THEORY OF MACHINES – II

LAB MANUAL

Department of Mechanical Engineering

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING PUNE
June, 2018

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 THEORY OF MACHINES – II
LAB MANUAL

SR. NO. LIST OF EXPERIMENTS Page No.

1 To determine percentage slip of Belt drive 3

2 To determine the coefficient of friction lining 8

3 To study rope-brake dynamometer 12

4 To determine gyroscopic couple of a disc 19

5 To study gear trains and gear boxes 22

6 To determine node point and natural frequency of two-rotor 32

system

7 To determine damping coefficient of damped torsional vibrations 37

Note: Figures are referred from Theory of Machines by S.S.Rattan (3rd edition) and
Theory of Machines by R.S.Khurmi (14th Revised edition).

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EXPERIMENT – 1

Aim: To determine percentage slip of the belt drive.

Apparatus: Belt drive assembly, power supply, Tachometer (to measure RPM) etc.

Theory:

Belt Drives:

Belts are used to transmit power from one shaft to another shaft by means of pulleys, if
the distance between the shafts is large. Belts, ropes are flexible type of connectors, also belts,
ropes transmit power because of the friction between them, and the pulleys. If the power
transmitted exceeds the force of friction, the belt slips over the pulley.

For better working conditions, maximum distance between the shafts should not exceed
10m and minimum should not be less than 3.5m times the diameter of the larger pulleys.
Generally tight side tension should be at the bottom of belt, so that where sag is present on loose
side, it will increase arc of contact at the slack side.

There are three main types of Belt drives:

1. Open Belt drive: It is used, when the driven pulley is desired to be rotated in the same
direction as that of driving pulley.
2. Crossed Belt drive: It is adopted, when driven pulley is to be rotated in opposite
direction of driving.
3. Compound drive: Compound drive is used for sudden decrease i.e. drastic decrease or
increase in the velocity of driven shaft. Compound drive has an intermediate shaft.

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Figure: Open Belt Drive

Velocity Ratio:

Velocity ratio is the ratio of speed of the driven pulley to that of the driving pulley.

Let, = Rotational speed of driving pulley.

= Rotational speed of driven pulley.

= Diameter of driving pulley.

= Diameter of driven pulley.

= Thickness of the belt.

Neglecting the slip of belt and also considering the belt is inelastic,

Speed of belt on driving pulley = Speed of belt on driven pulley

[ *(t/2)] * =[ *(t/2)] *

Velocity Ratio = / = + t)/ ( + t)

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Slip of belt:

Sometimes, the frictional grip becomes insufficient. This may cause some forward
motion of the driver, without carrying the belt with it. This may also cause some forward motion
of the belt without carrying the driven pulley with it. This is called as slip of the belt and is
expressed in percentage.

The effect of slip is to decrease the speed of belt on the driving shaft, and to decrease the
speed of driven shaft. As slipping is common phenomenon, belt should not be used where
definite velocity ratio is important.

Velocity of the belt passing over the driver per second,

= (π /60) - (π /60) *( )= (1 -

Where,

is the percentage slip for driving pulley & belt.

If , is the percentage slip for belt and driven pulley,

(1 - )(

/ (Neglecting term of

Where, = I.e. S is total percentage slip

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If ‘t’ is thickness of the belt’

Velocity Ratio =

Observations:

Diameter of driving pulley = Diameter of driven pulley ( i.e.

SR. Centre distance R.P.M. (frequency of R.P.M. (frequency of % Slip

No. x (cm) Driving shaft) Driven shaft) (S)
1
2
3

Calculations:

As ,

Therefore % slip = )x 100

Results:

Sr. Centre distance between the shafts % slip

No. (cm) (S)
1
2
3
Thus, as the center distance between the shaft increases, percentage slip decreases.

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Conclusion:

1. Belt drive is not a positive drive i.e. velocity of driving pulley is not equal to velocity
of driven pulley because of the slip. Thus, it should not be used for applications
where definite velocity ratio is important. We have to go for chain drives for definite
velocity ratio.
2. If the center distance between the shafts is less, the slip is more. Thus, to increase
power transmission, i.e. to reduce slip, we have to increase center distance between
the shafts.
Questions:

1. Describe the problems faced practically using the belt drive. How they can be eliminated
using other drives? Justify taking one practical example.
2. Discuss any 1 chain drive application with detailed system specifications.
3. What is centrifugal tension in a belt ? How does it affect the power transmitted?

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EXPERIMENT - 2

Aim: To determine the coefficient of friction (µ) of friction lining used in multi-plate clutch.

Apparatus: Multi-plate clutch assembly, Brake dynamometer, Flywheel, power supply (motor).

Theory:

Clutch:

A clutch is a device used to transmit the rotary motion of one shaft to another when
desired. It is used to gradually connect/engage the driven shaft or disengage it i.e. to transmit
torque as per need. The axes of two shafts are always coincident.

In friction clutches, the connection of the engine (i/p shaft) shaft to gear box shaft is
affected by friction between two or more rotating concentric surfaces. The surfaces can be
pressed firmly against one another when engaged and clutch tends to rotate as a single unit.

Disc clutch: (Single plate clutch)

Sketch: Sketch figure 8.14 from S.S.Rattan (Single plate clutch).

