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ance, ncerta1•

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EsiJELEGB
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 © Ayodcle Ogundipe 2012

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or

transmitted in any for1n or by any means without prior written
permission from Kwara State University Press.
'
E~u~l~gb
C!Jaog~ C!Janc~ l/Ocertain/y First published 2012
.Iii YOnibaMytbology

Ay9<fele Ogundi~

Iotrorloctioo /Jy Jacob Oilgxm8

published by

Kwara State University Press

Kwara State University, Malete
PMB 1530
Ilorin, Kwara State

ISBN 978-978-927-590-8

Typeset by Agbo Areo Book Pt1blishing Consttltancy Services, Ibadan

KWARA STATE UNIVERSITY PRESS

 contents

~tile:~................................................;······································· \Iii
Introduction: Who Can Comprehend ~u? A Study in Yorilba
M;1thology (by Jacob Olupona).............................. . •
lX
Chapter I The Nature ofthis Study............................................... I
Chapter 2 Theyoruba......... ........ .. ...... ... ..... ............ .... .. .... .. ... ... .. 14
Chapter 3 The Info11nants.. .. ............ ......... ...... ...... ...... .. ..... ...... ... 37
' ,
Chapter4 Folklore of~u J;:lc;gbara ....:······································· 55
Chapter 5 The Role and Function of~u in Yoruba Mythology. 87
Chapter 6 ~ in the Diaspora...................................................... 113
Chapter 7 General Conclusions................................................... 125
Praise Poems (Orlki) of~u ~I~gbara........... ... ... ... ... .. ... ... . ... .. ... 13 1
Folk- Songs - Texts..................................................................... 169
'
Narratives of EsU •
Eiegb8.ra..
• •
.. .... ........... ... ... ... .. . .. . .. .. .... .. ... ... .... .. . 180
Bit>li<>gillJ>lly.................................................................................. ~'1-:3
List ofMotifs.... ............................. ....... ....... ............. ... ...... ... ... ... 251

