6.5 EFFECTS OF ADDING A POLE TO THE FORWARD-PATH TRANSFER FUNCTION The addition of a pole at s = —4 to the forward-path transfer function of the prototype transfer function gives : iasannpcctie treats 3(s+ 2Cu,) (1 T's) ‘The derivation of the bandwidth of the closed-loop system with G(s) as given above is quite laborious and difficult. In general, the effect of adding a pole to the forward- path transfer function is to make the closed-loop system less stable, while decreasing the bandwidth, For large values of T’, the unit-step response reveals the following: Gls) = 1, The rise time increases with the decrease of bandwidth. 2, The larger values of resonant peak also correspond to a larger maximum overshoot in the unit-step response, 6.6 POLAR PLOT Polar plot is a graphical method of plotting the open-loop frequency response GH (ju) in polar co-ordinates. The development of polar plots is the pre-requisite for developing the Nyquist diagrams, Let us consider a negative feedback contre system having an open-loop transfer func- ton, 1 OH) = Tare Putting ¢ = jw, we get 1 GHG) = ary ‘The magnitude and phase of the function GH (ju) are given by 1 GH (jw)| = [GH Ge)l Vit du)? o= 4 GHUw) = tan" (01) Table 6.1 is now constructed giving the magnitude |GH(jw)| and the phase ¢ for different values of w, We will demonstrate one entry in the table namely for a = 20. GH(j20) = its 1 . = Vihar = 0.45/-63.4| Using the _ Disosiwith » ans = loop frequency response data are plott Which is as shown in Fig. 6.5. 4m GH Fig. 6.5 Polar plot for G(s) As a second example, let us consider a neg: open-loop transfer function ve feedback control tn 100 100 G(s)H(s) s?+10s+ 100 (s+ 5+ 98.66)(s+5—jRe0e Substituting, « = ju, we get GH\ 1. ae NDE Gar +5 + 78.68) Ga + 6 — FR 100 5+ 7(866+a)) b+ jw — SOO ‘The magnitude and phase of the above function GH (jw) is as follows 100 ¥ IGHG2) ~ TSO y Beeps + wo — 8 a 8.66 + =1 (eS $= £ GHGe) = ~tan? (MES ) = ( by finding |GH Uw)| and ¢ for various jis now constructed wi‘Re Git Fg. 6.6 Polor pict for G(s) = arias. ‘The polar plots form the basis for drawing the Nyquist plots. Hence, asa guide, we show the rough polar plots for some standard transfer functions. im GH jim GH oH? aaa ; Gis)» =k AUTH T SD aT aoe ReGH o h)90 Fig. 6.7 Sketches of polar plots for some standard transfer 6.7 THE NYQUIST CRITERION Tt has been demonstrated earlier that for a stable system none of the acteristic equation, Q(s) = 1+ G(s)H(s) = 0 can lie to the rig Let the function @Q(s) be rationalized, factored, and then i. _ (sn) (sm) - Ole) = 1+ CHa) = EE i: the zeros of the characteristic function and j where 21, 72 Se ee (These poles are the same as the fer function G{s)Hi(s) and at 2 term i pret a _pole is present at the orien. fiFig. 6.8 A plot ot pales and zaros of fs). Equation (6.8) is the link between Q(s) = 1+ -G(s)A[s)-plane and the s-plane. In Fig. 6.8, we have shown some arbitrary poles and zeros of Q(s) on the s-plane. Let us draw an arbitrary closed contour C about the zero z,, To an arbitrary point 0’ taken on C, draw directed line segments (vectors) from various poles and zeros as shown in Fig. 6.8. These directed line segments are shown as (#21), (8-22), #, (@—p,) and (#—py). As point 0" is rotated once around the contour C in the clockwise direction, the vector(s— 2) makes one complete clockwise revolution. Alen gi) El Os)plane or | + Gis)M{s)-plane Ag. 6.7 The (a) plane.(BPE Comtroltngineering Correspondingly, as oll other differcuce voctors are external to the path , they make ne net revolutions an the s-plane as point Of traverses on the contour C. Thus, the right- hand side of equation (6.8) undergoes « net phase change of 360° clockwise. As a result, Q(s) = 14-G(s)H(s), which is a vector, must also experience a net phase change of 360° clockwise. Fig. 6.9. demonstrates the path traced on the 1+G(s)H(s)-plane corresponding to one rotation of the point 0 on the s-plane. The significance of the analysis is to realize that the encirclement of a zere on the s-plane corresponds to the encirclement of the origin: on the 1 + G(s) H(s)-plane. 