2016 IEEE Systems and Information Engineering Design Conference (SIEDS '16)
Design of an Atmospheric Water Generator:
Harvesting Water Out of Thin Air
Kiara Pontious, Brad Weidner, Nima Guerin, Andrew Dates, Olga Pierrakos, and Karim Altaii
James Madison University, pontiokb, weidnebv, guerinnn, datesam (@dukes.jmu.edu), pierraox, altaiikx (@jmu.edu)
Abstract - Water scarcity affects 1.2 billion people on a
global scale, representing nearly one fifth of the human
population. In some regions, current water sources are
being depleted faster than they are renewed and the
majority of this depletion is being used for irrigation and
agricultural purposes. At any given time, the atmosphere
contains 3400 trillion gallons of water vapor, which
would be enough to cover the entire Earth in 1 inch of
water. Herein, we describe the design of an innovative
solution to water scarcity in regions with medium to high
humidity - Atmospheric Water Generators (AWG). This
device converts water vapor into liquid water and is
designed for agricultural and irrigation purposes in
regions where water scarcity exists. More specifically,
two AWG concepts were developed by our team, one
utilizing Peltier devices and the other a heat exchanger,
in order to allow multiple design alternatives to be
considered. The Peltier-based concept works by applying
current to induce a temperature gradient in order to cool
and condense the surrounding air. The heat exchanger
concept works by cycling a coolant that is cooled by a
lower ground temperature. Both AWG concepts were
designed utilizing sustainable engineering principles to
minimize energy consumption and cost (particularly
when compared to AWGs currently on the market). The
designs are estimated to create enough water daily to
grow 2 fruit trees (1 gallon a week) at an example test
condition of 60% relative humidity and 85°F.
Index Terms – Atmospheric Water Generators, phase
change, and water stress.
INTRODUCTION
Lack of water is a devastating issue on a global scale. Only
3% of the earth’s water is fresh and two-thirds of that is in
frozen glaciers or unobtainable [1]. Nearly 2.7 billion people
live with limited water access at least one month out of the
year as a result [1]. At current water consumption rates, it is
expected that two-thirds of the world population might face
water shortages by 2025 [1]. Water shortages are often due
to lack of humidity in the air (causing little rainfall) or
human activity that disrupts the water cycle. Figure 1 depicts
regions experiencing varying levels of water stress.
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FIGURE I
MAP ILLUSTRATING REGIONS EXPERIENCING WATER STRESS
(Image developed by Brad Weidner using ArcGIS software)
Some regions, which are experiencing high water stress,
are depleting current water sources faster than they are
renewed, and the majority of this depletion is being used for
agriculture. It is estimated that 70% of the world’s
freshwater is being used for irrigation purposes [2]. Regions
in Africa, the Middle East, and Asia are affected the most
severely; however regions as close as Midwest United States
experience water shortages annually [3]. In order to help
remedy the issue, an innovative solution must be
implemented to bring a sufficient amount of water to
susceptible areas. The resolution to this crisis helps address
one of the eight Millennium Developmental Goals (MDG)
developed by the United Nations during the Millennium
Summit in 2000. The MDG was created to help improve the
lives of people living in the poorest regions of the world. In
particular, this project focuses on goal 7, ensuring
environmental sustainability through the integration of
sustainable principles, to reverse loss of environmental
resources, and to reduce the proportion of people without
access to a sustainable water source [4]. The motivation to
help eradicate water scarcity around the world required a
renewable sustainable resource and the answer was found in
the atmosphere.
The atmosphere contains 3400 trillion gallons of water
vapor at any given time [5]. This replenishing resource
provides the sustainable and innovative solution needed to
help combat this global crisis through the development of a
device known as an atmospheric water generator (AWG).
This device converts water vapor into a usable liquid water
form. The AWG is designed for agricultural and irrigation
purposes in regions where water scarcity exists. Two AWG
concepts were designed, one utilizing Peltier devices and the
other a heat exchanger. The Peltier-based concept works by
applying current to induce a temperature gradient in order to
cool and condense the surrounding air. The heat exchanger
concept cycles a coolant that is cooled by a lower ground
temperature. The AWG concepts are implementing
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 2016 IEEE Systems and Information Engineering Design Conference (SIEDS '16)
sustainable engineering principles to reduce energy
consumption compared to AWGs currently on the market.
