Parental Acceptance, Self-concept and Depression among Pre-adolescents in Uganda

By

Ethel Wandeka

Reg No: 2015/HD03/2684U

Research Proposal Submitted to the School of Psychology in Partial Fulfillment

Of the Requirements for the Award of a Degree of Masters in

Clinical Psychology of Makerere University

June, 2019
 Table of Contents

Chapter one: Introduction................................................................................................................1

Background..........................................................................................................................1
Statement of the Problem.....................................................................................................4
Purpose................................................................................................................................5
Objectives............................................................................................................................5
Scope....................................................................................................................................5
Significance of the study.....................................................................................................6
Conceptual Framework........................................................................................................7

Section Two: Literature Review......................................................................................................8

Introduction..........................................................................................................................8
Theoretical Framework........................................................................................................8
Parental Acceptance and Self-Concept among Preadolescents.........................................10
Self-concept and Depression among preadolescents.........................................................12
Parental Acceptance and Depression among preadolescents............................................13
Hypotheses.........................................................................................................................17

Chapter Three: Research Methodology.........................................................................................18

Research Design................................................................................................................18
Population..........................................................................................................................18
Sample selection................................................................................................................18
Research Instruments.........................................................................................................18
Research Procedure...........................................................................................................18
Data Collection..................................................................................................................19
Data Quality Control..........................................................................................................19
Validity of the instruments................................................................................................19
Reliability of instruments..................................................................................................19
Data Management..............................................................................................................20
Data Analysis.....................................................................................................................20
Limitations.........................................................................................................................20

References......................................................................................................................................21

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 Chapter one: Introduction

Background

Depression among pre-adolescents is a serious mental health problem that causes a persistent

feeling of sadness and loss of interest in activities. It affects how teenagers think, feel and

behave, and it can cause emotional, functional and physical problems. The prevalence of major

depression among children aged 9 to 12 years has been estimated at 5 percent worldwide. In the

United States the prevalence has been shown to be as high as 8.3 percent. This is similar to

findings in European countries. In Kenya, depressive symptoms (not depressive diagnoses) have

been found to be as high as 43.7%6 with similar figures found in other studies across the globe.

Depressive disorders have been shown to occur in approximately 2% of primary school going

children, and between 4% to 8% of adolescents. Depressive episodes in childhood and

adolescence are recurrent and may persist into adulthood if the contributing factors remain

unchanged. Poor parental acceptance has been assessed to be a predictive factor for depression in

among pre-adolescents (Khasakhala et al, 2013).

Parental acceptance which means all series of acts of commission or omission by a parent or

other caregiver, in the context of a relationship of responsibility, trust or power given to a child

can potentially improve or harms a child’s psychological health, survival, development or

dignity. As a type of adverse childhood experience, parental acceptance can lead to the

development of psychiatric problems such as depression and anxiety, panic disorder, social

phobia, sleep disorders, suicide attempts, substance abuse. 52% of children who have depressive

symptoms and low academic self-conception experience low parental nurturance and warmth in

their childhood upbringing. Only 45% of working parents have time for their children. 30% of

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mothers provide warmth to their children. While 15% of fathers can have time to spend with

their children. Victims of poor parental acceptance during childhood are also at risk of increased

severity of psychological disorders which leads to low self-concept during pre-adolescence.

Parental acceptance / rejection rates remain at unacceptably high levels worldwide and pose

serious risks of behavioural problems and mental illness in pre-adolescents (Laible, 2017).

Self-concept which is as the individuals’ perception of their own characteristics and value may

be central to understanding development of psychological problems, psychological welbeing and

adjustment. These perceptions are often measured to be grounded in experiences during

childhood and pre-adolescence, and to influence thoughts and feelings in ways that maintain

psychological health or psychological problems. Global statistics based on the Self-Concept

Institute Survey, (2017) indicate that there are higher percentage of pre-adolescents had above

average self-concept in different dimensions temperamental (85%), intellectual (77.5%), physical

(60%) and social (52.5%). About 47.5 percent adolescents equally had high and above average

self-concept in education. And 57.5 percent of adolescents had high moral self-concept. This

may be attributed to the fact that adolescents have better perception regarding their

temperamental self. Low self-concept among pre-adolescents is an important indicator and

possible predictor for psychological health among pre-adolescents with potential to affect their

welbeing.