v •
Vl
Preface cllangc my overly defe~sive tone. I-feartfelt thanks also go to Dr
Warren Roberts, an admired teacher, for his help. I Iis clarification of
'
This original \vork is a t\vo-volume study of~u J;:l~gbara., a Yoruba the distinction be~een hero legend and myth was invaluable. Helpful
deity. Volunie one consists o~ six cl1apters~ ~hree appendices, a~d a criricisin and advice also came from my friends and col leagues, Dr
bibliography. The texts of praise poems (~1·1k1), songs, and narratives J-Jassan El-Shamy of the Folklore Institute and Dr Patrick O'Meara
selected from research in the field compnse volume two. Poetry and of the African Studies Program at Indiana University. For the final
narrati\'e texts are arranged according to infot 1nants and not by theme editing and retyping of this manuscript, I value the professionalism
or titles since tl1ere are no set titles. Titles of texts, wl1en given for of Sarah Hayashida and Francoise Sandberg, whose clear sense of
easy reference, are my o\vn invention. Tl1e nam~s ~fin for 1nants and fonn and flawless typescript make all the difference.
basic data about them are given briefly at the beg1nn1ng of each group To Mrs Beatrice Ore, Nancy and Earl Wilkie, Ida Fisher, and
of texts. TI1e narrative texts are presented in Englisl1 translation only. Kathryn Jackson, my family away from home, thanks for keeping the
The song and ritual texts are given in Yoruba, followed by tl1e Englisl1 fai~ . Finally to my father, the Reverend L. M. O. Ogt1ndi~,
translation. They are numbered consecutively but do not bear titles. Jboyfn o.I
The fieldwork for this project could not have been accomplished Stln re.1
\vithout the help of many members of the ~u cults in Ibadan and Stin re.~1
Lagos. I owe them all more than I can say for their.hospitality and for Stin re.~~1
sharina their treasured traditions with me. Special thanks are due
those informants \Vhose repertoires are used in my critical evalua~ion
of Esu Elegbara. In acknowledging these active bearers of E~u
traditio~, i have tried to present them as indjviduals, not just as pieces
of ethnographic data. Biographic infor1nation co11cerning Esu
specialists mentioned in this study is detailed or sparse according to
my familiarity with them or according to their own wishes. In
describing some of the lasting impressions they made on me, I hope
I have been fair to them in spite of my subjectivity.
Chief J. A. A)"9rinde oflbadan and Chief S. Ajanaku, the Araba of
Lagos, two traditionally titled and distinguished members of Yoruba
society, provided many hours of stimulating theological and
philosophical discussions. Interested in and knowledgeable about
Yoruba culture and religious life, both men served as consultants. I
am grateful to Prince Kunle Akin~~m9yin for his constant
encouragement and for introducing me to traditional Lagos society.
The list of others who have been very helpful to me is headed by Dr
Richard M. Dorson, Distinguished Professor of History and Folklore
and Director of the Folklore Institute, Indiana University. Besides Dr
Dorson's encouragement and support over the years, I am especially
grateful for llis painstaking criticism and suggestions. I am indebted
to him for a number of stylistic corrections and for advising me to
••
Vil •••
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 Introduction of tliis deity; and (4) r~ctifying ~u 's distorted identity.
To those of us fascinated by ~u and eager for him to be better
understood, it is especially gratifying that at long last AyQdele
' ?
Who Can Comprehend ~u. 6g6ndi~ 's insightful work, the product of one of the bnghtest m1nds
in Yoruba Studies, is published for all to read. The dissertation was
,h·I 0 n a John S. Guggenheim Fellowship, I began a written at a time when modem interdisciplinary scholarship was not
In 1996, \.\ ·1et
e · · · D
on Ifa divination orature. Livmg m av1s, very close·
research proJe 'd d · · h M common, yet it immediately showed s1g11s of being a classic, as I
· 'ty of California, Berkeley, I deci e to visit t e useum have no doubt it ultimately will prove to b,e.
to the Uni,rersi th ·
I0 gy at that university to see some of e art collections Her mission is to unravel the mystery of f..?U and to provide a better
of Anth ropo · ·
~ ous Ifa scholar W1lliam Bascom a
h d d ·
epos1ted
that t he 1am . . understanding of the most ubiquitous deity in the Yoruba pantheon,
them was a dreadful pl1oto that the curators Jokingly relying primarily on 01·fki (praise poetry), myths, and folktales. She
there. A mong
· d h d been troublesome for them. Indeed, the cw·ators wanted realizes that it is difficult to decompartrnentalize religion, philosophy,
cIa1me a . f. h Id I
to know if I wouldn't mind taking posses~to? o it so t ey cou lave and culture and that in interpreting Yoruba thought, it is better to
peace of mm . · d' Coming from non-Yoruba
. . \vho had
. no apparent approach B?u from a holistic perspective, allowing philosophy and
· · I or cu Itural connections with this deity, their
sp1ntua . concen1s . n1ade ethics to intersect. While others might reject the sometimes
·
me cunous, an " d I ''l'anted to make sense of them. Did the object speak problematic scholarship that preceded their own, Ogilndi~ carefully
at night? Were these curators reprodu~ing st~reotypes about oru~a '! delineates how her own study is similar to and different from the
religious images that are s~ pervasive m the literature? Tl1e en1gi11at1c works of three pioneering scholars of African indigenous religious
image turned out to be of~u, the Yoruba gatekeeper god, n:essenger traditions who were fairly well known at the time of her field research:
of the deities, and close associate and e~and bo~ of Ifa, god ~f '
B6laji idowli, John Mbiti, and Ollimide Lucas.
•
di,rination. .Esu brings both fear and joy to his worshippers because 1t
brings both blessings and tr?uble to de\1otees.
E:su
•
and Yoruba Folklore: Early Misconceptions
Unfortunately, bo\vever, ~u is the least understood of all tl1e 20 I Qgundip~ engages folklore in its thematic and substantive
(some \Vould say 40 I) dei~es in the Yoruba panthe?n, largely bec.ause contexts. First, she offers a brief historiography of the available
the work of Aygdele Ogundip~ bas up until now rer:na 1,~e? writings on African folklore and laments the lack of well-documented
unpublished. Available evidence suggests that her ~h.D thesis, ~u collections as well as the biases that exist within the few collections
J;:l~gbara, the Yoruba God of Chance and Uncertamty: A Stu?y m assembled by missionaries, colonialists, or early Afncanists. Poor
Yoruba Mythology,' may be the most widely cons~lted unpublished translations and sparse annotations pose a second problem. In addition,
thesis in Yoruba studies, perhaps rivalling Oyin Ogilnba 's equally the materials are not catalogued according to motifs, which would
influential Ritual Drama ofthe Jj~u People: A Study oflndige11ous facilitate cross-cultural studies . The good news is that in the twenty-
Festivals. This introduction calls attention to methodological, first century we have now recorded significant progress in this area
theoretical, and historical contexts in which the original research was of scholarship. With respect to folklore 's substantive contexts,
conducted so as to enable readers to discover its relevance in today's Ogilndi~ expresses deep frustration with the terminology these earlier
scholarship on religion, folklore, and African and Afro-Atlantic works use in relation to Yoruba folktales. She gives the example of
studies. In so doing, I will discuss four key elements in Dr. Ogimdi~ 's the word itan (story/myths /history) and its multiple meanings, which
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\\'Ork: (1) ho\v previous scholars misconstrued ~u; (2) Og(Jndi~ 's confuse those not familiar with the nuances of Yoruba language. To
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ethnographic approach and the dilemmas she encountered; (3) the revise the record, Oglindi~ distinguishes between folktales told for
importance of oral narratives in developing an accurate understanding children's entertainment, 8(6, and those presented for adults, which deal
•
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 ·cal e'~ents She also explains that scholarly collections
_.:.a.. ...:........
more.w1w ·'&JA)' "" te number of animal tales because t11e m1
rdin Y' • · 1a ennan
· ·t1a
conwn an mo a · tl A ,
researchers found them easier to comprehend, comparmg . 1em to. esop s
- 6 · di~ points out that most Yoruba folktales m fa.et involved
&b es. be~ She explains that the inclusion of 'more societal nonns
1
human mgs. · h d 'ffi
and values than animal tales' makes n~tJ~es ~b.~ut umans t ,~It
for foreign researchers. I am thrilled by Ogundt~ s n:feren?e to rta11
because it provides an insightful reference to a larger issue m Y on'lba
arship. I have always argued that tlle traditio11s we are studying are
l one of 1ny f:asc111at1ons wit . t 1s work, because phenomenological
SCh 0 di I . I
inteipretive in nature and they lend ~ems~J;es to. a a ogica appro~cl1
to their deep meaning and understandmg. Jta11 denves fron1 t11e verb ta11,
'to light as in light a candle or match to produce light· Ta11 cru1 also be
translated as 'to spread as in the spreading of a story fron1 a sot1rce to
other places where it assumes more meaning and nua11ces. This 011e
reference alone to itan points to the pov.rer of\Vords, their translatio11 ru1d
derivative meanings, and to providing deep cuJtural henneneutics. sunilar
to QhibiyiYai's interpretation of ~(custom and tradition) (Yai, 1994).
Ogilndi~ further discusses the formu laic features of oral folktalcs.
For example, in the use of song to introduce a folktale audience
participation makes the perfo1111ance dialectic. She concludes tl1at 'a
folktale is in some ways deactivated \Vhen '''ritten down ' (54).
Storytelling is a perfo11nance in which gestures, language styles, a11d
literary devices are employed. She distinguishes between 1nytl1s,
which are largely religious and laden with cosmologica l and
philosophical queries, and legends, \vhich tend to en1erge fron1
'
historical encounters. Ogtindf~ posits that proverbs, 'besides their
use in oratory and rhetoric, have legal overtones and are effective in
counselling situations, as well as being used for ridicule and mockery'
(56). The late Yoruba expert on proverbs Oyekan Ow6m6yela
'
recorded an ~u proverb that states, 'A child has three cowries in
hand and challenges ~u '
to a game played for money; will three
\
solitary co\vries suffice for ~u to purchase palm oil to lick?'
Ow6m6yela explains this, saying, 'People who come into some money
for the first time are wont to overestimate their sudden worth'
(Ow6m6yela, 2005: 85).
• ••
XJ
secrecy, Gender, and Ethnography and Methodological Concerns
The theoretica~ and methodologic~l interests that guide Ogilndi~'s
work accomplish a phenomenological description and interp t t:
· kl d , · re a ion
of ~u fol ore an amve at an understanding of the inner ess
of ~u J;:l~gbara through a close examination of the content and ~nee
of the oral traditions surrounding him' ( 103). It is a work guarde~r:
her ability to bracket all preconceived notions of Esu and enter ·
1 ty
. d . . no
tlle world o fl11s evotees with an open mind. This surely expla·
. . . h h' 1ns
approaches were the theoretical and methodological fashion during
tJ1e 1970s and 1980s when we both worked on Yoruba religious and
cultural tradi.tio11s. ~ore in:'p?rtant, both of us have clergy fathers
whose experiences tn the m1ss1on field propel us to pursue academi
research on vario.us. subj~ct~ in Yoruba religions. Our parents' missio~
fields, to use Chr1st1an m1ss1onary terrninology, provided our research
field experiences. The rich experiences in the various Yoruba towns
and cities where 6glindi~ travelled triggered her imagination to
pursue scholarly investigation of what she often heard Christian
missionaries condemn as pagan tradition and unsuitable for modern
Yoruba culture.
Since t.h ~ fieldwork grounding this text took place during the
NigeriaJl ctvtl war, arduous travel and citizens' heightened sense of distrust
constrained the ~tu?Y· ~~~res~gly eno~gh, La&os, a metropolitan city,
became one of Ogundt~ s main field s1tes. An~ group in Ibadan (at
that time the largest city in West Africa) headed by women also attracted
her attention becau~e it provided a crisp contrast to the male-dominated
group in Lagos. Oglindi~ describes the initial difficulty that she
encountered when seeking access to the Lagos group due to a murder
charge levelled against the devotees, which resulted in bad press and
harassment from the local community and made them suspicious of
outsiders. Her gender :vas another impediment to her researcl1. She
believes tl1at the men of Idd6 ~ommunity would have spoken more freely
about all things pertaining to ~1 had she been a male, in spite of the fact
that women can play central roles in Y ori1ba cult practices. That Oglindi~
would talk reflexively about these limitations attests to her courage and
dedication to this project.
She candidly describes the difficulties she encountered as a native
investigator. The Yoruba elders she interviewed mt1st have been
Xll
perpl ed to hear her talk about ~ang6 given l1cr background and 11er
gender. he explains that many Yoruba assu1ne a stance of polite t)1e tradition, giving her ethnographic rend · . .
avoidance \Vhen they do not want to answer t11eir questions directly devotion. The inforrnant recounts that hisenntg rare insight into Esu
. h Es
' , • , pa cmal grand"' h .
and he experienced this often when pursuing her research. Moreover' the one to bnng t c . u shrine, Esu Gang.l. 1 1
at er was
· C1, ocated at a r d ·
she is frank about the legitimate suspicion tl1ese groups felt toward a homestea d on the outskirts oflbadan. 1-Iis df: oa side near
used the shrine for consultation during a ti:anf ather, an Ifa priest,
her, as they \Vere unaccustomed to native, nonbiased Nigerians seeking
to learn about their traditions. Even today, non-Nigerians often have ,
°
to the village with 11im ' as safe-keeper sent· e wdar and brought it
1ne1 an gua d' .
hamlet' (78). I should add that this explains wh &u . r ian of this
easier access to info11nation than Nigerian researcl1ers. This points
' notoriety' in Yoruba mythology is often de ~b d. · in ~pite of his
to another methodological issue in fieldwork: the idea of associating , , scri e as ' Esu L , . l ' '
Esu tl1e benefactor of cities and places wh · aa u,
ethnographic field research with expatriates rather than with the · · ' ose presence s fi
native-born, part of the legacy of anthropology being associated with Protection, · blessing, and confidence · Elder Gb'ad'amos1 , , . igni ies
Aka ,
quintessential knowledgeable infonnant direct d 6 : , . nni, a
non-native visitors studying 'Others.'
~u group at lie Olunl9yQ9. Humble, u~assum~ng ~;~~ to the
'
OgUndi~ provides insight on her info1111ants, \vho include Esu was, she makes note, ''fond of saying 'Who c ' pful, he
devotees in , Lagos and lbadan. She begins by introducing us to . ' , ? , ,, d ' an comprehend the
deity B?u . an stating, too, that even at his ag h kn
GbacliimQsi Ak.anni, a village elder kno,vledgeable on ~u traditions e e ew he had a
great dea 1 more to learn (78). Herein lies a central th
in his village and on the community's ancestral history. The autl1or · h l · d e
Studies, t c c. aim an awareness that scholars and pract1t1oners alike os m Yoruba
.
clearly depicts bis social status as she describes tl1e defere11tial are learners 1n a long process of unraveling the mean fY
treatment accorded to him by village reside nts . Ogundip~ 's · · d l R h
religion an cu ture. at er than allow the tradition to h bi
•ng o oruba
methodological and ethical consciousness manifests when she reveals · b · um e us, the
usual claim y many especially outside the tradition is th t th
her decision to include only select info1mation the info11nants deemed . . d fi . . b k . a ey are
wnttng . e minve oo. s on. a trad1t1on they know little ab ou t, exposing
'
appropriate for public consumption. Oglindi~ argues persuasively thetr arrogance and incomgible attitude to other people's c ltu As
against accepting Western scholarship on African cultural and , 'C h u re.
an I f:a text says, an w oever 1s knowledgeable count the sands on
religious history, citing its inherent Western bias as problematic. the bank of the ocean?'
Rather. scholars must use an emic approach to understand any cultural 6glin?i~ also introd~ces u~ t~ Adeleke, an 'ascetic Ifa priest' (79)
context and the religious phenomenon therein. It is interesting to note who believe? that certain Yoruba religious information should not be
' '
that Akanni would only discuss ~ with her in private interviews, discussed w1th a female. Consequently, she was obliged to bnng her
citing 'the impropriety of having any serious discussion of Esu •
at father on a few occasions so that she could gather specific infonnanon
such a public arena' (76). Implicit in this description is the idea that from him. ~~ele~e's perspe~tive, she notes, is that of an Ifa pnest
'
concealment and secrecy fo1n1 a major part of the ~ mystique and who sees ~u pnmanly as a messenger and friend of Ifa' (80). In
\vorld religious traditions in general (Wolfson, 1999). If religious contrast, Ogund ip~ then meets several women from Olunl6yo6.
kno\vledge were unveiled and shared by all, the religious tradition including ~iyanb9la and Mutiu, both middle-aged women. Sh~ ai~o
