Overview of Water PDF

Engineering Encyclopedia
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards
OVERVIEW OF WATER
Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional
Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services.
Warning: The material contained in this document was developed for Saudi
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Any material contained in this document which is not already in the public
domain may not be copied, reproduced, sold, given, or disclosed to third
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of the Vice President, Engineering Services, Saudi Aramco.
Chapter : Corrosion For additional information on this subject, contact

File Reference: COE-202.01 PEDD Coordinator on 874-6556
Engineering Encyclopedia Industrial Water Treatment
Overview of Water
Section Page
SOURCES AND PROPERTIES OF WATER AVAILABLE TO SAUDI ARAMCO .......... 3

Sources Of Water ................................................................................................ 3
Seawater................................................................................................... 3
Aquifer Water............................................................................................ 4
Properties Of Water............................................................................................. 5
Chemical Properties.................................................................................. 5
Thermodynamic Properties....................................................................... 7
Latent Heat of Evaporation ....................................................................... 7
IMPURITIES IN WATER AND ASSOCIATED PROBLEMS ........................................... 8

Impurities ............................................................................................................. 8
Dissolved Inorganic Ions (Dissolved Solids) ........................................... 10
Dissolved Organics ................................................................................. 11
Microbiological and Macrobiological Organisms ..................................... 11
Particulate Matter.................................................................................... 12
Dissolved Gases ..................................................................................... 13
Potential Problems ............................................................................................ 13
Scale....................................................................................................... 13
Corrosion ................................................................................................ 14
Biological Corrosion and Fouling ............................................................ 15
Fouling and Plugging .............................................................................. 16
WATER QUALITY REQUIREMENTS FOR PRIMARY USES

IN SAUDI ARAMCO AND TREATMENTS USED ........................................................ 19
Cooling Water.................................................................................................... 19
Steam Generation ............................................................................................. 20
Potable Water ......................................................................................... 22
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards i

Overview of Water
Process Water ........................................................................................ 24

Injection Water........................................................................................ 25
Firewater................................................................................................. 26
Irrigation.................................................................................................. 26
Recreation .............................................................................................. 27
GLOSSARY ................................................................................................................. 28
ADDENDUM ................................................................................................................ 29
References ........................................................................................................ 29
List of Figures
Figure 1. Depiction of Water Solubility

(Source: Reference No. 4, The Nalco Water Handbook) ............................... 6
Figure 2. Makeup Water Treatment Flow Plan............................................................ 21
List of Tables
Table 1. Classification of Water by Salt Content ........................................................... 4
Table 2. Typical Chemical Analysis of Seawater........................................................... 9
Table 3. Summary of Impurities and Treatments

(Source: Reference No. 5, Perry's Handbook) ............................................. 18
Table 4. Water Quality Requirements for Cooling Water Systems.............................. 19
Table 5. World Health Organization Drinking Water Standards .................................. 23
Table 6. Specifications for Injection Water Produced

at the Qurayyah Seawater Supply Plant ...................................................... 25
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards ii

Overview of Water
SOURCES AND PROPERTIES OF WATER AVAILABLE TO SAUDI

ARAMCO
Water is essential to life and to nearly every industrial activity.

Before water treatment is discussed it is important to
understand the sources and properties of water.
Sources of Water
There are two primary sources of natural water available to

Saudi Aramco: seawater and water from underground aquifers.
These waters have different properties and contain different
impurities, consequently each requires different treatment
before it can be used. In the course of Saudi Aramco’s daily
business, many other types of water are encountered, for
example, produced water, sour water, process waters, and
various wastewaters. These waters are derived from man-made
sources such as oilfields, refineries, office buildings, and homes.
All of these waters have different properties, contain different
types of impurities, and different concentrations of impurities.
Consequently each type of water from a man-made facility
requires a different treatment before it can be disposed of or
reused. The properties and treatment of water from both natural
and man-made sources will be covered in this course. Some of
the characteristics of the two primary natural waters available to
Saudi Aramco, seawater and aquifer water, follow.
Seawater
Since large volumes of water are required for producing and

refining oil and gas, and fresh water is scarce in Saudi Arabia,
seawater from the Arabian Gulf is a primary source of water for
many of Saudi Aramco's facilities. Although seawater accounts
for about 97% of the water on our planet, its high concentration
of dissolved salts (high salinity) makes it unsuitable for many
uses. Consequently Saudi Aramco operates many very large
seawater desalination plants. In the open oceans, the salinity of
seawater is remarkably constant at about 34 to 36 parts-per-
thousand (ppt) or 34,000 to 36,000 parts-per-million (ppm). The
salinity may be lower near the mouths of large rivers and may
be higher in certain seas and gulfs. In fact, the salinity of water
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 3

Overview of Water
in the Arabian Gulf can be as high as 60 ppt (60,000 ppm).