A disc clutch consists of a clutch plate attached to a splined hub which is free to slide
axially on splines cut on the driven shaft. The clutch plate is made of steel and has a ring of
friction lining on each side. The engine shaft supports a rigidly fixed flywheel. A spring loaded
pressure plate presses the clutch plate firmly against the flywheel when the clutch is engaged.
When the clutch is disengaged, the springs press against a cover attached to the flywheel. Thus,
both the flywheel and pressure plate rotate with the input shaft. The movement of clutch plate is
then transferred to pressure plate through a thrust bearing. If the pressure plate is pulled back by
a release lever, the friction linings on the clutch plate are no longer in contact with the pressure
plate or flywheel and flywheel rotates without driving the clutch plate and thus the driven shaft.

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 When foot is taken off, the pressure on the thrust bearing is reduced, as a result spring
becomes free to move the pressure plate to bring it in contact with the clutch plate. The clutch
plate slides on the splined hub and is lightly gripped between the pressure plate and flywheel.
The friction between the linings of clutch plate on one side and pressure plate on other, causes
the clutch plate and driven shaft to rotate.

Derivation:

Derive an expression for torque transmitted under i) Uniform pressure condition, ii) Uniform
wear condition for Single plate clutch.

Multi-Plate Clutch:

In multi- plate clutch, the number of friction linings and the metal plates is increased,
which increases the capacity of clutch to transmit torque. Multi-plate clutch is smaller than single
plate clutch, thus can be used for light vehicles as weight is reduced. The torque to be transmitted
is generally less than 4 N-m.

The friction rings are splined on their outer part of circumference and engage with
corresponding splines on the flywheel. They are free to slide axially. The friction material thus
rotates with the flywheel, and the engine shaft. The number of friction rings depend upon the
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torque to be transmitted. The driven shaft also supports discs on the splines which rotate with the
driven shaft and can slide axially. If the actuating force on the pedal is removed the spring
presses the discs into contact with friction rings, and the torque is transmitted between engine
shaft and driven shaft.

If ‘n’ is the total number of plates, both on driving and driven members, the number of active
surfaces will be (n-1).

If ‘n1’ is the number of plates on driving shaft& ‘n2’ is number of plates on driven shaft,

No. of active surfaces = (n-1)

= (n1+ n2 -1)

Torque equation for multi-plate clutch will be:

Where, n = n1+ n2-1.

For uniform pressure,

Formula for uniform wear becomes,

Torque,

Observations:

1. Spring load = Axial load (W) = __________N.

2. r1 = _________m.
r2 = _________m.
3. No. of plates on driving shaft, n1 =_____.
No. of plates on driven shaft, n2 =_____.
Effective number of surfaces, n = (n1+n2-1) = ______.
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 4. Radius of flywheel of belt dynamometer, R = ______m.
5. For Belt of Belt dynamometer,
T1 = tight side tension = _____kg.
T2 = slack side tension = _____kg.
Net effective tension, T1- T2 = _______N.

Calculations:

Assuming uniform wear condition,

Torque transmitted, T = 0.5(n) µW

Where,

T = Torque absorbed by dynamometer,

T = (T1-T2).R

Result:

The coefficient of friction, for friction lining material (µ) = _______.

Conclusion:

Value of coefficient of friction, for friction lining material is successfully determined and found
to be _____.

Questions:
1. State recent technology advancements in clutches. Explain any one with details.
2. Which of the two assumptions-uniform intensity of pressure or uniform rate of wear,
would you make use of in designing friction clutch and why?
3. State practical applications of centrifugal clutch. Give specifications of any one with
sketch.

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Experiment – 3

Aim: To study rope-brake dynamometer.

Apparatus: Rope brake dynamometer, spring balance, belt drive, tachometer, motor (power
supply), etc.

Theory:
Dynamometer:

Dynamometer is a brake incorporating device, used to measure the frictional resistance.

This is used to determine the power developed by machine, while maintaining its speed at rated
value.

There are mainly two types of dynamometers:

1) Absorption Dynamometers: In this type of dynamometers, the work done is converted

into heat by friction while measuring the frictional resistance. They can be used for
measurements of small or moderate powers only. Examples are:
● Prony-brake dynamometer
● Rope- brake dynamometer
2) Transmission Dynamometer: In this type, the work is not absorbed in the process, but it
is utilized after measurement.
● Belt- transmission dynamometer
● Torsion dynamometer

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Prony-brake Dynamometer:

1. Construction and Working:

Figure: Prony Brake Dynamometer

A prony brake dynamometer consists of two wooden blocks clamped together on a

revolving pulley carrying a lever. The friction between the blocks and pulleys tends to
rotate blocks in the direction of rotation of shafts. However, the weight to suspended
mass at the end of lever prevents this tendency. The grip of the blocks over the pulleys is
adjusted using the bolts of the clamp until the engine runs at the required speed. The mass
added to the scale pan is such that the arm remains horizontal in the equilibrium position
the power of engine is thus absorbed by the friction.

2. Calculations:

Frictional torque, T = (W×l); P = (Mg). l;

Where, N is the rpm of the revolving pulley.

Power of machine under test, P = (torque).ω

P = (T. ω) = (M). (N).