'''ould be unable to maintain its power and authority. The Yoruba met
,
Aj~a~ Mo~eb9 latan, the forrner cult leader, and Baderin\va
notion of mvo (secrecy) separates certain agents as bearers of traditions ~ubunmi, the curre~t cult leader. These individuals \Vere part of the
'
from the uninitiated (pgbfd) and researchers like Ogilndi~. Besides, unique woman-led E~u group in Ibadan. Ogundip~ describes the
the deep kno\vledge of tradition requires a certain level of maturity maternal relationship the leader had with the female followers of the
'
and competence that Ogilndi~ 's info11nants sensed surpassed her compound. Although stern in appearance and demeanor, Baderln\va
age. Such deep knowledge, they realized, could be harrnful to her if was treated with great respect and affection by other \Vomen.
'
di\'lllged carelessly. Og(mdi~ was exposed to some knowledge of Significantly, the fonner and the current leaders descend directly from
•
••• X IV
Xl l l
 .. Ion tradition of ~u worship. Several other
fam1l1es who have ah . f.,...\ througl1 personal tragedy and divinatory
women came to wors ip J:'A?U • • • th
. . N f their children \Vere parttc1pants in e group,
Prescnpnon. one o ble fear that tl1e trad1t1on ..
wou
Id
not
b
e
can:ied
and there was a paIpa . · · fl f Es '
on by the next gene ran e 1
.on indicating tJ1 dee 1n1ng tn uence o . u
, /ascinas '. Yet the stories and ~efere~ces to the intersection of sacred
tradition and indeed of Yoruba religion generally: . . and secular themes do not d1squal1fy them as myths in the larger
The Lagos group is then introduced. The most s1gn1ficant 1nfoi:nant
th the Elegushe, the 1nost senior member of tl1e I dd6
among em was . . · , d, , , d · ·
·ry wi'th whom she \VOrked in Lagos. Ogun 1~ s escnpt1ons
communt · ·
of her first meeting \Vith him are highly informative, conv:y1ng t e
absolute reverence and po\ver iliat he commands. She descr1bcs l1ow
he spoke to her through a delegate ,\vhile ~~ring ~irectly at l1er, and
how uncomfortable this made her. Ogtindi~ also introduces us to a
few other members: the ~ugbayi brothers, twi11 brothers whose
mother bad promised to dedicate them to ~u upon tl1ei~ birtl1 and
\\'ho were very acti,,e organizers in ilie community; B(>la ~ubiyi i, a
middle-aged ritual specialist and dancer; and Moses Ql(>j~de, a 1nan
she credits as being 'the most instrumental t~ [her] getting to kno\v
the Iddo group '(96). Moses \Vas drawn into ~u v.rorship because of
bis wife's fiunily, but ascended in rank, and became an influential
group member. As be \Vas \\ ell tra\ eled, Ogilndi~ found him to have
1 1
a more open perspective concerning the discussion of 'secrets.'
Nevertheless, be asked her not to divulge them (98).
OgU.ndi~ concludes the chapter by citing the invaluable help of
'
Chief Fagbemi Ajanaktl and Chief J. A. A)9rinde in understanding
'
Yoruba history and culture in general, but particularly ~u 's place in
Yoruba philosophy. These two highly knowledgeable elders and
narrators of traditions, whom I myself\vas privileged to know in the
early 1980s, left lasting legacies in Yoruba society. Overall, Ogt1ndi~
does an exquisite job in this chapter of introducing the reader to the
various informants integral to her research project, recounting their
varying perspectives, histories, and approaches to ~u in a balanced
and unbiased way.
1\f}rthologJ' as Religious Phenomenon
The \\'Ork's fo~rth chapter explicates the ways in which oral narratives
surrounding ~u are qualified as myths in the religious sense in
contrast to Afiicanists' (Bascom) and folklorists' (Ruth Finneg~n),
xv
view of them as folktales. That is, myths define the Yoruba sense of
tile sacred and transcendence that for111 the core of their beJicf and
practices. Folktales, on the oth.er hand, ma~ be devoid of the sense of
.
what Rudolf Otto once descnbed as the myslerium tremendzim et
context of religious phenomena. These narratives quali fy as myths
because of tl1eir preworld settings and the participation of deities
who operate in society with humans and animals alike (I 05-07). The
h tales arc ,characterized by content and plot and are categonzed as
' tales of ~u and other deities interacting among themselves; tales of
~u and ,other deities 1nteracting with human and other characters:
tales of ~u explaining the origins of certain customs and traditions
among the Yoruba; and vignettes of E~ u ' ( I 0 7). Within these
categories, Oglindi~ lays out defining characteristics. Themes such
as tests, contests, jea l ~usy, fri endship, and insubordination thread
throughout these tales o~~u 's mteractions WJth other divmioes. Examples
include the story of deities competing to detertnme who IS the cleverest;
of ~ang6 challenging all the other deities to a wrestlmg match to name
the best athlete; and of enVlous ~u prodding Qbatala to drunkenness so
~h a t he ca.nnot ~ompl~te his honourable role m creation. There are
instances in which ~u 1s the hero, or sometimes the mischievous
catalyst.. In some tales, Qnlrunila is hts best fiiend and m others he IS the
antagonist. Tales of 'purusbment for excessive pnde and failmg to fi0 uow
'oracul·arhicomn1and are also ·abundant m Esu . narranves . Tius pa I yfu1
and. mtsc evous element of ~u does not disqualify the narra ...
. f . . l l ves as
senous repertoire o re11gious phenomena.
Who is ~u~l~gb8.ra?
Ogt1ndi~ engages several scholars who have worked on d
Es' •
h k . ·1 u, an
s e ~ee s pnma.n y to address the stereotypica l depictions ~f him:
phallic, god, deVJl, an~ ~ckster. The author addresses each stereotype
separately, first. .prov1d1ng the historical references m w h'1c h th ese
stehrelotypbes odngh1n~lly appeared and then demonstrating how these
sc o ars ase t e1r conclusions on faulty evidence. She also aptly
demonstrates how Western scholars and Western-influenced Afncan
scholars made
. these assertions
. based on iconographi'c representations
·
of the devil and the tnckster within their Western , Chri sttan SOC IO-·
•
XVI
cultural locations. She begins by criticizin~ t11e work of Colonel Ellis
ho was one of the first to write about ~u as a phallic god based and still others whom she describes as m· · b
upon depictions he had seen of ~u ~tl1 a larg~ pl1allus. Subsequently and native Brazilian religious practices 1 •xBing . etween the African
1
other scholars used his work as a basis for tl1e1r own pronouncements same go ds as m t e estAfncan religion (Sa 6 ' she
. h W . . n raz1 , finds th at the
6
of~ as the phallic god. Accordin& to Oglindi~, Joan Wescott based and ~u) are worshipped. The difference i~ t~: divi~~' ?ya, Qba~la,
her ~onclusions on depictions of ~u wearing 'an elaborately long with Catholic saints and functions attributed t ihttes _assoc1at1ons
. ·r. ,
Focusing spec1 1ca y on Esu Ogu'ndin6 d
11 , o eac deity
·b ·.
hairstyle,' which she interpreted as~ 'stylized' pl1allus. Wescott also . h . ' P':' escn es how m Brazil
believed that statues depicting E~u as female or male always Esu 1s seen as t e messenger god Devotees
· . . ·
·. .
prop1t1ate h1m befi
emphasized sexuality since the female statues portrayed women beginning any c~remony. The author also discusses Esu b ore
holding their breasts. Representations featuring, clubs, \vhistles, and private and public deity: one may find him at cro d · as oth a
. . d' . , ssroa s and markets
thumb sucking further supported her theory. Ogfuldf~ challenges as well as 1n an 1n 1v1dual s home. He is seen
. c. as a protector and
Wescott's assumptions about all of these depictions, particularly the guardian ior every person who keeps a shrine to hin'\ ·in the1·r homes He
• u 11
also serves as an accompanying deity to all the othe · · . o' , · , ,
elaborate hairstyle. by demonstrating that hairstyles are a mark of h h r onsa. gund1pe
' describes ow t ese are then considered to be di·r:c. · t ·
distinction and status in Yoruba culture. Furtl1e1 r11ore, Ogundfp~ , , . 'h , , . ieren aspects of
Esu. Each cJr~sa as an ~u that tt works with closet Th
argues, if Wescott had paid attention to the praise poetry or songs, · b · · . , Y· ts contrasts
with Yo1u a practice, in which ~u stands on his ow
she would have realized' that \vhistles and clubs are devices Esu . 6glindi~ then speaks about Dahomean worshtpn~f L' b, Sh
employs as he works. Ogundi~ ·s methodological interrogatio11 · that D ahomeans denve
claims · d ~gba ' from the y oruba Es'eg •
a. h
h e
suggests that the current paucity of precise interpretation of Yoruba · h u, t oug
in the comparat1v~ 1story of this religious tradition th. t
religious tradition results from poor linguistic knowledge on the part . h
1nterc angea e.
bi 0 gun , d' , l'
1p~ re 1es heavily upon Hersko t
e wo are
d
' . , k d h v1 s an
of scholars who consequently misrepresent ~u and overlook the Herskovits ~ wor , an s e takes issue with thetr depiction of Legba
importance of analyzing praise poetry and songs associated \Vith these as solely a tr1ckster go~. She explain~ that L~gba 1s the child ofMawu-
traditions. Lisa, t~e Supreme Detty, and like ~u, is also the messenger to th
'
Restless and energetic, ~u roams the earth. He is more a tempter gods. Oglindip~ ~es~ribes m~s and legends wherein L~gba tric~
than a trickster. He has any number of ways of upsetting people to the S~preme deity into leaving Earth, and is also responsible for
teach them a lesson or to put obstacles in their way as they pursue prodding humans to offer tnbute to their ancestors. His multivariate
success, peace, and happiness. It is no matter that he lies or cheats or responsibilities remain to? vital to the Dahomean sociorel1g1ous order
wears a disguise, as these things are usually for his own curious for sch? lars ~o ~~fine E~u by on~ role. Chapter 6 concludes by
amusement rather than his only way out of a bad situation (195-96). companng L~gba s function and intervention in human affairs to
In chapter 6, Ogilndi~ explores representations and functions of Jesus's reden1ptive rol~ in Christianity. Here Ogilndi~ seems to turn
&u in Dahomey and Brazil. Having thoroughly researched the history the Christian image of ~u on its head, transfor1r1ing ~ into a possible
of slavery and religious conversion in Brazi l, she gives a brief saviour-god, as Jesus is in the Christian trad1hon.
'
discussion of the exclusion of slaves in Catholic religious worship, One of the reasons the study of E~u is important is that the
which, she intimates, leads to the maintenance of their indigenous missionary translation project, especially as it involves the translation
African religious practices. Using Roger Bastide and Arthur Ramos of the Bible into Yoruba language, produced a very problematic issue
as references, she describes the different African religious groups, that is not in any way peculiar to the Yoruba people. That is, how to
such as the Yoruba, Ewe, Fon, and peoples from the Congo. With render the biblical image of the devil into Yoruba language. ot unlike
respect to the different religious communities, the author rightly points the process that missionaries in other parts of the world undertook,
out that some are predominantly Yoruba, while others are Congolese the translators went in search of a equivalent, and in several cases
•• • •
XVll XVlll
 cho e a ubiquitous deity to represent tl1e devil, as \Vas tl1e case with
~u. ~ in the Yoruba pantl1con is regarded as the de.ity of chance, rampant misconceptions about him Accordt.ng t th
· o c author
.
'Es· 15·
the messenger of the gods, and the conveyor of sacnfice from the the root, the centre, and the backbone ofYorub b 1. f ' .u
(228). S e h bi .
ames ethn ocentri c biases and , a c 1c and folklore'
human sphere to the sacred sphere. By tl1c nature of these functions, · d t' (229) ~ th · c 1ose- m1nded
~u is the closest deity to Qninmila, the god of divination. It is ~u preJU gemen 1or e misconceptions about Esu th h
\vho inquires \Vhether or not a devotee has perfo1111ed the required circulated throughout scholarship on Yoruba oral · . at ave
· · d I I . A narrat1 ves and
sacrifice prescribed by the gods: 'Ta11i 6 1·11 ~bp: ta11i ko 1·1i ~/Jp?' reltgto~s an cu tura practices. vg(Jndi~ suggests that Esu most
meaning 'Who has performed and who has not perforrned the approximates the Greek god Hermes due to both d , ·
. ' go s ro1es as
sacrifice? He is also the god of tile crossroads, '011ile-01·i1a,' that is, messengers. and mediators. . .between human beings and th e d ·
e1t1es· as
'the one \\ ho builds his house at tile road junction,' whicl1 refers
1
well as tI1e1r assoc1at1on with the outdoors and the1r depic · t.ton w1 ' th
large phalluses. She then stresses the role of Esu as the' b d.
anthropomorphically to the sacrifice that the devotee places at tl1e · · I f h . em o 1ment
road junction for the spirits to devour. of the pnnctp e o c ange and uncertainty' (232). He is the divinity
who helps one connect to and possibly alter one's fate des ·t ·
We can assume that \vben the missionaries came into Yorubaland. · b · d · d . . . . , pt e certain
things e1ng pre est1ne . It 1s w1th1n Esu's power to mak th
Esu was deity \Vith the most visible symbols. Indeed, when we were come into · be1·ng or d'1sappear. Ifa, the divme· oracle who corn e mgs
WO\\'ing up in the 1960s in Yorubaland, some of the Christian lyrics · , murucates
one's fate, and ~u are complementary because the uncertainty
we learned in Sunday school were directed at this particular deity. 'The ~u is contoured by the certainty in the throw of the ik · :1.
10
deity who has his house built on the road junction, \ v l10 demands . h II d . d' . . in, Oµ'/e, or
cowries e s ~nng 1vtnat1on. They cooperate with one a~oth~r.
one· s best clothes for sacrifice, Esu
•
I am free of you!· Christian Overa ll , thi s .work demon strate s the complexity of this
con\'ersion lyrics like this convey the Christian missionaries' desire misunderstood deity through the narratives expressing the reve
to liberate people from the negative demands of tl1is _ubiquitous deity . d 1 d rence,
complexity, an mu tt- 1mens1onal1ty of ~u It 1s not surpnsing to
b)' rendering implausible the . moral hold E~u l1ad over many scholars who have read AJ'9dele Og(Jndi~ 's dissertation fr
them. Furtbe11nore, by demonizing ~u, the missionaries successfully
• • •
which this work emerges, that she has taken up ·a university te~ch~~
labelled di\i.nation and ~~(sacrifice) as evil. ~u plays an imperative appointment, where her deep knowledge of Yoruba culture and
role in these fundamental Yoruba religious practices. As a result, ~ch? la~l~ .engagements have be~efited many students. Ay9 dele
unhinging E~u from the Yoruba people's worldview meant that Ogundtpy ts now ~rofessor o~ ~oc10Jogy. The work is certainly one
disregard for sacrificial offerings and divination would soon. follow. of the most the~ret1cally sophisticated and analytically rigorous texts
Contemporary scholars have argued that the translation of~u into in Yoruba Stt1d1es, a fact that has propelled the editor of the new
'devil' and evil was erroneous, because ~u does not share in the series to publish it. This work will certainly become a classic mYoruba
attributes of the Christian devil or in Christian concepts of evil. The and ind~ed African Studies. Accessible and deeply insightful it
image of the devil is a theologically irredeemable entity. It is a situates ~u tradition in the •broader contexts of Yoruba orature ~d
construction of a perceived reality that was not true in practice. In
•
religious scholarship. That E~u exists in the 1mag1nanon of many as
reality, ~u is the opposite of that. Most images of ~u in art histo?' a troub lesome, e.vi! deity is seen clearly in P. Adelfun9 D9pamu ·s
po1t1ay ~u holding a club wif!1 cowries, a symbol of wealth, a~ his popular work .Ef11, the Invisible Foe of Iv/an A Comparative Stz1dy
feet. For this god 's devotees, ~ is like any other deity that bn ngs of Satan in Ch1·istianity, Islan1, a11d Yo111ba Religion.' Ogilndi~'s
wealth money and prosperity, including children. Hence certain work sets the stage for a corrective ethnography by offenng thoughtful
lineages and families are named with ~u prefixes. refl ection on a deity who has long been misconstrued and
Oglindi~'s goal for this book is to rectify ~u 's story by providing misinterpreted by scholars, Christian and Muslun missionaries and
a nuanced reading of ~u narratives, rescuing the deity from the converts, and the popular readership .
•
X JX xx
References
•
Dopamu, P. Adcluffi9. 1986. E;fil, tl1e /11visible Foe of Ma11: A
Comparati\1e St11d)>of Sata11 i11 Cl11·istia11if)1, Isla1n, and Yo1-iiba
Religion. ljebu-Ode, Nigeria: Shebiotimo Publications.
Droogers, Andre. 2006. 'Tl1e Third Bank of the River: Play,
Methodological Ludism, and the Definition of Religion.' PlaJizil
Religion: Cl1al/enges for tl1e St11dy of Religio11 - Essays bJ' A11di·e
Droogers, et. al. Ed~ Anton van Harskamp. Delft, T11e Netherlands:
Eburon. 75-96.
Idowu. BQlaji. 1973 . Afi·ica11 T1·aditio11al Religio11: A Defi11itio11 .
London: SCM Press.
Lucas, J. 0. 1948. T/1e Religio11 of tl1e Yon1bas, Bei11g a11 Accoz1111of
the Religio11s Beliefs a11d Practices of tl1e Yo1·11ba Peoples o,(
Soutl1e1·n Nige1·ia, Especially i11 Relatio11 to tl1e Religio11ofA11cie111
Eropt. Lagos. Nigeria: C. M. S. Bookshop.
Mbiti, John. 1969. Africa11 Religio11s a11d Pl1ilosopl1J'· Nairobi:
Heinemann.
Otto Rudolf. 1950. Tl1e Idea of tl1e Hof; :: A11 J11q11i1}' i11to tl1e No11-
ratio11al Facto1· i11 tl1e Idea of tl1e Dii1i11e a11d Its Relatio11 to tl1e
Rational. Trans. John W. Han ey. London: Oxford University Press.
1