Consequently, desalination of water from the Arabian Gulf will
be more difficult than desalinating water from an open ocean.
Aquifer Water
Aquifers are another source of natural water for Saudi Aramco

facilities. An aquifer is an underground reservoir from which
water can be obtained for beneficial use and which is recharged
by water from the surface. The aquifer itself is a porous strata
such as sand through which water can flow at an appreciable
rate when a pressure differential exists. Wells or springs can be
used to draw water from aquifers. Often the point where the
aquifer is recharged is distant from where wells are drilled or
dug. The salt content of water from aquifers may vary widely
from about 1,500 to 10,000 ppm.
At this point, it is convenient to classify different natural waters
according to their salt content. Table 1 shows such a
classification. The total dissolved solids are a measure of the
salt content of water.
Salinity Typical Total

Classes Dissolved Solids
(mg/L)
Fresh water Less than 1,500
Brackish water 1,500 to 10,000
Brines Greater than 10,000
Seawater 35,000 to 60,000
Table 1. Classification of Water by Salt Content
The classifications shown in Table 1 are not firm definitions and

slightly different ranges of total dissolved solids may be used by
different authors. The aquifer waters available to Saudi Aramco
generally fall in the range of brackish water.

Overview of Water
Properties of Water
The many unique chemical and physical properties of water set

it apart from all other chemical compounds.
Chemical Properties
In the water molecule, the hydrogen atoms are always joined to

the oxygen atom forming a 105-degree angle. This orientation of
atoms gives the molecule an uneven electrical balance or
polarity, since the oxygen atom is electron rich (negatively
charged) relative to the electron poor (positively charged)
hydrogen atoms.
This orientation creates a dipole: a molecule with a positively
charged end and a negatively charged end. Since water is a
dipole it can dissolve high concentrations of salts by allowing
them to dissociate into charged ions. The negatively charged
end of the water molecule is preferentially oriented towards
+
positively charged cations such as sodium (Na ), and the
positive end of water is oriented towards negatively charged
-
ions such as chloride (Cl ). Conversely, salts have very low
solubility in nonpolar liquids such as hydrocarbons that are
unable to separate and stabilize ions. Figure 1 depicts the
orientation of sodium chloride dissolved in water.

Overview of Water
(WATER MOLECULES)
Na Cl
Figure 1. Depiction of Water Solubility

(Source: Reference No. 4, The Nalco Water Handbook)
Since oppositely charged particles are attracted to each other

and hydrogen is the smallest of all atoms, it is possible for a
hydrogen atom on one molecule of water to come very close to
the oxygen atom on another water molecule. This results in a
very strong electrostatic attraction between water molecules
called hydrogen bonding. Hydrogen bonding orients liquid water
molecules in a structured, tightly packed order. It also affects
the structure of ice. Hydrogen bonding between water
molecules imparts many unique physical and thermodynamic
properties to water.
Hydrogen bonding gives water high surface tension. Simply put,
this means that liquid water molecules have a strong affinity for
each other and do not want to leave the surface of a liquid body
or wet particles in water. The high surface tension of water is
strong enough to float a steel needle (with a density about 7
times that of water) in a cup of water. The surface tension
increases the ability of water to suspend particulate impurities
and causes water to rise up a capillary.

Overview of Water
Thermodynamic
Properties
In part due to hydrogen bonding, water has a high freezing point

(0ºC, 32ºF) and a high boiling point (100ºC, 212ºF) compared to
other molecules of similar size. More energy is required to melt
ice or evaporate water than is required for similar molecules that
are not tightly held together by hydrogen bonds. Water has
exceptionally large heats of fusion and vaporization due in part
to the extra energy required to overcome hydrogen bonding
when ice is melted or liquid water is evaporated. Water must
absorb 540 calories/gram of heat to change from a liquid to a
vapor. This is called the latent heat of evaporation. When water
vapor condenses, this heat is released. This high latent heat
makes steam a very efficient heat source.
Hydrogen bonding also influences the heat capacity of water,
which is the amount of heat that a given mass of water can
carry. As a result of hydrogen bonding, on a hot day seawater
can absorb a great deal of heat from the sun but warm up only
sightly during the day, while the sand on the beach may become
too hot to walk on. The high heat capacity of water makes it an
ideal fluid for heating and cooling.
Latent Heat of
Evaporation
As stated earlier, water has the ability to absorb great quantities

of heat. Water must absorb 540 calories per gram of energy to
cause it to change state from a liquid to a vapor. This quantity of
energy is called the latent heat of evaporation.

Overview of Water
IMPURITIES IN WATER AND ASSOCIATED PROBLEMS
Due to the polarity of water, its ability to form hydrogen bonds,

and other chemical properties, water is able to dissolve and
suspend a very large variety of materials found in nature.
From the standpoint of process operations that require “high
purity” water, naturally occurring dissolved and suspended
matter are considered impurities.
Seawater, with its high concentration of dissolved and
suspended solids, and brackish well water, with its high
concentration of dissolved solids, are examples of natural water
sources that require treatment prior to use in industrial
processes, in agricultural applications, or for human
consumption.
Impurities
Impurities that are found in natural water can be categorized as

one of the following:
• Dissolved inorganic ions (dissolved solids)
• Dissolved organics
• Microbiological and macro biological organisms
• Particulate matter (suspended solids, including colloids)
• Dissolved gases.
Additionally, pollutants that result from industrial, agricultural,

and social activities and that find their way into natural water
bodies (surface waters, seawater, and groundwater) contribute
to the degradation of water quality. The water pollutants
generated from these human activities can also be categorized
within the same five major groups described for naturally
occurring impurities. Table 2 depicts a typical chemical analysis
of seawater and brackish aquifer water.