P = M.N.(K)
Where, K is constant for particular brake.
The expression of power is independent of size of the pulley and the coefficient of
friction (µ).
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Rope Brake dynamometer:

1. Construction and Working:

Figure: Rope-brake dynamometer

In a rope type of dynamometer, a rope is wrapped over the rim of pulley keyed to
the shaft of the engine. The diameter of the rope depends upon the power of the machine.
The spacing of the ropes on the pulley is done by three to four U-shaped wooden blocks,
which prevent the slipping off the pulley. The upper end of the rope is attached to spring
balance, whereas the lower end supports the weight of suspended mass.
If the power produced is high, so will be the heat produced due to friction
between the rope and the wheel, and a cooling arrangement is necessary. For this, the
channel of flywheel usually has flanges turned inside in which water from a pipe is
supplied. An outlet pipe with a flattened end takes the water out.
A rope brake dynamometer is frequently used to test the power of engines. It is
easy to manufacture and it is inexpensive and requires o lubrication. If the rope is
wrapped several times, over the wheel, the tension on the slack of the rope side i.e. spring
balance reading can be reduced to a negligible value, as compared to tension on the tight

side (as T1/T2 = and ‘θ’ is increased). Thus, one can even do away with spring
balance.
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 2. Calculations:
Power of the machine, P= T.ω = ( ω

P = (Mg-S) r

Where, (W-S) = (Mg – S) = Net load on the brake

‘r’ is the effective radius (

Transmission Dynamometer:

Epicyclic – Train Dynamometer

Epicyclic-train dynamometer consists of simple Epicyclic train of gears, i.e. spur gears,
an annular gear (a gear having internal teeth) and a pinion. The spur gear is keyed to engine shaft
(i.e. driving shaft) and rotates in anticlockwise direction. The pinion or the intermediate gear
meshes with both the spur and annular gears. The pinion revolves freely on a lever which is
pivoted to common axis of the driving and driven shafts. A weight W is placed at the smaller end
of the lever, in order to keep it in position. A little consideration will show that if the friction pf
the pin on which pinion is rotated is neglected then the tangential effort ‘P’ exerted by spur gear
on pinion and the tangential reaction of the annular gear on the pinion are equal.

Since these efforts act in upward direction, therefore total upward force on the lever
acting through the axis of pinion is 2P. This force tends to rotate the lever about its fulcrum and
it is balanced by a dead weight W at the end of the lever. The stops are provided to control he
movement of lever.

Sketch: Sketch fig 19.33 from R. S. Khurmi. (Epicyclic-Train Dynamometer)

Calculations:

For equilibrium of the lever, taking moment about F,

(2P × a) = WL or P=(W.L)/2a

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If R- Pitch circle radius of spur gears in meter

N – Speed of Engine shaft in rpm

Torque transmitted, T = P.R

Also, power transmitted, P = T× = P.R ×

Belt – Transmission Dynamometer

Construction and Working:

The belt transmission dynamometer occupies a prominent position among transmission

dynamometers. When a belt transmits power from one pulley to other, there exists a difference in
tensions between the slack side and tight side. A dynamometer measures directly difference in
tensions, while the belt is running.

Figure shows ‘Tatham dynamometer’. A continuous belt runs over the driving pulley and
driven pulley through intermediate pulleys. The intermediate pulleys are fixed to a lever having a
fulcrum at the mid-point, of two pulley centers. The weight of a suspended mass at one end of
lever balances difference in tensions of tight side and slack side. As the lever is not pivoted at the
mid-point, a mass at the other end is used for its initial equilibrium. Two stops, one on each side
of lever arm, are used to limit the motion of lever.

Sketch: Sketch fig 19.34 from R. S. Khurmi. (Belt-Transmission Dynamometer)

Equation:

Taking moment about the fulcrum,

(W×l) – (2 T1) a + (2 T2) a = 0

(Mg) l – 2a (T1 – T2) = 0

T1 –T2 = (Mg) l/ 2a

Power, P = (T1 –T2). V where V is belt speed in m/s

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Bevis – Gibson Torsion dynamometer:

Bevis – Gibson torsion dynamometer consists of two discs A and B, a lamp and a
movable torque finder as shown in figure. The two discs are similar and fixed to a shaft at a fixed
distance from each other, thus both discs revolve with the shaft. The lamp is masked and fixed
on the bearing of the shaft. The torque finder has an eyepiece capable of moving
circumferentially. Each disc has a small radial slot near its periphery. Similar slots are made at
the same radius on the mask of lamp and on torque finder.

When shaft rotates freely and does not transmit torque and power, all four slots are in
line, and a ray of light from a lamp can be seen through the eyepiece after every revolution.
When torque is transmitted, the shaft twists and the slot in disc B, shifts its position. The ray of
light can no longer pass through all four slots. However, if the eyepiece is moved
circumferentially by an amount equal to displacement, the flash be again visible once in each
revolution of shaft. The eyepiece is moved with a micrometer spindle. The angle of twist can be
measured upto 1/100th of degree.

Sketch: Sketch fig 19.36 from R. S. Khurmi. (Bevis – Gibson torsion Dynamometer)

Equation:

T/J = (Cθ/L) … (Torsion formula)

Where, T is torque, J = πD4/32 = polar M.I. of shaft, C is modulus of rigidity of shaft, θ is angle
of twist.

P = T×

Observations:

1. Diameter of pulley = m.
2. Perimeter of rope = πd = m.

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 Effective diameter, de = D + d = m.

