Author's Accepted Manuscript

Effect of yaw Angle misalignment on brake

noise and brake time in a pad-on-disc-type
apparatus with unidirectional compliance for
pad support
Naohiro Kado, Naoya Sato, Chiharu Tadokoro,
Antonin Skarolek, Ken Nakano

www.elsevier.com/locate/triboint

PII: S0301-679X(14)00178-9
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.triboint.2014.04.033
Reference: JTRI3323

To appear in: Tribology International

Received date: 1 March 2014

Revised date: 27 April 2014
Accepted date: 28 April 2014

Cite this article as: Naohiro Kado, Naoya Sato, Chiharu Tadokoro, Antonin
Skarolek, Ken Nakano, Effect of yaw Angle misalignment on brake noise and
brake time in a pad-on-disc-type apparatus with unidirectional compliance
for pad support, Tribology International, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tri-
boint.2014.04.033

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 Kado et al. / Effect of yaw angle misalignment on brake noise and brake time / p. 1

Effect of yaw angle misalignment on brake noise and brake time in a pad-on-disc-type apparatus
with unidirectional compliance for pad support

Naohiro Kado a, Naoya Sato a, Chiharu Tadokoro a, Antonin Skarolek b, Ken Nakano a,*

a
Faculty of Environment and Information Sciences, Yokohama National University,
79-7 Tokiwadai, Hodogaya, Yokohama 240-8501, Japan
b
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Technical University of Liberec,
Studentská 1402/2, 461 17 Liberec I, Czech Republic
*
E-mail: nakano@ynu.ac.jp

Abstract

A pad-on-disc-type brake apparatus was constructed based on a theoretical principle for suppressing frictional

vibration. The pad for this apparatus was supported by parallel leaf springs with a unidirectional compliance. Braking
tests were conducted using the apparatus under a constant normal load. It has been found that a yaw angle
misalignment between the directions of the pad and disc motions provides a positive damping to suppress the frictional

vibration and brake noise. In addition, it has been also found that when an appropriate misalignment angle is selected,
a low-noise performance and a good braking performance can be achieved simultaneously.

Keywords: disc brakes, frictional vibration, low-noise performance, braking performance

Nomenclature

c1 damping coefficient due to F'(V)

c2 damping coefficient due to φ
F(V) frictional force when Vrel = V

F(Vrel) frictional force (function of Vrel)

J moment of inertia of whole rotor
k stiffness of pad support in ξ-axis direction

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Lp overall sound pressure level of brake noise

m mass of pad
p sound pressure of brake noise

P energy consumption rate

R radius position of contact
t time
Tb brake time
V circumferential velocity of disc
Vrel relative velocity between pad and disc
W normal load
x, y, z axes of coordinate system based on disc velocity direction
αξ, αη pad accelerations in ξ- and η-axis directions, respectively

Δt time window
ΔΩ change in angular velocity of disc
θ direction of Vrel and F from ξ axis

μk(V) kinetic friction coefficient when Vrel = V

μk(Vrel) kinetic friction coefficient (function of Vrel)
μkeff(V) effective kinetic friction coefficient (function of V)

ξ, η, ζ axis of coordinate system based on pad support direction

φ constant direction of ξ axis from V: “misalignment angle”
φcr critical misalignment angle

Ω disc angular velocity

(•) derivative with respect to t
(' ) derivative with respect to Vrel
(–) time average

1. Introduction

Brake noise is one of the classical problems for brake systems. When brake noise occurs in an automobile, the
passengers feel uncomfortable. Therefore, it has long been thought to decrease the commercial value of an automobile,
and has been an important problem requiring a solution. It is obvious that brake noise is strongly related to frictional

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vibration because brake systems are typical sliding systems. For example, Hervé et al. [1] classified the causes of the
frictional vibration into four independent mechanisms: stick-slip, velocity-weakening friction, sprag-slip, and
mode-coupling instability. Each of these mechanisms can cause frictional vibration in brake systems leading to brake

noise, and many researchers have pointed out the relationships between brake noise and these mechanisms of frictional
vibration [2–16].
A variety of methods to eliminate brake noise have been proposed from the viewpoints of the materials in
contact [12–14,17–20] and structural design [3–5,7,9,21–24]. For example, from the viewpoints of the materials in
contact, Jang et al. [12,13] and Park et al. [14] proposed a method to modify the velocity-weakening friction in brake
systems by changing the composition of the materials used in brake pads. Meanwhile, from the viewpoint of structural
design, Triches Jr et al. [23] showed that attaching an additional damping mechanism, which consisted of a sandwich
of two steel plates separated by a viscoelastic or rubber core, to a pad backplate could effectively suppress the brake
noise when the frequency characteristics of the damper were carefully adjusted to the brake noise frequency. In theory,

