Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 2007, 21(3), 937–942
䉷 2007 National Strength & Conditioning Association
ACCURACY IN A VOLLEYBALL SERVICE TEST IN
RESTED AND PHYSICAL EXERTION CONDITIONS IN
ELITE AND NEAR-ELITE ADOLESCENT PLAYERS
RONNIE LIDOR,1,2 MICHAL ARNON,1 YAAKOV HERSHKO,3 GIL MAAYAN,4
1
The Zinman College of Physical Education and Sport Sciences, Wingate Institute, Netanya, Israel; 2Faculty of
Education, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel; 3The Center for the Development of Sport Giftedness, Wingate
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Institute, Netanya, Israel; 4Mosinzon High School, Hod Hasharon, Israel; 5The Ribstein Center for Sport
Medicine Sciences and Research, Wingate Institute, Netanya, Israel; 6Department of Physical Education and
Kinesiology, Brock University, St. Catharines, Ontario, Canada.
ABSTRACT. Lidor, R., M. Arnon, Y. Hershko, G. Maayan, and B.
Falk. Accuracy in a volleyball service test in rested and physical
exertion conditions in elite and near-elite adolescent players. J.
Strength Cond. Res. 21(3):937⫺942. 2007.—Volleyball coaches
use skill tests to assess the skill level of their players and to
predict the players’ future success. In a typical volleyball skill
test, the players are asked to perform the skill after a rest pe-
riod. The purpose of this study was to assess a volleyball service
test performed not only under a rested condition but also im-
mediately following physical exertion. Twenty-six male adoles-
cent volleyball players (15 elite players of a coherent team [team
A; mean age ⫽ 16.4 years] and 11 near-elite players of a high
school team [team B; mean age ⫽ 16.3 years]) performed a ser-
vice test in a rested condition and following physical exertion.
The physical exertion consisted of a block at the net followed by
a dig at the 3-m line, both performed twice, and again a block
at the net. The players performed 10 consecutive serves under
the rested condition and 5 sets of 2 consecutive serves under the
physical exertion condition. The points for each serve were al-
lotted according to predesignated target areas. The data analy-
ses indicated no differences between the teams in service per-
formances. No differences between the players’ service scores in
rested and physical exertion conditions were found. A high cor-
relation (r ⫽ 0.97) was obtained between the total score of the
test and the number of successful 7-point serves. A moderate
correlation (r ⫽ 0.69) was found for the 7-point serves score fol-
lowing exercise. It was concluded that the number of serves hit
successfully at the 7-point areas can be used by coaches as the
total score of the test. In addition, the number of successful
7-point serves performed after physical exertion can provide
coaches with relevant information on their players’ serving skill
level.
KEY WORDS. talent development, testing procedures, measure-
ment and evaluation
INTRODUCTION
oaches of young volleyball players at early phas-
C es of development often use skill tests to assess
their athletes’ skill level in the basic fundamen-
tals of the game, such as serving, passing, or
spiking (attacking). In addition, coaches use these tests
to obtain information that will be helpful in predicting
the players’ future success. Coaches can obtain instruc-
tions, norms, specific emphases, and coaching tips for
skill tests in texts on talent detection and early develop-
ment in sport (2, 6), as well as information on measure-
ment and evaluation in physical education and sport (9).
Descriptions of various volleyball skill tests can also
be found in the sport and physical education literature.
For example, some of the early skill tests focused on pass-
937
AND BAREKET FALK5,6
ing (7) and serving (3). In each of these tests only 1 basic
volleyball skill was assessed. In more recent skill tests, a
battery of fundamental volleyball skills was evaluated.
For example, Bartlett et al. (1) evaluated a test composed
of serving, receiving a ball with the forearm pass (coming
across the net), and setting a ball (coming from different
angles). Thissen-Milder and Mayhew (14) developed a
battery that combined (a) specific volleyball activities
such as spiking (throwing the ball up and hitting it into
the floor), receiving the ball with the forearm pass, and
passing the ball at a rectangle target apparatus marked
on the wall; (b) physical tests; and (c) motor tests.