The prototyped designs are estimated to create enough water
daily to grow two fruit trees (one gallon a week) at an
example test condition of 60% relative humidity and 85°F.
The developed prototypes are meant to be scaled up for
higher water production for commercial use. The efficiency
of the device depends on the atmospheric conditions in the
area of implementation as well as the day to day fluctuations
in weather. The final design is a working prototype capable
of extracting moisture from the air and converting it into
usable, liquid water. The development of the AWG utilized
the engineering design process developed by Pahl and Beitz
which is explored in further detail throughout this paper [6].
BACKGROUND
For water vapor and liquid water to coexist at the same
atmospheric conditions, the partial pressure of the vapor has
to be equal to the pressure of the liquid molecules on the
surface of the water [7]. If the liquid water pressure is higher
than the water vapors partial pressure, then the liquid water
will begin to evaporate until the pressures are in equilibrium.
When the vapor’s partial pressures are higher than the liquid
water pressure, the vapor will begin to condense into liquid
water until the pressures are in equilibrium with one another.
The equilibrium point changes at different locations due to
factors such as temperature, specific volume, and pressure.
These dynamic factors directly affect the humidity of the air
in any region. For example, the air holds more moisture at a
higher temperature which affects the humidity level in the
area [8].
Many different methods are utilized to extract water
vapor from the atmosphere which is done by altering the
pressure, volume, or temperature to force condensation
within the system. The forced natural occurrence of
condensation is seen in many different types of devices that
are currently on the market. Air conditioners, refrigerators,
and dehumidifiers all integrate the process of condensation
of air into their design technology. There are also some
plants and animals, such as the Namibian Desert Beetle, that
condense water themselves using patterns of hydrophobic
and hydrophilic surfaces.
Atmospheric water generators (AWG) are devices that
extract water from humid air by reducing the temperature of
the air below its dew point. AWG water vapor extraction
utilizes passive methods (i.e. self-sustaining energy sources),
but requires a substantial amount of energy input to drive
some of its processes. There are companies such as
Skywater, Gr8water, and Airdrop Irrigation that have
developed AWG technology for either drinking or
agricultural purposes [9][10][11]. The company, Gr8water,
currently sells AWG’s for commercial and residential use.
Their commercial unit has the capability to generate 3,500
gallons of drinking water a day and the residential one can
generate 10 gallons of drinking water a day for the average
family [10]. The Skywater design is able to produce 1,135
liters of water per day while operating on 416 watts of power
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[12]. The Skywater technology uses an adiabatic distillation
process to generate the water which uses electrical current
that extracts the water from the air [12]. Airdrop Irrigation,
which is used specifically for agricultural purposes, runs on
solar and wind power that pumps the water extracted
through a semi-permeable hose to the roots of nearby plants
[11]. AWGs typically have a high market cost ranging from
$300 to $16,000 and require additional cost to use due to the
electrical power needed to operate [9][11]. The objectives of
the AWG being developed are to minimize energy
consumption while maximizing energy when compared to
other benchmarked devices and to provide a competitive
viable option for consumers.
SYSTEM REQUIREMENT
The investigation of existing AWGs and research conducted
utilizing the design process yielded system requirements,
which were used to facilitate concept generation. The system
requirements provided a metric designed to help establish
which components, sub-systems, and integrations between
sub-systems that must be created for the device to operate.
System Requirements were organized into the four pillars of
sustainability: Technical, Environmental, Economic, and
Social. The sections of the most pertinent requirements are
depicted in Table I as an example. System requirements will
be used to determine if the device will be deemed successful.
TABLE I
ATMOSPHERIC WATER GENERATOR SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS &
JUSTIFICATIONS
Technical Requirements
The atmosphere is a renewable resource
The device will be able to
that contains 3400 trillion gallons of water
condense water from the
atmospheric air.
[5]. If the air is cooled below the dew point
then water will condense.
Environmental Requirements
The device will be able to Humidity range is representative of areas
produce water in humidity that experience water stress as indicated in
between 52% - 100%. figure 1.