Overview of Water
Generally, the impurities found in seawater and brackish well

water is the result of naturally occurring atmospheric and
geophysical processes. Human induced water pollution, such as
acid sulfur rain and oil spills in the ocean, has become an
increasing source of impurities in raw water sources.
Ions Symbol Seawater, Aquifer,

ppm ppm
Sodium + 12,600 696

(Na )
Calcium ++ 545 222

(Ca )
Magnesium ++ 1,660 82
(Mg )
Sulfate - 3,260 418

(SO4 )
Chloride - 22,800 1,280

(CI )
Bicarbonate - 164 195

(HCO3 )
Silica (Si) 2.8 12.9
Boron (B) 8.2 0.72
Strontium (Sr) 9.6 5.5
Copper (Cu) <0.5 <0.5
Zinc (Zn) <0.5 0-11
Manganese (Mn) <0.5 <0.5
Barium (Pb) <0.5 <0.5
Lead (Pb) 0.76 <0.5
Total Dissolved (TDS) 41,000 2,890

Solids
PH 7.9 7.0
Specific Gravity 1.0315 1.0024
Table 2. Typical Chemical Analysis of Seawater

Overview of Water
Dissolved Inorganic Ions

(Dissolved Solids)
Dissolved inorganic ions are dissolved solids that are mineral in

nature and derived from natural earth elements, although they
can be present in water as the result of man-made pollution.
They are also called dissolved solids, inorganic salts, or mineral
salts.
Inorganic ions normally found in water consist chiefly of the

following:
• Calcium carbonate (limestone)
• Calcium bicarbonate
• Calcium sulfate (gypsum)
• Magnesium carbonate (dolomite)
• Magnesium bicarbonate
• Magnesium sulfate (Epsom salt)
• Magnesium chloride
• Sodium chloride (common salt)
• Hydrated sodium borate (borax)
• Sodium sulfate
• Silica
• Iron hydroxides and salts
• Manganese
• Fluorides
• Aluminum hydroxides and salts
• Potassium salts
• Barium salts
• Strontium salts
• Phosphates
This list represents those inorganic impurities naturally found in

significant enough concentrations to require the water to be
treated before use.

Overview of Water
Dissolved Organics
Dissolved organics or carbonaceous impurities are found in

most water supplies. The types of organics will vary depending
upon the raw water source. These sources are as follows:
In surface supplies (rivers, lakes, ponds, oceans, and
reservoirs), the most common source of organics is the natural
decay products of plants, seaweeds, and leaves.
The general types of organics found in surface supplies are
classified as humic acids, fulvic acids, and tannins (the naturally
decayed products of trees and leaves). These organics are
generally of very high molecular weight containing complex
chain structures.
Well supplies used to be considered essentially safe from
organic contamination. Recently, a variety of organics have
been found in well supplies due to organic contamination of
soils, with subsequent aquifer intrusion by the organics. These
organics can range from low molecular weight alcohols, e.g.,
methanol, to volatile organics (VOC), to complex high molecular
weight compounds.
Some of the critical treatment components affected by organic
contamination are:
• Anion Exchange Resin
• Reverse Osmosis Membranes
• Electro dialysis Membranes
Microbiological and
Macrobiological Organisms
Seawater is the habitat for many forms of plants and animal life
ranging from microorganisms such as bacteria to seaweeds,
barnacles, shellfish, large fish and mammals. Many of these
organisms are essential, beneficial, and food sources for higher
life forms. However, excessive quantities of organisms in water
systems can create serious problems. Aquifers are not inhabited
by higher plants and animals but can be contaminated by
microorganisms.

Overview of Water
Microbiological impurities in water are forms that usually cannot

be seen without the aid of a microscope. Bacteria, algae and
fungi are three forms of microorganisms that live in water.
Bacteria are unicellular microscopic organisms that are present
in many natural waters and treated waters. If uncontrolled, their
growth can be very rapid and can lead to severe corrosion and
fouling. Algae contain chlorophyll and are a low form of green
plants that grow in the presence of sunlight, usually in water.
Fungi are simple plant forms that lack true roots, stems, leaves
or chlorophyll and include mushrooms, mildew, molds and
yeast.
It should be noted that at times microbiological organisms can
be seen without the aid of a microscope. For example, algae,
when its population blooms, can be seen as a cloudiness
(turbidity) in water. Slime growth in cooling tower water, which
results from microorganisms, can also be seen without
magnification.
Macrobiological organisms are plant and animal forms that can
be seen without magnification. Some examples are barnacles,
shellfish, fish, and marine mammals. Naturally, a wide variety of
higher plant and animal life inhabit the Arabian Gulf.
Particulate Matter
Particulate matter in water consists of small, insoluble discrete

