.60563E+15 2.44772E+15
Heat in usable fluid (kJ) 1.57908E+14

Total heat that can be utilized (in rocks and fluids), kJ 3.57287E+15
 Electrical Calculations
Earnings Factor, % 0.5
Heat that can be produced (kJ) 1.78643E+15
Period of utilization (year) 30
Heat that can be used per unit time (kJ / sec) 1888248.49
The heat that can be utilized per unit time (thermal MW) 1888.24849
The conversion factor from thermal to electricity, % 0.15
Electric potential (Mwe) 283.2372735
Table 2. Calculation of Volumetric Analysis in Rotokawa Geothermal Areas

Based on the calculation results in table 1 above, it can be seen that the Rotokawa
geothermal area has an area of 18 km2, a reservoir thickness of 2 km, and is liquid dominated
so as to produce the assumption that water saturation is greater than steam saturation. The
duration of utilization of the Rotokawa geothermal system is estimated to be 30 years with an
acquisition factor of 50%. Based on these data the electricity potential generated by the
Rotokawa geothermal system is 283.24 Mwe.

According to New Zealand Geothermal Association in its article entitled Rotokawa-

Nga-awa-purua Geothermal System, it is stated that based on the heat stored model, the
Rotokawa geothermal system produces an electrical potential of 270 Mwe. The electrical
potential generated in table 1 shows the results of calculations that are not much different from
previous studies. The difference in the value of the potential electricity generated may occur
due to assumption of the data used for the final temperature, the acquisition factor, the duration
of utilization, and the saturation of steam and water are still not quite right.
 BAB IV
PRODUCTION FACILITY

Figure 19. Schematic Flow Diagram Of Current Operation

The project bas two production wells of around 2000 meters depth producing two phase
fluid which is piped to a separator at the station. Steam is separated from the brine at 23 bar
while both the steam and the brine are used for electricity generation. The condensed steam is
pumped up to the brine pressure, mixed with the high-pressure brine, and reinjected at gravity
pressure. There are three reinjection wells of around 500 meter depth, one of which is one of
the original field exploratory wells.
 To maximize the benefits of the available high pressure steam, a back pressure turbine
of 14 MW output is utilized to drop the steam pressure to approximately 1.5 bar. This low
pressure steam is condensed in two air cooled binary units of 5 MW output each. Ormat’s air
cooled Geothermal Combined Cycle Unit configuration, bas the advantage of the low capital
cost and the simplicity of the back pressure turbine while condensing the steam takes place in
the tube and shell beat vaporizers of the OEC units where steam wetness in the turbines last
stage is not a problem. A third 5 MW binary unit, utilizes the hot brine flow released from the
separator while cooling it from 219°C to 150°C.

Environmental impact

The station was designed to have virtually no environmental impact. Under normal
operating conditions the geothermal fluid is completely contained fiom production to
reinjection with the only emissions being negligible quantities of steam emitted by the steam
traps, and the non-condensable gases emitted above the air coolers. All used fluids are re-
injected into dedicated reinjection wells drilled for this purpose. The power generation
technology implemented at Rotokawa complies with the resource consents and is dedicated to
the needs of a sustainable, environmentally benign and reliable geothermal power plant. This
development was carefully planed to avoid any adverse effect on the resource.

Operation and maintenance

During the frst year of operation of the station, the operation was contracted to Power
New Zealand Contracting who supplied six operators to provide 24 hour cover on a 12-hour
shift basis. Two operators were on duty during the day shift and a single operator at night.
Operators were required to undertake in addition to the operations duties, minor routine and
emergency maintenance work as well. The station is supervised by an operations manager. All
maintenance work was contracted in fiom selected contractors available in the area. Apart fiom
the operators, some of whom are qualified trades people, there is no permanent maintenance
staff. The analysis of the costs of the first operational year shows that a significantly reduced
operating costs has been achieved without having any negative impact on the generated MWh.
Operating at an average output of approximately 25.5 MW and at a yearly availability of over
96%, the plant has achieved an unexpectedly high annual output of over 215 GWh, at an
operating cost of under 0.3 US $/kWh.
Facility Products

Several previous attempts to develop by different groups a geothermal project at

Rotokawa by using a conventional condensing steam turbine have failed. On becoming a
partner in the project Power New Zealand undertook a thorough review of the plant
configuration and the technology options, and decided to select the more flexible and modular
Geothermal Combined Cycle configurations proposed by Ormat using the steam and brine
components of the geothermal fluid.