additional damping is the most useful method for suppressing frictional vibration. However, only a few damping
methods are applicable to brake systems because the space for adding damping materials is quite limited.
Recently, from the viewpoint of structural design, Nakano et al. [25] proposed a novel method to use positive

damping provided by a “yaw angle misalignment” between the directions of the pad and disc motions in disc brake
systems, which suppresses the frictional vibration caused by the velocity-weakening friction. The principle was shown
theoretically and then its basic applicability to disc brake systems was demonstrated in numerical simulations. This
method is based on the principle proposed by Kado et al. [26] for anti-vibration tribotesting, the effectiveness of which
has been demonstrated experimentally in frictional force measurements by using their anti-vibration tribometer.
Based on the above, this study experimentally examined the method proposed by Nakano et al. [25]. Section 2

briefly describes the principle for the method. It is theoretically shown that an angular misalignment provides positive
damping to suppress the frictional vibration induced by the velocity-weakening friction. Section 3 describes the
pad-on-disc-type brake apparatus with angular misalignment. Parallel leaf springs are used to make a unidirectional

compliance for supporting the pad. Section 4 discusses the experimental results of braking tests using the apparatus. It
is shown that when the misalignment angle is 30°–45°, the pad vibration and brake noise are minimized. In addition, it
is shown that when they are minimized by angular misalignment, the brake time is also minimized.

2. Principle

Fig. 1 shows a model that describes the principle for suppressing frictional vibration in disc brake systems
proposed by Nakano et al. [25]. The x axis shows the direction of the disc velocity at the contact between a pad and a

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disc. The ξ and η axes show the principal axes of the stiffness for supporting the pad, where the stiffness in the ξ-axis
direction is the smallest among the three principal stiffnesses, and it is assumed for simplicity that the pad moves only
in the ξ-axis direction. The angle between the x and ξ axes is the misalignment angle denoted by φ.

The equation of motion of the pad is written as

(1)

where ξ and m are the displacement and mass of the pad, respectively; k is the supporting stiffness in the ξ-axis
direction; F(Vrel) is the frictional force acting on the pad as a function of the relative velocity Vrel; θ is the direction of

the frictional force from the ξ axis; and (•) is the derivative with respect to the time t. Note that the direction of the
frictional force corresponds to that of the relative velocity. From the velocity triangle consisting of the disc velocity V,
pad velocity , and relative velocity Vrel, we obtain

(2)

(3)

Letting R and Ω be the radius position of the contact and the angular velocity of the disc, respectively, we obtain

(4)

Eq. (3) shows that if the pad velocity is changed, the direction of the frictional force is changed autonomously.
Linearizing these equations around Vrel = V, we obtain

(5)

The two coefficients, c1 and c2, in the second term on the left-hand side of this equation are the effective damping

coefficients arising from the frictional force, defined as

(6)

(7)

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where F'(V) is the slope of the function F = F(Vrel) at Vrel = V.

When the slope F'(V) is negative, c1 is also negative, which gives a negative damping that causes frictional
vibration. Meanwhile, the additional coefficient c2 is always positive, which gives a positive damping that suppresses

frictional vibration. Therefore, in this model, even if F'(V) is negative, we find that frictional vibration does not occur
when the misalignment angle φ is larger than the critical misalignment angle φcr, i.e.,

(8)

where μk(V) is the kinetic friction coefficient at Vrel = V. It should be noted that this stability condition does not depend

on the normal load, which is an advantageous characteristic for the application to disc brake systems, in which the
normal load varies over time.
It should be stressed that the stabilization effect described above is provided by instantaneous change in the

frictional force direction θ, under the presence of the yaw angle misalignment φ, which occurs according to Eq. (3) as
a function of the pad velocity . Considering that the change in the frictional force direction is inevitable in
two-degree-of-freedom sliding systems, the stabilization effect might have been underlying in everywhere.