The device will produce EPA codes and standards of water used for
grey water that has a pH of purposes other than drinking (i.e.
5.5 – 10. irrigation)
The device should use self-sustaining
The device will use self- energy sources or use no energy at all in
sustaining energy sources. order for the device to be novel and to
promote sustainability.
Economic Requirements
The device will cost less
Budget allocated for project
than $1000.
Social Requirements
The device will minimize
Engineering Code of Ethics
the safety hazards.
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 2016 IEEE Systems and Information Engineering Design Conference (SIEDS '16)
CONCEPT DEVELOPMENT
Using the system requirements, concepts were generated
using multiple methods (e.g. Morphological Matrix, TRIZ
Method) to meet target specifications. Out of concept
generation, three main concepts emerged for evaluation. The
concepts developed centered around a chimney design as
shown in Figure II, but each design utilizes different
components to extract water. The generated concepts
consisted of a solar fan, heat exchanger and Peltier thermo-
electric coolers.
FIGURE II
BASIC CHIMNEY DESIGN
The solar fan chimney and heat exchanger concept
utilizes the natural cooler temperature underground to cool
flowing air below its dew point and force condensation. The
ground temperature provides a constant cooler passive
source to reduce the energy consumption of the design. Both
concepts use a solar fan to draw the air into an underground
tank. For the heat exchanger concept, the water will act as
the coolant flowing through the pipe that is being cooled by
the ground temperature as well. The Peltier concept consists
of a network of thermo-electric coolers powered by solar
panels that add to the cooling effect of the soil. Peltier
devices require an electrical power input that outputs a
temperature difference. The original concept of the Peltier
can be used either above or below ground.
The top three concepts, stated above, were evaluated
based on system requirements. Concepts had to satisfy
requirements such as cost restraints, safety, water
production, and ease of manufacturing the device. Computer
aided designs and preliminary calculations were utilized to
evaluate the concepts feasibility. Based on our selection
criteria our concepts were narrowed down to the Peltier and
heat exchanger designs for in depth modeling and
prototyping.
EMBODIMENT DESIGN
The proposed solution to combat this global water crisis has
led to the testing of two prototypes. The first concept uses a
cross flow heat exchanger placed a given distance below the
ground where the temperature remains about 55°F and uses a
variation on geothermal cooling to force condensation of the
water vapor from the ambient air. The heat exchanger cycles
a coolant that is cooled by the lower ground temperature
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using a solar powered pump (26.3Watts). Ambient air is
drawn down into a chamber containing the heat exchanger
using a solar powered fan (5.5 Watts). As the humid ambient
air passes over the chilled heat exchanger, the water vapor
will condense to its liquid form to be used for various
applications, such as agriculture.
The second concept uses a thermoelectric cooler, also
known as a Peltier Device to condense water vapor from the
ambient air. By applying an electrical current to the Peltier
device, a temperature gradient is formed where one side
decreases in temperature while the other increases. As humid
air passes over this device, the cold side of the Peltier device
(43°F and 22.2Watts) will cool the ambient air below its
respective saturation point thus condensing the water vapor.
This water can be used for the same applications as the heat
exchanger concept.
These prototypes are designed to operate within a dry-
bulb temperature range of 55 – 130 °F and a relative
humidity range between 52% – 100%. These operating
conditions are representative of environmental conditions
occurring in countries experiencing high water stress.
Mathematical models were used to determine the most
influential variables that would impact the quantity of
collected usable water. The models were also used to
calculate an expected quantity of water that could be
collected at various environmental conditions. Newton’s
First Law of Thermodynamics (equation 1) was used to
initially model both the heat exchanger concept and the
Peltier device [13]. Further modeling of the cross flow heat
exchanger concept utilized equation 2. The log mean
temperature difference (LMTD) method (equation 2) is used
to calculate the outlet temperature of the air after passing
over the heat exchanger. If the temperature was below the
dew point at the respective temperature and humidity, water
vapor would begin to condense.
To estimate the amount of water vapor from the air that
is actually being condensed, a psychrometric chart was used
to estimate the humidity ratios. By accounting for mass flow
rate of the air and the humidity, an estimate for the quantity
of water collected over time could be determined.