Observation Table:

Sr. Speed (N) Dead weight Spring load Braking

No. rpm ‘W’ ‘S’ power ‘P’
gm N gm N (W)
1
2
3
4
5

Calculations:

Braking power, P =

Conclusion:

From the observation table, we conclude that the braking power required to stop the pulley
increases, as its speed (rpm) increases).

Questions:

1. What is chassis dynamometer? How vehicle is tested using this dynamometer?

2. What are different dynamometer test procedures?
3. Write about the hydraulic and air dynamometers.What are the challenges of testing
turboshaft engines with dynamometers?

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Experiment – 4

Aim: To determine the gyroscopic couple of a disc, revolving with variable angular velocity
( ).

Theory:

When a body moves along a curved path uniformly, with linear velocity, the force all as
centrifugal force and centripetal force should be applied, so that the body moves in curved path.

Let, I be the moment of inertia of rotor and ω be its angular velocity, about horizontal
axis of spin OX in the direction as shown in figure. Let, this axis of spin turns through small
angle ‘’ in the horizontal plane (xy) to the position ‘OX’ in small time δt.

Sketch: Sketch figure 17.3 from Theory of Machines by S.S.Rattan.

‘Oa’ represents the angular velocity vector when the axis is OX. ‘Ob’ is angular velocity vector,
when axis becomes ‘OX’. Then ab represents change in angular velocity due to change in
direction of axis of spin of rotor. This change in angular velocity is clockwise, when viewed
from a towards b, and is in vertical plane xz. This change results in an angular acceleration, the
sense and direction of which are the same as that of the change of angular velocity.

Change in angular velocity, ab = ω × δθ

Angular acceleration = = ω (δθ/ δt)

As, limit δt 0,

ω{ (δθ/ δt)} = ω. (δθ/ δt)

Usually, (δθ/ δt), the angular velocity of the axis of spin; is called the angular velocity of
precession, and is denoted by .

Angular acceleration ,

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Torque required to produce this acceleration is known as gyroscopic torque and is a couple,
which must be applied to the axis of spin, to cause it to rotate with angular velocity about the
axis of precession Oz.

Acceleration torque, T = I

T=Iω

=Iω

is magnitude of Gyroscopic couple.

Iω B

O dφ
Iω A

Let, OA represent angular momentum vector, with the magnitude of (Iω) and direction .
Without changing the magnitude of this angular momentum, if we change direction, and let
is new vector of angular momentum, with angle dφ with .

Rate of change of angular momentum,

C= δt) = (dφ/dt)

C=Iω ( (dφ/dt))

This is gyroscopic couple. Its direction is given by Fleming’s left hand rule, if middle finger of
left hand represents axis of spin, pointer shows precession, then thumb indicates direction of
‘Gyroscopic Couple’.

Observations:

1. Moment of inertia of disc = I = 0.0805 kg-m2.

2. Perpendicular distance of pivot from the center of the disc = = 0.2025m.
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Observation Table:

Sr. N ω θ T = θ/t Mass added

No. (rpm of motor) rad/s rad sec (kg)

1
2
3
4
5

Calculations:

Gyroscopic couple, =Iω

Couple due to mass added, C1 = (9.81×m) ×l

Results:

Sr. Gyroscopic couple Moment because of Mass added

No.
1
2
3
4
5

Conclusion:

Thus, it is proved from the table, that gyroscopic couple and the couple because of Masses added
are approximately same. ‘Gyroscopic principle’ is verified.

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Questions:

1)How gyroscopic effect affects the handling of the vehicle? Explain with neat sketch.

2)Explain the use of gyroscope in Smart phones. How it is different from the accelerometer?

3)What are the different types of gyroscopes other than mechanical? Explain any two of them.

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Experiment – 5

Aim: To study gear trains and gear boxes.

Theory:

Gear Trains:

A gear train is combination of gears used to transmit motion from one shaft to another. It
becomes necessary, when it is required to obtain a large speed reduction within a small space.
Following are main types of ‘Gear trains’:

1. Simple gear train

2. Compound gear train
3. Reverted gear train
4. Planetary or Epicyclic gear train
In simple gear trains, each shaft supports one gear. In a compound gear train each shaft supports
two gears except the first and the last one. In a reverted gear train, the driving and the driven
gears are coaxial or coincident. In all these three types, the axes of rotations of the wheels are
fixed in position and the gears rotate about their axis. However, it is also possible that in a gear
train, the axes of some of the wheels are not fixed and, but rotate around the axes of other
wheels, with which they mesh. Such trains are known as planetary or Epicyclic gear trains.
Epicyclic gear trains are useful, when high velocity ratio speeds are to be transmitted with gears
of smaller sizes in lesser space.

Simple gear train:

A series of gears, capable of receiving and transmitting motion from one gear to another is
called ‘simple gear train’. In it, all gear’s axes are fixed relative to the frame and each gear is on
a separate shaft.

In a simple gear train

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 1. Two external gears of a pair always move in opposite directions (one clockwise and
other anticlockwise).
2. All odd numbered gears move in one direction and all even numbered gears move in
opposite direction.
3. Speed ratio, the ratio of speed of the driving gear to that of driven gear (shaft), is
negative when the input and the output shafts move in opposite directions, and it is
positive when both input and output shafts move in the same direction. Reverse of
speed ratio is known as ‘train value’ of the gear train.
4. All the gears can be in a single line or arranged in a zig-zag manner. A simple gear
train can also have bevel gears in it.
Sketch: Sketch figure 11.1 from S.S.Rattan.(Simple Gear train).