3. Experimental details

3.1. Apparatus

Fig. 2 shows a photograph and schematic diagram of the pad-on-disc-type brake apparatus that embodies the
model of Fig. 1. This apparatus employs a plane contact between a gray cast iron disc (diameter: 250 mm, thickness: 10
mm, and arithmetic mean roughness: 2.5 μm) and a phenol resin pad (Young’s modulus: 5 GPa, diameter: 20 mm, and
thickness: 5 mm). The disc is connected to a flywheel through a main shaft mounted in a bearing unit so that the disc

rotates freely around the shaft, where the moment of inertia of the whole rotor is J = 0.70 kg•m2. A rotary encoder
connected to the shaft by a timing belt measures the disc angular velocity Ω. Meanwhile, the pad is supported by
phosphor-bronze parallel leaf springs mounted on a z-axis linear guide. The position of the pad is R = 75 mm below
from the rotational center of the disc. A coil spring and a jack are placed in series behind the parallel leaf springs to
apply the normal load W to the contact by using the spring force of the coil spring. A load cell placed in series behind
the jack measures the normal load. To measure the sound pressure p of the brake noise, a microphone is mounted on the
extended line of the rotational axis at a distance of 100 mm from the disc.
Fig. 3 shows the detailed structure around the pad. The xy plane is parallel to the disc surface, and the x axis

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corresponds to the direction of the disc velocity V at the contact between the pad and the disc. The ξ and η axes show
the principal axes of the parallel leaf springs. The length, width, and thickness of the exposed part of a leaf spring are
20 mm, 60 mm, and 0.6 mm, respectively; and the distance between the two leaf springs is 40 mm. Therefore, the

stiffness of the parallel leaf springs in the ξ-axis direction (k = 210 kN/m) is the smallest among the three principal
stiffnesses. The angle between the x and ξ axes is the misalignment angle φ. In this figure, three configurations for φ =
0°, 45°, and 90° are shown as examples. An acceleration sensor is mounted behind the pad for measuring the pad
accelerations in the ξ- and η-axis directions, which are denoted by αξ and αη, respectively.

3.2. Procedure

Using the pad-on-disc-type brake apparatus, braking tests were conducted as follows. First, after cleaning the
surfaces of the pad and disc using ethanol, the running-in procedure was carried out at φ = 0°, W = 100 N, and V ~ 1 m/s
by rotating the disc manually until the brake noise remained stable. Then, after setting φ under a non-contact condition,
W = 100 N was applied again. Finally, the disc was rotated up to Ω = 200 rpm manually. Then, during the free rotation
of the disc, the temporal changes in the disc angular velocity (Ω), pad accelerations (αξ and αη), and sound pressure (p)

were measured, at a sampling rate of 40 kHz, by using the rotary encoder, acceleration sensor, and microphone,
respectively, until the disc was stopped completely by the frictional force between the pad and the disc. The braking
test described above was conducted three times at values of φ ranging from 0° to 90°. All the tests were conducted at an

ambient temperature of 25°C and a relative humidity of approximately 20%.

4. Results and discussion

4.1. Disc angular velocity

Fig. 4 shows typical experimental results for the temporal changes in Ω, αξ, αη, and p when φ = 0°, 30°, 60° and
90°, where the results for the 5-s period after Ω = 180 rpm are shown.
Focusing on the top row of Fig. 4, the disc angular velocities appear to decrease linearly in time from Ω = 180
rpm to 0 rpm. Observing these carefully, however, we find that they are slightly convex upward. Considering that the
magnitude of the negative slope of the function Ω(t) is proportional to the magnitude of the frictional force, the convex
shapes indicate that the frictional force between the pad and the disc has a velocity-weakening characteristic that
causes frictional vibration. In fact, using the temporal changes in Ω shown in Fig. 4, we obtain the effective kinetic
friction coefficient μkeff as a function of the disc velocity V, as shown in Fig. 5. To obtain this figure, the instantaneous

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values of μkeff are calculated by

(9)

and then they are plotted against the instantaneous values of V = RΩ, where P and ΔΩ in Eq. (9) are the mean energy
consumption rate by the frictional force and change in Ω in a time window Δt (= 0.25 s for Fig. 5), respectively. We find
negative slopes for the function μkeff(V) for all φ in the first-order approximation, indicating the velocity-weakening
characteristic. In addition, we find significant differences in μkeff(V) for different φ, leading to a change in the brake
time Tb. Among these, the highest value of μkeff(V) is found when φ = 30°, leading to the shortest brake time Tb = 3.30 s.

