KATHMANDU UNIVERSITY

School of Engineering
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Dhulikhel, Kavrepalanchok

MEEG 318: Machine Element Design & Processes II

Assignment: Summary on Brake Design Analysis

Submitted to
Dr. Ranjit Shrestha
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Kathmandu University

Submitted by
Balkrishna Chaudhary
Exam Roll No.: 32155
Mechanical Engineering (Hydropower)

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Introduction:

Braking system is a system that provides braking force (friction) against a rotor of roadwheel to
slow or stop the moving vehicles. The friction material stators are pressed and generates breaking
torque, which is transmitted to vehicle structure. The kinetic energy of the vehicle’s motion is
converted into heat by the process of friction, and a key part of the brake design process is that this
heat must be effectively and efficiently dissipated by the brake components to avoid problems of
overheating.

In common use, generally there are two types of friction brakes: Disk brakes and Drum brakes.
Disc brakes are mounted on front wheels and Drum brakes are mounted on rear wheels. In some
modern high-end cars have Disc brakes on all four wheels. The drum brake uses an expanding
hydraulic cylinder to press the frictional material against the inside of a rotating drum and cause
slow breaking. A disc brake uses a clamp called calipers to hold the friction pads against the
rotor disc and cause fast or instant breaking.

Disk brake:

The modern automotive disc brake is an ‘open’ type of ‘spot’ disc brake, i.e. the friction surfaces
are not enclosed for protection. A disc attached to the wheel hub is rotor, while the stator which is
attached to the axle or suspension (e.g. the steering knuckle), consists of two opposing brake pads
that are held in a ‘caliper’ and clamped against the disc by the actuation forces. The friction force
generated is usually considered to be directly proportional to the actuation force applied. This
means that greater actuation force is required to deliver a particular brake torque output from a
disc brake compared with a drum brake.

Torque Generated by a Disc Brake:

A Disk brake illustrated in below figure shows an idealised sector-shaped brake pad in contact
with one side of the friction ring of a brake disc superimposed on a photograph of an actual brake
disc and pad. As the disc rotates its surface sweeps under the stationary disc brake pad and the
‘swept area’, ‘rubbing path’ or ‘friction surface area’ of the disc is calculated from the outer and
inner radii (ri and ri respectively), which bound the swept area. This part of the disc is often termed
the ‘friction ring’, and the part of the disc that connects the friction ring to the wheel hub is often
termed the ‘hat’ or ‘top hat’ section.

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 Figure: Disc Brake Showing the Pad as a Sector on the Rubbing Path [1]

For a standard design of automotive disc brake comprising one caliper and two pads the torque
sw generated by the brake is:

τw = μ(NC1 + NC2 ) re (1)

where,
μ = coefficient of (hiding friction) ,
r0 + ri
r e = rm = ( ) = effective ratio
2
Nc1 and Nc2 are the inner and outer pad clamp forces respectively. Assuming that Nc1 = Nc2 =
Nc:

Then,

𝜏𝑤 = 𝜇. 2𝑁𝐶 𝑟𝑒 (2)
It makes no difference whether the caliper is fixed or sliding; both types apply the same force to
each pad, neglecting frictional losses in the sliding mechanism of a sliding caliper. The classical
definition of brake factor (BF) is the ratio of the total friction drag force generated by the brake
stators to the total actuation force applied to the brake stators, which for the disc brake would be:

𝐵𝐹 = τw 𝑟𝑒 2𝑁𝐶 = 𝜇 (3)

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From Equations 3 it can be seen that the brake factor of a disc brake is equal to the coefficient of
friction between the pad and the disc. However, for ease of comparison between different types
of brake and actuation associated with the definition of parameters in common usage such as
internal and external ratio and ɳC*, which are explained later, disc brake factor is now usually
quoted as BF=2𝜇.

τw (4)
Brake factor = = 2μ
NC re
(5)
τw = BF(NC re )
For a hydraulically actuated disc brake, the actuation force Pa applied to a single pad back plate
is:

Pa = (P − Pt )Aa η (6)
where,
Aa is total actuation area of the hydraulic pisto(s)actuating the pad (m2 )
P is actuation hydraulic line pressure (mPa )
Pt is the threshold pressure (mPa )
η is the efficiency of the hydraulic actuation system.