Let, T = No. of teeth of gear; N = speed of gear in rpm.

From the figure

N2/N1 = T1/T2 (also ω2/ ω1 = N2/N1 = T1/T2 )

Also,

N3/N2 = T2/T3 ; N4/N3 = T3/T4 ; N5/N4 = T4/T5

Multiplying,

(N2/N1) × (N3/N2) × (N4/N3) × (N5/N4) = (T1/T2) × (T2/T3) × (T3/T4) × (T4/T5)

Train value, N5/N1 = T1/T5 = (No. of teeth on driving gear/No. of teeth on driven gear)

Speed ratio = 1/train value = N1/N5 = T5/T1

Thus, it is seen that, the intermediate gears have no effect on the speed ratio, therefore, they are
known as idlers.

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Compound Gear train:

When a series of gears are connected in such a way that two or more gears rotate about an
axis with the same angular velocity, it is known as compound gear train. In this type, some of the
intermediate shafts (i.e. other than input and output) carry more than one gear.

Sketch: Sketch figure 11.2 from S.S.Rattan.(Compound Gear train) also draw its one more
iew.

If gear 1 is driver gear, then

N2/N1 = T1/T2 ; N4/N3 = T3/T4 ; and N6/N5 = T5/T6

Or (N2/N1) × (N4/N3) × (N6/N5) = (T1/T2) × (T3/T4) × (T5/T6)

As N3 = N2 and N4 = N5,

Therefore N6/N1 = (T1.T3.T5) / (T2.T4.T6)

Train value = (Product of Number of teeth on driving gears / Product of number of teeth on
driven gears)

Reverted Gear train:

If the axes of the first and last wheels of a compound gear coincide, it is called a reverted
gear train. Such an arrangement is used in clocks and in simple lathes, where back gear is used to
give a slow speed to the chuck.

Sketch: Sketch figure 13.4 from Theory of Machines R.S.Khurmi.(Reverted Gear train)

From the figure:

N4/N1 = Product of number of teeth on driving gears/product of number of teeth on driven gears

Therefore N4/N1 = (T1.T3) / (T2.T4)

Also, if ‘r’ is the pitch radius of a gear, r1 + r2 = r3 + r4

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We have N1/N2 = T2/T1 and N3/N4 = T4/T3

Multiplying,

(N1.N3) / (N2.N4) = (T2.T4) / (T1.T3)

But, N2 = N3

N1/N4 = T2.T4 /T1.T3 (speed ratio)

Module of all gears is same (condition for meshing of gears)

Module, m = d/T = 2r/T ; r = mT/2

As stated earlier,

r1 + r2 = r3 + r4

Therefore, mT1/2 + mT2/2 = mT3/2 + mT4/2

As module of each gear is same, T1 + T2 = T3 + T4

Epicyclic Gear train:

A gear train having a relative motion between wheel axes is called planetary or Epicyclic
gear train. In an Epicyclic gear train axis of at least one of the gears also moves relative to the
frame.

Consider two gear wheels ‘S’ and ‘P’, the axes of which are connected by an arm ‘A’. If
the arm ‘A’ is fixed, then the wheels ‘S’ and ‘P’ constitute a simple gear train. However, if the
wheel ‘S’ is fixed, so that arm can rotate about the axis of ‘S’, the wheel ‘P’ would also move
around ‘S’. Therefore it is an Epicyclic gear train. Usually, the wheel ‘P’ is known as ‘epicyclic
wheel’. The term Epicyclic emerges from the fact that the wheel P(roller) rolls outside another
wheel (S), and traces an Epicyclic path. It is also possible that the fixed is annular and the
moving wheel rolls inside it. This path traced will be hypocycloid. However, it has become

26
customary to call all gears in which one of the axes rotates about other fixed axis as Epicyclic
gear.

Sketch: Sketch figure 11.5 from S.S.Rattan.(Epicyclic Gear train) .

Advantages:

Large speed reductions are possible with Epicyclic gears, and if the wheel is annular, and
it is fixed wheel; more compact unit could be obtained. Important applications of Epicyclic gears
are in transmission, computing devices etc.

Analysis of Epicyclic gear train:

Action Arm Gear Gear

‘A’ (rpm) ‘S’ (rpm) ‘P’ (rpm)
Fix the Arm. Rotate 0
‘S’ gear anticlockwise
for x rpm
Arm is rotated with y y y y
rpm
Add y
Total speed y x+y

NArm = y

Ns = x + y

And, Np =

In this method, first we fix the arm, so that the gear train will become simple gear train and then
we rotate arm also. If Gear S is fixed one, then Ns = 0.

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Compound Epicyclic Gear:

When Epicyclic gear consists of number of Epicyclic gears (sun and planet gears) in
series such that the pin of the arm of first Epicyclic gear drives an element of another gear it is
known as ‘compound Epicyclic gear’.

Sketch: Sketch figure 11.26 from Theory of Machines by S.S.Rattan.(Compound Epicyclic

Gear).