Considering that the frictional vibration is suppressed when φ = 30° as shown in the second row of Fig. 4, the
results on the magnitude of μkeff(V) shown in Fig. 5 are consistent with those of the experiments by Kado et al. [26], in
which they measured the kinetic frictional force using their anti-vibration tribometer and found that the magnitude of

μkeff(V) is increased by suppressing the frictional vibration. The difference between μk(V) and μkeff(V) depends on the
frictional property (i.e., μk(Vrel)), mechanical properties (i.e., m and k), and operating conditions (i.e., W and V), which
is induced not only by instantaneous change in the relative velocity magnitude Vrel, but also by instantaneous change in

the frictional force direction θ, under the presence of even a slight yaw angle misalignment φ ~ 0° [27]. For example,
for a steel-steel point contact lubricated by glycerol in the anti-vibration tribometer, at most 40% decrease in μkeff(V)
due to frictional vibration has been confirmed [26,27].

4.2. Pad accelerations and sound pressure

From the second and third rows of Fig. 4, we find the effect of the angular misalignment on the pad vibration.
When φ = 0°, we find vibrations in the ξ-axis direction during the brake time, whereas in the η-axis direction, we just
find vibrations with a fairly small amplitude. When φ = 30°, the vibration in the ξ-axis direction seems to disappear, but
when φ = 60° and 90°, vibrations with large amplitudes appear in both directions. Note that when φ = 0° and 90°, the
amplitude of the vibration in the disc velocity direction (i.e., the x-axis direction) is larger than that in the perpendicular
direction (i.e., the y-axis direction). In addition, from the bottom row of Fig. 4, we find brake noise for φ = 0°, 60° and

90°, but when φ = 30°, the brake noise seems to disappear.

It is noted that these vibrations and noises are convergent just before the disc stops, which can be partly because
of the positive damping effect originated from the positive slope in the kinetic friction coefficient shown in a low

velocity range in Fig. 5. Another possible reason is change in the positive damping coefficient c2, which is, as Eq. (7)
shows, increased with decreasing V, especially in a low velocity range.

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Fig. 6 shows the mean spectra of the brake noise based on the sound pressure level (SPL) calculated from p(t)
for t < 3 s for three measurements. The vertical broken lines show the natural frequencies obtained experimentally
when the pad unit or disc is hammered independently under a non-contact condition. The abbreviations for the natural

frequencies are as follows: PTξ (110 Hz) is the translational motion of the pad in the ξ-axis direction; PRξ (1340 Hz and
2380 Hz), PRη (4900 Hz), and PRζ (1860 Hz) are the rotational motions of the pad about the ξ-, η-, and ζ-axis directions,
respectively; and Dij (D20: 840 Hz, D30: 1760 Hz, and D40: 3050 Hz) is the out-of-plane motion of the disc with i nodal

lines and j nodal circles, where the modes of the pad motions were detected by using the phase difference between the
signals from two acceleration sensors mounted on the pad holder, and the modes of the disc motions were detected by
using the phase difference between the signals from two microphones mounted close to the disc surface.
When φ = 0°, the dominant components of the brake noise were PTξ (110 Hz) and its harmonics (220 Hz and 330
Hz). It is believed that the velocity-weakening friction confirmed in Fig. 5 caused the dominant components.
Meanwhile, from the spectrum for φ = 30°, we find that applying the angular misalignment eliminates the dominant
components down to the background noise level. Therefore, we can conclude that this is a suppression effect of the
angular misalignment because the principle stated in Section 2 requires the pad motion in the ξ-axis direction, which
provides a positive damping using the change in the direction of the frictional force. However, when φ = 60° and 90°,
several other dominant components appeared, e.g., those close to D20 (840 Hz), D30 (1760 Hz), and D40 (3050 Hz).
These were probably caused by a different mechanism for frictional vibration, i.e., the mode-coupling instability. At
present, we have no theoretical background to show that the angular misalignment suppresses the frictional vibration
induced by the mode-coupling instability. However, the dominant component close to D20 appeared to be minimized at
φ = 30°.
It should be noted that based on the structures of actual disc brake systems, the result when φ = 90° in this
apparatus can be regarded as the baseline for estimating the effect of yaw angle misalignment because the pad support
in actual systems is closer to that when φ = 90° than that when φ = 0°. From this viewpoint, the experimental results
show a possibility that a pad setting with a yaw angle misalignment suppresses the squeal noises originated form disc

vibrations in actual systems. It should be also noted that the various types of vibrations observed here are not always
linear and thus nonlinear effects between them can determine the final noise levels.

