DYNAMICS OF MACHINERY

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS

FRICTION CLUTCHES
1. Define uniform wear theory for single plate clutch.

According to uniform wear theory, wear is uniformly distributed over the entire
surface area of the friction disc. This assumption is used for worn out (old) clutches.

The clutch is subjected to wear due to sliding friction. Therefore, normal wear is
proportional to the work of friction. The work of friction is proportional to the product
of normal pressure (p) and the sliding velocity (v).

( )

2. Define uniform pressure theory.

In case of new clutches employing a number of springs, the pressure can be assumed
to be uniformly distributed over the entire surface over the entire surface area of the
friction disc. Under the assumption of uniform pressure, every part of the clutch face
can be subjected to the maximum permissible pressure. Clearly under this assumption,
the wear will not be constant. That is here pressure (p) is constant.

When the pressure is uniform over the entire area of friction surface, then the intensity
of pressure, ( )

3. Compare clutch and brake.

The performance of brakes is similar to that of clutches except that clutches connect
one moving part to another moving part, whereas brakes connect a moving part to a
frame (stationary member).

4. Which of the two assumptions – uniform intensity of pressure or uniform rate of wear,
would you make use of in designing friction clutch and why?

The design of plate clutches is based upon two premises:

(1) Uniform pressure (2) Uniform axial wear

 In case of new clutches employing a number of springs, the pressure can be
assumed to be uniformly distributed over the entire surface over the entire surface
area of the friction disc. Under the assumption of uniform pressure, every part of
the clutch face can be subjected to the maximum permissible pressure. Clearly
 under this assumption, the wear will not be constant. That is here pressure (p) is
constant.
 It may be noted that when the friction surface is new, there is a uniform pressure
distribution over the entire contact surface. This pressure will wear most rapidly
when the sliding velocity is maximum and this will reduce the pressure between
the friction surfaces. This wearing in process continues until the product pv is
constant over the entire surface.

5. In what way are the expressions for the friction torque of a conical collar changed
from that for a flat collar? In what way are they modified for pivots?

The torque of a conical collar is increased by times from that for flat collars.

Pivots

Expressions for torque in case of pivots can directly be obtained from the expressions
for collars by inserting the values Ri = 0 and Ro = R.

(i) Flat pivot

(a) Uniform pressure theory,
(b) Uniform wear theory,
(ii) Conical Pivot
(a) Uniform pressure theory,
(b) Uniform wear theory,

The above expressions reveal that the value of the friction torque is more when the
uniform pressure theory is applied.

6. Though cone clutches provide high frictional torque, yet they have become obsolete.
Why?

Cone clutches have become obsolete as small cone angles and exposure to dust and
dirt tend to bind the two cones and it becomes difficult to disengage them.

7. Find a relation for the frictional torque acting on a centrifugal clutch.

Consider one shoe of a centrifugal clutch as shown in fig.

Let m = mass of each shoe; n = number of shoes; r = distance of centre of gravity of

the shoe from the centre of the spindle; R = inside radius of the drum (pulley); µ =
coefficient of friction between the shoe and rim; ω = angular running speed of the
 drum (pulley); ω1 = angular speed at which the engagement begins to takes place; Pc =
centrifugal force acting on each shoe at the running speed = mω2r

Since the speed at which the engagement begins to take place is generally taken as ¾
th of the running speed (i.e. 75%)

Therefore, the inward force on each shoe exerted by the spring is given by

( )

Therefore, net outward radial force (i.e. centrifugal force) with which the shoe presses
against the rim at the running speed = Pc – Ps

The frictional force acting tangentially on each shoe, ( )

Therefore, frictional torque acting on each shoe = F.R ( )

Total frictional torque transmitted, ( )

BRAKES
8. List the applications of brakes.

Brakes are machine elements that absorb either kinetic energy of the moving member
or potential energy given up by objects being lowered by hoists, elevators etc. in the
process of slowing down or stopping a moving part. The absorbed energy is dissipated
in the form of heat.
The primary purpose of the brake is to slow down or completely stop the motion of a
moving system. It is also used to hold the parts of the system in position at rest.

9. What is meant by a self-locking and a self-energised brake.

When the frictional force helps to apply the brake, such type of brakes are said to be
self-energizing brake.
 When the frictional force is great enough to apply the brake with no external force,
then the brake is said to be self-locking brake.