0Ylomoyela, Oyekan. 2005. Yon1ba P1·0\·e1·bs. Lincoln: University

of Nebraska Press.
Wolfso°' Elliot, ed. 1999. Rendi11g the Veil: Co11cealn1e111 a11d SecreCJ'
i11 1/1e Histo1y of Religio11s I Nelv Yo1·k U11i\1ersity An11ual
Co1ife1·ence i11 Compa1·ative Religio11s. New York: Seven Bridges
Press.
Yai, Qlabiyi BabalQla. 'In Praise of Metonymy,' The Yor11ba A1·tist:
Nelv T/1eoretical Perspectives 011 Afi·ica11 Arts. Rowland Abiodun,
Henry J. Drewal, and John Pemberton III, eds. Washington:
Smithsonian Institution Press, 1994.

• ••
XX J XX ll
CHAPTER l

The Nature of This Study

Introduction
This is a study of a b?dy of oral narratives-myths, folktales, and folk
beliefs centering on B}u, a fascinating, complex, and crucial deity in
traditional Yoruba religious :vor~hip and belief. The study seeks to
re-evaluate tl1e controversial E~u and to place him in a more
comprehensive light than has been done to-date. This re-evaluation
is based on a critical examination of ~u lore collected from fieldwork
among the Yoruba of Nigeria during the years 1966 to 1968, in addition
to library research.
This study is presented from an African cultural perspective. The
researcher, who is Yoruba, shares the same cultural matrix as ~u. By
combining her cultural background with her fo1111al educational
experi ence, the writer seeks to present and evaluate E~u in a
descriptive, interpretative, and analytical manner. The writer hopes
that her intellectual and cultural impulses will complement each other
and that this study will contribute to the existing knowledge ofYoruba
folklore.
'
Because ~u is a deity in traditional Yoruba religion and because
belief in him extends into the areas of philosophy and ethics, this
study must of necessity touch upon these areas, but it is important to
note tl1at the primary focus is on the folklore of ~u - the myths,
tales, fo lk -songs, and fo lk beliefs fragmentally depicting and
immortalizing him.
There is always the danger of splitting hairs over where one
discipline begins and where another ends. ln this instance, where are
the boundaries between folklore and religion in an exposition of the
lore of a d eity? Suffice it to say for no\v , and it will be made
increasingly clear within the body of this study, that the hands of
mythology and religion sometimes wash each other. The most useful
and productive exam ination of folklore would seem to be on~ that
touches upon related fields. Since much of the lore regarding B?u is
derived and takes m eaning from traditional Yoruba religion, this study

l
 includes 8 presentation and cv~lua~ion of tl1at religious ~ackground.
It is my proposition that ~u 1s a truly representative ~oruba
V:
mythological character. He penneates tl1e orub~ co~cept1on of
humankind our place in the universe, our relationship \Vlth God. He
is the inte~ediary bet\veen God and man. I-le is cenn:al in the Yoruba
notion of order chance. and destiny. He is the custodian of moral and
social proptie~. This study will atte111pt to show how tl1is evaluation
of &ii is borne out in the folklore. , between t.he ye~rs .1966 and 1968, my interest in the subject began
H~w is this colourful deity described in folklore? He is called 'qli,
OlonMppti/JP (~u. the bearer of many names) (see appendix I). What
are some of these names? What significance do these names have? Is
Esu simply a trickster? Is he a mischievous supernatural being
c~mparable to John Green\vay's 'Travelling ~alesman? tl1: perennial
shape-shifter, uncouth, obscene, entrenched m a labynnth111e.~eb of
scatological and amatory exploits' (I 964, 74-86)? Is l1e ren11111scent
of Mesopotamian heroes, in Gilgamesh epics. or tl1e Herculea11 a11d
Satyrian heroes in Greek epics? (Greenway 1964. 74-86). Is l1e
comparable to the Winnebago trickster psychoanalyzed by Paul Radi11
(1956). or to Tortoise and Hyena in African folktales?
Joan Wescott (1962) calls ~u theYoruba trickster and god of
mischief. William Bascom ( l 969b) considers him the divine
counterpart ofTortoise in Yoruba folktales. To what extent a~e these
cursory conceptions of a trickster validated in the folklore? ~u has
also been likened by several writers to the Devil (Delarx;> 1937, 177;
Dennett 1910, 94; Baudin 1885, 48; Farrow 1926:,86). This study
will attempt to discover if this likeness is well-founded in the folklore.
Is Esu the Yoruba counterpart of the Devil, or Lucifer, the fallen angel?
Is h~ indeed the Tempter, the supreme evil spirit, the accuser, and
traducer of men? (Idowu I 962, 80). No other deity in the Yoruba
pantheon is subject to greater disapprobation by Christians and
Muslims alike. In both the Bible and the Qur'an, Satan and Al Shatan1
are translated as~' and although the traditional ~u has nothi ng to
do \vith Satan, both personalities have become fused in m~y Christian
or Islam-oriented Yoruba minds. Other interpretations of ~u include
his representation as a phallic symbol (Ellis 1894, 64-65). The
folkloric legitimacy of these erotic interpretations will be explored
later.
' that these scholars were African. Their anglicized names hardly help
Although this study is primarily an examination of ~u among the
2
Yoruba of. south~~stern ~igcria, it cannot but acknowledge the
transportation. of ~u and his ~ult by African slaves to the New World.
Brief and pertinent comparative observations will be made about Esu
in the New World.
·
A Description and Evaluation of the Fieldwork Background
Although fieldwork was completed and data collected for this study
much earlier. It is difficult t.o say e~ac~Jy when I developed a cunosity
about folklore, because an interest 1n literature - both oral and written
_ seems to have always been a part of me. I grew up in a household
where leisure time was spent reading voraciously. My interest in
religion in general, and African religious beliefs and practices 10
particular, also stems from my upbringing. My father, who is now
retired, was a Methodist minister and my mother, an Episcopalian 15
a retired schoolteacher. The mission schools they attended m the I 9ios
and 1930s were thorough and demanding. For rus callmg as a minister
my father was required to be well versed m Greek, Latm, and severai
Middle. Eastern languages. Be~ause of my parents' background, I was
raised m a home where praying and singing religious hymns were
part of the daily r~u.ti.ne, .and wh~re conversations frequently centred
on cultures and c1v1l1zahons, philosophy, and literature.
As a preparation to. my interest in traditional Afncan religions, my
religious background is somewhat exceptional. Chnshanity as earlier
prosel~zed in Africa was intolerant of these traditional religions
The African converts who later became clergymen - especially those
before and of my father's generation - usually so completely accepted
Christianity that most of them became the fiercest antagorusts of
indigenous Afiican religions. Finding nothing of value m them, most
of the early African priests relentlessly carried on from where white
missionaries left off, smothering out whate\ er so-called dark beliefs
1
they believed to lurk in the crevices of African minds. The writings
of the early twentieth century Yoruba prelates and churchmen such
as Bishop Adjai Crowtl1er (Bascom l 969b, 3) and Bishop Samuel
Johnson ( 1899) convey not only prudish Victorian overtones but also
such Western world-oriented attitudes that it is difficult to unagine
identify them as Yoruba. The Crowthers and Johnsons therefore would
3
 · ti.fy th c VJ·e,•' that the missionaries \Vere not the only ones
seem to JUS T • •
\Vho found little of value in Afiican rel1g1ons. .
Th· tt'tude is steadily changing. Scl1olar-theolog1ans such as
(J 962. 1973) and Jolm ~- Mbiti (19.6?, 1970, 1975)
,:'U
Bolaj;s1; 0
have come a long way in their teacl11ngs a~d wntJ.n~s towards a
th h·c and infonned presentation of African rel1g1ous thought.
sympa e d f d' .
Both men have written invaluable books on the stu Yo tra 1t1onaf
Afiican religions. Both men are Protestant ~inis~~rs and hav~ taught
in religious studies depar t111ents in African un1vers1tJes. Ye.t their w?rks
are not without flaws. A major criticism stems from ~e1r essentially
Christian outlook, and the resulting tenden~y. to JUSt1fy .A.frr~an
religions primarily on the similarities of these r~l1gions. to Christtanrty.
But the strengths in their writings far outwe1gl1 the_ir we~k points.
Both men have brought a new dignity and a new or1entat1on to tl1e
study of traditional African religion~. Thei~ great~st contribution .lies
in addressing seriously the comparative ph1losoph1cal and tl1eolog1cal
aspects of African religious thought.
My fo 1111ative years were spent in several pastorates all over fo11~er
western Nigeria, now known as the Lagos and Western States. Dunng
these years, my father's position as a clergyman provided me witl1
easy access into various Yoruba communities. Parish houses afford
the opportunity to meet people from all walks of life. They are f ocal
points for social as well as religious activities. My memory of tl1e
parishes where my father served is one of bustling activity in church
houses, where guests and members of the congregation engaged in
animated discussion or prayerful worship when not j ust simply paying
social calls. The visits of the older members of the congregation are
clearly memorable. I recall especially the occasions when the old
people recounted events in the past, comparing them with their present
situation. I also vividly recall instances when older parishioners
wrestled with their new-found faith, comparing and contrasting it
\\ritb other beliefS they knew or once held. These situations were
emotionally charged. There was constant recourse to oral traditions.
Communal beliefs were cited from myths, proverbs, oral poetry,
and song. Questions were posed about life and its meaning. There
\Vere lighthearted moments too - fun -filled evenings when the visitors
entertained themselves with earthy anecdotes and other pleasurable
narratives.
4 •
My fi eldwork experience was later to crysta lli 7 c some of the
memori es and id eas. g~rn ered during my fo rm ative years. rt
strengthened my conv1ct1ons that religion as belief is both cu ltural
and personal, a.nd .that the primary ingredient for a successfu l study
of religious belief 1s to have an open mind.
The Fieldwork
Guidebooks o~fering d ir~~tions for fi eldwork should have longer
postscripts noting the futility of fi eldworkers thinking they can ever
be fully prepared. Despite preparatory library research, questionnaires,
and interview plans, as well as the mastery of recording equipment,
those going into the field will still find many surpnses. My O\vn
fieldwork was marked by several.
The years 1967-69, during which I collected my field data were
civil war years in Nigeria. I had left the United States m the 'fall of
I 966 when there was a military coup that would eventually lead to
civil war in Nigeria. My proposed field tnps and research plans had
to be adjusted accordingly.
The war affec~ed m~ fi eldwork 1n several ways. Mobility, for
example, became mcreas1ngly difficult. In the early part of I 967, one
could still move easily about the countryside, but by the end of that
year military roadblocks had appeared everywhere. It became quite
dangerous to be on the roads. Tempers flared quickly between the
military and the civilians at the roadblocks. The soldiers were nervous
and irritable at their thankless job of searching cars and their drivers.
Civilians, on the other hand, were impatient and uncomfortable at
the long wait at the roadblocks. In a situation where one's person and
belongings were subject to summary searches and where everyone
beca me a potential spy or infiltrator, th e tape recording and
photographic equipment I carried with me hardly endeared me to the
gruff soldiers at military checkpoints.
The ~ar brought. other unexpected difficulties to my fieldwork by
generatmg changes m the mood and structure of the society in Nigeria.
In a way, the society became polarized between the anny and the
civilians. The military became an overnight power of the day - any
escape from hardship or any sense of ecUf1ty depended on one's
influence with the anny. There was also an increased polarization
between the middle classes and the peasant and working classes. The
5
 ause it ,vas tl1c \Vorkcrs w110 suffered
the f om 1er bec · o f th c war. They of the foundin~ of the Yoruba civilization.
latter resentcd . d the lligJ1est casualties Devotees of~u can be found in virtually every village and township
the greatest hardship an t of the volunteer anny, with t11e majority
. d · hty per cen f Yorubaland. Where there is a large concentration of them, they
constitute cag . h 10 . fantry and lo,ver ranks. ~orm groups along the Jines of the village or town wards and. cult-
of their numbers in t ~ reoccupied witl1 the war and they viewed
1
People '''~re na~. Y~ediate surroundings as a potential spy or
wise keep very much to their own sections of the community, except
at fe~rivals and other special occasions for the community at large.
anyone outstd~· the: ~:Spect military regime: It is not surprising, smaller ~u groups organize along lineage lines.
collaborator withas considered quite suspect 1n the early days of my Four geographical locations were selected for investigation in my
therefore, that ~ Id engage in field research at such an unsettled
1
preliminary fieldwork. Lagos was my base because I _lived there, and
~eld,vork. Thatt fi~~~o confutn the worst n1isgivings of son1c of my later I learned that it has one of the better organized ~u groups. Ile-
~me seemed awas es ecially gratifying later when not only were my rre which is considered the religious and cultural home of the Yoruba,
1~f?rmants. ltd b t ~so many of my infom1ants came to regard our w~'s anotl1er centre. In Ibadan, some ninety miles away from Lagos, I
\'lStts accepte ' u a ome diversion from tl1e civil situation. Tl1e found a female group of followers. The fourth location was Qyc), a
time together as a \Veertain 1c 'd b h
excitement and a rapt eat to t e pulse town where a group of priests of lfa lived. Initial v1s1ts, interviews,
,,,8 r also generated a c . .h
. 'th d th 10 · the air life '''as lived \Vlt a certain sense of and discussions at the ten centres in these four areas narrowed the
of life Wt ea • · d ·
· Th re many instances of fine sentiments an generosity. field to two: Lagos and Ibadan. .
abandon. ere we . . ,
There \\'as also increased religious fen or. . The Lagos group, situated at Idd6 tn Ebute-Metta, had a
· fmyths presents its own peculiar problen1s quite apart membership of about eighty persons. Attendance at the weekly
The co LI ecnng o . . .
from the difficulties of doing so ,,·hile \Var is being waged Fo~ktales services was poor, however, for rarely were there more than thirty
seem relatively easier to collect than myths because they constttute a members present on any of the occasions that I attended weekly
larger body of tradition and are borne by a greater number of narrators. worship. During the annual festival, though, many more people came
Folktales seem to be far more readily t?ld than .myths. Because folktales from the environs of Lagos and beyond.
are told primarily for enterta~e?t. therr educational and cultural purpose The Lagos group ,had a large temple. Legend has 1t that Lagos was
. ·ruated within a pleasure-giving framework. originally settled ~t I~ri from where the first settlers moved to Iddo
IS St . • &-. •
Myths, howe,rer, are narratives told pnm3:11 1y 1.or a sen ous. p~rpose. (Losi 1967, 3 ). ~u devotees in Lagos say that when the original
Mythtellers are sometimes inhibited creatively by t.he religious or leader of the settlers, Qlc)fin, ~ame from Benin to Lagos, it was E~u
sacred nature of their subject. Important myth trad1t1.ons are known who led him to the island of Idd6 (Buraimoh 1968). It 1s also said
' '
only by an esoteric fe\V \vho guard their repertoires zealously, that the ~u shrine at Idd6 was originally an open-air shnne m a
especially those that involve ritual, taboo, and supernatural power. coconut grove with an adjacent shrine to Oglin, the deity of war and
These problems are more fully disc~ss.ed m chapter ~ '. . . iron (Q l~jyde, 1968). The present temple at Idd6 stands ma rambling
Where does one begin to collect ~u m~? Traditional rel1g1ous bungalow wit~ a large courtyard. The coconut grove remains, as does
specialists \\'ho are directly involved with ~u 1n their daily lives are the grove to Oglin in the courtyard. But the emblems and statues of
'
certainly one source. Most of these ~pecialists have come to know ~u, which originally were kept outside in the open air, are now
~u traditions from membership in Esu cults or from living in the preserved under lock and key because of vandalism and the increasing
. . '
households of Esu •
devotees. Other sources of Esu •
traditions are Ifa plunder of shrines for authentic religious art-pieces for the tourist
priests and verses. Ifa is the Yoruba divinity of divination, and Ifa market.
verses are traditional recitations during divinations. They contain Although membership in the Lagos group was mainly men, a
myths of the divination system itself, myths of the deities, and legends women's auxiliary group existed. The women were not only devotees

