Terminology

If rapid combustion occurs in a confined space, enormous overpressures can build up, causing
major structural damage and flying debris. The sudden release of energy from a "detonation" can
produce a shockwave, either in open air or in a confined space. If the spread of flame is at
subsonic speed, the phenomenon is sometimes called a "deflagration", although looser usage calls
both phenomena "explosions".

Dust explosions may be classified as being either "primary" or "secondary" in nature. Primary dust
explosions may occur inside process equipment or similar enclosures, and are generally controlled
by pressure relief through purpose-built ducting to the external atmosphere. Secondary dust
explosions are the result of dust accumulation inside a building being disturbed and ignited by the
primary explosion, resulting in a much more dangerous uncontrolled explosion that can affect the
entire structure. Historically, fatalities from dust explosions have largely been the result of
secondary dust explosions.[2]

Conditions required

Diagram showing the five requirements for a dust explosion

There are five necessary conditions for a dust explosion:[3]

A combustible dust

The dust is dispersed in the air at a sufficiently high concentration

There is an oxidant (typically atmospheric oxygen)

There is an ignition source

The area is confined—a building can be an enclosure

Sources of dust

1878 stereograph rendering of the Great Mill Disaster

Mount Mulligan mine disaster in Australia 1921. These cable drums were blown 50 feet (15 m)
from their foundations following a coal dust explosion.

Aftermath of 2008 explosion at Imperial Sugar in Port Wentworth, Georgia, US

Many common materials which are known to burn can generate a dust explosion, such as coal and
sawdust. In addition, many otherwise mundane organic materials can also be dispersed into a
dangerous dust cloud, such as grain, flour, starch, sugar, powdered milk, cocoa, coffee, and pollen.
Powdered metals (such as aluminum, magnesium, and titanium) can form explosive suspensions in
air, if finely divided.

Explosive dust can arise from activities such as transporting grain, and grain silos have often been
demolished violently. Mining of coal leads to coal dust, and flour mills likewise have large amounts
of flour dust as a result of milling. A gigantic explosion of flour dust destroyed a mill in Minnesota
on May 2, 1878, killing 18 workers at the Washburn A Mill and another four in adjacent
buildings.[4] A similar problem occurs in sawmills and other places dedicated to woodworking.

Since the advent of industrial production–scale metal powder–based additive manufacturing (AM)
in the 2010s, there is growing need for more information and experience with preventing dust
explosions and fires from the traces of excess metal powder sometimes left over after laser
sintering or other fusion methods.[5] For example, in machining operations downstream of the
AM build, excess powder liberated from porosities in the support structures can be exposed to
sparks from the cutting interface.[5] Efforts are underway not only to build this knowledgebase
within the industry but also to share it with local fire departments, who do periodic fire-safety
inspections of businesses in their districts and who can expect to answer alarms at shops or plants
where AM is now part of the production mix.[5]

Although not strictly a dust, paper particles emitted during processing - especially rolling,
unrolling, calendaring/slitting, and sheet-cutting - are also known to pose an explosion hazard.
Enclosed paper mill areas subject to such dangers commonly maintain very high air humidities to
reduce the chance of airborne paper dust explosions.

In special effects pyrotechnics, lycopodium powder[2] and non-dairy creamer[6] are two common
means of producing safe, controlled fire effects.
To support rapid combustion, the dust must consist of very small particles with a high surface area
to volume ratio, thereby making the collective or combined surface area of all the particles very
large in comparison to a dust of larger particles. Dust is defined as powders with particles less than
about 500 micrometres in diameter, but finer dust will present a much greater hazard than coarse
particles by virtue of the larger total surface area of all the particles.

Concentration

Below a certain value, the lower explosive limit (LEL), there is insufficient dust to support the
combustion at the rate required for an explosion.[7] A combustible concentration at or below 25%
of the LEL is considered safe.[8] Similarly, if the fuel to air ratio increases above the upper
explosive limit (UEL), there is insufficient oxidant to permit combustion to continue at the
necessary rate.

Determining the minimum explosive concentration or maximum explosive concentration of dusts

in air is difficult, and consulting different sources can lead to quite different results. Typical
explosive ranges in air are from few dozens grams/m3 for the minimum limit, to few kg/m3 for the
maximum limit. For example, the LEL for sawdust has been determined to be between 40 and 50
grams/m3.[9] It depends on many factors including the type of material used.

Oxidant

Typically, normal atmospheric oxygen can be sufficient to support a dust explosion if the other
necessary conditions are also present. High-oxygen or pure oxygen environments are considered
to be especially hazardous, as are strong oxidizing gases such as chlorine and fluorine. Also,
particulate suspensions of compounds with a high oxidative potential, such as peroxides,
chlorates, nitrates, perchlorates, and dichromates, can increase risk of an explosion if combustible
materials are also present.