10. Define the principle of operation of an internal expanding shoe.

An internal expanding brake consists of two shoes S1 and S2. The outer surface of the
shoes are lined with some friction material to increase coefficient of friction and to
prevent wearing away of the metal. It consists of a shoe that is pivoted at one end and
subjected to an actuating force at the other end. The actuating force is usually
provided by means of a hydraulic cylinder or a cam mechanism.

GOVERNORS
11. What is the function of a governor? How does it differ from that of a flywheel?

The function of a governor is to automatically regulate the power input to the engine
as demanded by the variation of load so that the engine speed is maintained at or near
the optimum value.
A flywheel controls the speed variations caused by the fluctuation of the engine
turning moment during each cycle of operation. It does not control the speed
variations caused by a varying load. The varying demand for power is met by the
governor regulating the supply of working fluid.

12. State the different types of governors (or) classify the governors.

Types of governors: Governors are classified on the basis of their operating principles.

(i) Centrifugal governors, in which, the change in the centrifugal forces of the rotating
masses due to a change in the speed of the engine is utilized for the movement of the
governor sleeve. Such a governor may be (a) gravity controlled or (b) spring
controlled. In a gravity – controlled governor, the movement of the governor balls is
regulated by the force of gravity, whereas in a spring controlled governor, this
regulation is provided by means of springs.
(ii) Inertia and flywheel governors, in which, the inertia forces caused by the angular
acceleration or deceleration of the engine shaft (or of the flywheel) by the change in
speed are utilized for the movement of the governor balls. Thus, the movement of
 balls is decided by the rate of change of speed (rather than the change in speed itself,
as in centrifugal governor), with the result that such a governor is more sensitive than
a centrifugal governor.

The centrifugal governors may further be classified as follows:

13. Draw neat sketch of watt governor.

14. What is sleeve lift?

It is the vertical distance which the sleeve travels due to change in equilibrium speed.

15. Explain the terms sensitiveness, hunting, stability and isochronism relating to
governors.

Sensitiveness of a governor: A governor is said to be sensitive when it readily

responds to a small change of speed. It is the characteristic by virtue of which the
displacement of sleeve is measured corresponding to change in the equilibrium speed
i.e. the moment of the sleeve for a fractional change of speed is the measure of
sensitivity. A governor is said to be more sensitive if the larger displacement of the
sleeve takes place for a given change of speed.

As the governor is used to limit the change of speed of the engine between zero to
full-load conditions, the sensitiveness of a governor is defined as
 where N = mean speed
N1 = minimum speed corresponding to full load conditions
N2 = maximum speed corresponding to no load conditions

Hunting: A governor is said to hunt if the speed of the engine fluctuates continuously
above and below the mean speed. This is due to high senstiveness of the governor
which changes the fuel supply by a large amount when a small change in the speed of
rotation takes place.

Stability: A governor is said to be stable when for each speed, within the working
range, there is only one radius of rotation of the governor balls at which the governor
is in equilibrium. In other words, a governor is called stable if it brings the speed of
the engine to the required value without much fluctuation.

Obviously, the stability and sensitivity are two opposite characteristics.

Isochronism: Isochronism is a property by virtue of which a governor keeps constant

equilibrium speed for all radii of rotation of the balls within the working range. It is
desirable when approximately constant speed is desired to be kept for all loads. In
otherwords, a governor with a range of speed zero is known as isochronous governor.

i.e. such a governor is infinitely sensitive.

16. What is meant by effort and power of a governor?

The effort of the governor is the mean force acting on the sleeve to raise or lower it
for a given change of speed.
If the force acting at the sleeve changes gradually from zero (when the governor is in
the equilibrium position) to a value E for an increased speed of the governor, the
mean force or the effort is .

The power of a governor is the workdone at the sleeve for a given percentage change
of speed, i.e. it is the product of the effort and the displacement of the sleeve.

17. What is the controlling force of a governor?

When the balls of a governor rotate in their circular parts, the centrifugal force on
each ball tends to move it outwards. This is resisted by an equal and opposite force
acting radially inwards and is known as the controlling force.
FLYWHEELS
18. Write the applications of flywheel

A flywheel used in machines serves as a reservoir, which stores energy during the
period when the supply of energy is more than the requirement, and releases it during
the period when the requirement of energy is more than the supply.

(i) Power supplied at a uniform rate and the driven machinery is variable
(punch press, shaping machines, riveting machines, crushers, power hammers)
(ii) Power supplied at variable rate and the driven machinery is at a uniform rate
(I.C engine, steam engine, reciprocating compressors, pumps)

19. Explain precisely, the uses of turning moment diagram of reciprocating engines (or)
Explain about turning moment diagram (or) what are turning moment diagrams?
Why are they drawn?