One of the characteristics of these skill tests is that
the performers were asked to perform in a rested state.
In a typical test, the subjects were provided with detailed
information on how to perform the volleyball skill, in-
cluding the mechanics and techniques of that specific
skill, and then they performed the skill. In some tests
(14), the subjects were given a few practice trials with the
skill before testing began. They then rested and when
they felt ready began to perform the skill according to the
protocols of the test.
The purpose of this paper was to assess a service test
in volleyball for the use of coaches who work with young
elite players. The advantage of this service test is that
the players’ service accuracy is assessed not only while
rested but also under physical exertion settings. The ra-
tionale for the selection of a condition in which players
are asked to perform a skill (e.g., a service) following
physical exertion is that this condition reflects situations
that exist during actual games. In a typical game situa-
tion, the server performs the service act after being in-
volved in defensive or offensive maneuvers, and thus he
or she is required to perform following physical exertion.
In fact, performing after physical exertion is what is ex-
pected of volleyball players during actual games. To our
knowledge, batteries of volleyball tests that included the
service act were administered only under rested condi-
tions. It is our intention to propose a new and more chal-
lenging test for the service in volleyball.
In this respect, it has been shown that fatigue can
influence mechanisms as they operate from the input of
information to the output of behavior. More specifically,
fatigue primarily affects the central processes involved
between information receipt and the initiation of the
movement (10, 16). General body activity and moderately
high fatigue will impair performances requiring strength,
endurance, and rapid movements. Practicing in a fa-
938 LIDOR, ARNON, HERSHKO ET AL.
tigued condition will aid the individual in becoming ad-
justed to performing under such conditions. One of the
goals of the coach should be to match the conditions in
practice with those expected in actual performance, such
as in game situations. Therefore, it is of particular inter-
est to the coach to assess his or her players’ ability not
only under rested conditions but also under physical ex-
ertion conditions that reflect real game situations. It is
suggested that our proposed service test can provide the
volleyball coach with relevant information on the service
ability of his or her players in situations that would likely
occur during an actual game.
METHODS
Experimental Approach to the Problem
A more realistic skill test in ball games such as volleyball,
team handball, and water polo should reflect situations
that regularly occur in an actual game or match (4, 8).
The test should simulate a situation that the player will
probably encounter during the game. As indicated earlier,
in a typical volleyball game situation the players perform
the serve after physical exertion, such as moving rapidly
from 1 defensive or offensive position to another, passing
the ball, or jumping to block an opponent. Excluding the
first serve performed in the game or the first 1 in each
set, the players perform the serve after being involved in
intense activity, such as defensive maneuvers or attack-
ing plays. Therefore, skill tests performed by volleyball
players should be carried out not only at a rested state
but also following physical exertion. Adding the physical
exertion load to the test would probably enable volleyball
coaches to more accurately assess the skill level of their
players, because the test could take place not only under
rested conditions but also in challenging game situations.
Two teams of adolescent volleyball players were se-
lected to take part in the current study. The teams rep-
resented 2 levels of skill in volleyball: team A was com-
posed of elite players and team B was composed of near-
elite players. The reason for the inclusion of 2 teams in
the study was to examine the use of the proposed test in
young players who were at different stages of talent de-
velopment. The National Volleyball Association approved
the methods of the study and the selection of the partic-
ipants. In addition, the association’s ethics committee ap-
proved the purpose and procedures of the study.