Figure shows a compound Epicyclic gear. It consists of three Epicyclic gears namely
‘A1a1P1S1’, ‘A2a2P2S2’, and ‘A3a3P3S3’. The planet P1 of first Epicyclic gear rotates freely on
the pin carried by arm a1. As the arm a1 is integral with annulus A2, of second Epicyclic gear and
the sun wheel of the third, the pin of arm a1 also drives A2 and S3, i.e. the annulus and the sun
wheel of second and the third Epicyclic gear respectively, at the same speed and direction as its
own about the axis of the arm. Also, the sun wheel of the first is integral with that of second and
the arm of the second with that of the third.

To analyze a compound Epicyclic gear, each Epicyclic gear or sun and planet gear is treated
separately. Thus, for first Epicyclic gear,

Speed of the arm,

Thus, if the speeds and are known, (if A1 is fixed, ), can be calculated.

Similarly, for the second sun and planet gear,

As, A2 is integral with a1, and S2 with S1,

Therefore and =

Thus, can be calculated.

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In the same way,

As, a3 is integral with a2 and S3 with a1, therefore = and = , so, can be
calculated.

Gear boxes:

Functions:

1. Provide means to vary average torque ratio between Engine and the road wheels.
2. Provide means to back the vehicle by reversing the direction of rotation of the drive.
3. Transmission provides ‘neutral position’, so that the engine and the wheels are
disconnected.
4. As the output shaft of gear box rotates with a speed slower as compared to the input shaft,
and this reduction in the speed will produce a mechanical advantage, causing increase in
the torque.
Types of gear Boxes

1. Sliding-mesh gear box

2. Constant-mesh gear box
3. Synchro-mesh gear box
4. Epicyclic gear box
An engine may consists of one or more gear boxes. There may be a gear box, which can be a
mixture of these gear boxes.

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Sliding –Mesh gear box:

The arrangement of sliding gear box consists of pinion A keyed to the driving shaft is in
contact mesh with gear B, on the lay shaft. The gears B, C, E and G are rigidly fixed on the lay
shaft. The driven shaft is splined and carries gear D as well as compound gear F-H. Thus gears
D, F and H revolve with the driven shaft, and also slide on it. The figure shows gear box in its
neutral position i.e. if the driving shaft is revolving, all the gears on the lay shaft revolves, but the
driven shaft with its gears will be at rest.

Sketch: Sketch figure 11.27 from Theory of Machines by S.S.Rattan.

First Gear:

First gear is engaged by sliding gear H towards right, and meshing it with gear G of the
lay shaft. The transmission will be from A to B and from G to H.

Train value = {TA.TG / TB.TH }

Second Gear:

The vehicle is engaged in the second gear by sliding gear F towards left and engaging it
with gear E of the lay shaft. The transmission is from A to B and from E to F.

Train value = {TA.TE / TB.TF}

Third Gear:

By sliding Gear D towards right and engaging it with gear C of the lay shaft, the
transmission in the third gear is obtained which is from A to B and from C to D and the train
value is,

Train value = {TA.TC / TB.TD}

Top Gear:

Gear D is engaged directly with gear A through a dog clutch. This way the power is
transmitted directly to the driven shaft. The lay shaft long with ts gear wheels revolve idly and
the driven shaft runs at the same speed s that of driving shaft.

30
 To put the vehicle in the reverse gear, an idler is made to mesh with G and H (not shown
in figure), so that both of them rotate in the same direction. Thus, rotating the driven shaft in the
opposite direction.

Constant - Mesh Gear box:

Working:

In this type of gear box, all the gears are in constant mesh with the corresponding gears
on the lay shaft. The gears on the main shaft, which is splined are free. The Dog Clutches are
provided which are free to slide on the main shaft. The gears on the lay shaft are fixed. When the
left dog clutch is slide to the left by mean of the lever mechanism, its teeth are engaged with
those on the clutch gear and we get direct mechanism. Same dog clutch when slide to right,
makes contact with second gear and second gear is obtained. Similarly, movement of right Dog
clutch to the left results in Lower gear and movement of the same dog clutch to the right results
in reverse gear.

Figure: Constant Mesh Gearbox

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Advantages:

Constant Mesh type gear box has the following advantages as compared to sliding-mesh gear
box:

1. As gears connected are to be always in mesh, no longer it is required to use straight spur
gears. Instead, helical gears are used for quieter operation.
2. Wear of dog clutch on account of engagement and disengagement is reduced because
here all teeth of dog clutch are involved as compared to two/three in case of sliding gears.

Synchro-Mesh Gear box:

This type of gear box is similar to the constant mesh-type gear box, in which all the gears
on the main shaft are in constant mesh with the corresponding gears on the lay shaft. The gears
on the lay shaft are fixed, while the gears on the main shaft are free to rotate. Its working is
similar to the constant mesh type gear box, but in former, there is one definite improvement over
the latter. This is the provision of a synchro-mesh device, which avoids the necessity of
declutching the parts, which ultimately are to be engaged, are first brought in contact with
frictional surface which equalizes the speed, after which they may be engaged smoothly.