When the engine is operated, the work done by the engine is drafted by a plotter,
fitted in the engine itself, from which we can have some idea about the variation of
energy during the operating cycle. This diagram is known as turning moment diagram
which explains how the turning moment (i.e. torque) is varied with time during the
complete cycle.
Torque (turning moment) on y-axis and crank angle is degrees in x-axis and the area
under the curve represents the amount of work done by the engine.

This kind of zig – zag (i.e. wavy) nature of energies produced by the engine at
different times is known as ‘fluctuation of energy’. The difference between the
maximum energy and the minimum energy is known as the maximum fluctuation of
energy and is denoted by ∆E.

20. Define the terms coefficient of fluctuations of energy and coefficient of fluctuation of
speed.

Coefficient of fluctuation of speed (Cs): The difference between the maximum and
minimum speeds during a cycle is called maximum fluctuation of speed. The ratio of
 the maximum fluctuation of speed to the mean speed is called coefficient of
fluctuation of speed.

N1 = maximum speed in RPM during the cycle

N2 = minimum speed in RPM during the cycle
N = mean speed =

( )
Coefficient of fluctuation of speed,

( )
* +

( )
[ ]

Coefficient of fluctuation of energy (CE): It is defined as the ratio of the maximum

fluctuation of energy to the work done/cycle.

Workdone per cycle may also be obtained by using the following relation

GYROSCOPE
21. What do you mean by gyroscopic couple?

If a spinning body is précised in a direction perpendicular to the axis of spin, then

there will be a couple in a direction mutually perpendicular to the axis of spin and axis
of precision and the couple here is gyroscopic couple or reactive gyroscopic couple.
This principle is called gyroscope.
 22. What do you mean by precession?

When a spinning body rotates about another axis which is perpendicular to the axis of
spin, then the motion of body is called precession.

23. Write the gyroscopic effects of naval ships.

Let the plane of spin of the rotor and other rotating masses be horizontal and across
the breadth of the ship. Assume ω to be the angular velocity of the rotor in the
clockwise direction when viewed from stern (rear end).

I. Steering or turning
A. Rotor of the ship moving in clockwise when viewed from stern
(i) Left turn
BOW RAISES
(ii) Right turn
BOW SINKS
B. Rotor of the ship moving in counter-clockwise when viewed from stern
(i) Left turn
BOW SINKS
(ii) Right turn
BOW RAISES

II. Pitching

Pitching is the movement of a complete ship up and down in a vertical plane about
transverse axis. In this case, the transverse axis is the axis of precession. The pitching
of the ship is assumed to take place with S.H.M i.e. the motion of the axis of spin
about transverse axis is simple harmonic. A S.H.M is represented by

When the bow is raising, the reaction couple is clockwise on viewing from top and
thus the ship would move towards right or starboard side. Similarly, when the bow is
lowered, the ship turns towards left or port side.

III. Rolling

As the axes of the rolling of the ship and rotor are parallel, there is no precession of
the axis and thus there is no gyroscopic effect.
 In the same way, the effects of steering, pitching or rolling can be observed when the
plane of spin of the rotating masses is horizontal but along the longitudinal axis of the
vessel or when the axis is vertical.

DYNAMIC FORCE ANALYSIS

24. Write the expression for inertia force and inertia torque in reciprocating engine.

Inertia force, ( )

( )
√

25. What is the difference between piston effort and crank effort?

Piston effort is termed as the net or effective force applied on the piston.
Force on the piston,

Inertia force, ( )

Net (effective) force on the piston,

(Considering frictional resistance, RF)

The –ve sign is used when the piston is accelerating, and

+ve sign is used when the piston is retarded

In a double – acting reciprocating steam engine, net load on the piston,

( )

where p1, A1 = pressure and cross – sectional area on the back end side of the piston

p2, A2 = pressure and cross – sectional area on the crank end side of the piston

a = cross – sectional area of the piston rod

If ‘p’ is the net pressure of steam or gas on the piston and ‘D’ is diameter of the
piston, then

Net load on the piston,

In case of vertical engine,

 The product of the crank – pin effort (Ft) and the crank pin radius (r) is known as
crank pin effort or turning moment or torque on the crank shaft. Mathematically,

( )

26. What do you mean by dynamical equivalent system?

The mass of the connecting rod can be replaced by two point masses at two parts if it
is ensured that the two masses together have the same dynamical properties as before.
The two members will be dynamically similar if

i) The sum of the two masses is equal to the total mass

ii) The combined centre of mass coincides with that of the rod
iii) The moment of inertia of two point masses about perpendicular axis through
their combined centre of mass is equal to that of the rod

When these three conditions are satisfied, then it is said to be an equivalent dynamical
system.

