Experiment No 1

Flywheel is a solid disc mounted on the shaft of machines such as turbines, steam
engines, diesel engines etc. When the load of such machines suddenly increases
or decreases its function is to minimize the speed fluctuations which occurs during the
working of [Link] Flywheel acquires kinetic energy from the [Link]
capacity of storing of KE (kinetic energy) depend on the rotational inertia of the
[Link] rotational inertia is called as Moment of Inertia of rotating object namely
wheels.
The moment of inertia of body is defined as the measure of object’s resistance to the
changes of its rotation.

Polar Moment of Inertia, J ( Ip )

The Polar Moment of Inertia is a geometric property of a cross section. Physically, it is a
measure of how difficult it is to turn a cross-section about an axis perpendicular to [Link]
means:
The greater the Polar Moment of Inertia, the more torque is require to turn the shaft by a
certain angle.
The greater the Polar Moment of Inertia, the smaller the Shear Stress required to produce
a given torque.
For the same area, the further away the material of a cross-section is away from the axis
about which it twists, the greater the Polar Moment of Inertia.
The units of J are generally expressed in: mm4 or in4.
Muhammad Uzair (BSME 01133018) 1
 Experiment No 2
A belt and pulley system is characterized by two or more pulleys in common to a belt. This
allows for mechanical power, torque, and speed to be transmitted across axles. If the
pulleys are of differing diameters, a mechanical advantage is realized.

Pulley systems are used when there is a need to transmit rotary motion. The
diagram below shows a simple system comprised of two pulley wheels and a
belt. It is a simple mechanical device to winch up and down a rope. When the
motor is turned on it revolves the driver pulley wheel. The belt causes the driven
pulley wheel to rotate as well, winding out the rope.

Pulleys are used to change the speed, direction of rotation, or turning force or torque.
A pulley system consists of two pulley wheels each on a shaft, connected by a belt. This
transmits rotary motion and force from the input, or driver shaft, to the output, or driven
shaft.

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 If the pulley wheels are different sizes, the smaller one will spin faster than the larger one.
The difference in speed is called the velocity ratio.

The diagram opposite shows a small

driver pulley pulling round a larger
driven pulley. The rpm (revolutions
per minute) of the larger driven
pulley wheel will be less than the
smaller driver pulley wheel. The same
principle regarding speed of rotation
regarding gears applies to pulley
systems as well.

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 Experiment No 3
A crank is an arm attached at right angles to a rotating shaft by which reciprocating
motion is imparted to or received from the shaft. It is used to convert circular motion into
reciprocating motion, or vice-versa. The arm may be a bent portion of the shaft, or a
separate arm or disk attached to it. Attached to the end of the crank by a pivot is a rod,
usually called a connecting rod. The end of the rod attached to the crank moves in a
circular motion, while the other end is usually constrained to move in a linear sliding
motion.
The mechanism is composed of three important parts:
The crank which is the rotating disc, the slider which slides inside the tube and
the connecting rod which joins the parts together.

As the slider moves to the right the connecting rod pushes the wheel round for the first
180 degrees of wheel rotation. When the slider begins to move back into the tube, the
connecting rod pulls the wheel round to complete the rotation
In the present example, a flexible body is used for the connection rod. The sliding mass is
not allowed to rotate and three revolute joints are used to connect the bodies. While
each body has six degrees of freedom in space, the kinematical conditions lead to one
degree of freedom for the whole system. A slider crank mechanism converts circular
motion of the crank into linear motion of the slider. In order for the crank to rotate fully
the condition L> R+E must be satisfied where R is the crank length,L is the length of the
link connecting crank and slider and E is the offset of slider . A slider crank is a RRRP type
of mechanism i.e. It has three revolute joints and 1 prismatic joint. The total distance
covered by the slider between its two extreme positions is called the path length.