solid particles. Particulate matter is generally inorganic in
composition and is derived from the mechanical action
(turbulence) of water on larger sized insoluble material.
Particulate matter can also be organic, including microbiological
and/or macrobiological material.
A practical definition of particulate matter is that material which
is undissolved and retained by filtration through a 0.45 micron
filter. The retained material is called suspended solids.
Colloids - In the context of water quality, colloids are a special
class of particulate matter. Colloids consist of discrete particles
that range in size from about 0.001 to 0.1 microns. These
particles are so small that they are not visible even through a
high powered light microscope.

Overview of Water
Colloidal particles can be removed from solution by destabilizing

their electrical charge by the addition of a chemical flocculent.
This causes them to agglomerate into larger particles that can
settle by gravity or be filtered. Processes such as membrane
ultrafiltration have also been found to be effective in the removal
of colloids.
Dissolved Gases
The consideration of dissolved gases in water treatment is

generally limited to:
• Oxygen (O2)
• Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
• Hydrogen Sulfide (H2S)
• Ammonia (NH3)
Potential Problems
The above impurities can cause problems when allowed to

remain in the water during cooling, steam generation, or the
other uses of water in Saudi Aramco. Major problems caused by
impurities are described in the following sections.
Scale
Scale is the accumulation of deposits on the interior surfaces of

equipment items such as water storage tanks, piping, and
vessels. These deposits are the result of the precipitation of
mineral salts in the water. The most common deposits are
compounds containing calcium, magnesium, carbonates,
sulfates, and silica. Scales containing barium and strontium
sulfates can form in water from deep wells.
The effects of scale are:

• By building up on the heat transfer surface of a heat
exchanger or boiler, scale acts as an insulator and reduces
the heat transfer efficiency of that vessel or pipe. Scale has
a particularly negative effect on a steam boiler tube where it
can cause the metal to overheat and rupture.

Overview of Water
• Scale also causes a reduction of flow through a closed

vessel or pipe due to the increased thickness buildup on the
internal walls. This buildup decreases the effective internal
diameter of the pipe.
Because of the extremely elevated temperatures in boilers, high

pressures and the need for constant makeup water, the interior
of a steam boiler is highly prone to scale formation.
Evaporators, heat exchangers, condensers, and cooling towers
are other operations where scale can be a problem.
Corrosion
Corrosion is the destruction of a substance, usually a metal or

alloy, or its properties as a result of a reaction with its
environment. Corrosion of metals or alloys in water is an
electrochemical process. For example, the corrosion of iron by
oxygen can be represented by the following chemical reaction:
Fe + H2O + ½ O2 = Fe(OH) 2
Iron Water Oxygen Ferrous Hydroxide
If either the water or oxygen is removed, the corrosion (rusting)

will not occur. The oxygen is consumed in the corrosion reaction
and is called the oxidant or corrodent. Acids and other species
can also serve as corrodents in water and similar
electrochemical reactions can be written for other metals.
Corrosion can uniformly attack a metal surface or it can be

localized in the form of pitting, crevice attack, or even cracking.
Many factors can influence the rate of corrosion including the:
• impurities in the water
• nature of the metal or alloy
• temperature
• condition of the metal surface
• metallurgical condition of the metal
• water velocity and other mechanical factors

Overview of Water
High concentrations of dissolved solids, oxygen, carbon dioxide,

hydrogen sulfide, low pH, and other factors increase the
corrosivity of water.
Different metals have differing inherent resistance to corrosion.

For example, stainless steels are more resistant to many forms
of corrosion than carbon steels. Selection of a more corrosion
resistant alloy is the solution to many corrosion problems.
Coupling of dissimilar metals can lead to accelerated corrosion
of the metal that is less corrosion resistant. This is called
galvanic corrosion.
Increasing the temperature of water will normally have the effect
of increasing the corrosion rate.
The cleanliness of the metal surface, the existence of surface
films, and the presence of foreign matter can have a strong
effect on the initiation and rate of corrosion. Preferential attack
of metal beneath deposits is called underdeposit corrosion.
Metallurgical and mechanical conditions such as stress and heat
treatment can influence corrosion rate. The velocity of water
past a metal surface can influence the corrosion rate in several
ways. Stagnant or low flow conditions can lead to deposition of
solids and growth of microbiological matter that can cause
underdeposit corrosion. High flow rate conditions can also
accelerate corrosion by bringing more corrodents to the surface
of the metal in a given period of time. High flow rates can
accelerate attack by removal of protective layers by erosion or
mechanical impingement of solids or gases on a surface. Sandy
water flowing at high velocities will rapidly destroy steels
especially soft copper alloys.
Biological Corrosion
and Fouling
Macroorganisms and microorganisms can cause several types

of problems in water systems ranging from corrosion, fouling
and plugging of piping, valves and equipment in industrial
systems to objectionable tastes and odors, and disease in
drinking water. Health effects will be covered in a following
section.