So assuming for now (discussed later) that the pad actuation force (𝑃𝑎𝑖 ) is the same as the clamp
force at the pad/disc interface (𝑁𝑐𝑖 ), combining Equations (2) and (6) gives the wheel brake
torque (τw ):

τw = 2𝜇(𝑃 − 𝑃𝑡 )𝐴𝑎 𝜂𝑟𝑒 (7)

τw = 𝐵𝐹 (𝑃 − 𝑃𝑡 )𝐴𝑎 𝜂𝑟𝑒 (8)
If the axle is fitted with two brakes, each having one caliper with two pads, the axle has a total of
four pads contributing to the braking torque, so the axle braking torque is:

τaxle = 4𝜇 (𝑃 − 𝑃𝑡 )𝐴𝑎 𝜂𝑟𝑒 (9)

Friction Interface Contact and Pressure Distribution in Disc Brakes:

The actuation force applied to the disc pad backplate is reacted by the distribution of clamp force
over the pad/disc contact interface, which is usually termed the ‘interface pressure distribution’,

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and depends upon the flexural characteristics of the pad assembly: friction material thickness and
compressive modulus; backplate thickness and Young’s modulus; shape and size; and the way
the actuation force is applied to the backplate. The initial contact between the pad friction surface
and the disc, which is governed by factors including the geometric conformity between the pad
and the disc, determined by pad wear, disc distortion and actuation compliance.

Figure: Disc Brake Pad Showing Deformation Under Actuation Force (Tirovic and Day,
1991). [1]

The above figure illustrates how the pad compresses and deforms; clearly, if the backplate were
infinitely stiff the friction material would compress uniformly and the friction interface pressure
distribution would be uniform.

The brake torque generated by a disc brake depends upon the position of the centre of pressure
(CoP) between the pad and the disc at the friction interface relative to the disc rotational axis; if it
sits outside the mean radius the brake torque is increased, and if it sits inside it is decreased.
Friction material wear is one of the factors that influences the friction interface pressure
distribution and thus the radial and circumferential position of the centre of pressure of a disc brake
pad.

When a brake pad is new (assuming the disc does not deflect or deform, i.e. the clamp force on
each face is equal and opposite and there are no mechanical or thermal deformations), the brake
actuation may be designed so that the centre of pressure sits at the mean radius. The linear or
sliding speed (𝜇𝑟) increases as the radius r increases, and since friction material wear is
proportional to linear sliding speed and pressure, and temperature above a certain ‘threshold’
temperature (see Chapter 2), the work rate (=𝜇𝑝𝑣) is higher towards the outer edge of the brake
pad so the interface temperature and the wear rate will be higher than at the inner edge.

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Generally, despite the best efforts of brake designers, some radial wear variation of the friction
material at the friction interface always occurs. In this state of operation, related the effective radius
(𝑟𝑒 ) to the mean radius (𝑟𝑚 ) and showed that the torque generated by a disc brake is:

𝜏𝑤 = 2𝜇𝑁𝐾1 𝑟𝑚 (10)
Where,
𝛿 (11)
𝐾1 = 𝛿/(2 sin ( ))
2
And 𝛿 is the angle subtended by the pad sector arc length.

If it is assumed instead that the pressure distribution over the contact area between the friction
material and the disc is uniform, then the mean or average pressure (pm) over the pad surface is:

𝑃𝑚 = 𝑁𝑐 ⁄𝐴𝑝 = (𝑝 − 𝑝𝑡 )𝐴⁄𝐴𝑝 (12)

where 𝑃𝑚 is the mean pressure over the contact area between the friction material and the disc.

𝐾1(𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛) = 2𝛿(1 − ((𝑟𝑖 𝑟𝑜 )/(𝑟𝑖 + 𝑟𝑜 )2 )/3sin(𝛿 ⁄2) (13)

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Drum Brakes:

Basic principle:

A modern automotive drum brake is the ‘internal expanding’ design, in which friction material
‘linings’ on stators known as ‘shoes’ are forced radially outwards against the internal surface of
the rotor, which takes the form of a brake ‘drum. The brake shoes usually consist of a ‘platform’,
which is a cylindrical section to which the brake lining(s) is attached, and a ‘web’ (also termed
‘rib’) to provide flexural stiffness to the assembly. The brake shoes are mounted on a torque plate
which is attached to the axle or suspension of the vehicle. The brake drum is attached to the wheel
hub and rotates with it, so as the shoes are forced out against the drum inner surface, the brake
drum and the vehicle are retarded. Most automotive drum brakes have two brake shoes, which can
be configured in several different ways, but the simplest design is the ‘leading/trailing’ (simplex
or L&T) drum brake because it has one leading shoe and one trailing shoe. The brake shoe whose
actuation causes it to rotate in the same direction as the brake drum is called a ‘leading’ shoe, while
the brake shoe that is actuated to rotate in the opposite direction from the drum is called a ‘trailing’
shoe.