Sketch: Sketch fig. 4.10 from Kirpal (Synchro-Mesh Gear box)

Working:

Gear B, C, D, E are free on the main and are always sin mesh with corresponding gears
on the layshaft. Thus all gears on mainshaft as well as on layshaft continue to rotate so long as
shaft A is rotating. Members F1 and F2 are free to slide on splines on the mainshaft. G1 and G2
are shaped members having internal teeth fit onto the external teeth member F1 and F2
respectively. K1 and K2 are dog teeth on B and D respectively and these also fit onto the teethof
G1 and G2. S1 and S2 are forks. T1 and T2 are the balls supported by springs. These tends to
prevent the sliding of member G1 (G2) on F1 (F2). However, when the force applied on G1 (G2)
through fork S1 (S2) exceeds a certain value, the balls are overcome and member G1 (G2) slides

32
over F1 (F2). There are usually six of these balls symmetrically placed circumferentially in one
synchromesh device. M1, M2, N1, N2, P1, P2, R1, R2 are the frictional surfaces.

For direct gear, member G1 and hence member F1 (through spring loaded balls) is slide towards
left, till cones M1 and M2 engage and friction makes their speed equal further pushing member
G1 to left causing it to override the balls and gat engaged, with dog K1. Now, the drive to main
shaft is direct from main shaft B via F1 and splines. If G1 is pushed too quickly that there is not
enough time for synchronizing a clash may occur. Similarly, for the second gear, the members F1
and G1 are slide to right, so that finally internal teeth on G1 are engaged with L1. Then drive to
main shaft will be from B via U1, U2, C, F and splines. Main advantage of this gear box is that
double clutching is not necessary.

Differential Gear Box:

When car is taking a turn, the outer wheels will have to travel a greater distance as
compared to inner wheels, in the same time. If the car has a solid rear axle only, and no other
device, there will be tendency of wheels to skid. Therefore, if the wheel skidding is to be
minimized then a mechanism should be incorporated in the rear axle, which will reduce the
speed of inner wheels, increase speed of the outer wheels while taking turn and maintain same
speed of both the wheels, when vehicle goes straight ahead, on the road. Such a device, which
serves above mentioned functions is called ‘differential mechanism or gear box’.

To the crown gear of the final drive, is attached a cage, which carries a cross pin or
spider. Two sun gears mesh with two or four planet pinions, on axle half shaft gears. Crown
wheel is turned on the rotating half shafts.

Sketch: Sketch fig. 11.30 from S.S.Ratan (differential gear box).

Working:

The shaft S is driven by the engine through the gearbox and has a bevel gear pinion A keyed to
it. The bevel pinion meshes with a bevel wheel B which turns loosely on the hub of the gear C.
Shaft S1 and S2 from rear axle to which are fixed the rear wheels of automobile. Gears C and are
33
keyed to the shaft S1 and S2 respectively. C and D gear with equal bevel pinions E and F which
are free to rotate on their respective axes. Thus wheel B carries two bracket that support the
bearings for gear S E and F. Gears E and F also do not rotate about their own axes. They act just
like keys to transmit motion from B to C and D. Thus, C and D, which are keyed to shaft that
carry the wheels, rotate at the same speed as B. When a turn is taken, E and F rotate about their
own axes and the system works as an epicyclic gear giving two output at C and D with one input
at B.

When vehicle is going straight, cage and inner gears rotate as a single unit and the two half-
shafts rotate at same speed. In this case, there is no relative motion between two differential
gears. To understand what happens when the vehicle takes turn, assume the cage is stationary,
then turning one gear will cause the other to rotate in the opposite direction, angular velocities
being same.

Now, consider if a vehicle is taking a right turn the right wheel will be retarded and its
speed reduces by ‘n’ rpm. Then by above action of differential, the speed of left wheel will be
increased by ‘n’ rpm.

Hence resultant speed of the left wheel will be (N + n) and that of the right wheel will be (N – n).

Questions:

1) Why gear box is crucial in transmission system?

2) What is triple clutch gear box transmission? Who developed this technology? Explain
with detailed specification .
3) Compare AMT, CVT, DSG. In which cars these 3 technologies are used? Which
technology is more reliable of all ?

34
Experiment – 6

Aim: To determine the ‘node point’ and ‘natural frequency’ of two rotor system.

Theory:

The rotor system consists of a shaft having two rotors mounted at each of its end.
Torsional vibrations occur in the shaft, only when the directions of rotation of two rotors is
different. If the direction of rotation is same, then shaft rotates with zero frequency. This
behavior is called zero mode behavior. When we give torque to two rotors in opposite direction,
it is observed that torsional vibrations are set up and at one point, the amplitude of vibrations is
zero. This is called as ‘node point’.

Let, node point is located at distance la from end A of shaft, and it is located at distance lb from
end B of shaft. As node is a fixed point, we can consider the system to be made up of two shafts,
which are different.

Natural frequency of oscillations, (ωn) is given by

Where, = Torsional stiffness coefficient (Nm/rad)

= T/θ = Torque required per unit twist.

I = moment of inertia of disc about shaft axis.

From torsion formula, we have,

Where , G = Modulus of rigidity of shaft.

35
 l = length of shaft

J = Polar moment of Inertia

Sketch: Sketch fig 24.5 from R.S.Khurmi (two rotor system)

Let, ‘N’ be the node i.e. a section which remains undisturbed by vibrations. Thus, for analysis
purpose the system can be treated as clamped or fixed at node point and each of the systems
vibrating with the same frequency but in opposite directions.

Let, ‘fna’ and ‘fnb’ be the frequencies of torsional vibration treating each system to the left and
right of node as a single rotor system fixed at node point.