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 Experiment No 5
The function of a governor is to maintain the speed of an engine within specified limits
whenever there is a variation of load. It maintains speed within set limits from no load on
the engine to full rated load on the engine. If a governor is to regulate satisfactorily it
must posses certain fundamental qualities. In the first instance a governor must be so
designed that the engine can develop maximum power when the sleeve reaches the
bottom of its travel. Further if the engine load is suddenly removed, the sleeve must
reach the top of its travel before the speed is excessively increased. Under normal
running conditions this sleeve should float steadily in a mean position between these
extreme limits i.e., the governor must be stable. In addition, it must be sensitive, i.e., it
must respond readily to speed change. Lastly, it must be capable of exerting sufficient
effort at the sleeve to operate the control mechanism

Types of Governors The governors may, broadly, be classified as

1. Centrifugal governors,
2. Inertia governors.

 Centrifugal Governors
In these governors, the change in centrifugal forces of the rotating masses due to change
in the speed of the engine is utilized for movement of the governor sleeve. One of this
type of governors is shown in Figure 5.1. These governors are commonly used because of
simplicity in operation.
Inertia and Flywheel Governors
In these governors, the inertia forces caused by the angular acceleration of the engine
shaft or flywheel by change in speed are utilised for the movement of the balls. The
movement of the balls is due to the rate of change of speed in stead of change in speed
itself as in case of centrifugal governors. Thus, these governors are more sensitive than
centrifugal governors.
Types of Centrifugal Governors
Depending on the construction these governors are of two types :
(a) Gravity controlled centrifugal governors, and
(b) Spring controlled centrifugal governors.
Gravity Controlled Centrifugal Governors
In this type of governors there is gravity force due to weight on the sleeve or weight of
sleeve itself which controls movement of the sleeve. These governors are comparatively
larger in size.
Spring Controlled Centrifugal Governors
In these governors, a helical spring or several springs are utilised to control the movement
of sleeve or balls. These governors are comparatively smaller in size.
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 There are three commonly used gravity controlled centrifugal governors :
(a) Watt governor
(b) Porter governor
(c) Proell governor

Watt governor does not carry dead weight at the sleeve. Porter governor and proell
governor have heavy dead weight at the sleeve. In porter governor balls are placed at the
junction of upper and lower arms. In case of proell governor the balls are placed at the
extension of lower arms. The sensitiveness of watt governor is poor at high speed and this
limits its field of application. Porter governor is more sensitive than watt governor. The
proell governor is most sensitive out of these three.
Porter governor
A schematic diagram of the porter governor is shown in Figure 5.4(a). There are two sets
of arms. The top arms OA and OB connect balls to the hinge O. The hinge may be on the
spindle or slightly away. The lower arms support dead weight and connect balls also. All
of them rotate with the spindle. We can consider one-half of governor for equilibrium.

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 Experiment No 6
A four-bar linkage, also called a four-bar, is the simplest movable closed chain linkage. It
consists of four bodies, called bars or links, connected in a loop by four joints. Generally,
the joints are configured so the links move in parallel planes, and the assembly is called
a planar four-bar linkage.[1]
If the linkage has four hinged joints with axes angled to intersect in a single point, then
the links move on concentric spheres and the assembly is called a spherical four-bar
linkage. Bennett's linkage is a spatial four-bar linkage with hinged joints that have their
axes angled in a particular way that makes the system movable

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 Experiment No 7
Rocker arm is an oscillating lever that conveys radial movement from the cam lobe into
linear movement at the poppet valve to open it. One end is raised and lowered by a
rotating lobe of the camshaft (either directly or via a tappet (lifter) and pushrod) while the
other end acts on the valve stem. When the camshaft lobe raises the outside of the arm,
the inside presses down on the valve stem, opening the valve. When the outside of the
arm is permitted to return due to the camshafts rotation, the inside rises, allowing the
valve spring to close the valve.

Rocker arms are of various types, there design and specifications are different for
different types of vehicles (bikes, cars trucks, etc). Even for same type of vehicle category
rocker arms differs in some way. Types of rocker arm also depend upon which type of
Internal-combustion engine is used in a vehicle (i.e. Push Rod Engines, Over Head Cam
Engines, etc).
A. Stamped Steel Rocker Arm- The Stamped Steel Rocker Arm is probably the most
common style of production. Rocker Arm. They are the easiest and cheapest to
manufacture because they are stamped from one piece of metal. They use a turn-on pivot
that holds the rocker in position with a nut that has a rounded bottom. This is a very
simple way of holding the rocker in place while allowing it to pivot up and down.
B. Roller Tipped Rocker Arm- The Roller Tipped Rocker Arm is just as it sounds. They are
similar to the Stamped Steel Rocker and add a roller on the tip of the valve end of the
rocker arm. This allows for less friction, for somewhat more power, and reduced wear on
the valve tip. The Roller Tipped Rocker Arm still uses the turn-on pivot nut and stud for
simplicity. They can also be cast or machined steel or aluminum.