1} Aen Gs) GtE\H(s)-plase Re Gis) 1+ Origin of the plot for | + €(s)H(s) Fig. 6.10 The djs) (s)-plone The G(s)H(s)-plane could be obtained from 1+ G(s)H(s)-plane by subtracting one from both the sides of equation (6.8). — (841) (s — 52) (9 — mn) _ ‘That is, Gls)H{s) ban GonGant 1 The plot on G(s)H(s)-plane is identical to that on | + G(s)H{(s)-plane except that the origin for 1+ G{s}H(s) is shifted to the left by one. To be precise, it Is at (-1+ 30). ‘The same is illustrated in Fig. 6.10. Thus, if a zero of Q(x) on the right-half of the s-plane is encircled, we will have one encirclement around (—1 + j0) point on the G(s)H(s)-plane. Let us next take a larger contour C" enclosing two zeros of Q(s). Then, the two directed line segments or the vectors (#— 21) and (* — 29) to the point 0" are rotated by 360° as the point 0” is rotated clockwise once. Thus, G(s)H(s) experiences two complete clockwise revolutions about (-1+ 0) point. Thus, for each zero of Q(s) encircled by the comtour en the a-plane, the plot of G(s)4(s) encircles the (-1-+ 70) point once. On the otherhand, if © new contour is defined so that one pole and two zeros of Q)(s) are enclosed, then net rotation on the G(s)H(s)-plane is 360 x 2~ 360° = 360° (as the pole appears in the denominator of Qs), clockwise encirclement of a pole results in an anticlockwise encirclement af (—1 + j0) point on the G(s)H(s)-plane). Finally, let us take a contour absda that encloses the entire right-half s-plane as shown in Fig. 6.11, thus enclosing all zeros and poles of Q(s) that may be on the right-half ofFrepemcy domain Analgnis [AS the s-plane. As & consequence of the theory of complex variables, it is necessary that ‘the contour abcde must not pass through any poles and zeros of Q(s). When the results previously discussed are applied to the contour abeda, the following conclusions are made. je Aig. 6.11. The right-half of the s-plane enclosed by Ihe Infinite somickcie, 1. There may be net clockwise encirclements around the point (—1+ j0). In that case, the system must be unstable because the plot shows that there ara an excess of zeros ‘of Q(s) on the right-half of the s-plane. 2. There may be no net encirclements around the point (1+ j0). Here, the system thay be stable if there are no zeros and no poles of Q{s) on the right-half s-planc, However, it is possible that there are an equal number of poles and zeros of Q(s} on the right-half of the s-plane in which case the system would be unstable. 3. There may be net anticlockwise encirclements around the point (-1+ 0). In that case, there are poles of Q(s) on the right-half of the s-plane, but there might also be zeros of Q(s) on the right-half of the s-plane, only fewer in number. For case 2 and case 3, additional tests are necessary to ascertain the stability or the instability of the system. One way out is, to determine the number of poles of G(s)H(s) of Q(s) on the right-half of s-plane. ‘The essence of the above three cases can be represented by the Nyquist criterion expressed mathematically as Z=P+N(SHB) Control ‘Engincening where, 2 = Number of seros of Q[s) or the roots of the characteristic ‘equation on the right-half s-plone, N = Net encirclements around the point (—1 + 70). Clockwise encirclements are taken as positive and anticlockwise encirclements as negative, P = Number of poles of G(s)H(s) or Q(s) on the right-half of the s-plane. For closed-loop stability, 2 must be zero. Z