Depression in preadolescents has been linked to parental acceptance which is likely to

predictsatisfactory life of most preadolescents. Preadolescents who experience good parental

care, warmth and nurturance are expected to have good mental health are capable of attaining

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and sustaining an optimal psychological and social performance and well-being. Globally, 21%

of pre-adolescents experience depressive symptoms due to low parental warmth, 17% of pre-

adolescents experience depression due to poor guardian nurturance while 9% of pre-adolescents

experience depressive symptoms in exams due to low parental comfort. ...........emphasizes the

impact that this relationship has on mental health outcomes. These indicate the possibility of

preadolescents being prone to developing mood disorders such as depression and anxiety (Allen,

Porter, McFarland, McElhaney, & Marsh, 2007). On a more optimistic note, preadolescents with

positive parental acceptance have established and more acceptable social behavior such as being

kind, concerned and emotionally responsive, (Laible, 2017).

Low self-concept is the leading cause of depression which affects psychological welbeing of

preadolescents in both developed and developing countries. Depression among adolescents is

oftenly characterised by mood disorders which causes a persistent feeling of sadness and loss of

interest in handling their daily activities. Low self-concept is estimated to lead to 11% of pre-

adolescents who experience depressive symptoms results from temperamental indicators of self-

concept, 21% is a result of intellectual related outcomes while and 24% are caused by social

related outcomes of self-concept. Preadolescents who experience high self-concept are expected

to have good mental health and capable of attaining and sustaining an optimal psychological and

social performance and well-being(Kumar, J Vignesh Rita, S Thomas, Jolly 2013).

As Regards to depression, it is important to note that even with research findings low self

concept is a risk factor in the etiology of depressive disorders (Sowislo, Orth, & Meier, 2014;

Evraire & Dozois, 2011; Morley & Moran, 2011; O’Brien, Bartoletti, & Leitzel, 2006; Orth,

3
Robins, & Meier, 2009), the specific nature of the relation between low self concept and

depression has been a topic of continuing debate (Sowislo & Orth, 2013; Roberts & Monroe,

1999; Zeigler-Hill, 2011).

Statement of the Problem

Low self-concept that roots from parental acceptance is one of thethreats in the etiology of

depressive disorders among pre-adolescents (Sowislo, Orth & Meier, 2014). In Kamwokya

parish, most children have low levels of self-concepts which results into depressive symptoms

that leads to poor home and school performance. Almost 25% of pre-adolescents fear living in

their homes due to parental rejection and corporal punishment. 12% of pre-adolescents in school

cannot perform well due to parental rejection risks. 17% who are not studying sometimes fail to

relate with other peers and village mates due to fear of their guardians and parents. It is so scary

that this form of living may lead to increasing depression among pre-adolescents which might

distort their future career. Lincoln et al, (2014), asserts parental acceptance on the other hand

plays an important role in the mental health outcomes of preadolescents, if it is poorly managed

they are prone to feeling unworthy which may lead to depression (Laibel, 2017). Preadolescents

with positive parental acceptance portray more stable and social acceptablebehavior such as

being sympathetic and emotionally aware of themselves and significant others. The problem has

been existing since 2008 but few academic papers have been developed to document and address

the problem. This study will examine the relationship between self-concept, parental acceptance

and depression among preadolescents in Kamwokya Parish, Kampala, Uganda.

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Purpose

To establish the relationship between self concept, parental acceptance and depression

among preadolescents in Uganda.

Objectives

i) To establish the relationship between parental acceptance and self concept among

preadolescents

ii) To establish the relationship between self concept and depression among preadolescents

iii) To establish the relationship between parental acceptance and depression among

preadolescents.

Research hypothesis

i. There is no significant relationship between parental acceptance and self concept among

preadolescents

ii. There is no significant relationship between self concept and depression among

preadolescents

iii. There is no significant relationship between parental acceptance and depression among

preadolescents

Scope

The study will be carried out from Kampala district. The area is chosen because of the

presence of specific aspects in preadolescents that are of interest and beneficial to the research.