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 C. Full Roller Rocker Arm- The Full Roller Rocker Arm is not a stamped steel rocker. They
are either machined steel or aluminum. They replace the turn-on pivot with bearings.
They still use the stud from the turn-on pivot but they don't use the nut. They have a very
short shaft with bearings on each end (inside the rocker) and the shaft is bolted securely
in place and the bearings allow the rocker to pivot.
D. Shaft Rocker Arms- The Shaft Rocker Arms build off of the Full Roller Rocker Arms.
They have a shaft that goes through the rocker arms. Sometimes the shaft only goes
through 2 rocker arms and sometimes the shaft will go through all of the rocker arms
depending on how the head was manufactured. The reason for using a shaft is for rigidity.
Putting a shaft through the rocker arms is much more rigid than just using a stud from the
head. The more rigid the valve train, the less the valve train deflection and the less chance
for uncontrolled valve train motion at higher RPM.
E. Centre Pivot Rocker Arms- The Centre Pivot Rocker Arm looks like a traditional rocker
arm but there is a big difference. Instead of the pushrod pushing up on the lifter, the Cam
Shaft is moved into the head and the Cam Shaft pushes directly up on the lifter to force
the valve down. In this case the pivot point is in the centre of the rocker arm and the Cam
Shaft is on one end of the rocker arm instead of the pushrod.
F. End Pivot (Finger Follower) Rocker Arms- The End Pivot or Finger Follower puts the
pivot point at the end of the Rocker Arm. In order for the Cam Shaft to push down on the
Rocker Arm is must be located in the middle of the rocker arm.

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 Experiment No 8
Friction is the force resisting the relative motion of solid surfaces, fluid layers, and
material elements sliding against each other
Coefficient of friction
The coefficient of friction (COF), often symbolized by the Greek letter µ, is
a dimensionless scalar value which describes the ratio of the force of friction between
two bodies and the force pressing them together. The coefficient of friction depends on
the materials used; for example, ice on steel has a low coefficient of friction, while rubber
on pavement has a high coefficient of friction. Coefficients of friction range from near
zero to greater than one.
For surfaces at rest relative to each other , where is the coefficient of static
friction. This is usually larger than its kinetic counterpart.
Belt Drive:
The belts are used to transmit power from one shaft to another by means of pulleys
which rotate at the same speed or at different speeds. The amount of power transmitted
depends upon the following factors:
 The velocity of the belt.
 The tension under which the belt is placed on the pulleys.
 The arc of contact between the belt and the smaller pulley.
 The conditions under which the belt is used.

The belt drives are usually classified into the following three groups:
Light drives. These are used to transmit small powers at belt speeds up to about 10 m/s
as in agricultural machines and small machine tools.
Medium drives. These are used to transmit medium powers at belt speeds over 10 m/s
but up to 22 m/s, as in machine tools.
Heavy drives. These are used to transmit large powers at belt speeds above 22 m/s as in
compressors and generators.
TYPES OF BELTS:
There are three main types of belts:
 Flat belt.
The flat belt as shown in Fig. .1 (a), is mostly used in the factories and workshops, where a
moderate amount of power is to be transmitted, from one pulley to another when the
two pulleys are not more than 8 meters apart.
 V- belt.
The V-belt as shown in Fig. .1 (b), is mostly used in the factories and workshops, where a
great amount of power is to be transmitted, from one pulley to another, when the two
pulleys are very near to each other.
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  Circular belt.

The circular belt or rope as shown in Fig. .1 (c) is mostly used in the factories and
workshops, where a great amount of power is to be transmitted, from one pulley to
another, when the two pulleys are more than 8 meters apart.

