Question 1

a) Dent maize 
Dent maize also known as yellow dent corn, Reid's yellow dent corn, white dent corn is a
type of field corn with a high soft starch content. It received its name because of the small
indentation ("dent") at the crown of each kernel on a ripe ear of corn. It is a variety
developed by central Illinois farmer James L. Reid. Reid and his father, Robert Reid, moved
from Brown County, Ohio to Tazewell County, Illinois in 1846 bringing with them a red corn
variety known as "Johnny Hopkins", and crossed it with varieties of flint corn and floury corn.
Most of today's hybrid corn varieties and cultivars are derived from it. This variety won a
prize at the 1893 World's Fair.

Most of the corn grown in the United States today is yellow dent corn or a closely related
variety derived from it. Dent corn is the variety used in food manufacturing as the base
ingredient for cornmeal flour (used in the baking of cornbread), corn chips, tortillas, and taco
shells. Starch derived from this high-starch content variety is turned into plastics, as well
as fructose which is used as a sweetener (high-fructose corn syrup) in many processed foods
and soft drinks.

Dent corn (Zea mays var. indentata) is a fast-growing, vertically erect, short-lived annual

plant and similar to many other varieties of Zea mays. More commonly grown to a height of
2–3 meters (6–9 feet), Zea mays typically grows with a single, hollow main stem often called
a stalk (or culm) which exhibits internodes that are cylindrical in the upper part and
alternately grooved in the lower part with a bud in the groove.

b) Flint maize/corn

Flint maize/corn (Zea mays var. indurata; also known as Indian corn or sometimes calico

corn) is a variant of maize, the same species as common corn. [1] Because each kernel has a
hard outer layer to protect the soft endosperm, it is likened to being hard as flint; hence the
name.[2] The six major types of corn are dent corn, flint corn, pod corn, popcorn, flour corn,
and sweet corn. Flint corn is named for its hard kernels, which come in a multitude of
colours

Question 2

a. Herbicides are classified into three names which are; common name, trade name and
chemical name and the following notes will different among them.

Herbicides common name

In biology, a common name of a taxon or organism (also known as a vernacular name,

English name, colloquial name, trivial name, trivial epithet, country name, popular name, or
farmer's name) is a name that is based on the normal language of everyday life; this kind of
name is often contrasted with the scientific name for the same organism, which is Latinised.
A common name is sometimes frequently used, but that is by no means always the case

Sometimes common names are created by authorities on one particular subject, in an

attempt to make it possible for members of the general public (including such interested
parties as fishermen, farmers, etc.) to be able to refer to one particular species of organism
without needing to be able to memorise or pronounce the Latinised scientific name.

Herbicides Trade name

 A trade name, trading name, or business name is a pseudonym used by companies that
don't want to operate under their registered legal name. The term for this type of
alternative name is a "fictitious" business name. Registering the fictitious name with a
relevant government body is often required.

A trade name is the official name under which an individual as a sole proprietor or a
company chooses to do business.

Herbicides Chemical name

This is a scientific name given to a chemical in accordance with the nomenclature system
developed by the International Union of Pure & Applied Chemistry, Chemical Abstracts
Service, or other authoritative agency.

b. In maize production on land preparation we have 2 types of tillage’s, primary and secondary
tillage. The following notes will differentiate between the two.

Primary tillage

Primary tillage is usually conducted after the last harvest, when the soil is wet enough to
allow ploughing but also allows good traction. Some soil types can be ploughed dry. The
objective of primary tillage is to attain a reasonable depth of soft soil, incorporate crop
residues, kill weeds, and to aerate the soil

Secondary tillage

Secondary tillage is any subsequent tillage, in order to incorporate fertilizers, reduce the soil
to a finer tilth, level the surface, or control weeds. This is done after primary cultivation.
Large clods are broken into pieces in order to attain soil tilth. The soil tilth should be fairly
rough because the maize seeds for planting are big, and this maintains soil structure so that
soil erosion is checked. The trash should be incorporated into the soil to increase soil humus
which is a source of soil nutrients. After that the ridges are now made for sowing of the
seeds.

c. Many people confuse a grain and a seed maybe because of their looks or appearance but
the fact is there is a difference the two, the following notes differentiates them.