Overview of Water
A brief listing of some types of organisms and the related

problems in a water system follows.
Organism Potential Problem
Bacteria Fouling from slime masses
Corrosion
Odors
Algae Plug screens and equipment
Taste and odors
Underdeposit corrosion
Fungi Rot of cooling tower wood
Discoloration of water
Seaweeds, Plugging and fouling of screens
fish and
mammals
Fouling and Plugging
Fouling and plugging are problems associated with the

operation of heat exchangers, condensers, and boiler tubes.
The primary causes of fouling and plugging are:
• Scale
• Suspended solids
• Biomass consisting of living and dead bacteria
• Silica
• Corrosion products
• Low water velocities.
• Health Effects

Overview of Water
The health of people is directly associated with the quality of

drinking water. There are a number of waterborne contaminants
that can cause illness and even death. Some of the more
common ones are listed below:
• Pathogens are disease-causing organisms such as viruses
and certain bacteria. Drinking water is constantly monitored
for total and fecal coliforms (E. coli). These are bacteria that
are found in the intestines of warm-blooded animals and are
used to indicate if more toxic organisms are present due to
contamination of the water with sewage.
• Heavy metals such as arsenic, barium, cadmium, chromium,
lead, mercury, and selenium are toxic.
• Nitrates have caused serious and fatal poisonings of infants.
• High levels of sodium has been linked with heart disease in
some studies. However this is a controversial issue because
some studies have appeared to refute this.
In order to be sure that the human consumption of drinking
water does not result in illness or death, the World Health
Organization (WHO) has developed a set of drinking water
specifications. Individual countries have also adopted their own
water quality standards that generally meet or exceed the WHO
specifications. The WHO specifications are presented in the
next section. In Saudi Aramco facilities, the Saudi Aramco
Sanitary Code governs many water quality requirements
including drinking water.
Table 3 summarizes impurities found in water and their
treatment.

Overview of Water
Type of Impurity Classification of Impurity • Process of Removal

Acidity inorganic dissolved solid • chemical neutralization (pH control)
dissolved organic (acid) carbon adsorption
Alkalinity inorganic dissolved solid • chemical neutralization (pH control)
Ammonia dissolved gas • deaerating heater
Calcium (Hardness) inorganic dissolved solid • ion exchange
chemical precipitation
Carbon Dioxide dissolved gas • acidification (pH control) followed
by degasification
Chlorine Residual inorganic dissolved solid dissolved • carbon absorption
gas chemical reduction
Color dissolved organic • carbon adsorption
inorganic dissolved solid chemical addition followed by
filtration
Hardness (See Calcium and Magnesium) • (See Calcium and Magnesium)
Magnesium (Hardness) inorganic dissolved solid • ion exchange
chemical Precipitation
Nitrate inorganic dissolved solid • ion exchange
Nitrite inorganic dissolved solid • ion exchange
Oxygen dissolved gas • deaeration (chemical or
mechanical)
pH (See Acidity and Alkalinity) • (See Acidity and Alkalinity)
Silica colloidal solid • ultrafiltration
chemical precipitation
inorganic dissolved solid ion exchange
total Dissolved Solids inorganic and organic • distillation
dissolved solids reverse osmosis
ion exchange
total Organic Carbon dissolved organics and emulsified • carbon adsorption
organics
total Petroleum Hydrocarbon emulsified organic • chemical coagulation and filtration
total Suspended Solids particulate matter (organic and • direct filtration
inorganic colloids chemical destabilization,
clarification/filtration
Turbidity (See Total Suspended Solids) • (See Total Suspended Solids)
bacteria, yeasts and molds chemical or UV disinfection
followed by filtration
Volatile Organic Carbon dissolved organic • carbon adsorption
Bacteria, Yeasts and Molds microbiological • chemical or UV disinfection
macrobiological followed by filtration
Miscellaneous Dissolved inorganic dissolved solids • electrodialysis
Inorganic Cations and Anions ion exchange
reverse osmosis
evaporation/distillation
Table 3. Summary of Impurities and Treatments

(Source: Reference No. 5, Perry's Handbook)

Overview of Water
WATER QUALITY REQUIREMENTS FOR PRIMARY USES IN SAUDI

ARAMCO AND TREATMENTS USED
Water used for different purposes will have different

requirements on its purity and will require different treatment. In
this section the quality and required treatment for cooling water,
steam generation, process water, potable water, injection water,
firewater, irrigation, and recreation will be briefly reviewed.
Cooling Water
There are three types of cooling water systems and each has its
own water quality requirements and treatments. Each of these
systems is subject to corrosion, scale formation, sludge fouling,
and biofouling and they require treatment to minimize these
problems. These are summarized in Table 4 and will be
discussed in detail in Module 5.
System Water Used Typical Treatment Required
Once-through Seawater Screening