That is exposed, knowledgeable and informed preadolescents.

In content, the study shall focus on the relationship between self concept, parental

acceptance and, depression among preadolescents. The study shall last one year and will be

carried out in 2017, focusing on the period between 2010 and 2016.

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Parental acceptance is parents’ responsiveness to children’s’ needs for control.

Self concept refers to cognitive, social construction that develops throughout life and is shaped

by the set of characteristics that are consciously assumed by the individual.

Depression is a mood disorder that that causes a persistent feeling of sadness and loss of interest

in handling your daily activities.

Significance of the study

It is expected that the findings of the study will provide salient information that will be

useful to many people and institutions in various ways, like parents, academicians, counselors,

local communities, researchers and government on how to help preadolescents cope with or

overcome depression.

The findings will help enhance the counselors understanding of effects of parental

acceptance on preadolescents and thus improving their capacity to design appropriate

interventions.

The findings will also help as an uptake literature for social sciences and humanities

students on how to promote self concept in preadolescents which may have an impact on

parental acceptance in this group of children.

It will also improve on the aspect of parenting because today’s child is tomorrow’s parent

and break the cycle of re-current depression among preadolescents in the community.

The study will also be significant to the researcher as part of the requirements for the

award of Degree.

6
Conceptual Framework

Self-concept

Parental acceptance Depression

Figure 1: A conceptual framework for the relationship between self-concept, parental acceptance

and depression among preadolescents.

The framework shows that the independent variable (ID) is depression. The dependent variable

(DV) is the self concept. This study shall therefore hypothesize that parental acceptance among

preadolescents depends greatly on self concept which are influenced by depression.

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 Section Two: Literature Review

Introduction

This chapter comprises the arguments and opinions of the earlier authors which are related to

parental acceptance, self-concept and depression among pre-adolescents. Literature reviewed in

this section is obtained from different secondary sources and discussed in themes related to the

objectives of the study. The major themes of this section are; theoretical review, depression,

parental acceptance, self-concept, parental acceptance and self-concept, self-concept and

depression and parental acceptance and depression among pre-adolescents.

Theoretical Framework

The study will be guided by the Parental Acceptance Rejection (PAR) theory which was found

by Rohner in 1960. Parental acceptance rejection (PAR) theory predicts that parental rejection

has consistent negative effects on the psychological adjustment and on behavioral functioning of

both children and adults worldwide. Parental acceptance-rejection sometimes has significantly

greater impact than maternal acceptance-rejection on offspring’s psychological adjustment.

Maternal and especially paternal acceptance always make significant contributions to offspring’s

psychological adjustment, even after controlling for a variety of psychological as well as

demographic factors (Rohner, 1975).

Emotional support from parents positively relates to identity achievement during adolescence

investigated the relationship between parental unconditional positive regard and adult self-

concept and found higher parental unconditional positive regard was related to higher self-

concept in both adult men and women. Low care, overprotective parenting style has been found

8
to be harmful to children’s self-concept and low self-concept negatively impacts one’s

psychological wellbeing and overall life satisfaction. Amato found that emotional closeness to

parents significantly predicted offspring happiness and life satisfaction with both mother and

father making unique contributions to offspring happiness and life satisfaction.

Self-concept is a term in psychology to reflect a person’s overall evaluation or appraisal of his or

her own worth. Parenting, and in particular parental involvement and closeness to parents have

been investigated as predictors of later psychological outcomes which are likely to determine life

satisfaction.

A lack of parental emotional support is associated with increased levels of depressive symptoms

and chronic health problem in adulthood. Sato found that individuals who view their parents as

overprotective and less caring, and tended to have depressive disorders as adults.

Western individualistic societies have identified many factors with parental rejection as the

strongest predictors. In Uganda there is so far no deal with the possible relationship between

paternal rejection and offspring’s self-concept and depression, even though they are future

contributors to the nation. According to above reviews and objectives it was hypothesized that

parental rejection will be negatively correlated with self-concept and depression (Rohner, 2005).

The aim of the present study is to investigate the relation of parental acceptance, self-concept and

depression among pre-adolescents.