(1)
(2)
Equation one describes the conservation of mass when
looking at mass flow rate, enthalpy, kinetic energy, rate of
heat transfer, and the change in energy over time. Equation
two allows for the calculation of the outlet temperature of
both the ambient air and the coolant given initial temperature
variables.
Modeling of the Peltier concept primarily involved the
use of three equations: the rate of heat transfer equation,
convective heat transfer equation, and latent heat transfer
equation. These equations can be found in equations three,
four, and five, respectively.
(3)
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 2016 IEEE Systems and Information Engineering Design Conference (SIEDS '16)
(4)
(5)
Equation three uses the convective heat transfer
coefficient, the area of the cold side of the Peltier device,
and the temperature difference between the air and the
Peltier device to find the heat transfer from the Peltier
device. The convective heat transfer coefficient is calculated
using the Nusselt, Reynolds, and Prandtl numbers. Equation
five uses the specific heat of air, the mass flow rate of air,
and the temperature difference between the dew point
temperature and the ambient temperature to determine the
heat transfer required to bring the ambient temperature to the
dew point. Equation five uses the density of water, the
volume of water being condensed, and the latent heat of
vaporization of water to find the heat transfer required to
condense the desired volume of water.
The total heat transfer required for the condensation of a
volume of water from a given temperature and dew point is
given by the sum of equations four and five. Setting the sum
equal to equation three allows for the volume of water to be
condensed based on the power of the Peltier to be calculated.
The math modeling illustrated the impact humidity,
ambient air temperature, and flow rate can have on the
outgoing temperature of the air after passing over the heat
exchanger. These three variables became the focus for
physical prototyping. The model showed relationships
between variables that allowed for design alteration prior to
testing of the physical prototypes. For example, a small fan
was added to the hot side of the Peltier device to move the
hotter air away from the cold side of the device. This
decrease in temperature of the air due to the movement of
the hot air around the Peltier device will increase the
quantity of water expected to be collected during prototype
testing.
TESTING & REFINEMENT
To compare our theoretical math model results to actual
environmental conditions, a testing chamber (4’x4’x4’) was
built using 2” thick Owens Corning Foamular 150 thermal
insulation foam to house the two prototypes. A smaller
second mixing chamber was constructed from the same
material with a humidifier placed inside to create the desired
input air temperature and relative humidity conditions for a
specific trial. Six inch diameter ducts and an inline duct fan
was used to pull in the air from the mixing chamber through
each of the devices simultaneously. The chamber can be
seen in Figure III.
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FIGURE 3III
TESTING APPARATUS
Before testing begins, two refrigerators are used to cool
the testing chamber to the desired temperature of 55o F. The
humidifier is turned on 15 minutes before testing in order to
allow the air in the mixing chamber to rise to the desired
humidity level. Both devices are turned on at the same time
as the humidifier is allowed to cool to steady state
temperature. To start testing, a fan in the duct that connects
the mixing chamber to the testing chamber is turned on
pulling air from the mixing chamber to the inlets of each
device. Each trial lasts two hours. At the end of each trial,
the amount of water collected by each device is measured.
Six data loggers are used to measure temperature and
humidity data in different points of the testing environment.
One data logger is placed at each devices inlet and outlet,
and a fifth data logger is placed inside the testing chamber to
monitor the chambers conditions. The sixth data logger is
placed in the testing room, but away from the testing
chamber to measure ambient atmospheric conditions.
Information collected by the data loggers allows for a
comparison between how much water should be created
according to the mathematical models and how much water
was actually created.
The main goals of testing were to determine how well
each device met the system requirements, determine how
adjustments made to each device affected the devices water
producing capabilities, and to better understand the process
by which water is condensed from the atmosphere. Some
refinements were made to the devices in an attempt to create
a larger volume of water at the same atmospheric conditions.
The two major refinements that were made over the course
of testing were changing the orientation of the devices inside
the chamber and adding a fan to the hot side of the Peltier
device to remove hot air from the immediate area around the
Peltier. Changing orientations proved to be detrimental to
the creation of water, while adding the fan was beneficial.
Results from testing the most updated versions of the
prototypes can be seen in Table II.