6 7
 d ,vitct1craft association, which stands to
to ~u and, to a limited extent, to other deities. Their services could
Of tu but also bclongc dto a tile fatlter of \Vitcl1craft (Idowu 1962
. ~--' . egarde as . . ' be hired for a fee.
rea son. as, i:.:;;u is r up ,,,as an cxainple · of a well-organ1zed, , tightly
TJ1e central place of wo.rship was the house belonging to the l~der
80). The Idd6 gro . d oup. Men1bers of the women s auxiliaT\J
d
structure . ma l e-dominate gr ·
. 1 worsl1ip and sometimes served as a
·J of the group. Here, as at. Idd6, there ha~ once been a .fu.lly equ1.pped
ent at ntua · n-air shrine. But again, due to the pilferage of rel1gious objects,
,,,ere al,vays prcs th
chorus. but none
of e wo
,
men led ritual worsh1p. Moreover, the
.
ectful distance from the shnne and from
~;ee women had taken to keeping religious objects indoors, bringing
,,,omen ,,,ere kept at a. resp 1 m out only at worship, where they were carefully watched. The
. ht days &'.ior wors h'1p. s·tnce ~~men engaged in different types of livelihood. Some worked potte1!'
the men dun'ng worship. . I'dd 0, met every etg made dyes and dyed cloth. Others sold cooked food or engaged m
greg at1on at h I
The ~~n
·
a week lasts four days, meettngs were. e d every 0
:tty trading. Their life was substantially one of daily toil and Jabour.
the trad1ttonal Yoru?
other '''eek. Worship wastl.an
lways very early in the 1nom1ng so that
could go to tl1eir jobs in various parts
~hey clung to their religious beliefs even as they came to accept thetr
be 0 f the congrega 0 · dwindling membership and the likelihood that their children might
mem rs .
1 din rotation among the leading metnbers. ot continue in the same tradition. They worried that although ~
f h City SefVlces were e d £:: ....•., •
o t e · . all incorrect to regard these lea ers as LA?u pnests.' : orship might remain, its spirit might change enoi 111ously.
It \Vould be technic Y ate to speak of them as specialists. As Initial passport into the community at Ibadan was provided by my
· b3 bly more accur
It i~ ~ro ba riests they would be called babalal1'0, but tl1ey fat11er. I-laving lived m Ibadan at different times and now rettred there,
trad1nonal Yoru P El,e' n'is v.rhich translates as 'follov.ers' or my father knew the CI!Y well and could make the nght contacts m the
· ply kno,,'Il as """ ,
~re ,s•m · u , Unlike the priests of Ifa, they do not go through an areas of town where E~ cults were most prevalent.
de\ ot~es 0 ~~d ·c. f tram · ;"g They formally learn the precepts The women's group at Olunl9y9's compound was the most
· ·run nal1ze iorm o "' ·
:C~eirocult and acquire skill in ritual procedures and panegyrics accessible. Most of my interviews took place in the leader's house.
. d artt' cipation. They do not take vows of poverty Several members of the cult seemed to be with her at different times
from observation an P · ll
as some 1c ua.' pnes· ts do and they do not wear their vestments a the of the day so it was always possible to conduct multiple 1ntervJews.
. Whenever I came to the leader' s house, I would vtstt with her while
nme. bi find sui' table infonnants in Lagos through the kind the children were sent out to fetch the other women. Feast days brought
I was a e to . f ·
.
assistance of pnnce
. Kun le Akinsemoyin. . A descendant. o Lagos. King even more members to the meeting house. On these days the
. · 2 Prince Akinsemoy1n has a g reat interest in the atmosphere took on an air of jollity during the eating and dnnkmg
Akinsemoyin, d· h u · d
, · f the Yoruba cultural heritage. Educate m t e n1te that invariably followed the ritual \vorship.
presen anon o · ·i · · L
Kingdom, Prince Akinsemoyin works for the .ciVt service m agos During the group interviews I always directed my questions to the
and presents radio and tele\rision shows on vanous aspects ofYoru~a leader, acknowledging her distinguished position. The answers,
cultural life. Familiar with every nook and cranny of L~gos, he is however, came not only from her but also from the other members.
kno\\'ledgeable about the traditional history of Lag~s society. , These group sessions were refreshing, natural, and spontaneous.
The Ibadan group v.ras selected for study becau~e it w.as a wor:ne~ s Although only one member spoke at a time, the others joined m the
group. Loosely structured and quite di~ersified in their ass?ciat1?n songs or muttered the answers simultaneously. The group \Vould
\Vitb other cults, the Ibadan women clatmed the strongest ties with correct slips or omissions and embellish responses.
Fsu. Membership, consisting of about thirty-five mostly middle-aged There are advantages as well as disadvantages in being a native
w~men, ~'as quite small. As at Idd6, the group leaders did,not consider fi eldworker. My familiarity with the cu lture and fluency in the
themselves priestesses. They wereAkfgbe, 'chanters for ~u .' Besides language of the people among \Vhom the research was conducted
being follo\vers of ~u, they were also skilled at perfor1ning panegyrics shortened months of preparations and eliminated the need for

8 9
 t be trained ir1 n1ethodology before tl1cy can be
·1nterpreters • \\•ho n1us .
N0 matter ho\V good they are, interpreters Still very suspicious. In the beginning, they put me off politely by saying
of anJ"' great •
use. d' · s I had the advantage of betng · a bi e to read that they had to seek perrnission from every member of the group to
titutc intcnne rnnc . . talk to me. Obtaining this pe11nission would obviously take a long
cons k that meant cooperation or disapproval on tl1e pan
1 time. A date would be set to inforrn me whether perr11ission was
tl1~ gesture or ~~ I did not go into tl1e field overconfidently. In
of1nfom1ants~th 'e:~~'in amount of trepidation. My anxiety stemmed granted, but each time the date would be moved forward on the
fac~ I \\'ent \VJ c ess of the sensitivity of my area of research.
8 grounds that t~ey had been unable to meet with everyone. One of the
fro an acute a\varen . elders (Baba Ij9ra, Moses Ql~j~de) finally broke the stalemate by
m d t always feel a need to play-act with or mislead
leaking infor rnation to me about the time and place of a cult meeting.
Infonnants o no . . ft
. d k as they sometimes do with foreign icldworkers. lie said that all the elders would be there and that rather than wait
natJ\'e fiel \\'Of ers . c. . . .
the question motives behin~ any 1ascinat1on with their indefinitely for word to reach me, I should take the bull by the horns
11
Natura y, d by . c.s Whereas the foreign fieldworker ca n plead
culture an e1iei; · J and appear at the meeting place, making my request in person.
. ~ th novelty of exposure to the cu ture, tl1e native J did! It was a long, hard meeting at which every request was m1rially
indulgence ior · e I h
bably questioned more close y t an t e 1ore1gncr h "' .
fieldwork er JS pro parried. Later the members relented, but I do not know exactly why.
· t and reason for collecting data and the e11d to wl11cl1 J1e Perhaps the fact that at that time I was a lecturer teaching a course on
as to th e 1nten
or she means to put them. . traditional rel1g1ons at the University of Lagos had a great deal to do
Other fonns of etiquette someames pre\'cnt infonnants with the change of heart. They seemed particularly pleased that young
Courtesy an d .
~ b · direct with the foreign field\\ orker as tl1ey 1n1gl1t be
1
peopl e were being instructed forrnally about Yoruba traditions,
uom emg as ·1 d'
'th t1've But infonnants are not necessart y more 1sposed to particularly at the college level. Perhaps the elderly gentleman who
\\'1 a na . . b 1· c. . I
. li ·0 us and other personal and pnvate e 1e1s \\ 1t 1 tota l 1
had told me about the meeting also helped persuade the others on my
d ISCUSS re g1 ba have elaborate and charming forms of
.
strangers. The Yoru . behalf when he reminded them that the group had had sk111111shes
ex-pression \\rith ,..,hich they can pol1tel} put people off. and I .ha~e with the law, which he blamed on their extreme secretiveness. Tius
often wondered \\'h)' I ha\'e encountered no mention of this point in secreti veness had led the law to suspect the group ofbe1ng connected
any of the field studies on the Yoruba. . with, if not actually perpetuating, heinous cnmes.
My informants certainly were .not co.operative all .the time. They In 196 1, a serie.s of murders ~ad been committed in the OJu-J;: l~gbaa
\Vere very defensive about protecting their cultural ~en~ge and would area, close to the ~u Temple at Idd6. Because the bodies of the murder
lie. mislead, hedge, or fall silent when they felt the s1~at1on warranted victims were discovered near the ~u shrine, some members of the
secrecy. Credit must be accorded info1111ants for valumg the1r cultural group were promptly charged with murder. The general fee ling was
heritage and seeking to shield it fro~ prying eyes. , , that the victims were k1lle~ in ritual slay1ngs. In that \vay began a
Another major problem faced dunng the fieldwork on ~u was the long legal battle against the ~u devotees at Iddo. The group received
strong injunction to secrecy required of cult group members. Sworn disapproving coverage from the press and this in tum generated the
to secrecy on important cult Jore and rituals, devotees alone knew the public's suspicion of the group . Many members suffered harassment
curses' herbs, and incantations believed to affect physical and.spiritual from the law; many languished in jail until the long tnal was over
.. because they could not raise bail; others lost their savings and their
\VelJbeing. Since some members of the cult made a substantial l1vmg
out of their curative herbal knowledge, secrecy was also a means of jobs. In the end all were acquitted.
protecting their livelihood. Cult members said that secrecy was After recalling this incident, the group agreed to grant me every
necessary not to hide evil deeds but to ensure privacy and avoid ass istance during my fi eldwork . Still there was considerable
derision and misinterpretation by nonbelievers . censorship. Some of the infor1nants requested that detailed personal
•
When I first met some of the Jeaders of the Idd6 group, they were data such as names, age, and occupation be withheld. On many