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Parental Acceptance and Self-Concept among Preadolescents

Tufail, Majeed & Khan, (2015) asserts that parental rejection creates low self-confidence about

themselves and whatever they do. This means that the rejected child tends to feel insecure while

taking even positive actions. From this psychologically painful early experience, the rejected

child develops a generalized negative world view. Children who have suffered emotional hurt

from parents - the most important people from whom they take their earliest cues about the

nature of the world are unlikely to develop a sense of trust and confidence in themselves and the

world around them.

Crockett, (2014) asserts that parents play an important and influential role in a child’s

development through providing emotional support as they interact with their offspring. This

interaction and related emotional relationship shape the child’s personality; thereby influencing

mental development. However, growing children may perceive parental behaviour as

maladaptive. Such perception of parenting behaviour as dysfunctional has long been viewed as

an important determinant of offspring psychopathology such as mood, anxiety, substance abuse

disorder and suicidal behaviour. This has also been found to be associated with lower self-

esteem, under-achievement and high psychological stress in children raised in such a

relationship. Suicidal behaviour as a psychosocial risk factor has been found to be closely linked

to dysfunctional or maladaptive parental behaviour in affected children (Khasakhala et al, 2013).

In support of the above, Thompson et al. (2014) asserts that children benefit when parents have

safe, stable and nurturing relationships. In contrast, children exposed to poor family relationships

and negative parenting behaviours are more likely to develop more internalizing and

10
externalizing problems. In China, traditional cultural norms lead to the tendency of parents to use

severe punishment, rejection, overprotection and other negative parenting practices, including

extreme behaviour in some cases, such as physical abuse. In addition, because of socioeconomic

factors, the number of ‘left-behind’ children (those aged < 18 years who have been left behind at

their original residences for ≥ 6 months while one or both parents migrate to other areas to work)

has increased annually. The lack of positive parenting had produced severe mental health issues

and social problems in affected youth in China.

Parenting practices has an influence onpre-adolescents’ behavioural and emotional problems

which is bidirectional. Parental maltreatment and its outcomes affect the development of

parenting attitudes and practices. For example, negative behaviours of a child exposed to

physical abuse (e.g. screaming, resistance, hyperactivity, aggression, withdrawal) will lead to

more perceived parental rejection and punishment. Tufail et al, (2015) argued that chronic

parental rejection should be considered a core aspect of childhood emotional

maltreatment.Fortunately, some interventional measures have been shown to have positive

effects on behavioural problems and mental disorders in children and adolescents. Behaviourally

oriented parenting programs and parent-child interaction therapy are known to effectively

increase parenting skills, change parenting styles, and decrease the occurrence and severity of

behavioural problems in children (van Harmelen, et al, 2014).

Support and control which are two key dimensions of parental behavior have a great effect on

psychosocial well-being among pre-adolescents. Parental support is often considered as a

unidimensional construct, including parenting behaviors such as warmth, nurturance, acceptance,

11
and responsiveness. Crockett et al, (2014) repeatedly suggests that high level of support was

associated with lower level of adolescent delinquent and aggressive behavior, lower levels of

depressive symptoms, higher self-esteem and better grades. Instead, they express their love and

support through their efforts to control and govern their youngsters. Interestingly, maternal

support, which is believed to promote children’s well-being in Western culture, has been found

related to more problem behavior among Chinese boys (Xia et al., 2014) and more relational

aggression among Chinese girls after controlling for other parenting variables (Li, Putallaz & Su,

2011).

Self-concept and Depression among preadolescents

The relation between depression and low self-esteem starts at very early ages. Depression

increases the negative emotional state and may lead to negative self-perception. A longitudinal

study by Soler, et al., (2013) indicates that an individual’s self-esteem does not show any

significant changes from adolescence to early adulthood. Willows, et al. (2013) claims that

global self-concept develops at very early ages and drops around age 11 and drops to the lowest

level at ages 12-13.

Stable self-concept is valuable in itself and seems to be strongly related to psychological

adjustment, happiness and welbeings ((Xiao et al., 2017).Maheswari & Julius, (2016) proposed

that self-concept seems to have two benefits, enhancing initiative and pleasant feelings. Thus

people with high self-esteem may be more prone to initiative interactions and relationships to

speak up in groups, and try harder in response to initial failure but they may also switch to

another strategy if the present seems unpromising. In addition, high self-concept seems to be

12
associated with high levels of happiness, and may also be associated with high levels of

resilience in the face of failure and stress, people with high self-esteem may be able to bounce

back faster than people with low self-concept.