Torque Generated by a Drum Brake:

There is a servo factor associated with each brake shoe. The relationship between the applied force
(𝑃𝑎 ) and the friction force (𝐹1 or 𝐹2 ) is a non-linear function of 𝜇. The shoe factor (𝑆1 for the
leading shoe and 𝑆2 for the trailing shoe) is the ratio of the frictional force generated by each brake
shoe at the drum radius to the applied force.

The torque output generated by a drum brake is calculated from the total friction drag generated
by all the brake shoes in the brake multiplied by the friction (or inner) radius 𝑟𝑒 of the brake drum
(neglecting any losses in the actuation system), which is a general rule for drum brakes. The brake
torque developed by this brake (same as the disc brake) is given by:

𝜏 = 𝜇(𝑁1 + 𝑁2 )𝑟𝑒 (14)

𝜏 = (𝐹1 + 𝐹2 )𝑟𝑒 = 𝑃𝑎 (𝑆1 + 𝑆2 )𝑟𝑒 (15)
Where,
(𝐹1 + 𝐹2 ) 𝑖𝑠 total friction drag generated by this drum brake

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Where 𝑟𝑒 (the effective radius) is the inner radius of the drum that, unlike the disc brake, is constant.

The abutment reactions are:

Leading shoe:

𝑅1𝑥 = 𝑃𝑎 (𝑑 − 𝑚 + 𝜇𝑛)⁄(𝑚 − 𝜇𝑛) (16)

𝑅1𝑦 = 𝜇𝑃𝑎 𝑑 ⁄(𝑚 − 𝜇(𝑛 − 𝑏)) (17)

Trailing shoe:

𝑅2𝑥 = 𝑃𝑎 (𝑑 − 𝑚 − 𝜇𝑛)⁄(𝑚 + 𝜇𝑛) (18)

𝑅2𝑦 = 𝜇𝑃𝑎 𝑑 ⁄(𝑚 + 𝜇𝑛) (19)

The contact and pressure distribution between the brake linings and the drum can significantly
affect the shoe factor and hence the brake torque performance, so where pivoted shoe brakes are
used. In practice the angled abutment (typically no more than 30°) seems to be preferred as it
enables designers to optimise lining arc length and disposition on the shoe with respect to
performance and wear. Friction at the abutment interfaces of a floating shoe does not appear to
cause any appreciable difference in shoe factor provided that seizure is avoided by good
maintenance.

The distribution of contact, pressure and friction drag forces over friction material linings that
extend over longer arc lengths makes the design analysis of drum brake more complicated. The
relationship between the applied actuation force and the friction drag force generated (the shoe
factors).

𝜇𝛼 (18)
𝑆1 =
(𝛽 − 𝜇𝜒)

𝜇𝛼 (19)
𝑆2 =
(𝛽 + 𝜇𝜒)
Where 𝛼, 𝛽 , 𝜒 and are positive value constants determined by the geometrical dimensions of the
brake, including the position and arc length of the friction material on each shoe, and may be
different for the two shoes in the brake. These relationships for the leading and trailing shoe factors
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indicate that S1 is greater than unity while S2 is less than unity. A leading shoe factor is always
greater than a trailing shoe factor. Both leading and trailing shoe factors depend upon the
coefficient of friction m of the friction material lining. The trailing shoe factor tends to a constant
value as m increases, while the leading shoe factor tends to infinity as m increases to approach a
𝛽
value of 𝜒 . The s condition is known as ‘spragging’ and must be avoided as it indicates a situation

where the shoe is completely self-energising.

The pressure distribution between the lining and the drum is also affected by the geometric
conformity between the drum and the lining on the brake shoe. Mechanical and thermal distortion
of the brake components can have a significant effect on this contact and thus the pressure
distribution between the brake shoes and the brake drum. If the drum inner radius is greater than
the radius of the lining surface arc, which may occur.