Chlorination
Cooling Tower Aquifer Corrosion inhibitor
Biocide (often chlorine based)
Scale control (dispersants)
pH control
Control of cycles of concentration
Filtration and softening (optional)
Closed Recirculating Steam condensate Corrosion inhibitor
Desalinated pH buffer
Others (optional)
Table 4. Water Quality Requirements for Cooling Water Systems

Overview of Water
Generally high quality water such as steam condensate or

desalinated water is used in closed recirculating cooling
systems. Since the scale forming ions are not present in these
treated waters, no scale control chemicals are required.
Steam Generation
Steam generators require a continuous flow of treated

feedwater to replace the water, which is converted into steam,
and the water that is drawn off the boiler (Table 6 or bleedoff).
Due to the high temperatures of boiler water and the
concentrating effect of evaporation, strict water quality
requirements are necessary to prevent boiler failures due to
corrosion or scale formation. Depending on the type of steam
generator and the purity of steam required, different water
treatment and feedwater quality is required. Higher pressure
boilers with superheaters require higher quality water with lower
concentrations of impurities than low pressure boilers. In
addition to feedwater requirements, water quality requirements
are also placed on the recirculating boiler water within the boiler.
Guidelines for feedwater and boiler water quality have been
published by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers and
the American Boiler Manufacturers Association. These
requirements will be discussed in detail in Module 2.
The various processes, which can be used to convert seawater

or aquifer water into high quality boiler feedwater, are depicted
in Figure 2. These processes are referred to as external
treatment. Reverse osmosis (RO), Electrodialysis Reversal
(EDR) and Flash Evaporation systems will be discussed in detail
in Modules 3, 6, and 7. These processes remove dissolved
solids, scale forming ions, and other impurities which would
otherwise cause scale, corrosion, carryover (low steam purity),
caustic embrittlement and other problems in boilers.

Overview of Water
RAW WATER
pH CONTROL AERATION
CHLORINATION
FLASH EVAPORATORS FILTRATION
E.D. R.O.
POLISHING PRIMARY SODIUM HYDROGEN

DEMINERALIZERS DEMINERALIZERS SOFTENERS SODIUM
SOFT/DEALK.
BOILER MAKE-UP WATER TO DEAERATOR
Figure 2. Makeup Water Treatment Flow Plan

Overview of Water
In addition to External Treatment, chemical treatment of boiler

water is needed to ensure safe and reliable operation of boilers
by preventing the problems discussed above. This chemical
treatment is referred to as Internal Treatment and consists of:
• Oxygen scavengers such as sulfite, hydrazine or others for
removal of dissolved oxygen which is extremely corrosive
• Scale control treatment consisting of phosphates, chelants,
or polymers to prevent deposition of scale in boilers
• Neutralizing amines for control of corrosion in steam
condensate systems
• Antifoams for improving steam purity
Regulation of boiler bleed off rates is also a critical aspect of

maintaining boiler water quality. These chemical treatments are
covered in detail in Module 2.
Potable Water
Potable water, defined as “drinkable” water, comes into internal

or external contact with human beings. Besides drinking, there
are many other uses for this water in everyday life (e.g.,
washing clothing, cooking, and eating utensils; bathing and
personal hygiene; cooking and food preparation). Potable water
can also be used to water lawns and gardens, for heating and
cooling, and for fire extinguishing systems.
Since potable water is consumed by humans, standards and
controls were established to prevent disease-causing organisms
and to provide tolerable levels of its various components. Table
5 indicates the World Health Organization Drinking Water
Standards. In Saudi Aramco facilities, the Saudi Aramco
Sanitary Code governs many water quality requirements
including drinking water.

Overview of Water
1950 International 1961 European

Constituent,
mg/l Permissible Excessive Maximum Recommended Tolerance
limit limit limit limit limit
Ammonia − − − 0.5 −
Anionic detergent 0.2 1.0 − − −
Arsenic − 0.05 − − 0.2
Cadmium − 0.01 − − 0.05
Calcium 75 200 − −
Chloride 200 600 − 350 −
Chromium (+6) − − 0.05 − 0.05
Copper 0.05 1.5 − 0.05* −
Cyanide − − 0.05 − 0.01
Fluoride − − − 1.5 −
Iron 0.1 0.1 − 0.1 −
Lead − − 0.1 − 0.1
Magnesium** 50 150 − 125** −
Manganese 0.05 0.5 − 0.1 −
Mercury − 0.001 − − −
Nitrate − − − 50 −
Oil 0.01 0. 3 − − −
Oxygen − − − 5.0 −
pH range 7-8.5 6.5-9.2 − − −
Phenols 0.001 0.002 − 0.001 −
Selenium − − 0.01 − 0.05
Sulfate 200 400 − 250 −
Suspended matter 5 25 − − −
Total solids 500 1500 − − −
Zinc 5.0 15.0 − 5.0 −

*May be higher for new piping
**If 250 mg/L SO4 is present, Mg not to exceed 30 mg/L
Table 5. World Health Organization Drinking Water Standards