Self-concept has been found to have a negative relationship with depression. Willows, et al.,

(2013) proposed that low self-concept may lead to high risks of depression among pre-

adolescents. Because depression is one the common diseases affecting pre-adolescents, almost

15 – 20% of adolescents report considerably high levels of depressive symptoms.

Parental Acceptance and Depression among preadolescents

Lincoln, (2014) asserts that authoritative parents are understanding but disciplined in child

development, on the other hand; authoritarian parents have a rigid, obedient, and insistent style

of discipline. Neglectful parents have inadequate interaction with their children and are

insensitive to their children’s needs. Indulgent parents are accepting, and support their children’s

autonomy. It is possible that authoritative, authoritarian, indulgent, and neglectful parenting

styles have different effects children’s emotions and behaviors. This effect may influence the

children’s everyday behaviors and even general life satisfaction. Satisfaction with life is

described as experiencing positive emotions more often and experiencing less negative emotions

and evaluating one’s life according to a criterion. High life satisfaction results in positive

experiences for an individual in a lot of ways. For instance, teenagers with high life satisfaction

may have consistent functionality and good mental health. Life satisfaction in children and

teenagers can be affected by various factors such as family, friendship, income, family

13
conformity and positive parental relations, family nonconformity and negative parental relations

(Levin, Dallago & Currie, 2012).

Crockett, (2014) found out that children’s depressive symptoms decreased when they received

positively increased emotional behavior from their mothers. While cordial parental behavior is

related to low levels of depression, hostile behavior could be related to high levels of depression.

Whereas, teenagers who have mothers that support autonomy, showed low depression symptoms

(Liem et al., 2010). In some situations, typical behavior patterns of the parents may affect the

children emotionally more than the parental behaviors. For instance, it is possible that the

children might also be depressed if there is a depressed parent in the household. In a related

study while both girls and boys showed depressive symptoms in a household with a depressed

mother, only girls showed signs of depressive symptoms with a depressed father (Chen,

Johnston, Sheeber, & Leve, 2009).

Regardless of age, children need parents. Indeed, across multiple studies, research according to

Nam, (2013) appears to show that the quality of the parent-pre-teen relationships is linked to a

wide range of positive outcomes, such as social competence and interaction, emotional well-

being and being well-adjusted with a corresponding decrease in problematic behavior such as

substance abuse, delinquency and sexual activity and is also related to positive teen behaviors

and academic outcomes. Therefore, parental involvement has been shown to be a very important

positive force in a child's life.

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One important factor which leads to depression among pre-adolescents is the parental rearing

practices, which encompass parenting attitudes, behaviours and values regarding the

development of children. As the family is the main setting for children’s socialisation, parents’

rearing behaviours are essential for the development of children’s behaviour. Several studies

have investigated the influence of parenting style on the behaviour of children and

adolescents. Negative parenting practices, such as parental rejection, are associated with the

development of internalizing symptoms in children. The mechanisms underlying this association

are not understood fully; one possible explanation is that perceived parental rejection delays the

development of attachment and renders a child unwilling to accept parental values and beliefs.

Some psychiatric research has associated parental rejection with aggression, depression and

anxiety symptoms in children (Xiao et al., 2017).

Jones, et al (2014) pointed out that the major human problems are violence, crime, child abuse,

spousal. The five major functions of family – economics-productive, educational, religious,

recreational and medical have been taken out of the home environment to other respective

institutions away from home. The newer family functions are closely connected with the

provision of affection, support and nurturance to family members. Feelings of affection among

family members are generated through their daily relationships, which are built up from the

interactions that take place as a whole in the family unit.