Grain

A grain is the small edible fruit of the plant, usually hard on the outside, harvested from
grassy crops. Grains grow in clusters at the tops of mature plants, such as wheat, oats, and
rice. Depending on the type, grains have a low to moderate amount of nutrition and
digestibility for many animals. This has understandably caused many pet-owners to seek
products with zero grains.

A grain is a small edible fruit, usually hard on the outside, harvested from grassy
crops. Grains basically grow in a cluster on atop the mature plant and they include wheat,
oats, rice and barley. Because grains are generally grown on a large scale, they are
considered staple crops and they are the number one energy providers worldwide.
 Seed

A seed is defined as an embryonic plant covered in a ‘seed coat’. It is formed from the
ripened ovule of plants after fertilization. The seed contains all the nutrients required to
build a new plant!  These nutrients are dormant until the seed is germinated, or sprouted, at
which point it wakes up and becomes extremely digestible and a great supplier of nutrition
for those creatures who eat it, including our pets. ONLY germination causes the unlocking of
digestion inhibitors in the seed, making it super bio-available.

Technically speaking, we can refer to a seed as an ovule containing an embryo within, while
a grain is a fusion of the seed coat and the fruit. In some grains like peanut, the shell can be
separated from the fruit to reveal the seed. However, in other grains like corn, the seed coat
and fruit tissue cannot be separated.

A seed is defined as an embryonic plant covered in a seed coat, often containing some food.
It is formed from the ripened ovule of plants after fertilization. Seed formation completes
the reproduction cycle in seed plants, which begins with the growth of flowers and
pollination. The embryo grows from the zygote while the seed coat grows from the ovule
rind.

Question 3

Herbicides, also commonly known as weedkillers, are substances used to control

unwanted plants. Selective herbicides control specific weed species, while leaving the
desired crop relatively unharmed, while non-selective herbicides (sometimes called total
weedkillers in commercial products) can be used to clear waste ground, industrial and construction
sites, railways and railway embankments as they kill all plant material with which they come into
contact.

These herbicides are applied in different stages in crop production, some stages are discussed below.

 Preplant

Herbicides applied prior to planting. Often, this may refer to herbicides that are applied well
in advance of crop planting in order to treat existing vegetation. Preplant application is
defined as 15 days prior to planting up until the actual planting date. Only certain herbicides
can be used at this time due to plant-back restrictions. “In soybeans, for example, with
Roundup herbicide and 1 pt. of 2,4-D, you have to wait seven days until you can plant to
avoid crop injury,” Hustedde says. “Growers who don’t have that much time before planting
might switch to Gramoxone herbicide or Liberty® herbicide, which wouldn’t have this
restriction, and mix it with an Authority brand herbicide to add residual control.”

Herbicides in this group must be mixed into the surface soil before planting in order to
achieve good weed control. Usually, herbicides that must be incorporated in the soil are
highly volatile. Without incorporation, these herbicides would be lost into the air as a gas.
Read and follow the herbicide label for specific instructions regarding incorporation.
Examples of PPI herbicides are Treflan, Sutan+ and Fradicane Extra. Fumigation is the
commonly used method for preplant herbicides.

 Preemergence
 Herbicides that are applied prior to crop and/or weed emergence. The herbicides that are
considered PRE may also be referred to as 'residual' herbicides meaning that they are
applied to the soil where they provide 'extended' control of germinating or emerged
weeds. Preemergence applications are made after planting but prior to emergence. “We
recommend using a soil-applied Authority or Anthem® herbicides for residual activity and
then tank mixing it with Gramoxone or Liberty herbicide to take care of any established
weeds at application.

Herbicides in this group are usually applied immediately after planting. Preemergence
means that the herbicide is applied after the crop seeds are planted but before the crop and
weeds have emerged from the soil. This group of herbicides usually needs a rain within a few
days after application to move the herbicide from the soil surface down into the top layer of
the soil where most weed seeds are located. Some typical herbicides are Lasso, Dual, Lorox,
AAtrex and Bladex.