will be zero if both P and N are zero or when P = —N. 6.7.1 Procedure for using Nyquist Criterion Step 1: Plot the poles of G{s)H(s) on the seplane. Then find P. Step 2: Perform the conformal mapping or find the image of the contour abeda encles- ing the right-half of s-plane on the G(s)H(s)-plane and then determine the number of encirclements of the -1 + j0 point. If the poles of G(s)(s) lie at the origin of the s-plane, then they are taken to the left- half of the s-plane by drawing an indent efa of radius, r —+ 0 as shown in the Fig. 6.12. ‘Then, we find the number of encirclemonts made by the image of the contour abedefa about (1+ 70) point on the GH(s)-plane. oa) plane Fig. 6.12 The contour abede fa thal Includes the poles at the origin to the loft-holt of the s-piane,‘Since both the poles of G(s) H(s) lie on the left-balf of the plane, P = 0. p2: To find the image of the contour abeda in GH(s)-plane and N: ion I: To find image of path ab:ay + dim GH(j0) = 5/0" | (point a’) Jim GH(j0) =0/-190° (point b’) | The net angular variation from point a’ to poi —180". Henee, can lie only in two quadrants fabing ths argue ices ant jim GH 1 ——$<—_—_— Section {i To find the image of path bed Put s= lim Re* in G(s)H(s) R-0 Here, 6 changes from +20°— 0° — —90°. : ") = i 10 Then. fim, GHURE) = 08. Tae ra) (Rema) 10Frequency domain Asalyeis SL, Hence, the infinite semicircle bed on the s-planc is mapped to the origin of the G(s)H(s)-plane, Since, we are interested only in the encirclement of (—1 + 70), the angles of the points ',¢ and d’ in the GH(s)-plane have no significance. jimGit Ped san GisH(s)-plans: 180°. phew 50? Section HE To find the image of path de Path do’ is the mirror image of the path a’! with respect to the real axis. fw Git The complete rough Nyquist plot is as shown in Fig. Ex. 6.5. ‘GHig}plane= (s+ 2) G(s)H(s) = eile ae Step 1: Plot the poles of G(s)H(s) on the s-plane. We find that one pole of G(s) H(s) lies to the right- half of the s-plane. Hence, P = 1 Step 2: To find the image of the contour abcda in the G(s)H(s)-plane and N: += jo— s= je.ar + Es, GHGs) =2/-10 (point a) ‘lim, GHGs) = O(a (paint) “The net anguiar variation from point a! to point Y is 00° ~ (=160") = 90°, Hence, c Beal locm is confined only te the Sd quadrant where the ingle varies fram ~150" samc(BEA) Cont tingineering The above analysis implies that the infinite semicircle bed on the s-plane maps to the origin of the Gif(s)-plane. Since, we are interested in the encirclements of (~14j0) point and not on the encitelements of the —~!82° origin of the GHf(s}-plane, the angles of the points 4 ¢ and d’ have no significance while mapping. Section iif: To find the image of path de fimGHt -710" og GoiKeroase pron 0" Path d'e’ is the mirror image of the path a’b! with respect to the real axis, eer nn eae? a0 . Ex. 6.6. ‘The complete Nyquist plot is as shown in Fig, 90" Aig. Exd.d GAsbiA(s} plane Re GH From Pig. Bx.6.6, we find that (—1 + j0) point is encircled once in the anticlockwise direction. Hence, N = =1. The Nyquist stability criterion is 2 = P4+N. Hence, Z = 1=1 = 0. This means that ne roots of the characteristic equation or the closed-loop poles lie to the right-half of the s-plane. Hence, closed-loop control system is stable. However, it is desired to inform the reader that the open-loop control system is unstable as P = 1,item x Vote 100 /—tan-! w — tan-! ¥ — tan-} = +4 +9 =M/a Ban = 100 ment T+ Vat +4 +9 a= 4 GH(jw) = ~ tanta — tan“? — tant S dim Git(jw) = "2 for (point a!) lim GH(jw) =0/—270° {point o') The net angular change from point a! to point is —270° — (0°) = GH (jw) locus lies in the three quadrants where the angle changes froFregueaeyrdomain Analysis (BRT) « = O/-30 0/270" — 0 — +270" wie td ‘The above annlysis implies that the infinite semicircle bed on the splane is mapped onto the origin of the GH(s)-plane. Since, we are interested in the encirclements of (1430) peint and not on the encirelements of the origin of the GH(s)-plane, the angles of the points ,¢’ and d’ have been left out while performing conformal mapping. Section TE To find the image of path da Path a’ is the mirror image of the path a’ with respect to the real axis, fim GH Fil = a Ge) F(s)-plane The complete Nyquist plot is as shown in the Big. Ex. 6.7. 