Overview of Water
Untreated seawater and many aquifer waters are not suitable

for drinking water due to their high salt contents. Processes
which remove dissolved solids are therefore required to make
drinking water from these sources. Flash evaporation, reverse
osmosis, and electrodialysis are commonly used to remove
dissolved solids. Drinking water must also be kept free of
disease producing organisms by addition of a disinfectant such
as chlorine.
Process Water
Process water is generally defined as water that is used as a

raw material in an intermediate and/or product formulation that
is used to rinse or clean process equipment, and used in
research and development work. The quality of process water is
determined by the specification required. Any water contaminant
that is identified as being harmful to the intermediate/product
must be removed from the raw water before being used.
A common practice used to produce the desired quality process

water is to take a portion of the treated boiler makeup water and
further treat it with a water treatment process selected and
designed to meet the more stringent water quality specifications.
Some post-treatment processes that are employed are:
• Submicron cartridge filtration
• Ultrafiltration
• Reverse osmosis
• Ion exchange resins
• Chemical addition for pH adjustment, bacteria control, etc.

Overview of Water
Injection Water
Water injection is a common method for maintaining production

from oil reservoirs. This method is called waterflooding.
In order to maintain water injection over time, it is critical that the

water be non-corrosive, non-scale forming, disinfected and free
of particulate matter. Any appreciable levels of corrosion
products, scale, suspended solids, microorganisms, and other
impurities could result in plugging of the reservoir. This will
cause a reduction in oil production.
Saudi Aramco operates a world class seawater treatment plant

at Qurayyah that provides treated seawater for the Uthmaniyah
Water Injection System. Injection water specifications used at
Qurayyah are shown in the Table 6.
Impurity Untreated Seawater Treated Seawater
Total Suspended Solids, mg/L 15 <0.2

pH 7.9 – 8.2 7.2 – 7.3
Oxygen, mg/L 8.0 <0.01
Sulfur dioxide, mg/L – 3.0 – 5.0
Residual Chlorine, mg/L – 0.0
Particle Size Less than 10% of the
particles shall be larger
than 2.0 microns
Table 6. Specifications for Injection Water Produced

at the Qurayyah Seawater Supply Plant
Suspended solids are removed by screening and media

filtration. Growth of microorganisms is controlled by chlorination
and periodic use of nonoxidizing biocides. Oxygen is removed
by stripping with nitrogen and scavenging the residual oxygen
with sulfur dioxide. This minimizes contamination of the water
with corrosion products. The sulfur dioxide also decreases the
pH slightly which prevents formation of calcium carbonate scale.
A side effect of the sulfur dioxide is removal of the chlorine so
periodically other biocides are injected into the system.

Overview of Water
Firewater
The most important specifications on firewater systems address

the volume of water to be supplied, pressure, flow rate, and
other factors that directly affect the ability to extinguish fires.
Screens and strainers are used in most systems to protect
against blockages. Depending on the source of water used,
some water quality specifications may be required to protect the
system from fouling. When seawater is used, screening can be
used to prevent debris from entering the system and
chlorination may be used to treat any stored water. To prevent
infestation of firewater systems with shellfish and other marine
life, chlorination is mandatory at some locations. Recently,
infestation of firewater systems by Zebra mussels from Europe
has become a major problem in plants on many waterways in
the United States. Chlorination of water at intakes is used to
control this problem. When aquifer water is used, generally
treatment may be limited to chlorination or no treatment may be
required at all. If the source water contains a high concentration
of suspended solids, filtration may be required to prevent
plugging of piping and nozzles with deposits.
Irrigation
Salt concentrations must be restricted in irrigation water to avoid

damage to plants. Seawater is unsuitable for irrigation water,
but many aquifer waters can be used. As with fire water, if the
source water contains a high concentration of suspended solids,
filtration may be required to prevent plugging of piping and
nozzles with deposits. When a wastewater is reused for
irrigation, the concentrations of toxic impurities (for example,
heavy metals, ammonia, boron, and certain organisms) in the
water must be limited. Sensitivity of certain plants to specific
impurities must also be considered, for example, many trees
and certain ornamental plants are sensitive to sodium and
chloride, and citrus and sugar beets are sensitive to ammonia.
Agricultural authorities should be consulted for specific limits.

Overview of Water
Recreation
Various quality factors affect the use of water as a recreational

vehicle. These factors have a direct relationship to water use.
As the level of quality declines, indicating that the level of
pollution is increasing, the use of water for recreational activities
diminishes. These factors include the smell, taste, color,
turbidity, temperature, and the degree of flotsam (floating
material) within the body of water. Also, the chemical
composition of the water and its pH contribute to the desirability
of water use. The amount of stagnation (lack of flow) and plant
and bacteria growth can have a negative impact on recreational
use.