 Postemergence

May also be referred to as 'topical' or 'over-the-top' herbicides. Herbicides that are applied
after crop and weed emergence. Post-emergent herbicides are some of the most popular
substances for weed control. While pre-emergent herbicides work to prevent weeds from
ever growing, post-emergent herbicides work on weeds that have already grown. They
utilize a mixture of chemicals to kill the weed and ensure that it does not grow back.

This group of herbicides is applied after the weeds and crop have emerged from the soil.
These treatments can be applied in either a broadcast or directed fashion. When applying
postemergence herbicides, it is necessary to have maximum coverage of the weed with the
spray solution. Surfactants are often used with postemergence herbicides to enhance
control. For specific gallonages required and the amount, if any, of surfactant required,
consult the label. Mostly broadcasting method is used in the application of postemergence
herbicides.

 Lay-by

The herbicides commonly used at layby have both preemergence and postemergence
activity to control emerged weeds and to provide residual control for an extended duration
of time. Layby herbicides complement weed control provided by other integrated weed
management practices including cultural and mechanical weed control and use of other
herbicides including preplant-preemergence and early season postemergence herbicides.
Layby herbicides are primarily used to control broadleaf weeds in cotton.

Question 4

Agriculture and Food Security Program (GAFSP) is a demand-led and recipient-owned global

partnership dedicated to fighting hunger, malnutrition, and poverty by supporting resilient and
sustainable agriculture in developing countries that benefits and empowers poor and vulnerable
smallholder farmers, particularly women. 

Chronic hunger designates a state of long-term undernourishment. The body absorbs less food than
it needs. Although the media mostly report on acute hunger crises, globally, chronic hunger is by far
the most widespread. It usually arises in connection with poverty. Chronically hungry people do not
have sufficient money for healthy nutrition, clean water or health care.
Hidden hunger is a form of chronic hunger. Due to an unbalanced diet, important nutrients are
lacking, such as iron, iodine, zinc or vitamin A. At first glance, the consequences are not necessarily
very visible, but over the long-term these nutrient deficiencies lead to serious diseases. In particular,
children are unable to develop correctly, neither mentally nor physically. The risk of death is high.
Worldwide, two billion people suffer from chronic nutrient deficiency, including in industrialised
countries. Hidden hunger not only harms individuals, but can inhibit the overall development of an
affected region, as the efficiency and health of people decreases.

Question 5

Smallholders are small-scale farmers, pastoralists, forest keepers, fishers who manage areas varying
from less than one hectare to 10 hectares. Smallholders are characterized by family-focused motives
such as favouring the stability of the farm household system, using mainly family labour for
production and using part of the produce for family consumption.

These small farmers really contribute to the national food security in Zambia and at globe level as
well. The following are ways in which these small-scale farmers contribute to the national food
security.