Sources of ignition

There are many sources of ignition, and a naked flame need not be the only one: over one half of
the dust explosions in Germany in 2005 were from non-flame sources.[7] Common sources of
ignition include:
electrostatic discharge (e.g. an improperly installed conveyor belt, which can act like a Van de
Graaff generator)

friction

electrical arcing from machinery or other equipment

hot surfaces (e.g. overheated bearings)

fire

self-ignition

However, it is often difficult to determine the exact source of ignition when investigating after an
explosion. When a source cannot be found, ignition will often be attributed to static electricity.
Static charges can be generated by external sources, or can be internally generated by friction at
the surfaces of particles themselves as they collide or move past one another.

Mechanism

Dusts have a very large surface area compared to their mass. Since burning can only occur at the
surface of a solid or liquid, where it can react with oxygen, this causes dusts to be much more
flammable than bulk materials. For example, a 1 kilogram (2.2 lb) sphere of a combustible material
with a density of 1 g/cm3 would be about 12.4 centimetres (4.9 in) in diameter, and have a surface
area of 0.048 square metres (0.52 sq ft). However, if it were broken up into spherical dust particles
50 µm in diameter (about the size of flour particles) it would have a surface area of 120 square
metres (1,300 sq ft). This greatly-increased surface area allows the material to burn much faster,
and the extremely small mass of each particle allows them to catch on fire with much less energy
than the bulk material, as there is no heat loss to conduction within the material.

When this mixture of fuel and air is ignited, especially in a confined space such as a warehouse or
silo, a significant increase in pressure is created, often more than sufficient to demolish the
structure. Even materials that are traditionally thought of as nonflammable (such as aluminum), or
slow burning (such as wood), can produce a powerful explosion when finely divided, and can be
ignited by even a small spark.

Demonstration of an open-air dust explosion

Experimental setup
Finely-ground flour is dispersed

Cloud of flour is ignited

Fireball spreads rapidly

Intense radiant heat has nothing to ignite here

Fireball and superheated gases rise

Aftermath of explosion, with unburned flour on the ground

Effects
A dust explosion can cause major damage to structures, equipment, and personnel from violent
overpressure or shockwave effects. Flying objects and debris can cause further damage. Intense
radiant heat from a fireball can ignite the surroundings, or cause severe skin burns in unprotected
persons. In a tightly enclosed space, the sudden depletion of oxygen can cause asphyxiation.
Where the dust is carbon based (such as in a coal mine), incomplete combustion may cause large
amounts of carbon monoxide (the miners' after-damp) to be created. This can cause more deaths
than the original explosion as well as hindering rescue attempts.[10][11]

Protection and mitigation

This American poster during World War I warned about grain dust explosions

Much research has been carried out in Europe and elsewhere to understand how to control these
dangers, but dust explosions still occur. The alternatives for making processes and plants safer
depend on the industry.

In the coal mining industry, a methane explosion can initiate a coal dust explosion, which can then
engulf an entire mine pit. As a precaution, incombustible stone dust may be spread along mine
roadways, or stored in trays hanging from the roof, to dilute the coal dust stirred up by a
shockwave to the point where it cannot burn. Mines may also be sprayed with water to inhibit
ignition.

Some industries exclude oxygen from dust-raising processes, a precaution known as "inerting".
Typically this uses nitrogen, carbon dioxide, or argon, which are incombustible gases which can
displace oxygen. The same method is also used in large storage tanks where flammable vapors can
accumulate. However, use of oxygen-free gases brings a risk of asphyxiation of the workers.
Workers who need illumination in enclosed spaces where a dust explosion is a high risk often use
lamps designed for underwater divers, as they have no risk of producing an open spark due to
their sealed waterproof design.

Good housekeeping practices, such as eliminating build-up of combustible dust deposits that could
be disturbed and lead to a secondary explosion, also help mitigate the problem.
Best engineering control measures which can be found in the National Fire Protection Association
(NFPA) Combustible Dust Standards[12] include:

Wetting

Oxidant concentration reduction

Deflagration venting

Deflagration pressure containment

Deflagration suppression

Deflagration venting through a dust retention and flame-arresting device

Notable incidents

Dust clouds are a common source of explosions, causing an estimated 2,000 explosions annually in
Europe.[13] The table lists notable incidents worldwide.

Event Date Location Country Source material Fatalities Injuries Notes

Washburn "A" Mill explosion May 2, 1878 Minneapolis, Minnesota United States
grain dust 22 Destroyed the largest grain mill in the world and leveled
five other mills, effectively reducing the milling capacity of Minneapolis by one-third to one-half.
Prompted mills throughout the country to install better ventilation systems to prevent dust build-
up.

Milwaukee Works explosion May 20, 1919 Milwaukee, Wisconsin United States Feed
grinding plant 3 4 The blast was felt for miles around and completely leveled the
plant owned by the company.

Douglas Starch Works explosion May 22, 1919 Cedar Rapids, Iowa United States
corn starch 43 30 The blast was felt for miles around and completely leveled
the plant owned by the company.

Port Colborne explosion August 9, 1919 Port Colborne Canada grain 10 16

Blast also destroyed the steamer Quebec, which was near the grain elevator

Large terminal grain elevator in Kansas City September 13, 1919 Kansas City, Missouri
United States 14 10 Originated in basement of elevator, during a cleanup
period, and travelled up through the elevator shaft
Mount Mulligan mine disaster September 19, 1921 Mount Mulligan, Queensland Australia
coal dust 75 The series of coal dust explosions within a mine rocked the
close-knit township and was audible as far as 30 kilometres (19 mi) away.