10 11
occasion ritual became so involved and re,·ealing tl1at I was forbidde
the u c of n1y tape recorder or note pad. Certain matters, it wan the thoughtfulness and depth of undc t d"
claimed. could not be discussed in the presence of women. I receive~ extraordinarily polite to the young arsdan in~ expected of them, are
my cue to lea\'C the gathering v.-henever there were pregnant pauses n attentive to wh t h
have to say. The younger persons are then obli at a t e young
~nd furti\•e looks in my direction. There were also certain parts of
~u shrines into \Vhich \VOmen were not allowed. Usually I was
respect and to couch their questions or
forms of speech.
ob: ed ~o sh~w the prop.er
ervations in deferential
nllo\\'ed to \Vatcl1 tl1e goings-on from a respectful distance. I. was not allowed to photograph the shrine of th . . .
Using a tape recorder during my fieldwork required great tact. of ~u at the Olunl9y9 compound in Ibadan Short~ religious art1facts
Sometimes info11nants were willing to be recorded, but at other times group, they had been robbed of some of. th b y before I met the
they became self-conscious, which affected their deli\1ery. Resistance sculpture by two young men who h d e. e~t pieces of their
a come seeking rnfo t · b
~\·as not based just on self-conscio.u sness. As city dwellers, my their cult. The leader and two of her friend h d ft nna ion a out
· · s a 1e the men alo ·
mformants knew about the mass med1a. All of tl1em listened to radio tl1e shrine while they prepared some fo d d d ne ~
broadcasts from . rediffusion boxes. At botl1 Ibadan and Lagos, J1ospitality. When the women returned theo an rinks for their
, b . , men were gone and so
members of the ~u cult complained that local radio programme th
were e group s est pieces of sculpture Th
d f · ese pieces had been
producers \Vould interview them and then usually re-edit th e replace , o course, but the theft was still fr h · th ,
intervie\\'S to fit radio time slots. adding such sensational prefaces and it still rankled. es tn e group s rrund
and commentaries that the cult's beliefs \Vere totally misrepresented. As at Iddo, the cult members at Ibada d"d
h d n 1 not want to be
\\Then the tape recorder was not allowed, I \VOuld take notes by photograp e . Of the ten or more informants I fi .
· d . . 'on Y our would per nut
longhand and speak to the participants aftenvards in order to fill in me to write own biographical data Although · fi
· severa1 tn onnants
any missing gaps. Some interviews took place at the shrine and some expressed themselves freely during my fiield k
. wor , most of them
ritual sen1ices were recorded. As I became more familiar with the requested that I omit personal items.
group, I \\'as occasionally allo\ved to come closer during worship.
Secret materials were revealed on condition that I \vould not disclose Notes
them. As time went on, the absence of cameras or tape recorders
seemed to inspire confidence. I . ~· F. Burton mentions the use of Arab terms 'lblis' or' Al-Satanas'
My gender and relatively youthful age had a significant bearing on tn A~okuta and the Cameroon Mountains (1863 193)
the resen1e I encountered at the beginning of my fieldwork. Although 2. Qba Aki~m9yin (c.1704-20) came to the throne ~fLa~os in 1704
women are not excluded fro m Yoruba religious cu lts, fema le following the death of his brother Gabaro and ruled for sixteen
participants \\·ho hold significant pos1t1ons are usually advanced in prosperous, war-"?"ee years marked by the increased incursion of
years. Because I \Vas younger than most of my info1111ants, discussions Europeans, especially the Portuguese, into Lagos. See Los·1 1967
\\rith me were initially very fo1111al. I understood why, because Yoruba 13-14. ,

culture observes a strict etiquette along age Jines. The Yoruba language
itself has its polite fo1111s comparable to the French vous, which
immediately puts conversation on a polite but distant footing. When
older persons speak with the young, the language of propriety is
intrinsically patronizing and fo11nal. At no time is one allowed to
forget that the old ha, ·e greater wisdom and experience. Therefore an
immediate ritual situation develops. The old, being careful to show

12 13
 HAPTER 2
believe they share a common a
nccstor.
The Yoruba do share simi'la
r concepts of 1· ·
systems of political and social or . . re ig1on and similar
the Yoruba called themselves by ~~nizatJon. While it was true that
Hi to11' and Traditions unti I after the disintegration of the ye n~m~~ of their dialect groups
European colonization m the ninetee~~ c:n:gd~ms and consequent
Tl1e Yoruba li\'e predominantly in southwestern Nigeria, now known the truth to say that theyoru' b.1. ry, tt would be far from
~s the. Lagos and Western States; but Yoruba irredenta can be found ~ are a people more · db
than by culture (Ford 1962 l) In c.a t .t . unite Ylanguage
' · ii c J JS probabl ·
n1 ''anous parts ofAfrica and the New World (Forde 1962, 1-2; Smith Yoruba to understand one another politi~all th Y easier for the
~ 969, 9-11; Bascom l 969b, 1). In West Africa, the Yoruba are found anothe's dialect. The fundamentals of y Y ban to comprehend one
in Dahomey; to the east and north of Porto Novo; and in the Ketu and . · . oru a cu1ture are genera r.
variations
. occur
. kn m the areas of detail and t
prac Jce. '
Savalon areas. In Togo, the eastern part of tl1e Atakpame district is Litt1e JS own about the origin of the y b B
. fl. . I oru a. ecause of the
settled largely by the Yoruba. Descendants of Yoruba slaves are to be paucity o 11stonca and archeological evide d f
. f nee an o the meager
found among the Aku of Sierra Leone and in large settlements in documentation o the Yoruba genesis there JS a c ta
·· ' ons nt recourse to
Ghana. Ivory Coast, and Ouagadougou. In the New World, tl1e oral tra d JtJons - myths, legends folktales and other g f c. lk1
· c. · ' ' enres o 10 ore
descendants of Yoruba slaves are known as L11kz1111i in Cuba, and - for JnJ OrJnat1on
. on early. beginnings· Oral traditJ·ons prov1de a wealth
Nago in Brazil. The Yoruba diaspora in the New World reveal a of matenal for specu lation about who the Yoruba were, where they
substantial retention of Yoruba culture. especially in mythology, came from before they settled in southwestern N.rgena, and wbere
and how they e~o lved a tradition of k1ngsh1p and urban dwellin
religion. music. dance. and cuisine.
before contact with Europeans. Legends of neighboun H dg
In Nigeria, black Africa's most populous nation, at eleven million, 1 · l d. y , , ng ausa an
Fulani peop es ere tt oruba ancestry either to a magi'cian kin d
the Yoruba constitute about one-sixth of the population. The Yoruba . h . h h. c. g name
KJsra, w o came WJt JS 1ollowers from the east to found y b
are a predominantly agricultural people with a longstanding tradition · h oru a
temtory, or to t e remnants of the Nimrod tribe from Canaan (Bascom
of urban d\\'elling, divine kingship, and a rich and complex folldore, l 969b, 9).
religion, and \\'Orldview (J. S. Smith 1969, 9; Lloyd 1965, 549-79; Yoruba legends encourage differing views of the possible ongin
Bascom l 969b, 1-5). The tex m 'Yoruba' 1s used for both the people of the Yoruba. For example, one Yoruba legend traces the ancestry of
and the language they speak; that is to say, the Yoruba of Nigeria the Yoruba ancestor-hero Oduduwa to a king of Mecca. In this legend,
speak the Yoruba language. Oduduwa, the son of King Lamurudu of Mecca, is said to have
The Yoruba language is classified as belonging to the Kwa group reJinquished the Islamic faith. As a result, he and his fo llowers were
of languages in West Africa (Forde 1962, 5). It 1s a language that has banished from Mecca. Oduduwa then led his schismatic party
several dialects some of which are not easily mtellJgible to all speakers eastwards until they settled at Ile-I~, which became the religious centre
of Yoruba. It~ a tonal language, which makes Jt a difficult language as well as the dispersion point to other centres (Crowder 1996, 53;
to learn. Yoruba is also an arduous language to read .because ton~l R. S. Smith 1969, 11). This legend shows a distinct Islarruc mfluence.
marks have not been standardized to cover all the van ou~ ra~ges m There is no evidence to support the claim that originally the Yoruba
tone. It is said that the Hausa and Fulani of northern NJgena first came from Mecca or that they were originally Muslims. Yoruba
conversion to Islam did not come until later, in the tenth century with
gave the name Yoruba, from the .Hausa word Ya1~b~nci to t~e peopl~
the Fulani Jihads, or holy \Vars. A second discrepancy in the preceding
of Old Oyo in recognition of their astuteness and d1plomat1c finesse,
legend is that I le-I~ is not to the east of Mecca.
but the te101 1s now applied to all those who speak Yoruba and who
15
14
 One frequently cited 111yth about t11c origit1of tllc Yorub
QlQrun (God) cl10 c Oduduwa as 11is special assistant ta recounts that
Odudu\\ra \Va gl\'en a cockerel a handful of earth do create canh.
fitlfill h.
'
k ' ' an a palm
t tas ~. He came do\vn fron1 l1eaven on a chain and fo nut to
'' orld a mass of \Vater. In order to create land, he threw .1 und the
'''orld and placed the cockerel on the earth to scatter the ss~il onh~e fluid
tl Id . o1 ' w ich g
le \\'Or tts topography of rivers oceans mountains hill d ave
\\'h Od ' ' ' s, an
en uduwa planted the palm nut, it grew into a tree with · eys,
b.ranches~ each branch representing the one of the crowned headss~~een
s1 ·teen kingdoms of the Yoruba (Bascom, l 969b). the
There are many variants of this myth. Not all share the same det ·i
but all of them allude to the Yoruba origin from the deified Od d ai s
A ' . . u uwa.
' anant says cryptically that Oduduwa was a prince from tJ1e E
(The question· · ast
is east of where?) who conquered I~ and wl1ose seven
sons became the ancestors of Yoruba kings (Akpoture and Crowd
1966.. 38-40). er
A general observation that can be drav-rn from the origin mytl1s
~d le.gends is that the Yoruba were a people who probably came to
Nigena from some\\1here else. Whether their original home was east
or west, north or south of their present locale is not known. It is
~~wn, howe\·er. that the Yoruba acquired their ne\v territory by
nul1tary conquest {Lloyd 1965. 552). Most likely they were a warlike
group who came to their present region. engaged the aboriginal people
in v- ar, defeated them, and stayed to rule and establis11 their own
1
culture. They imposed a kingship trad1tton and an urban lifestyle on
a predominantly agricultural people. These are general conclusions
only, and oral tradition cannot be relied upon completely for historical
infor 1nat1on. Since no histoncal or empincal evidence goes far back
enough to document Yoruba ong1n. wnters and scholars will probably
continue to reconstruct the past from conjectural interpretations of
myths and the fragmentary reports of early explorers, missionaries,
and colonial officials (R. S. Smith 1969, 4-9).
Yorubaland is roughly the size of England. One English historian
bas called Yorubaland 'a fertile and verdant country watered by many
ri\·ers and streams and with a landscape recalling the paintings of the
Romantic School in Europe' (R. S. Sntith I 969, I 0). Yoruba country
lies bet\\'een the savannahs and forests of the lower Niger and the
Gulf of Guinea. In more geographical ter1ns, it lies around 6° 22 N.
16
of the equator, thereby placing the c .
(Ojo I 966, 22). The country maniflcsotuntry ·~ the Tropic of Cancer
. y s a vaned topogra h
tl1e lea d 1ng oruba geographers a d h P Y· 0 nc of
. . . h th d' . n SC 0 1ars G J A o·
d1sangu1s es ree 1st1nct types ofgeographical fo~ . · ·. · ~o ,
country. The swampy coastal areas conta . . .at1ons in Yoruba
· ' ining a mixture of aq t'
vall and fiorest vegetation, are characterized b . ua 1c
d . Y peninsulas lagoons
san db ars, an mangrove rainforests. Sedimenta rock ' . ,
from sea level to around I 300 feet form a sec dry Ths Jutt_ing up
· on area. e third and
largest area is a melange of plains and ranges bare k .4'.
'JI . , roe su, 1aces and
boulder-strewn h1 s, ridges, and other varieties of h'.
· B f . . geograp 1cal
fonnat1ons. ecause o. the . prox1m1ty of Yoruba country to th e equator
temperature an d hum1d1ty . tend to be consistently high, espec1a11y 1n •'
the coasta I areas, but this should not fos ter myths of hot t ·
Th l' d'ffi , s earning
jungles. e c 1mate 1 ers from temperate zones m that' the two
seas~n s, the wet and the.dry, are determined not by temperature but
by wind changes. The rainy season generally occurs between March
or April and October or November, due to the movement ofmoisture-
saturated winds from the Atlantic Ocean. Dry and sandy winds from
tl1e Sahara bring about the dry season (Bascom I 969b, 4).
Topographical background reveals the patterns of movement
residence, and means of livelihood within a society and culture. It ~
t11erefore curious that the Yoruba livmg in areas with pockets of \.vater
did not develop a distinguished fishing culture but an agricultural
one instead, using their rivers mainly as important channels of trade
and com!'°unication (Ojo 1966, 44-45). In Yoruba mythology, rivers
such as Ogun, Qya, and ~un are considered the abode of river gods
or goddesses who give life and nurture growth \.Vith water (Ojo 1966,
I 63-66).
Favoured with an abundance of land and a nch and fertJle soil, the
Yoruba cultivate land in personal, family, or clan holdings (Forde
I 962, 56-68). In traditional rimes, land tenure followed patnlineal
lines. With so much land, every adult could own some of it. Land
that was not in active use belonged to the whole community. The
a a(king) was guardian of communal land and saw to 1t that no one
~bused it. Land could not be sold or given a\.vay. A man at rus death
must bequeath his portion of land to his children or, where there are
no children, to his relatives. Outsiders can now acquire land after
being adopted by a lineage or family, but they are only allowed
17