Subjects
Subjects included 26 male adolescent volleyball players:
15 in team A and 11 in team B. Team A (mean age ⫽
16.4 ⫾ 0.82 years; mean height ⫽ 188.6 m; mean weight
⫽ 76.10 kg) were members of a coherent team that com-
peted in Division 2 for adults in Israel and had attended
a national training center (1 training camp per month)
during the previous season. There are 3 divisions of com-
petitive volleyball in Israel. Division 2 is the second best
and is composed of 10 semiprofessional clubs. Each club
plays about 25 games during the season. In addition to
its national activity, team A traveled to Europe 3 times
during the season to take part in international volleyball
tournaments. The team practiced on a daily basis and
each practice lasted about 120 minutes. The training pro-
gram was composed of individual and team volleyball fun-
damentals as well as conditioning training. The condition
program was directed by a strength and conditioning
coach who was a member of the coaching staff. Following
FIGURE 1. Designated target areas for the service test in
rested and physical exertion conditions.
observation during the training camps, participants were
recruited to the elite team by the head coach of the team.
Team B (mean age ⫽ 16.3 ⫾ 0.53 years; mean height
⫽ 177.9 m; mean weight ⫽ 69.9 kg) were members of a
high school team that competed in the national league for
Division 1 high schools in Israel. There is 1 division in
Israel in which competitive volleyball is played by high
school players (ages ⫽ 15–18 years). This division is com-
posed of 10 high schools from all over the country. Each
team plays about 20 games during the season. In our
study, the team practiced 4 times a week and each prac-
tice lasted about 90 minutes. The training program was
composed of individual and team volleyball fundamentals
as well as conditioning training. The conditioning pro-
gram was taught by the volleyball coach. All players in
teams A and B had 2–3 years of experience in a compet-
itive volleyball league.
Service Test
Figure 1 presents a volleyball court in which designated
target areas are marked for the service test. The service
test measured the accuracy of 10 volleyball serves follow-
ing a rest period and 10 volleyball serves immediately
following physical exertion.
Accuracy of serving was selected as a dependent var-
iable because it provided information on the ability of the
players to aim successfully at the opposing team’s court.
This variable has been measured in other service tests as
well (13). The designated areas in our proposed test re-
flect the notion that there are less difficult areas to hit,
such as the ones at the center of the opposite court, and
more difficult areas, such as the ones that are tangent to
the lines of the opposite court. Therefore, the less difficult
areas were given low scores (i.e., 1 and 3 points) and the
more difficult areas were given high scores (i.e., 5 and 7
points).
Service Accuracy in a Rested Condition. Players were
asked to hit 10 consecutive serves to designated areas in
the opposite court. Players could choose their preferred
position behind the service line. Serves were performed
individually, and each serve was supplied to the server
by another player. Players were allowed 8 seconds to hit
each serve. This interval time for preparation of the serve

in the tests was identical to the preparation time allowed
to volleyball players in a real game situation, according
to the official rules (5). The points for each serve were
allotted according to the designated target areas hit (Fig-
ure 1).
Service Accuracy Immediately After Physical Exertion.
Players were allowed 5 sets of 2 consecutive serves (for a
total of 10 serves) in which to hit to the designated areas
on the opposite court. Each 2-serve set was performed
following an effort designed to elevate the heart rate (HR)
to at least 150 b·min⫺1, about 75% of the players’ predict-
ed maximal HR. This was considered to be moderate to
intense exercise (11). In line with this target, the coach
of team A reported that he would expect the players to
be at about 150 b·min⫺1 after a difficult play.
The physical exertion consisted of a block at the net,
followed by a dig at the 3-m line, both performed twice,
and again a block at the net. The players performed a
block, dig, block, dig, and block. The HR of the players
was measured (using Polar M31; Polar Electro Oy, Van-
taa, Finland) immediately after completion of the physi-
cal exertion. If the HR was below 150 b·min⫺1 at the end
of the effort, players were asked to perform another set
of blocks and digs. Players could choose their preferred
position behind the service line, but it had to be identical
to the position at which they hit the serves at the rested
condition. Serves were performed individually, and the
ball for each serve was supplied to the player by another
player. Players were allowed 8 seconds to hit each serve
(16 seconds for each set). The points for each serve were
allotted according to the designated areas (Figure 1).