This plant configuration uses a back pressure steam turbine and air cooled binary plant
to capture the best features of each technology. The turnkey contractor and supplier of the
equipment for the 24 MW net output plant were the Ormat Group of Companies. The steam
turbine is a back pressure multi-stage reaction-type turbine. The turbine housing, shaft
assembly and nozzle ring were redesigned to Ormat’s specification for operation with
geothermal steam.
 BAB V

DEVELOPMENT OF GEOTHERMAL FIELD

a. The Development

In 1997, New Zealand began with the installation of ORMAT’s Geothermal Combined
Cycle Technology (GCC), this plant can produce 24 MWe from two production wells and
shallow reinjection wells.. GCC is a power plant that uses both a gas and a steam turbine
together to produce up to 50 percent more electricity from the same fuel and captures waste
heat from the gas turbine to generates extra power. And this GCC Technology works with 3
stages such as Gas Turbine burns the fuel, in this stages gas tubine compresses air and mixes
with fuel that already heated by high temperature then the hot air-fuel mixture moves through
the gas turbine blades, making them spin. The rotating speed drives a generator converts a
portion of spinning energy into electicity. Heat Recovery System Generator, in this stage the
system captures exhaust heat from the gas turbine that would otherwise escape through the
exhaust stack. The system creates steam from the gas turbine exhaust heat and delivers it to
the steam turbine and Steam delivers the electricity, in the last stage the turbine send the energy
to the generator drive shaft, a place where it is converted into additional electricity.

In the large scale, New Zealand cureently developed globally and analyses the potential
of each technology. Over the last 10 years research into alternative geothermal technologies
has expanded rapidly as global warming has led people around the world to look for cleaner
renewable technologies to supply energy into the future. These technologies are not mutually
exclusive its just a combination applications. Some of the following developments are :

• Hydrothermal Enhancement— Deep geothermal with fracturing

The techniques associated with hot dry rock technology could be applied to the
impermeable fringes (lateral and vertical) of existing high temperature resources to
increase their assessed capacity. Fracturing techniques and associated injection could
bring these currently abandoned areas into production, either linked to existing stations
or for dedicated developments, although there is still debate about the long term
effectiveness of this technique for enhancing existing fields.
 • Hot Dry Rock
This technology involves drilling (often very deep) combined with the injection
of a heat transfer fluid (most proposals focus on water, however carbon dioxide has also
been proposed), deep within the Earth’s surface to extract heat from areas which have
no traditional hydrothermal resource but have considerable available heat

The Geothermal Energy in New Zealand is also uses directly without heat pump or
power plant. Currently there is about 8 PJ per year in direct geothermal heat use applications.
Approximately 65% of this is used in industrial applications, 25% in commercial, and the
remainder in residential and agricultural applications. The application is include :

• Timber drying – Tenon’s wood processing plant near Taupō uses geothermal energy to
heat its timber-drying kilns.
• Aquaculture/tourism – The Huka Prawn Park, near Taupō, is the only geothermally-
heated prawn farm in the world. Heated discharge water from the Wairakei geothermal
power station helps heat the ponds.
• Horticulture – The use of geothermal energy to heat the glasshouses of Rotorua-based
PlentyFlora and Taupō-based Gourmet Mokai has reduced production costs for flowers
(PlentyFlora) and tomatoes/capsicums (Gourmet Mokai).
• Milk drying – The Māori-owned dairy company Miraka, based near Taupō, is the first
milk drying facility in the world to use geothermal energy.
• Space heating – Rotorua Hospital uses geothermal energy – via a heat exchanger – for
space heating and hot water heating. The system, commissioned in 1977, has proven to
be a very reliable source of energy.

The use of geothermal resources in New Zealand is regulated under the Resource
Management Act (RMA) which provides a framework for the sustainable management of
natural resources. The RMA gives control over the use of geothermal resources to the regional
councils in which the resources are located. Each regional council has a duty to plan for the use
of geothermal resources within its boundaries and is responsible for allocation of consents to
exploit geothermal fluids. In essence, having access to the resource through land ownership, or
agreement with the landowner for geothermal development is the key to being able to being
able to develop a position for applying for a resource consent under the RMA.
 The Regional Council Policy that Rotokawa Geothermal Field took is Waikato
Regional Council Policy, because Rotokawa is part of the Waikato Region. In this Regional
Council Statement has a several terms of sustainable management which inform the Waikato
Regional Council policies such as :

• Suistainable Production
Ensuring that users, such as large geothermal power developments, do not take
geothermal fluid from the earth faster than it can be replaced.
• Biodiversity
Ensuring that the biodiversity of geothermal micro-organisms, plants, and
animals is maintained for its own intrinsic value and for possible use in industrial
processes and medical applications.
• Preservation of Features
Ensuring that geothermal features that people value for their cultural, amenity,
and scientific values such as geysers, mud pools, and silica terraces are maintained for
future generations to enjoy and learn from.
• Efficient Use
Ensuring that when geothermal resources are used, they are used efficiently.
• Maori Values
There has been a wide spectrum of the involvement of the Maori landowners in
the geothermal projects developed on their lands. Maori had little involvement in the
first government led geothermal project developed at Wairakei in the 1950’s. The next
major government sponsored development at Ohaaki in the early 1990’s was located
on land largely owned by Maori, but the limit of their involvement was primarily though
a lease arrangement for the land used by plant and steamfield.