secondary riglits to the land. W11iJe every kin 1nember owns land,
out iders rent land for a sn1aJI toke11 sum. Botf1 male and female
cliildren can inherit land (Moore, 9-1 7). . collar jobs. Craftsmen worked by commission and sometimes shared
The Yoruba begin t11e agricultural process by first cJ~anng the bush
and preparing the soil wit11 the slash and bum techn1qu.e (Bascom
I969b 18-23). Different crops are planted by crop rotation or shift
culti\,; tion techniques. Fanning implements are simple. They consist
mainly of the sl1ort-handled hoe, the axe, the cutlass, and machete.
Agricultural products include casl1 crops sucJ1 as cocoa and cotton,
root crops such as yan1s, groundnuts, cocoyams, cassa~a, and
numerous varieties of vegetables. Fanners clear the fann dunng the
dry season and plant yams t\vice during tJ1 ~ year, interspersing
cultivation of yams wit11other crops, such as maize, beans, or cassava,
as they rotate bet\veen sections of their plot. Every three years, a
section of their land is left fa llow while tl1ey use the other sections.
Fanning is principally a man 's job. Women take no part in the
strenuous aspect of farming, but they occasionally help witl1 the
planting of \'egetables and also help once in a \vhile witll harvesting,
but their main job is to sell the fann produce and raise tlle domestic
livestock (Forde 1962, 18-23).
Other professions include hunting, which was very important when
the land S\Va1111ed with animals such as buffaloes, lions, duikers, and
roans (Ojo 1966, 38-40). The importance of hunting and wild animals
in traditional life is crystallized in hunters ' songs and rituals in Yoruba
folklore (Babalola 1966). Big game hunting is now on the decline
because the animal populations are severely depleted. In traditional
times hunting was a respectable profession. Thoroughly familiar with
the forests, hunters used their knowledge to serve as scouts or
explorers against neighbouring peoples, as well as members of a
reserve army. During their long sojourns in the forests, t11ey acquired
a knowledge of herbs and other curative plants, so that it was not
unusual to find hunters who were also medical specialists and
herbalists. As with most professions among the Yoruba, hunting was
traditionally kept within specific families. Today there are fewer
hunters because of the scarcity of game. Hereditary continuity is no
longer adhered to strictly. The modern-day hunter has made the
transition from Danish and Portuguese muskets to more modem rifles.
Other means of li,1elihood among the Yoruba include trading and
18
'!' - _ , ..... -?__ " ~ •- • - -"- - -~- r • !"_ -~~~ 4 _ - --=-- _
craftsmanship (Moore n.d., 17), besides administrative and white
a common place of work. Men engaged in the traditional crafts of
weaving, using the horizontal looms, blacksmithing, goldsmithing,
woodcarving, and leatherworking. In older days, the practice of these
crafts belonged to certain families and apprenticeship was limited to
family members (Bascom 1969b, 24-26).
Today tl1ings are changing. Since professional crafts are no longer
limited to certain families, it is now common to find apprentices from
outside the lineages of traditional craftsmen. Today's craftsmen are
constantly being sedu ced by better-paying Wes tern-oriented
professions that are beginning to be considered more respectable.
Today 's women weave on the vertical loom, make pottery, and dye
locally designed and produced cloth. For the modern Yoruba, there
are profess1onal opportunities m medicine, educaaon, and office work.
Markets play an important role in the life of a people whose
economy is based on fa11ning, trading, and craft production (Forde
1962, 8-9). Their importance in the pol1tical and rel1g1ous view of
the Yoruba is well established by the fact that in traditional times,
markets were usually located in the centre of town, directly across
from the palace of the Qba (king). It stands to reason that, serving as
recreational, political, and ritual centres, they should be located close
to the Qba, the personification of religious and social life (Lloyd 1965,
'
558-59). In mythology, ~u as a principle of vital energy is closely
linked with marketplaces and crossroads.
Yoruba social groupings are based on three general categories:
kinship, association, and residence (Oj o 1966, 140). Kin grouping is
central to the social structure. Members of associations fo1a1 an
important category whose members meet periodically to perfo1m
communal actions or take communal decisions. Residence grouping
is based on the living or domicile patterns of the people, and these
divisions are based on patrilineal lineages according to city and farm
dwellers.
Over one-third of the Yoruba are town dwellers. The population
density patterns of the Yoruba reveal sixty-two to\vns \VJth populations
between five and ten thousand (Forde 1962, 10- 13). Tbadan and Lagos
each have a population of close to one million people (Ojo 1966,
140). The cities are subdivided into wards, precincts, or districts.
19
 Traditional Yoruba cities have been called ' curiosities' or 'anomalies'
by Afiicanists unable to accept pre-European urban traditions in Africa
(Lloyd 1965, 554). . . . male or female, are called fgbpn, younger siblings are abLiro.
y oruba towns are charactenzed by therr geographically strategic
positions (Lloyd 1965, 553). Most were founde~ as o~shoots of a larger
\Varring empire or kingdom. In order ~o avoid b~mg recap~e~ or
subjugated by another group, great attention was paid to foundmg cities
in areas that provided security against sudden cavalry attacks, assured
safe hiding places during an ambush, and furnished a quick getaway in
defeat The bases and ledges of hilly areas and riverine areas that were
shaded by dense forests provided these settings. Yoruba towns were
usually walled, sometimes with moats or trenches dug around them. The
surrounding areas were also cleared in such a way as to provide security.
In addition, towns had sentinels stationed at town gates who made security
checks and collected tolls in cash or kind
Within the towns, Yoruba homes were arranged in clusters of
rambling mud-walled, rectangular buildings that opened into a
common courtyard. Homes were built in patrilineage clusters that
housed the head of the family, his wives, his children, and rus
children 's wives. These settl ement clusters were known as
compounds. The members of a patrilineage consisted of descendants
in the male line. Usually they bore a lineage name, shared a lineage
deity, and observed similar religious or food taboos.
Yoruba kinship terminology is quite explicit. The nucleus family,
called ebf or idile, consists of a man, his wife or wives, his unmarried
childr~n and sometimes married sons and their wives. Sometimes
there w~re other close relatives who pe11nanently resided in the family
house. ]dile is a ter111 that is used not only for the nucleus family, but
also for the extended family or the patrilineage. The Yoruba concept
of the family always includes one's nearest relatives on both the
paternal and maternal sides. The smaller family house is known as
ile and the patrilineal compound is the agbo ile so that a compound is
a collection of domestic fumily units, ile.
The main kinship ter1ns are Baba (father), used for one's father
\
and any kinsman of one's father's generation; ly a (mother), applied
in the same way to one's mother and any kinswomen her age; and
\
Baba n1a and Iyo n1a, used respectively for grandfather and
grandmother and any relative of their generation. There are no words
20
in the Yoruba language for brother and sister. Older siblings, whether
Among the Yoruba today, people many according to Christian and
Muslim traditions as well as according to traditional customs. (Forde
1962 28). In earlier times, though, marriages were arranged between
reJati~eJy young people in three stages (Moore n.d., 47-48). Members
of the boy's family sought out the suitable bride and through the
services of an a/arena (matchmaker) asked her private consent. The
betrothal was a c.eremony at which members of the prospective
bridegroom 's family made a forrnal request for the girl's hand in
marriage. In actual fact, it was the consent of the girl's family that
was being s oug~t. Symbolic gifts of gin, kola, and bitter nuts were
exchanged. The Jdana was the next.ceremony, whery the final marriage
payment wa~ ma~e. Betwee11 the lj~hun and the l dana ceremonies,
the prospective bridegroom was at liberty to send his fiancee as many
gifts publicly or privately as he wished. During the final ceremony,
igbeyaw6 ('canying over the wife'), the bride was taken to her
husband's house and her feet were washed with gin and water in a
purification ritual. ~he was then ca~ ed over the threshold and
henceforth was mam ed. On the followmg day, relatives and friends
brought over the bride's personal effects in an elaborate procession
with song and dance in her honour.
The political organization of the Yoruba is a complex one based
on state systems (Moore, 47-48). According to the Yoruba tradition
of kingship, tl1ere are many kings, among whom twenty or more rule
over fo1mer district and independent states. Subordinate rulers control
territories consisting of single towns and groups of villages (R.S.
Smith, 1969: 9).
Because the Yoruba are an agricultural people, their political
organization is unique. Usually state systems develop in areas of high
population density where the people are urban and sedentary. But the
urban nature of this agricultural people can be explained by the fact
that Yoruba farmers tend to live in cities, working on their farms
ptimarily at planting time.
Authority is centralized within a ruling group composed of religious
specialists and councils of elders (R. S. Smith, 1969: 8). Beneath this
group and subject to it is a large class of commoners. In traditional
times, slaves were on the lowest rung of the social and political ladder.
21
 Althotigh 8 king is at tl1c apex of t1.1c l1icra~l1y, lie is closely counselled
b)' influc11 tial cl1icfs nnd a c~unc1l of ad\'tscrs.
ln traditional tin1cs. the king ((}Ja) \Vas a Iea~cr, .and t!1c supreme
liead of his kingdom (Bascon1 l 969b. 29-38). His lci11gsh1p was both
a sacred and political office because l1e \Vas not only. ~ ruler of his
people but their l1igh priest and protector as \Veil. !?e dtvme or sacred
a pect of kingship quite overshadowed the political aspect: Kings
\\'ere belie\'ed to be descended from a god, or were personified as
one. They \\'ere called Ekeji 61·i{ii, a te11n meaning that they were
next to God. After ascending the throne, a king became shrouded in
mystef)' and grandeur: no one could see his face. His person became
sacred and awesome and his \vellbeing became the welfare of l1is
people. As a high priest, he performed or took part in the most
important rituals for the welfare of his people. His palace at the centre
of tO\\'ll \Vas a unifying symbol of the people (Moore n.d., 2 1-24;
Forde 1962. 19-2 1).
In spite of the grandeur and sacredness of kingship, the king was
subtly restricted in his political duties. He was required to seek the
\velfare of his people through the advice and judgement of his council
of ministers. According to Oja, the king was 'the high priest, ' the
principal embodiment and symbol of authority rather than the
instrument of its exercise (Oja 1966, 120). Although the king made
laws, made decisions on peace and war, and entered into treaties, he
did none of these on his own initiative, but on counsel of his chiefs.
Although kings were not frequently removed, at times they could be
and were. for a variety of misconduct. An Qba could be deposed if he
became too high-handed and repressive. Since be held such a high
office, he was required to carry himself with great dignity and majesty.
An Qba could be deposed ifhe did not comport himself appropriately.
Neglect of state affairs, corruption, and treason would be the more
serious reasons for asking the Qba to give up his head-of-stateship.
In most Yoruba kingdoms, kings were appointed from select ruling
families. This meant that kingship rotated between these families.
Primogeniture was not always fo llowed, although an Qba could be
succeeded by his son. In general, there was an established pattern of
succession within the ruling families that was based on patriJineaI
heirs who were sanctioned by official kingmakers, advisers, and
council ors.
22
An Qba \Vas assisted in his duties by his council of chiefs and other
dignitaries within his household. TI1e most distinguished council of chicfi
\V3S the Ogho11i, and though these were not found in aJJ Yoruba kingdoms
they constitute~ the mos~ sophi~ticated. elaborate, and powerful institutio~
of statesmanship. The Ogb6n1 was made up of distinguished, well-to-
do, and influential members of the society. They served in political, civil.
and religious capacities. Besides giving counsel to the kin~ they
constituted the highest judicial court in the land. In some ways. the Ogb6ni
was also a secret society: initiation into the council and its meetings