Procedure
On arrival to the testing area, all players read and signed
an informed consent form. They were informed that they
could withdraw from the testing at any time. Players in
team A performed the testing session twice, about 3
months apart. In each testing session, the test was per-
formed under both rested and physical exertion condi-
tions. The tests were performed in the same gymnasium
that served the players for practices and home games.
Players in team B performed the test once (in both rested
and physical exertion conditions). The test was adminis-
tered at the gymnasium that served the players for prac-
tices. Players in teams A and B performed the test under
both conditions, and thus each player acted as his own
control. The players performed the test first under the
rested condition and then under the physical exertion
condition. All service tests were administered by the play-
ers’ head coaches and their assistant coaches. In testing
phase 1, a detailed explanation on the procedures of the
test combined with 1 demonstration of the test was given
by the coaches to the players in both teams. The players
practiced the test once at a slow pace to become familiar
with its procedures and requirements. Each testing ses-
sion lasted about 2 hours.
Statistical Analyses
Results are reported for teams A and B in rested and
physical exertion conditions in each testing phase. A
2-way (Team ⫻ Condition) analysis of variance (ANOVA)
was conducted on accuracy achievements in testing phase
1 for team A and testing phase 1 for team B. Pearson
product-moment correlations were used to assess rela-
tionships between (a) the total score of the service test
and the number of successful 7-point serves performed by
all players; (b) the total score of the test and the number
ACCURACY IN A VOLLEYBALL SERVICE TEST 939
TABLE 1. Means and SD of the total score of the service test
for each team in each testing phase.
Testing phase 1 Testing phase 2
Physical Physical
Rested exertion Rested exertion
condition condition condition condition
Team A 41.13 (14.25) 39.6 (15.24) 41.86 (9.16) 40.53 (10.66)
Team B 42.27 (14.14) 42.81 (14.93)
of successful 7-point serves performed by the players in
team A and players in team B, in each testing condition,
separately; and (c) the number of successful 7-point
serves achieved in testing phase 1 and the number of suc-
cessful 7-point serves achieved in testing phase 2 by play-
ers in team A. Alpha was set at 0.05 for all statistical
analyses.
RESULTS
Statistical analyses are presented first for the service ac-
curacy achievements in both groups followed by an anal-
ysis of the 7-point serve data. Correlational analyses are
presented last.
Service Accuracy
Table 1 contains the mean ⫾ SD scores of the service test.
Accuracy scores (in percentages) for each designated serv-
ing area and each testing condition (rested and physical
exertion conditions) are presented in Figure 2 (panel A:
0-point area; panel B: 1-point area; panel C: 3-point area;
panel D: 5-point area; and panel E: 7-point area). The
2-way ANOVA revealed no significant differences for
team main effect, F2,24 ⫽ 0.21, p ⬎ 0.05 (team A: 40.3 ⫾
14.7; team B: 42.5 ⫾ 14.5) or condition main effect, F1,24
⫽ 0.02, p ⬎ 0.05 (rested condition: 41.6 ⫾ 13.9; physical
exertion condition: 40.9 ⫾ 14.9). In addition, the inter-
action was not found significant, F1,24 ⫽ 0.09, p ⬎ 0.05.
Looking at the distribution of the service accuracy scores
(see panels A, B, C, D, and E in Figure 2), a clear overlap
is observed in the results of the players in teams A and
B; players in both teams achieved similar results under
the 2 conditions.