Figure: Classical ‘Sinusoidal’ Pressure Distribution Between the Brake Lining and Drum of
a Leading Shoe. [1]

Limpert (2011) presents detailed methods of design analysis for different types of drum brakes
based on the calculation of shoe factors and brake factors. For a pivoted brake shoe the shoe factors
are calculated from:

𝑑 (20a)
𝜇
𝑟𝑒
𝑆1 =
𝑎’ 𝛼𝑜 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼3 𝑎’ 𝛼𝑜 𝛼3
{ }
𝑟𝑒 4 sin (𝛼𝑜 ) sin (𝛼3 ) − 𝜇{1 + 𝑟𝑒 cos ( 2 ) cos ( 2 )}
2 2

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 𝑑 (20b)
𝜇𝑟
𝑒
𝑆2 =
𝑎’ 𝛼𝑜 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼3 𝑎’ 𝛼 𝛼
{ 𝛼 𝛼 } + 𝜇{1 + cos ( 𝑜 ) cos ( 3 )}
𝑟𝑒 4 sin ( 𝑜 ) sin ( 3 ) 𝑟𝑒 2 2
2 2

where:

d is the distance between the actuation point and the pivot point of the shoe (parallel to the central
axis of the brake, which is defined as the axis running through the mid points of the actuator(s),
the pivot(s) and the brake centre; see Figure 5.12) (m);

Re is the drum inner radius (m);

𝑎’ is the distance from the centre of the brake to the pivot centre (m);

𝛼𝑜 is the angle subtended by the lining arc length (Degrees);

𝛼3 = 𝛼𝑜 + 2𝛼1 .

Where

𝛼1 defines the disposition of the lining on the shoe in terms of the angle between the position of
the leading end of the lining and the extended straight line between the pivot centre and the centre
of the brake.

The shoe factors for a sliding abutment brake are given by “Limpert (2011)” but can also be
calculated from the analysis given by “Newcomb and Spurr (1967)” for parallel sliding abutments:

𝑑(𝑂𝑍𝑐𝑜𝑠(∅ − 𝜒)𝑠𝑖𝑛∅) (21a)

𝑆1 =
𝑟𝑒 {𝑏 − 𝑂𝑍𝑐𝑜𝑠(∅ − 𝜒)𝑠𝑖𝑛∅}

𝑑(𝑂𝑍𝑐𝑜𝑠(∅ − 𝜒)𝑠𝑖𝑛∅) (21b)

𝑆2 =
𝑟𝑒 {𝑏 + 𝑂𝑍𝑐𝑜𝑠(∅ − 𝜒)𝑠𝑖𝑛∅}
where:

d is the distance between the actuation point and the pivot point of the shoe (parallel to the central
axis of the brake) (m);

OZ is the diameter of the basic circle (m) ¼ 2𝑘𝑟𝑒 , where

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 𝛼
2 sin ( 2𝑜 )
𝑘= ;
(𝛼𝑜 + sin(𝛼𝑜 ))
𝛼𝑜 is the angle subtended by the lining arc length;
∅ = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝜇
𝜒 is the angle between the centre of the lining arc and the line perpendicular to the central axis of
the brake (Degrees);
b is the distance between the brake centre and the shoe abutment (parallel to the central axis of
the brake) (m).

“Millner (1972)” showed that based on the classical theories the effect of the various design
parameters of drum brakes was as follows:

• The leading shoe factor (𝑆1 ) increases with d, the distance between the actuation force and the
abutment reaction force.
• The leading shoe factor (𝑆2 ) increases as the distance (b) between the abutment and the brake
centre decreases.
. • Increasing the sliding abutment angle increases the leading shoe factor (𝑆1 ) and decreases the
trailing shoe factor (𝑆2 ).

Table 1: Shoe Factors and Brake Factor for a Parallel Abutment Sliding Shoe Passenger
Car Drum Brake(equation(21)) [1]

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 Figure: Shoe Factor vs. m for a Parallel Sliding Abutment Shoe Brake (Equations 21) [1]
• The leading shoe factor (𝑆1 ) increases as the lining position is moved towards the trailing end of
the shoe.
• The leading shoe factor (𝑆1 ) increases as the lining arc length increases.