Overview of Water
GLOSSARY
blowdown Water removed from a cooling system used to control the

concentration of impurities in the recirculated water.
caustic embrittlement Intercrystalline cracking of metal due to the presence of
caustic in hot water when the metal is under stress.
condensers Mechanical devices used to convert a substance from the
vapor state to the liquid state.
cooling towers Devices, usually exterior mounted, that remove heat from
a liquid by passing it through a series of coils that are
exposed to a rapidly moving air current.
electrochemical Pertaining to the relationship of electricity to chemical
changes, and the mutual conversion of chemical and
electrical energy.
evaporators Equipment that supplies heat to a liquid to convert it to the
vapor state.
filtration The removal of suspended solids from water.
ions Electrically charged particles formed in water when a salt
dissociates into positive and negative particles.
macrobiological Organisms visible without magnification.
makeup water Water added to a cooling water system or boiler system to
replace water losses caused by evaporation, drift, and
blowdown.
microbiological Organisms visible under magnification.
organism Any living thing or being.
precipitation The formation of insoluble salts from soluble salts due to a
chemical change.
raw water Water that has not been treated.
slime Insoluble organic matter of a viscous gelatinous
composition normally resulting from microbiological growth
that traps other suspended impurities in the cooling water.
suspended solids Insoluble matter in water larger than 0.45 microns in size.
turbidity A measurement of the clarity of water using light
transmission. It is normally expressed as nephlometric
turbidity units (NTU).

Overview of Water
ADDENDUM
References
1. DeWiest, Roger J. M., Geohydrology, Figure 2-1,

John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1965; Frank N. Kemmer,
Editor, McGraw Hill Book Company, 1988
2. Global Ecology Handbook, The, Figure 9-2,

Walter H. Corson, Editor, Beacon Press, 1990
3. The Nalco Water Handbook, Table 2.4,

Second Edition, Nalco Chemical Company, Frank N.
Kemmer, Editor, McGraw Hill Book Company, 1988
4. The Nalco Water Handbook, Figure 1.4,

Second Edition, Nalco Chemical Company, Frank N.
Kemmer, Editor, McGraw Hill Book Company, 1988
5. Perry’s Handbook, Figure 23-2, Sixth Edition;

Perry, Robert H. and Green, Don, Editors;
McGraw Hill Book Company, 1984
6. The Nalco Water Handbook, Table 35.1B & 35.2,

Second Edition, Nalco Chemical Company,
Frank N. Kemmer, Editor, McGraw Hill Book Company,
1988 newidth SD stroke}

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Engineering Encyclopedia

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Chapter : Corrosion For additional information on this subject, contact

SOURCES AND PROPERTIES OF WATER AVAILABLE TO SAUDI ARAMCO .......... 3

IMPURITIES IN WATER AND ASSOCIATED PROBLEMS ........................................... 8

WATER QUALITY REQUIREMENTS FOR PRIMARY USES

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards i

Process Water ........................................................................................ 24

Figure 1. Depiction of Water Solubility

Figure 2. Makeup Water Treatment Flow Plan............................................................ 21

Table 1. Classification of Water by Salt Content ........................................................... 4

Table 2. Typical Chemical Analysis of Seawater........................................................... 9

Table 3. Summary of Impurities and Treatments

Table 4. Water Quality Requirements for Cooling Water Systems.............................. 19

Table 5. World Health Organization Drinking Water Standards .................................. 23

Table 6. Specifications for Injection Water Produced

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards ii

SOURCES AND PROPERTIES OF WATER AVAILABLE TO SAUDI

Water is essential to life and to nearly every industrial activity.

There are two primary sources of natural water available to

Since large volumes of water are required for producing and

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 3

in the Arabian Gulf can be as high as 60 ppt (60,000 ppm).

Aquifers are another source of natural water for Saudi Aramco

Salinity Typical Total

Fresh water Less than 1,500

Brackish water 1,500 to 10,000

Brines Greater than 10,000

Seawater 35,000 to 60,000

Table 1. Classification of Water by Salt Content

The classifications shown in Table 1 are not firm definitions and

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 4

The many unique chemical and physical properties of water set

In the water molecule, the hydrogen atoms are always joined to

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 5

Figure 1. Depiction of Water Solubility

Since oppositely charged particles are attracted to each other

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 6

In part due to hydrogen bonding, water has a high freezing point

As stated earlier, water has the ability to absorb great quantities

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 7

IMPURITIES IN WATER AND ASSOCIATED PROBLEMS

Due to the polarity of water, its ability to form hydrogen bonds,

Impurities that are found in natural water can be categorized as

Additionally, pollutants that result from industrial, agricultural,

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 8

Generally, the impurities found in seawater and brackish well

Ions Symbol Seawater, Aquifer,

Sodium + 12,600 696

Calcium ++ 545 222

Sulfate - 3,260 418

Chloride - 22,800 1,280

Bicarbonate - 164 195

Silica (Si) 2.8 12.9

Boron (B) 8.2 0.72

Strontium (Sr) 9.6 5.5

Copper (Cu) <0.5 <0.5

Zinc (Zn) <0.5 0-11

Manganese (Mn) <0.5 <0.5

Barium (Pb) <0.5 <0.5

Lead (Pb) 0.76 <0.5

Total Dissolved (TDS) 41,000 2,890

Specific Gravity 1.0315 1.0024

Magnesium 50 150 − 125 −