Percentages of serves that hit each of the designated
target areas are presented in Figures 3 and 4. Figure 3
presents the percentages of serves that hit the different
target areas separately for players in team A and players
in team B in rested and physical exertion conditions. Fig-
ure 4 presents the percentages of serves that hit each
area of the service court performed by all players in the
2 conditions combined. As can be seen in Figures 3 and
4, the players preferred to aim at the 7-point areas and
were similarly successful in both rested and physical ex-
ertion conditions: 54% of the serves hit the 7-point areas,
whereas only 25% of them hit the rest of the designated
areas, namely the 5-, 3-, and 1-point areas. Twenty-one
percent of the serves missed the service targets, most
likely because the players were aiming for the 7-point ar-
eas.
The 7-Point Area Serves
The finding that more serves successfully hit the
7-point areas in comparison to the number of serves that
successfully hit the rest of the target areas (e.g., 5-, 3-,
and 1-point areas) led us to look at the distribution of the
7-point serves across service trials for all players, in com-
bined rested and physical exertion conditions. As can be
940 LIDOR, ARNON, HERSHKO ET AL.

FIGURE 3. Percentages of serves that hit the different target

areas for players in team A and team B in rested and physical
exertion conditions.

were 0.55 and 0.64, respectively. The reliability values of

team B under rested and physical exertion conditions
were 0.52 and 0.60, respectively. For both teams com-
bined, the reliability values for the rested and physical
exertion conditions were 0.52 and 0.61, respectively.
The Pearson product-moment correlations revealed a
high correlation (r ⫽ 0.97) between the total score of the
service test and the number of successful hits at the
7-point areas for all players in rested and physical exer-
tion conditions. Figure 6 presents the correlational values
between the total score of the test and the 7-point area
scores for players of the 2 teams, under the 2 conditions,
separately and combined. Based on the correlational
analyses, it was indicated that the 7-point area scores
could serve as a good predictor for the total score of the
service test.
Separate correlational analyses were conducted for
the number of 7-point serves performed successfully in

FIGURE 2. Accuracy scores (in percentages) of the designated

areas in each testing phase.

seen in Figure 5, a normal distribution of the successful

7-point serves across service trials was observed; only a
few players hit a low number of 7-point serves success-
fully and only a few players hit most of their serves suc-
cessfully at the 7-point areas during the service trials.
Most of the players were able to successfully hit about
40–60% of their service trials at the 7-point areas.
Correlational Analyses
Reliability values were calculated for each team under FIGURE 4. Percentages of serves that hit each area of the
each condition in testing phase 1. The reliability values service courts by all players. * The test was composed of two 7-
of team A under rested and physical exertion conditions point areas; 54% of the serves hit both areas.

FIGURE 5. The distribution of the 7-point area serves across
serving trials for all players in combined rested and physical
exertion conditions.
testing phase 1 (i.e., test) and in testing phase 2 (i.e., re-
test), by players in team A in rested and physical exertion
conditions. As can be seen in Figure 7, a moderate cor-
relation (r ⫽ 0.69) was reported between the number of
the 7-point serves performed successfully in testing phase
1 and the number of 7-point serves performed success-
fully in testing phase 2 under the physical exertion con-
dition. No correlation (r ⫽ 0.04) was reported between the
number of 7-point serves performed successfully in test-
ing phase 1 and in testing phase 2, under rested condi-
tions.
DISCUSSION
The players in teams A and B achieved similarly in the
service test under both conditions, namely, the rested
state and immediately following physical exertion. All
players preferred to aim the ball at the 7-point areas,
which were tangent to the far sides of the court (Figure
1). However, by aiming at the 7-point areas the players
were more likely to miss the court and not receive any
FIGURE 6. Correlational relationships between the total score
of the test and the number of successful 7-point serves per-
formed by all players.
ACCURACY IN A VOLLEYBALL SERVICE TEST 941
FIGURE 7. Correlational relationships between the successful
7-point serves performed by players in team A in testing phase
1 and testing phase 2.
points because the 7-point areas were the most difficult
target areas to hit. Despite this fact, 54% of the serves
successfully hit the 7-point areas.