BALANCING
27. Why is balancing necessary for rotors of high speed engines?

Most of the serious problem encountered in high speed machinery is the direct result
of unbalanced forces. These forces exerted on the frame by the moving machine
members are time varying, impart vibratory motion to the frame and produce noise.
Also, there are human discomfort and detrimental effects on the machine performance
and the structural integrity of the machine foundation.

28. Explain why only a part of the unbalanced force due to reciprocating masses is
balanced by revolving mass.

Figure shows the reciprocating mechanism with a countermass m at the radial

distance r. The horizontal component of the centrifugal force due to the balancing
mass is in the line of stroke. This neutralizes the unbalanced
 reciprocating force. But the rotating mass also has a component
perpendicular to the line of stroke which remains unbalanced.

29. Discuss static balancing.

A system of rotating masses is said to be in static balance if the combined mass centre
of the system lies on the axis of rotation.

Figure shows a rigid rotor rotating with a constant angular velocity of ω rad/s. A
number of masses, say three, are depicted by point masses at different radii in the
same transverse plane. They may represent different kinds of rotating masses such as
turbine blades, eccentric discs etc. These masses produce a centrifugal force acting
radially outwards from the axis of rotation. The rotor is said to be statically balanced
if the summation of all forces is zero i.e. ∑ .

30. State the necessary conditions to achieve ‘static balancing’ and ‘dynamic balancing’.

Static balancing ∑
Dynamic balancing ∑ and ∑

31. What do you mean by primary and secondary unbalance?

In a reciprocating engine, inertia force is given by ( )

is considered as primary unbalance and as primary
unbalance

32. What is primary and secondary balancing?

Balancing of primary unbalance forces and couples is called primary balancing and
balancing of secondary unbalance forces and couples is called secondary balancing.
VIBRATIONS
33. What is transverse vibration?

When the shaft is bent alternately and tensile and compressive stresses due to bending
result, the vibrations are said to be transverse. The particles of the body move
approximately perpendicular to its axis.

34. What are the causes of vibrations?

Usually, vibrations are due to elastic forces. Whenever a body is displaced from its
equilibrium position, work is done on the elastic constraints of the forces on the body
and is stored as strain energy. Now, if the body is released, the internal forces cause
the body to move towards it equilibrium position. If the body is frictionless, the strain
energy stored in the body is converted into kinetic energy during the period the body
reaches the equilibrium position at which it has maximum kinetic energy. The body
passes through the mean position, the kinetic energy is utilised to overcome the elastic
forces and is stored in the form of strain energy, and so on.

35. Define, in short, free vibrations, forced vibrations and damped vibrations.

 Elastic vibrations in which there is no friction and external forces after the initial
release of the body are known as free or natural vibrations.
 When a repeated force continuously acts on a system, the vibrations are said to be
forced. The frequency of the vibrations is that of the applied and is independent of
their own natural frequency of vibrations.
 When the energy of a vibrating system is gradually dissipated by friction and
other resistances, the vibrations are said to be damped. The vibrations gradually
cease and the system rests in its equilibrium position.

36. Define: i) degree of freedom ii) natural frequency

(i) The number of independent coordinated required to describe a vibratory system is

known as its degree of freedom
(ii) Natural frequency is the number of cycles of motion completed in one second
without any external force applied. It is expressed in hertz (Hz) and is equal to one
cycle per second.
37. State the D – Alembert’s principle.

D’Alembert’s principle states that the inertial forces and couples, and the external forces
and torques on a body together give statical equilibrium.

38. What do you mean by vibrations?

To and fro motion of a body is said to be vibration. The motion continues indefinitely.

39. Explain about torsional vibration.

When the shaft is twisted and untwisted alternately and torsional shear stresses are
induced, the vibrations are known as torsional vibrations. The particles of the body
move in a circle about the axis of the shaft.

40. Explain about longitudinal vibration.

If the shaft is elongated and shortened so that the same move up and down resulting in
tensile and compressive stresses in the shaft, the vibrations are said to be
longitudinal. The different particles of the body move parallel to the axis of the body.