4.3. Brake noise and brake time

Fig. 7 shows the effects of the misalignment angle (φ) on the overall SPL of the brake noise (Lp) and brake time

(Tb). The plots represent the mean values of three experiments conducted for each φ, and the error bars represent their
standard deviations. The upper graph shows that Lp decreases from 110.4 dB with increasing φ from 0°, with a

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minimum of 105.6 dB when φ = 30°. Then, it increases to the maximum of 139.3 dB when φ = 75°, and when φ = 90°,
it has a value of 129.9 dB, which is close to the value for φ = 60°. This means that when φ = 30°, Lp is 5 dB less than that
for φ = 0° and 24 dB less than that for φ = 90°. Meanwhile, the lower graph shows that Tb decreases from the maximum

of 3.68 s with increasing φ from 0°, with a minimum of 3.24 s for φ = 45°. Then, it increases to 3.62 s when φ = 75°, and
when φ = 90°, it has a value of 3.46 s, which is close to the value for φ = 60°. This means that when φ = 45°, Tb is 12%
less than that for φ = 0° and 6% less than that for φ = 90°.
Consequently, we obtain the graph of Fig. 8 showing the relationship between Lp and Tb when the angular
misalignment is changed from 0° to 90°, where all the measured values are shown in this graph without averaging.
Note that a small Lp means a good low-noise performance, and a small Tb means a good braking performance. This

figure shows that both performances can be maximized when φ = 30°–45° in the pad-on-disc-type brake apparatus. Its
theoretical generalization is expected in future studies.
Finally, it should be noted that experimental results qualitatively consistent with those shown in this paper have

also been obtained when W = 50 N, which supports the conclusion that the proposed method using the positive
damping provided by the angular misalignment is insensitive to a change in the normal load, although in theory, the
suppression performance of additional dampers depends on the normal load [25].

5. Conclusions

Based on a theoretical principle for suppressing the frictional vibration from the viewpoint of structural design,
a pad-on-disc-type brake apparatus was constructed, the pad of which was supported by parallel leaf springs having a
unidirectional compliance. In braking tests using the apparatus, the following conclusions were confirmed.
(1) The yaw angle misalignment between the directions of the pad and disc motions provides positive damping to
suppress the frictional vibration caused by the velocity-weakening friction. This eliminates the corresponding
frequency component and its harmonic components included in the brake noise.
(2) The appropriate misalignment angle to minimize the frictional vibration and brake noise is approximately
30°–45°. When the appropriate angle is used, the effective kinetic friction coefficient is maximized, and thus a
good low-noise performance can be achieved with a good braking performance.

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Fig. 1. Theoretical model of disc brake system with yaw angle misalignment; φ: misalignment angle.

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Fig. 2. Pad-on-disc-type brake apparatus.

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Fig. 3. Configurations of pad unit for φ = 0°, 45°, and 90°.

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Fig. 4. Temporal changes in disc angular velocity (Ω), pad accelerations (αξ and αη), and sound pressure (p) for φ = 0°,
30°, 60°, and 90° at W = 100 N.

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Fig. 5. Effective kinetic friction coefficient (μkeff) versus disc velocity (V) plot obtained from temporal change in disc

angular velocity (Ω) in Fig. 4 for φ = 0°, 30°, 60°, and 90° at W = 100 N; solid line: fitted linear function using least
square method.

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Fig. 6. Mean spectra of brake noise for φ = 0°, 30°, 60°, and 90° at W = 100 N; PTξ: translational motion of pad in
ξ-axis direction; PRξ, PRη, and PRζ: rotational motions of pad about ξ-, η-, and ζ-axis directions, respectively; and Dij:

out-of-plane motion of disc with i nodal lines and j nodal circles.

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Fig. 7. Effects of angular misalignment on brake noise (Lp) and brake time (Tb) at W = 100 N; symbols and error bars:
mean values and standard deviations of three measurements, respectively.

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 Kado et al. / Effect of yaw angle misalignment on brake noise and brake time / p. 19

Fig. 8. Relationship between brake noise (Lp) and brake time (Tb) for φ = 0°–90° at W = 100 N.

Highlights

• Braking tests were conducted using a novel pad-on-disc-type brake apparatus.

• The apparatus uses a “misalignment angle” to suppress the frictional vibration.
• When we choose an appropriate misalignment angle, the brake noise is minimized.
• When the brake noise is minimized, the brake time is also minimized.
• Thus a good low-noise performance is achieved with a good braking performance.

Submitted to Tribology International (R2)