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 2016 IEEE Systems and Information Engineering Design Conference (SIEDS '16)

TABLE II TABLE III

EXAMPLE TRIAL: AVERAGE TEMPERATURE, HUMIDITY, AND VOLUME OF COMPARISON OF BENCHMARKED PRODUCTS TO PROTOTYPES
WATER COLLECTED Water
Energy
Testing Time 2 Hours Generat
Consump Market Liters/k Liters/Dollar
Flow Rate 0.0088 m3/s ed
tion Cost W /Day
Device Peltier Heat Exchanger (Liters/d
(kW/day)
Inlet/Outlet Inlet Outlet Inlet Outlet ay)
Average Our
Temperature 79.6 76.2 73.5 71.1 AWG:
(F) (Heat .75 .6 $127* 1.25 .005906
Average Exchang
Humidity 69.6 62.5 89.4 90.2 er)
(%RH) Our
Water AWG: .21 .33 $57* .63636 .003684
Collected 10.2 82.4 (Peltier)
(mL) $100M
constructi
Desalina 100 on plus
The heat exchanger concept produced approximately 9,360,000 10.684 .997
tion Million $50,000-
eight times as much water as the Peltier concept. However, $300,000/
the conditions on the heat exchanger side were much closer day
Air Drop
to ideal than the Peltier concept considering the relative Irrigatio 1 0
Estimated Undefi
.00333
humidity was approximately 20% higher. The higher relative $300 ned
n
humidity indicates that more water was present on the heat Skywate
$16,000
exchanger side to be extracted than on the Peltier side. The 1,135 240 plus 4.729 .07
r
$30/day
Peltier concept also draws less power and is less expensive *Does not include variable digging costs
than the heat exchanger concept (see Table III in the
performance section). The relative humidity at the outlet of FUTURE WORK
the heat exchanger side is higher than at the inlet side, which
is likely due to measurement error because no water was Following the completion of the two year project, the team
added to the system. Further analysis on the concepts must will propose a recommendation about a fully functional and
be done to determine how well each device performs. manufactural design. The design being recommended would
have been pursued further given more allotted time. The
PERFORMANCE recommendation will involve a CAD drawing, cost analysis,
Failure Modes Effects Analysis (FMEA), Life Cycle
Based on the alpha testing results, the prototypes Assessment (LCA), and performance assessment. Future
performance was measured against other AWG's and current work will also include modifying each prototype to increase
methods of obtaining water for use. The current method of water output. Patterns of hydrophobic and hydrophilic
obtaining freshwater for agriculture is through desalination, surfaces may increase water output efficiency without the
which can be expensive and wasteful, costing up to 2 dollars need to increase the energy requirement. The effect of
per m3 of land to be watered [14]. Table III shows how the scaling up the designs is a more dramatic change, but could
alpha prototypes compare to desalination and 2 commercial increase the water output. The scaled model could have
AWG's. The values for market cost represent the cost for larger and more beneficial impacts on communities than the
construction and electricity and do not take into account current prototype.
other costs (such as land, insurance, and overhead). Both of
the alpha prototypes are small scale, most comparable to the ACKNOWLEDGMENT
airdrop AWG, where both of the alphas outperform airdrop
in terms of amount of water generated per dollar investment. Thanks to our other team members Jake Boles, Bryan
Since the airdrop is solar powered, it has no net energy Garrett, Alex Narrow, Sarah Rowe, and our advisors Dr.
consumption and is self-sustaining which makes it the top Olga Pierrakos and Karim Altaii for their contributions to
performer for water generated per KWH, a goal of the final this project. A special thanks to James Madison University,
design of both the heat exchanger and Peltier AWG's. JMU Engineering Department, and Dr. Adebayo Ogundipe,
Desalination is currently the top performer for water Dr. Christopher Martin, Zachary Murter, Dr. Justin
generated per market cost, however they take up large Henriques, and Dr. Elise Barrella, for the use of their
amounts of land and electricity, and are unsustainable. facilities, equipment, help, and support. We truly appreciate
When moving forward towards a final design, the team everything they have done for our capstone project.
has focused on improving the alpha prototypes to make them REFERENCES
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