Previous service skill tests in volleyball (1) required
players to serve the ball in a rested condition. In our ser-
vice skill test, the players were asked to serve not only in
a rested condition but also immediately following physical
exertion. It is suggested that it would be more effective
to also assess service ability in physical exertion condi-
tions, because often players are required to serve the ball
in similar situations during a volleyball game, particular-
ly when they are involved in a multiset game that de-
mands intense exercise activities for an extended period.
Two main observations can be made from the results
obtained in this study. First, coaches can use the number
of serves that successfully hit the 7-point areas as the
total score of the test. There were 2 rationales for this
observation: (a) the players from both teams successfully
hit the 7-point areas more times compared with the num-
ber of serves that hit the rest of the target areas, and (b)
the correlation between the total score of the test, which
was composed of the successful hits at all target areas,
and the number of successful serves that hit the 7-point
areas was very high (Figure 6). Coaches encouraged their
players to aim at the 7-point areas due to the fact that it
is much more difficult for the opposing team to success-
fully return the ball from these areas. Hitting the
7-point areas should be a priority for servers, and assess-
ment of their performance should be based mainly on
their successful service attempts to these areas.
Second, coaches should rely on the service scores
achieved by players after physical exertion, to more ef-
fectively assess the players’ service skill level as well as
to predict their future success. Two reasons are suggested
for this observation. First, the physical exertion condition
is more reliable. The highest reliability value (r ⫽ 0.69)
was found between the 7-point scores achieved after phys-
ical exertion in testing phase 1 and the 7-point scores
achieved after physical exertion in testing phase 2 among
the players in team A. Second, the physical exertion con-
dition is more realistic. Serving the ball immediately fol-
lowing physical exertion may appropriately reflect the
skills needed from players during actual game situations
(2, 12, 15). Players should prepare themselves to serve
the ball after being involved in intense short-interval
physical exertion, such as digging or attacking. A service
test that requires players to serve after physical exertion
can provide coaches with the relevant information they
942 LIDOR, ARNON, HERSHKO ET AL.
seek when assessing their players’ ability to perform well
under real game situations.
Performing the serve under physical exertion condi-
tions did not hinder the service performances of the play-
ers in both teams. We expected the players to achieve a
higher level of proficiency in the rested conditions com-
pared with the physical exertion conditions. It is specu-
lated that perhaps the rested condition was too easy for
the players. They were not challenging enough for the
players to achieve their best under this condition. How-
ever, to determine if the physical exertion conditions did
challenge the players, the service test should also be giv-
en to a more novice team (i.e., recreational players).
The 2 main benefits to our volleyball service test are
that first, the test consists of both rested and physical
exertion conditions, and second, the test is easy to ad-
minister and score. After administering the test, volley-
ball coaches can collect the players’ scores, analyze them
statistically, and carefully examine what the numbers re-
veal from both rested and physical exertion conditions.
The more data that are collected while using the proposed
service test, the more that will be understood about im-
proving any future test protocols.
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
To help coaches benefit even more from the use of the
service test, we would like to give 3 recommendations.
First, coaches should administer the service test on a reg-
ular basis during the season, namely every 2–3 months.
The information obtained from the test can serve the
coach not only as a tool of performance assessment and
prediction but also as a feedback mechanism for improv-
ing the ability as well as enhancing the skill level of his
or her players.
Second, it was found in our study that all players pre-
ferred to aim at the 7-point areas. Therefore, coaches
should teach their players to aim at the most challenging
areas of the opposite court when serving the ball, both
under rested conditions and physical exertion conditions.
Third, coaches can change the protocol of the test ac-
cording to the skill and fitness levels of their players. For
example, coaches can increase the number of block-dig
sets performed by the players before they serve the ball.
In addition, they can increase the intensity of the pre-
serving activity. However, coaches should be aware that
the value of a comparison of scores between tests with
different protocols is limited.
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Address correspondence to Prof. Ronnie Lidor, lidor@
wincol.ac.il.