Benxihu Colliery explosion April 26, 1942 Benxi, Liaoning Manchukuo (now China)
coal dust and gas 1,549 34% of the miners working that day were killed.
This is the world's worst-ever coal-mining accident.

Westwego grain elevator explosion December 22, 1977 Westwego, Louisiana United
States grain dust 36 13 [14]

Galveston grain elevator explosion December 27, 1977 Galveston, Texas United
States grain dust 20 [14]

Bird's Custard factory explosion November 18, 1981 Banbury United Kingdom
corn starch 9 [13][15]

Metz malt factory explosion October 18, 1982 Metz France barley dust 12 1
[16]

Harbin textile factory explosion March 17, 1987 Harbin China flax dust 58 177
[17]

Blaye grain explosion August 1997 Blaye France grain dust 11 1 Explosion
in a grain storage facility at the Société d’Exploitation Maritime Blayaise killed 11 people in nearby
offices and injured one.[13]

West Pharmaceutical Services explosion January 29, 2003 Kinston, North Carolina
United States polyethylene dust 6 38

Imperial Sugar explosion February 7, 2008 Port Wentworth, Georgia United

States sugar dust 14 42 [13]

2014 Kunshan explosion August 2, 2014 Kunshan China metal powder 146 114

Formosa Fun Coast explosion June 27, 2015 New Taipei Taiwan colored starch powder 15
498 Explosion when Holi-like colored powder was released at an outdoor music and
color festival at the Formosa Fun Coast.

Bosley wood flour mill explosion July 17, 2015 Bosley, Cheshire United Kingdom
wood flour 4 4 [18][19]

See also

Air to fuel ratio

Thermobaric weapon

References

Harding, Luke (2007-09-11). "Russia unveils the 'father of all bombs'". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-
3077. Retrieved 2019-01-19.

Eckhoff, Rolf K. (1997). Dust Explosions in the Process Industries (2nd ed.). Butterworth-
Heinemann. ISBN 0-7506-3270-4.

"OSHA Fact Sheet: Hazard Alert: Combustible Dust Explosions" (PDF). osha.gov. Retrieved 2018-
01-23.

Nathanson, Iric. "The 1878 Washburn A Mill Explosion". MNopedia. Archived from the original on
2014-04-08. Retrieved 2014-04-08.

Simpson, Timothy W. (2017-08-17), "Will My AM Part Explode? Not if you're careful. Parts built
from metallic powder require extra precautions", Modern Machine Shop.

"Detonation Films - Why Coffee Creamer?". Retrieved March 20, 2011.

"Dust explosion protection" (PDF). bartec.de. 2005. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2006-12-
10.

NFPA 69 8.3.1

"Dust explosion concentration — Physical meaning and use in risk assessment of powder
minimum explosive concentration (MEC)". PowderProcess.net.

Murray, Charles Edward Robertson; Wilberforce, Daniel; Ritchie, David (1903), Mount Kembla
Colliery Disaster 31 July 1902 – Report of the Royal Commission, together with minutes of
evidence and exhibits, New South Wales Legislative Assembly, p. xxxvi, retrieved 19 May 2019

Roberts, H C W (September 1952), Report on the causes of, and circumstances attending, the
explosion which occurred at Easington Colliery, County Durham, on the 29th May, 1951., Cmd
8646, London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office, pp. 9, 39–40, hdl:1842/5365

"List of NFPA Codes & Standards". NFPA.org.

Hought, Julian (28 February 2011). "Dust to Dust". Retrieved 2015-07-02.

"Explosion suits settled". The Day. New London, Connecticut. 24 April 1980. p. 26.

"Corn Starch Dust Explosion at General Foods Ltd, Banbury, Oxfordshire – 18th November 1981".
Great Britain: January 1983. Occupational Health & Safety Information Service, UK. ISBN 0-11-
883673-0

Explosion dans un silo d'une malterie(in French)

"47 Die, 179 Injured in Blast at Linen Mill in Northeast China". Los Angeles Times. March 17, 1987.
Retrieved 2015-07-02.

"Bosley explosion: Four missing in Wood Flour Mills blast". BBC News. July 17, 2015. Retrieved
2015-12-02.

Pilling, Kim (July 27, 2015). "Bosley Wood flour mill explosion: Fourth body found in wreckage of
building gutted by blast". Mirror Online. Retrieved 2015-12-02.

Barton, John, ed. (2002). Dust Explosion Prevention and Protection: A Practical Guide. Institution
of Chemical Engineers. ISBN 0-85295-410-7.

Eckhoff, Rolf K. (1997). Dust Explosions in the Process Industries (2nd ed.). Butterworth-
Heinemann. ISBN 0-7506-3270-4.

Price, David J. (1921). "A Disastrous Explosion of Starch Dust". American Miller and Processor.
National Miller Publications. 49 (1–6).