Therefore fna =

fna =

And fnb = =

But, these frequencies have to be equal i.e. fna = fnb

Therefore

IA lA = IB lB (since G and J’s for both parts are same)

36
Also, lA + lB = l = length of shaft

Experimental Set – up:

Set-up of ‘Two rotor system’ consists of two discs (rotors) having different moment of
inertias, mounted on each end of the shaft (wire). Both the discs are free to oscillate on the ball-
bearings provided. This provides negligible damping.

Sketch: Sketch a neat diagram of the experimental set-up for a two rotor system.

Observations:

1) Diameter of rotor (Disc) A = 0.19 m

2) Diameter of rotor (Disc) B = 0.225 m
3) Diameter of shaft (wire), d = 3 mm
4) Length of wire, l = 0.98 m
5) G of shaft material = 8400 Pa
MA = 0.74 kg ; MB = 0.612 kg

Observation table:

Mass Rw IA Time of five oscillations For 5 T for 10

weight (m) (kg-m2) (sec) oscillations oscillations
Mw Tavg (sec)
(kg) (sec)
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5
0
0.2
0.2
1
1

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Calculations:

Calculations for M.I. of rotor A:

IA = M A

IB = MB

Calculations of position of node point:

IA lA = IB lB

lA + lB = l

Sr. IA IB lA lB
No. (kg-m2) (kg-m2) (m) (m)
1
2
3
4
5

As moment of inertia of rotor A increases length lA decreases, thus node point shifts towards
rotor A.

Calculations of torsional stiffness:

= Torsional stiffness =

Calculations of theoretical time period:

T = 2π

38
Results:

Sr. Texperimental Ttheoretical

No. (sec) (sec)
1
2
3
4
5

Conclusion:

1. Texperimental and Ttheoretical are approximately same (error introduced may be because of
manual and experimental errors).
2. As moment of inertia of rotor A increases, length LA decreases, thus node point shifts
towards rotor A.
Questions:

1. Give the applications where natural frequency of vibration is important.

2. How torsional vibrations of a shaft can be reduced?
3. Explain the formation of nodes with 3 rotor system.

39
Experiment – 7

Aim: To study the damped torsional vibrations and to determine damping coefficient.

Theory:

Damped Vibrations:

When an elastic body is set in vibratory motion, the vibrations die out after some time
due to the internal molecular friction of the mass of body and the friction of the medium in which
it vibrates. The diminishing of vibrations with time is called as ‘damping’. External damping can
be increased by using a damper or a dashpot. A dashpot has a piston which moves in a cylinder
filled with some liquid. Shock absorbers, fitted in the suspension system of a motor vehicle
reduce the movement of the springs when there are sudden shocks, thus, damping out the
bouncing which would have occurred otherwise.

Sketch: Sketch a free body diagram showing a spring and dashpot system.

Viscous damping force, Fd is proportional to the velocity and can be expressed by the equation,

Where, c = coefficient of viscous damping

V= = dx/dt = velocity of oscillations of mass at time ‘t’ (m/s).

f= = acceleration of mass at time ‘t’ (m/s2).

Now, forces acting on the masses are:

1. Inertia =m (upwards)

2. Damping force = (upwards)

3. Spring force (restoring force) = sx (upwards)

For equilibrium, Σ Forces on body = 0

40
m + + sx = 0

This is a differential equation of second order and solution of this equation is of the form,

Where, A and B are arbitrary constants and 1, 2 are the roots of auxiliary equation.

Roots of this equation are:

The ratio of (c/2m)2 to (s/m) represents the degree of dampness provided in the system, and its
square root is known as ‘damping factor’ or damping ratio (ξ).

Thus, damping coefficient c = 2ξ

When, ξ =1 ; the damping is known as critical damping. The corresponding value of damping
coefficient c is denoted by cc.

Thus under critical damping conditions,

cc = 2 = 2mωn

ξ = c/ cc = Actual damping coefficient/ critical damping coefficient

Thus, when ξ =1, the damping is critical

ξ > 1, the system is over- damped.

41
 ξ < 1, the system is under-damped

Sketch: Sketch a neat labelled figure showing logarithmic decrement.

Logarithmic decrement:

It is observed that the ratio of two successive oscillations is constant in an under-damped

system. Natural logarithm of this ratio is called logarithmic decrement, and it is denoted by ‘δ’.

Observations:

1. Moment of inertia of disc, I = 0.152 kg-m2.

2. G, modulus of rigidity for shaft = 84 Gpa
3. Diameter of the shaft = 0.00475 m.
4. Length of shaft, L = 1.03 m.

Cc = critical coefficient of damping

= 2×

Observation table:

Sr. xo xn N Depth of δ c
No. (mm) (mm) immersion (N/m/s)
1
2
3

42
4
5

Calculations:

Calculate ξ using

Calculate c (coefficient of damping) using ξ = c/ cc

Plot c Vs x

Conclusion:

From the graph of coefficient of damping Vs depth of immersion, it is observed that

value of (c) linearly increases, as depth of immersion increases.

Questions:

1. Give practical examples of shaft under torsion.

2. What is importance of undamped, critically damped and overdamped system? Justify
using practical examples.
3. What are different dampers used to reduce to amplitude of vibrations? Explain any one.

43