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 Experiment No 9
Centrifugal force (from Latin centrum, meaning "center", and fugere, meaning "to flee") is
the apparent force that draws a rotating body away from the center of rotation. It is
caused by the inertia of the body. In Newtonian mechanics, the term centrifugal force is
used to refer to one of two distinct concepts: an inertial force (also called a "fictitious"
force)
Centrifugal force, a fictitious force, peculiar to a particle moving on a circular path, that
has the same magnitude and dimensions as the force that keeps the particle on its
circular path (the centripetal force) but points in the opposite direction.
A stone whirling in a horizontal plane on the end of a string tied to a post on the ground is
continuously changing the direction of its velocity and, therefore, has an
acceleration toward the post. This acceleration is equal to the square of its velocity
divided by the length of the string. According to Newton’s second law, an acceleration is
caused by a force, which in this case is the tension in the string. If the stone is moving at a
constant speed and gravity is neglected, the inward-pointing string tension is the only
force acting on the stone. If the string breaks, the stone, because of inertia, will keep on
going in a straight line tangent to its previous circular path; it does not move in the
outward direction as it would if the centrifugal force were real.
Centrifugal force can be increased by increasing either
(1) the speed of rotation,
(2) the mass of the body, or
(3) the radius, which is the distance of the body from the centre of the curve.
Increasing either the mass or the radius increases the centrifugal force proportionally, but
increasing the speed of rotation increases it in proportion to the square of the speed; that
is, an increase in speed of 10 times, say from 10 to 100 revolutions per minute, increases
the centrifugal force by a factor of 100. Centrifugal force is expressed as a multiple of g,
the symbol for normal gravitational force (strictly speaking, the acceleration due to
gravity). Centrifugal fields of more than 1,000,000,000 g have been produced in the
laboratory by devices called centrifuges.

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 Experiment No 10
According to Newton's law an unbalanced force results in acceleration. Therefore, an
object kept on a frictionless inclined plane will move down the plane. We experience this
first hand while skiing downhill or bicycling down an incline. We know from experience
that steeper the slope, the faster the acceleration

Consider the cart shown in the figure above. The unbalanced component of the force
along the inclined plane results in the cart accelerating in that direction, i.e.
Mg sin θ= Ma
Where, M is the total mass of the cart, g is the gravitation acceleration, θ is the angle of
inclination of the plane, and a is the resulting acceleration. Therefore the acceleration on
an inclined plane is a = g sin θ.
The velocity of an object under constant acceleration will increase linearly and is:
v = v0 + a t,
and, the distance s it travels in that time is given by
s = v0t + 1/2 a t2.

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 Experiment No 11
Couplings are used to connect two shafts for torque transmission in varied applications. It
may be to connect two units such as a motor and a generator or it may be to form a long
line shaft by connecting shafts of standard lengths say 6-8m by couplings. Coupling may
be rigid or they may provide flexibility and compensate for misalignment. They may also
reduce shock loading and vibration. A wide variety of commercial shaft couplings are
available ranging from a simple keyed coupling to one which requires a complex design
procedure using gears or fluid drives etc. However there are two main types of couplings:
Rigid couplings
Flexible couplings
Rigid couplings
Rigid couplings are used for shafts having no misalignment while the flexible couplings
can absorb some amount of misalignment in the shafts to be connected. In the next
section we shall discuss different types of couplings and their uses under these two broad
headings.
Since these couplings cannot absorb any misalignment the shafts to be connected by a
rigid coupling must have good lateral and angular alignment. The types of misalignments
are shown

Flexible coupling Can accommodate some misalignment and impact. A large variety of
flexible couplings are available commercially and principal features of only a few will be
discussed here.
Oldham coupling These couplings can accommodate both lateral and angular
misalignment to some extent. An Oldham coupling consists of two flanges with slots on
the faces and the flanges are keyed or screwed to the shafts. A cylindrical piece, called the
disc, has a narrow rectangular raised portion running across each face but at right angle
to each other. The disc is placed between the flanges such that the raised portions fit into
the slots in the flanges. The disc may be made of flexible materials and this absorbs some
misalignment. A schematic representation is shown

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