 Small farmers produce most of the food that lead to national surpluses and feed the cities.
Today, small farms still provide for the food security of huge numbers of rural poor, although
many have become net buyers of food and contribute little towards feeding urban
population and this has resulted, to falling of the proportion of food staples supplied to
markets by small farm in many countries.
 Urban population shares are projected to grow strongly across the developing world, and
feeding these populations will require even more rapid growth in marketed food supplies.
While some small farms, particularly those in urban hinterlands and well-connected areas,
will supply urban areas with many high-value perishable products, the supplies of most
other foods will need to come either from farms that are large enough to generate net
surpluses or from imports.
 It follows that a food security agenda for food staples needs two pillars. One pillar is to
provide support to the many smallholders who farm largely to meet their own subsistence
needs.
 Small-scale fisheries generate income, provide food for local markets and make important
contributions to food and security. They also represent a diversity and cultural richness that
is of global significance.
 Small-scale fisheries contribute to 46 percent of global marine and inland fish catches. ln
developing countries, this share grows to 54 percent. When considering catches destined for
direct human consumption, the share contributed by small-scale fisheries increases to two-
thirds.
 Most of these farms are operated by rural smallholder farmers who are dependent on
agriculture for their economic livelihoods. However, they are constrained by lack of capital
assets that would enable them to increase agricultural productivity, food security and
income. Despite these challenges, smallholders contribute significantly to the rural
economy, and play a significant role in natural resource conservation
 Household production for its own consumption Agriculture as a source of food is the most
direct pathway by which household agricultural production translates into consumption.
Own production has more impacts on smallholder farmers since their food consumption and
 nutritional status is usually affected by what they grow (Dorward, 2012; van Averbeke and
Khosa, 2007; World Bank, 2007).
 Impacts on food prices Smallholder farmers are the main food producers in developing
countries, increased smallholder agricultural production means more food enters the
marketplace, leading to lower food prices and better diets; The link between agricultural
policy and food prices involves a range of supply-and demand factors that affect the prices
of various marketed food and non food crops, which, in turn, affect the incomes of net
sellers and the ability to ensure household food security (including diet quality) of net
buyers. This is particularly critical for rural and urban people in low-income countries who
spend a large share of their incomes on food expenditures (Johnson-Welch et al., 2007). The
impact of food prices on nutrition are widely discussed in the 2012 Global Monitoring
Report.
 Nutrient availability through post-harvest and preparation When they have the right
equipments, smallholder farmers can contribute to reducing post-harvest losses of nutrient
dense foods. Reducing post-harvest provides gains to agricultural income and nutrition and
contributes to the quality and quantity of the food supply. Post-harvest activities such as
storage, commercial and in-home processing and preparation can affect nutrient availability
through (i) increasing the general use of nutrient-rich foods, (ii) increasing the nutrient
density of foods consumed by infants, and (iii) decreasing nutrient losses from the
processing of widely available foods (Wenhold et al., 2007).
 Empowerment of women Research from a number of countries indicates that women
farmers are more likely to channel the income that they control into the nutrition, health
and education of their children. Women who are reached by agricultural programs that relay
information on nutrition issues appear to be particularly effective in delivering improved
nutrition outcomes (World Bank, 2007)
 The contribution that smallholder agriculture makes to world food security and nutrition is
both direct, in as far as it links production and consumption for many rural households, and
indirect because (a) it is provisioning domestic markets with the main food products, (b) it
does so in a potentially resilient way, and (c) because in many countries smallholder
agriculture functions as an important social safety net
 Smallholders contribute to national food security and nutrition while performing other
related roles in their territories. Historical evidence shows that smallholder agriculture,
adequately supported by policy and public investments, has the capacity to contribute
effectively to food security, food sovereignty, and substantially and significantly to economic
growth, the generation of employment, poverty reduction, the emancipation of neglected
and marginalized groups, and the reduction of spatial and socio-economic inequalities.
 Smallholder agriculture is the foundation of food security in many countries and an
important part of the socio/economic/ecological landscape in all countries. With
urbanization, integration and globalization of markets, the sector is undergoing great
transformations that are of vital national interest, that are often against the interests of
smallholders, and that are neither inevitable nor a matter of chance, but of social choice.

Question 6

The results show that farmer input support program (FISP) increases actual household maize income
by 30.8%. Based on the price set by Food Reserve Agency (FRA), household maize income would
increase by 40%.
Farmer input support program (FISP) also increases fertiliser usage by 86.9 kg/ha, resulting in 0.32
t/ha (18.5%) increase in yield. Households maize production was found to have increased by 1 ton in
the 2013/14 crop season.

Furthermore, Farmer input support program (FISP) was found to increase household expenditure
among beneficiaries by 34.4% (ZMK 952.2).

The increase in maize yields resulting from Farmer input support program (FISP) is estimated to have
raised household maize production on average by 1.4 tons (46.9%) in 2014/15 and by 1.0 tons
(32.8%) in 2013/14. Compared to our estimates, the World Bank (2010) estimates a total national
increment in maize production of 146,000 tons in 2007/8 season, corresponding to 89% growth in
output as a result of the FSP

Survey results using kernel method estimate Farmer input support program (FISP) to have increased
maize yields by 23.1% in 2014/15 and by 14.4% in 2013/14. For the 2 years period under survey, the
estimated average increment in maize yield is 0.32 T/ha representing 18.5%. Mason et al. (2013)5
estimate that 1 kg of subsidised fertiliser increases household maize output by 1.88 kg which
translates to 376 kg