4 im GH 210" Gls) ia) plane =? Fig. Ex.6.7> Sse > tan=? [= 1) Dhar -+ ew (2— ws?) re = 'Fe$=3] - me = De + o(2 —w =O w? = 11 as w= ¥11 rad/sec, Hence, My = |GHGw)_ virFrequency demain Analysis (BBO) A negative feedback control system is characterized by an open-loop transfer function, 5 a(s+1)" Thvestigate the closed-loop stability of the system sing Nyquist stability eriterian. G(s)H(s) = ‘@ Solution Step 1: Plot the poles of G(s) H(s} on the s-plane. ‘The pole at the origin is taken to the left-half of the oe plane by drawing an indent of zero radius around this pole as shown in Fig, Ex. 6.8{a). Sinoe, the pole at the origin is taken to the left-half of the plano, P = 0. Step 2: To find Ns ig. x68 Section I To find the image of path ab je Fig. Ex.) Moditled nighthalf of the s-plane that takes the pole at the ongin to the loft-holt of tho s-plaone.ee, Oo Henee, the infinite semicircle bed on the s-plane maps onto the origin of the GH(s)- plane. Section Hi; To find the image of path de Path ae’ is the mirror image of the path a’b’ with respect to the real axis. Section [V: To find the image of path efa Pot ¢= lim rei in G(s)H(s), where ¢ changes from ~00" — 0? —+ 490°. . . 5 1) ——— a fiat GH (re) = tin ape A) 5 = rei? = 00/3 0 (OP — OF — - 90° te tf ta ‘The complete Nyquist plot is as shown in Fig. Ex, 6.8(c). AmGH Gis)Fi(s)-plane -50" Aig. Ex.6.8(¢) Complete Nyquist plat. Since, -1 + 70 point is not encircled by the plot, N = 0. Hence, Z=P+Ne0¢0=0 Henee, the closed-loop control system is stable. Let us rework the problem by including the pole at the origin to the right-half of the plane. The modified right-half of the s-plane or the contour abedefa is a4 shown in the Fig, Ex. 6.8(d),(BDRL Comte Engineering ‘The mapping of sections eb, bed and de onto the G{s)H(s)-plane remain same as before. Mapping of section efa: Put s= lim rel? in G(s) H(s), where 4 changes from —90° + —180° + —270°. . . 5 : ao Hi, GH re) = lin ae ree TY a 78 ware xt = old Fig. Ex.6.8e) ‘The complete Nyquist plot is as shown in Fig. Ex. 6.8{¢). Sinee, -1 + j0 point is encircled by the plot once in the anticlockwise direction, Nw —1, Nyquist criterion: Z = P+ N. = £el-1=0 Hence, the closed-loop control system under investigation is stable.TB Contr trgiering : i Hence, GH(ju) = te) 2 [008 x TT [180° — tan’ pce come essed i lim, GH (jue) = 00 (270? (point a’) lim, GH(je) = 0 {180° (point 6) Section Jf: To find the image of path bed Put = fim Re in GH(s}, where @ changes from +90° ~ 0° — —90°, Then, jim GH(Re*) = jim Say in geos =0/-00 = Ofe 1s O° = 180° Ww te id ‘Thus, path bed on the splane conforms onto the origin of G(s)H(s)-plane,Using Nyquist stability criterion, investigate the closed-loop stability of n negative feedback control system whose open-loop transfer function is given by, 5 StH) = # Solution Step 1: Plot the poles of G(s)H(s) on the s-plane. ” The pole at the origin is taken to the left-half of the s-plane by modifying the right-lalf of the s-plane as shown in Fig. Ex. 6.10{a). o ‘Thus, there is one pole to the right-half of the 4 a-plane and hence P = 1. s-plane Fig. Ex.6.10(q) Step 2: To find N. Section £ To find the image of path ab Putting 3 = jw in GH(s), we get ‘: 5 GH Sees Gel = Fa) Please note that, A-jBes/d?+ jrtan (9)