Types of drum brakes are:

1. Leading/trailing shoe (simplex)

Figure: Simplex Drum Brake Showing Leading and Trailing Shoes [1]

In the simplex drum brake analysed above (Figure 5.9) the actuation force on each shoe is the
same, so the brake factor (BF) ¼ combined shoe factor (𝑆1 + 𝑆2 ) = 2.18 for a typical coefficient
of friction m ¼ 0.36, and therefore the torque output can be calculated from Equation (15),
remembering that Pa is the actuation force on each brake shoe (see Equation (6)).

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 2. Twin leading shoe (duplex)

Figure: Duplex Drum Brake (Internet source) [1]

For a hydraulically actuated duplex brake with the same actuation force on each shoe the brake
factor is still the sum of the two shoe factors but since there are two leading shoes, this equates to
2𝑆1 in the forward direction and 2 𝑆2 in the reverse direction.

3. Duo-servo

Figure: Duo-Servo Drum Brake (Internet source) [1]

In a duo-servo brake, the actuation force is applied to the primary shoe and the abutment reaction
from this shoe is used to actuate the secondary shoe. Modern duo-servo brakes are designed to
operate equally effectively in the forward and reverse directions.

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Friction Interface Contact and Pressure Distribution in Drum Brakes:

In classical brake analysis the frictional contact between the brake lining and the brake drum (or
disc) is accommodated by calculating a resultant normal force based on some assumption
concerning the interface pressure distribution, and then applying a resultant frictional or drag force
perpendicular to it. The basic concept of Amontons’ laws of friction to elements or regions over
the brake lining friction surface.

𝐹𝑖 = 𝜇𝑁𝑖 (22)
In FE analysis, forces are transmitted between elements at the nodes, and local nodal forces and
friction forces that are normal and tangential to the friction interface respectively related by
Equation (22) can be used to simulate frictional contact between a brake lining and a brake drum
(or disc). Because the friction forces depend upon the normal forces, which in turn depend upon
the deflection of the brake stator and rotor components resulting from the total force loading on
these components, the computation of the distribution of the local normal force distribution (the
pressure distribution) and the friction force distribution over the brake friction interface must be
iterative.

Drum Brake Actuation:

In principle there are two different types of actuation system for automotive drum brakes, the
‘floating’ actuator and the ‘fixed’ actuator, and the analysis must take account of their individual
design and operating features. The hydraulic actuation system on passenger cars and light
commercial vehicles is an example of the floating actuator; it uses slave pistons which, if they are
of equal diameter, apply an equal actuation force to each shoe (in older designs of drum brake
‘stepped’ cylinders were sometimes used to provide a different actuation force on each shoe, but
these are seldom found on modern automotive drum brakes). The force is independent of
displacement as it depends only on the hydraulic line pressure.

The S-cam drum brake that incorporates ‘fixed’ actuation. It is widely used in HGV applications,
being generally considered to be a robust, reliable, brake design with two shoes in a simplex
arrangement (leading/trailing shoe). Actuation is provided by the S-cam, which is rotated by a
linear actuator attached to a lever and creates a ‘lift’ or displacement to each brake shoe so that
both shoes are in principle constrained to move by equal amounts if the cam is truly ‘fixed’. The

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force applied to each shoe will then depend upon the system’s response to that actuation
displacement. [1]

Figure: S-cam (Courtesy Meritor). [1]

Brake Factor and ɳC* for Air-Actuated Commercial Vehicle Brakes:

Three interpretations of ‘brake factor’ for drum brakes have been discussed all based on the ratio
of the total frictional force generated by the brake at the effective radius to the actuation force.
These are:
• Combined shoe factor = 𝑆1 + 𝑆2
• Mean shoe factor = (𝑆1 + 𝑆2 )/2
(Both used for floating actuator (hydraulic actuation) drum brakes)
• Specific torque τs = 𝜏/τa

The definitions of C* and ɳC* are:

𝐶 ∗ = ∆𝐹 ⁄ ∆𝑃𝑎 (Theoritical)
ɳ𝐶 ∗ = ∆𝐹 ⁄ ∆𝑃𝑎 (Measured)

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References

[1] A. Day, "Brake Design Analysis," in Braking of Road Vehicles, Elsevier Inc, 2014, pp. 97-145.

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