Kim, (2017) found out that all human beings have a profound generalized need for positive

response (love, approval, warmth, affection) from the people who are important to us. The bare

minimum care that human beings must have for physical survival is not enough for normal

15
psychosocial development. The need for positive response is probably rooted in man’s biological

and evolutionary development, and is reinforced in the experience of infantile instrumental

dependency. The absence or significant withdrawal of warmth and affection is sufficient to

produce massive and predictable consequences for personality functioning. Rejection inhibits or

distorts aspects of normal personality functioning, such as feelings of positive self-esteem and

self-adequacy. All of us tend to view ourselves as we imagine significant others view us, and if

parents rejected us as children, we are likely to define ourselves as unworthy of love and

therefore as unworthy and inadequate human beings. In this way, we develop a sense of overall

negative self-evaluation.

Kim, et al. (2012) assert that the kind of love parents can give or withhold from their children

along with the consequences of parental love, warmth, and affection (i.e., acceptance) are

profound and generally productive of positive social and emotional health. Rejection is a form of

parental behavior characterized by the absence or withdrawal of warmth and affection. Rejecting

parents often dislike, disapprove of, or resent their children. However, greater emphasis places

on the absence of significant withdrawal of parental love (i.e., rejection), because its effects are

more immediately and conspicuously apparent than the effects of parental acceptance. The

withdrawal or absence of love by itself seems to be sufficient to produce stark and often

profoundly damaging consequences for growing children as well as for adults who were rejected

as children.

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17
 Chapter Three: Research Methodology

This chapter will deal with the research design, sample size, population, research instruments,

and data management quality control, procedure and data analysis.

Research Design

The researcher will use a case study design and quantitative methods with the help of

questionnaires to collect data.

Population

The study will be carried out in central Kampala, from schools, churches, the general

community and mosques which are of Kampala district. Respondents will preadolescents.

Sample selection

The researcher will use 120 respondents. All preadolescents of ages between 11 and 13

years will be selected using the purposive sampling technique because it is convenient for the

researcher as she will be staying at home and walking to the research field. Therefore, transport

expenses will be minimized.

Research Instruments

The needed information will be obtained by using questionnaires which will be both open

and closed ended designed and administered to respondents.

Research Procedure

The researcher will obtain an introductory letter from Makerere University, school of

psychology. This letter will introduce me to the respondents and explain to the respondents how

to answer the questions. When all this is done, the researcher will agree with the respondents on

the time for the distribution of questionnaires and when to collect them. After completion, the

18
researcher will collect the filled questionnaires and computing will follow. As for observation,

the researcher herself will observe the preadolescents.

Data Collection

The researcher before going to the field will draft a proposal on the research topic “Self-

concept, Parental Acceptance and Depression among preadolescents.” A case Study of

preadolescents” which will guide her to compile the research report. Data will be collected by the

use of questionnaire techniques. The research investigation will involve obtaining information

from respondents.

Data Quality Control

This will involve maximizing the validity and reliability of instruments used and these will be

measured as follows;

Validity of the instruments

Validity is the extent to which the instruments used during the study measure the issues they are

intended to measure (Amin, 2005). The researcher will ensure the validity of the instruments by

developing questionnaires under close guidance of my supervisor and later test them on a tenth

of the respondents in the sample. This will help to identify ambiguous questions in the

instrument and then be able to align them to the objectives.

Reliability of instruments

Reliability is the measure of the degree to which instrument yields consistent results or data after

repeated results [cronbrach, 1953]. In this study quality control will be done by caring out a test

of the questionnaire on 10 respondents using Cronbrach’s Alpha coefficient.

19
Data Management

The research questionnaire will measure variables of self-concept, parental acceptance and

rejection and depression. The responses will be coded as: Strongly agree (SA) =1, Agree (A) =2,

Neutral (N)= 3; Disagree (D) =4, and Strongly disagree (SD) =5.

Data Analysis

In trying to analyze and interpret the raw data which will be collected, the researcher will first

rank all the ideas and information got according to the set objectives. After tallying them, the

researcher will use statistical percentages in tables and graphs to explain some of the information

given. Data will be analyzed by SPSS data analysis package. The results will be presented in

from of tables and graphs. For flexibility and to obtain factual information from these selected

respondents, the research will use questionnaire.

- Over confidentiality among the respondents

- There may be difficulty in getting information from the respondents because of fear to

open up due to the fact that to many, it may be their first time to meet with the researcher

- The researcher plans to clearly introduce herself to the respondents with a Letter of

introduction from the University.

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