And There are Regional Plan, it sets out the rules for achieving the aims and objectives
of the Regional Policy Statement. In the Geothermal Chapter, there are several broad concepts
from which the rules derive such as :
• Classification of Systems
The geothermal systems of the region are classified into development,
protected, or unclassified systems. System boundaries are defined according to
resistivity contours and other survey information. Classifications and boundaries can
be changed through a formal process by providing sufficient evidence that a change is
warranted.
• Protected System
Takes and discharges of geothermal water from and to land (other than those
lawfully established prior to notification of the Plan) on protected systems will be
prohibited.
• Unclassified System
New takes and discharges from unclassified systems will be a discretionary
activity. Existing uses lawfully established prior to notification of the Plan will be a
permitted activity in unclassified systems.
• Development System
The take from and discharge to land of less than 30 tonnes per day of geothermal
fluid will be permitted (under certain conditions). Other takes and discharges up to 500
tonnes per day will be discretionary or controlled activities. The take and discharge of
more than 500 tonnes per day will be a discretionary activity.
• Significant Geothermal Features
The Proposed Regional Plan contains a list of Significant Geothermal Features
in the region, ranked in order of importance based on geophysical rarity, resilience, and
viability.
 BAB VI

CONCLUSION

Based on geological studies, basement at Rotokawa Geothermal Field is Torlesse

Supergroup, and overlying by Rotokawa Andesite, Tahorakuri Fm, Waikora Fm and Oruanui
Fm. The extensional stress regime of TVZ has created a set of northeast-southwest-striking
normal faults.

Based on geochemistry of the Rotokawa geothermal field, the bicarbonate water

dominance areas were in well RK 1, Lake, Spring 1 and Spring 4 and chloride water dominance
in well RK 4a, RK 4b, RK 4c, RK 5a, RK 5b. The Rotokawa geothermal reservoir fluid is
dominated by chloride water, except for the RK-1 well with temperature around 200oC - 350oC
based wells LK4a, LK4c, LK5a, and LK5b. The heat source of the Rotokawa geothermal field
is thought to originate from the Taupo volcanic zone and the recharge area of the geothermal
field comes from around well RK5 where the fluid rises in the middle of the thermal plume
and the conductive water is heated and enters to shallow recharge system from the south (2460
m).

Based on microseismic data, the effective base of reservoir permeability for the
numerical model was estimated to be between -3000 to -4000 m.a.s.l and The microseismicity
is sharply constrained within a NE-SW, interpreted to represent a large scale field structure
known as the Central Field Fault. MT-reseitiviy show a zone of higher permeability through
the reservoir cap in the south of the field allows fluid to flow from the reservoir into the
overlying intermediate aquifer, creating boiling-point-for depth temperature conditions.

The main permeable connection between the reservoir and intermediate aquifer is
considered to be along the Central Field Fault. Boiling fluid rises buoyantly to the top of the
intermediate aquifer and is pushed mainly northwards by cooler, meteoric fluid flow from the
south. Meteoric flows within the aquifer are driven by higher topography. Interpretation of
residual order anomalies by 3-D magnetic modeling shows that rocks that are in low resistivity
areas are partially or completely demagnetized, at least up to sea level. Details of resistivity
boundaries in the north of most fields can be interpreted by shallow, demagnetized and
conductive rocks that exceed resistivity limits.
 The SP surveys of the Mokai and Rotokawa geothermal prospects have shown that both
reservoirsare associated with a positive,large wavelength SP anomaly. At Mokai, this anomaly
is distorted by terrain-induced streaming potentials; at Rotokawa the terrain effect appears to
be small. The peak of the SP anomaly coincides with the upflow centre of thermal fluids.

The potential electricity generated by Rotokawa geothermal field is 283.24 Mwe. This
value is sufficiently close to the results of previous electrical potential studies, 270 Mwe.
Several previous attempts to develop by different groups a geothermal project at Rotokawa by
using a conventional condensing steam turbine have failed. And after the development, New
Zealand decided to select the more flexible and modular Geothermal Combined Cycle
configurations proposed by Ormat using the steam and brine components of the geothermal
fluid. And in the maintenance, there are several people who works at day and night, basically
they were required to undertake in addition to the operations duties, minor routine and
emergency maintenance work as well. And this power plant was designed to have virtually no
environmental impact. The development Geothermal Energy in new Zealand include
Technology, Regulation and utilization. The technology is develop as well as regulation’s
development. And in the social aspect, the maori is usually included.
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