were surrounded by the utmost secrecy.
Today, both institutional and value systems have changed m the
wave of Westemization and the influences of a twentieth-century
world. Institutiona l and value systems have become modified 50 as
to accommodate modem times. Royal lineage, as the axis of political.
soc ial , a nd re li gious powers, has yielded to parliamentary
representati on. There is a growing elite of Western-educated
professionals and a proliferation of Christian churches and Islamic
mosques in rivalry as centres of religious actJvtty.
Art and Music
In the vast and rich area of heritage, the Yoruba contribution to the
arts and music needs no introduction. Ife bronzes and te11a cotta heads
have become world famous; much has been written about Yoruba
religious carving (Carroll, 1967; Willett. n.d.: Willett, 1967). The Ire
bronzes and terra cottas represent one of three major art styles and
fo11ns in Nigeria. The other two are the Nok sculptures and the Bemn
bronzes. Bronzes represent some of the best in African sculpture. So
do terra cotta beads of exceptional beauty and precision that \Vere
made before the advent ofEuropeans in WestAfrica. Unlike the other
fo1111s of sculpture to be found among the Yoruba, the Ire beads adhered
to a naturalistic and rounded fo11n.
•
Yoruba art can be divided into two types - the religious and the
secular. Because religion plays a dominant role m Yoruba culture, it
is to be expected that a major part ofYoruba iconography represents
or is associated with religious personages, cults, beliefs, and ntuals.
Major representations of religious carvings include statues and
'
figurines of~u, the deity of chance and accident. and staffs, decorated
bowls, and ceremonial axes for ~ang6, the thunder god. There are
23
 . It
tl "of' nvins or other supen1atural cults such as arc human phenomena found everywhere in the world. As a
1 figunne to le cu . . .
a so . lfi~ d' . tt·011 boards by \Vl11cl1 comn1un1cat1on bet\.veen dance fexpression and communtcatron,
· · music · incorporates
· th e va I ucs,
tl1c Egitngu11. '' t\'tna ' .
l 1ans an d tlle det t
't'cs ·s
1 ac1 1ieved
' carved ritual stools, headdresses
. , fonn. ~ and social nor111s of each society in which it is found . It
\Un . d ·k all constitute a 1najor part of Yoruba religious be11e1s, . . d I. . . I . 'b t t th
tensils an 111as s validates social institutions an re 1g1~us ntua s; it contn u .es Tho c
~ ' h (C 8 rroll 1967). Of the t\VO types of sculpture, the continuity and sta.bility of ~ulture; andh it adlso serves to entertarkn. ese
iconograp
. . · Y ' · ·
tch the imagination and interest o 1nos f t Afri ·
canists
re11mous pieces ea . I d . fu tions of music are universally s are . Love songs, wor songs,
... f their incomparable beauty and depth. In v1sua an graph1c . nc chants hymns, and praise songs exist in every society. What
because o · ·1 t l d1rges, '
h religious art objects express in st en e oquence the differ is the degree of prevalence of these types of songs.
tem1s. t ese Th · l' · Y
maSince · Afri can
.1
phi osop
hical and religious ideas of the culture.
·
eir non-natura
· · I
isttc, no studie~ h~ve actually ~ompared song. types m
elaborate, and elongated fonns depict life with a certain ttme essness, d Western societies in great detail, I would refrain from assuming
elemental po\ver, and cosmic force. a~ t music serves more functions in Yoruba than anywhere else.
The ob,rious religious nature of Yoruba sculpture creates the k:wever, it is safe to say that Yoruba music and dance accompany
impression that Yoruba art was main\~ functi~nal,. with no ~es!hetic every tum in human life. This is true for soldiers -?oing off t? war, for
\'alue. Functionalism can also be read into their being comm1ss1oned workers at their labour, for congregations at religious festlvals, and
for ritual purposes. Nonetheless. Y~ruba ai: historian Fra~ .Willett for perfo1111ers of folk narratives. Rites of passage are celebrated in
is percepti,,e in his assertion that African art 1s not purely religious or song and dance. No baby JS born without music and dance to welcome
functional (Willett, 1970, I: 115). It was meant to be enjoyed and it and salute its parents. Puberty and initiatJon rites begin and end
appreciated even as it instructed the young, edified the faithful, and with music and dance. Marriage and death are commemorated m
commemorated the noble. song and dance.
Secular art of course deals more \vith decoration and the creative Music is also a very important way of preserving tradition among the
imagination. Great value is placed on moderate resemblance y oruba, perhaps more so than in cultures with a longer tradition ofwriting.
some\vhere between exact portrayal and abstraction; a smooth fullsh, Historical events and fumily genealogies are recorded in song. Praise
symmetry. and composed facial expressions are also considered songs recapitulate the virtues a(ld deeds of deities and human bemes
desirable (Beier, 1960). while they reveal societal values and ideals. Certain ntual songs ~
Some Yoruba artists work with brass, copper, iron, and wood; others couched in secrecy or are taboo to the uninitiated. There are esotenc
work with pottery, ivory, beads, leather, calabashes, gold, and silver. songs that are known only to members of certain cults or societies. Some
These artists produce objects that have not only a functional but also ritual songs are believed to have magical powers.
an artistic or aesthetic value. Gold and silver jewelry not only serve The p~rfor1nance of music includes s1nging, clapping, drumnung,
as parts of attire but also ha\re their decorative value. In traditional and dancing. The Yoruba have a large variety of musical instruments.
architecture, Yoruba doors are famous for their beautiful motifs Their wide assortrnent of drums is made from various matenals. The
(Thompson, 1968: 44-45, 63-66). A bride 's wedding gifts usually Yoruba have three types of drum batteries - the igbin drums the
include many objects to adorn her home as well as to use in it. Wooden
dundun or gcingan drums, and the bata drums. igbin drums ~re a
spoons are intricately carved and thus often delicate for frequent use;
three-drum set. The bata and the dundzln drums are sets of five drum
brass trays have beautiful designs bored into them; calabash utensils
are delicately etched. w!t~ a v~riety of sha~es - cone double-headed, and rounded m th:
~ t~ndency to emphasize music and dance in so-called primitive bata vanety; figure-eight and h~misph~ric~l in the diindiln variety.
soc1e?es ~ften creates_ ~e impre~sion that the music has many more The drum-heads are made of arumal skins nghtened by leather laces
functtons m these soc1et1es than m Western societies. Yet music and ?r wooden pegs. Other musical instruments found among the Yoruba
include cylophones, gourd-rattles, bells, metal gongs, clapping sticks,
24
25
 . Acropllones ii1cludc t11e \Vl1istlc, fl ute, and trumpet
and thun1b piai1os.
(Dietz and Olatunji, 1965).
Folklore
. · f tl e music and dance of a people leads naturally to a
A d1scuss1on o 1 . 1 . .
discussion of their folklore becau~e of their ,cl?~e lrkel at1o(Bnsh1p. In
· f tl · h and sizable collection of Yoruba 10 ore ascom
spite o ie nc . I d '
), there are some genres that are relatively neg ecte , such as
1964
n1yth and epics. . f these ter r11s still remain
The a\iailable writings on African folklore are vaned and of un~ven
.ty They include monographs, synopses, books, and collect1ons
qua lI . ·1 c.
from library research and fieldwork. Tl1e .compt ers range .irom
· 51· onaries travellers, and career offi cers to profess ional
m1s , fii . d Afr'
etlmographers, dilettantes, literary scholars~ A can1sts, an 1can
scholars. (Burton 1885; Ellis 1894; Froben~us 1913; Feldn1an 1963;
Finnegan 1970; see also Bascom l 969a; Beier 1 96~; Wescott l 96.2).
The biases, interests, or specializations of these wnters are as van ed
as religion, travel. geography, popular literature, art, and . folklore.
Some writers or compilers are thorough and scholarly, while others
are not so discerning. As a result, a consistent, high standard of
scholarship is lacking. Background material on collections leaves
much to be desired. Detailed info1111ation on info1 rnants and t11eir
sources, the field situation, and the manner in which the traditions
were recorded are not always given.
The problems of translation or transliteration from one language
to another are already notorious. Some texts are too polisl1ed to
preserve the idiom and the peculiar turns of phrases of the original
language. Annotations are few and far between and very few
collections tale-type or categorize their material by motif in order to
facilitate cross-cultural studies. Until the collection of Yoruba folklore
has been increased and improved, it will remain a difficult task to
make analyses and interpretations that are valuable to folklore studies.
Another major problem is that of arriving at a suitable conceptual
frame\vork in which to discuss Yoruba folklore. This is not a problem
peculiar to African folklore alone. In the entire field of the social
sciences, the use of everyday language as an efficient medium for
transmitting systematic concepts is not without problems. It is very
easy to presume that certain problems of definition and meaning occur
26
in situations where there is a paucity of tc11r1inology, but even
1 there are terms, it is not always easy to define them or arrive at
0~~re
w origal meaning. The Yoruba, for example, do have a te1111 for
a categ , • Id h' h I d
lktale, itan. But 1tan cou m~a? a st~ry,. rstory, myt ~ ~~~n or,
fo tension, a lie. The word 1tan, with its many poss1b1l1t1es for
by ex·ng therefore does not facilitate definition. Neither do te1111s
rn~:rumuitiple definitions. Although the ter111s ' folktale,' ' myth,' and
~ nd' exist in Western folklore studies, the definiti on and meaning
1
Jege · a cJ.O 1kl or1st
· ' s n1g · 1·s nearIy
· htmare; it
?1mposst'ble to find two folklorists who share identical defini tions for
1'dentical tenns.
It is doubtful that the probl em of termino logy is unusua lly
h 'ghtened in the African setting because scholars still must fashion
:'ir own working definitions for the te11ns they wish to use. They
t ~ adopt the tenns used in scholarly writings where they apply or
eae existing terms in the fo lk literature. The error has been m looking
~sr European-type te1r11s in African folk.lore. It is not accurate to say
t~at the Yoruba have no te1ms for history, myth, or legend because
itan can by extension mean all three. Sometimes descnptive suffixes
such as -laflaf (age-old story or history), -idile (lineage or family
history), -oriit, Or -nipa CrW?J1 Oriit (stories about detties, myths) are
added on for clarity.
Folktales, which are called alP, are plentiful m Yoruba folklore.
They usually are told for the amusement of small children. It is unusual
to find a group of adults swapping folktales for folktales' sake. But
adults can be found surrounded by a group of small children,
humouring and indulging them with folktales, thereby mcreasing their
repertoire and improving their style. Field researchers have collected
folktales by listening to adults tell them to children, or when the
adults have been specifically asked for their repertoire (Walker
and Walker 1961 , 2-3).
Yoruba adults are themselves more interested in what might be
called the 'serious' genres of folklore. What Melville J. Herskovits
discovered for the Dahomeans is true for the Yoruba also. A middle-
aged Fon inforrnant told him that men of his age did not engage in
telling folktales; they were more concerned with the happenings of
history (Herskovits and Herskovits 1958, 15). Among the Yoruba,
legends, myths, lineage, and family traditions belong to the domain
27
 R 'ddles folktalcs toi1gue twisters, and other 'mino ,
of tl1c ndu Its. i ' ' .d p b r
forn1s nrc enjoyed primarily by cl1il ren. rover s are used by
C\':~i;:~dom examinatioii of ~ollections of Yoruba folktales w~uld
er Prop ortion of animal tales tl1an any other type. Th1s is
re\'ea 1a Iarg · · h ·
unfortunate because it perpetuates tlle 1mpress1on t at animal tales
have greater prominence than othe: genres. !he exaggerated
· rt
in1po ance
of animal tales began with early nineteenth-century
. . ) M' · · w~ally want to know if the fable was going to be new (to
folklore collections in Africa (Finnegan 1970 . 1ssionanes who
\Vanted the Bible translated into African languages engaged. the
services ofGerinan linguists to reduce tlle oral lan~age to tl1.e wntten
\vord. The linguists found it most useful to us~ Afiican oral literat:ire,
particularly folktales, for their r~search matenal. They found African
animal tales particularly enchanting probably because ~hey were easy
to collect and easiest to understand. Tl1ey also reminded tl1e111 of
Aesop's fables and European animal tales. Tr~~ellers and otl1~r
nineteenth-century observers of African oral trad1t1on followed suit
in collecting these tales, thereby creating an impression t11at anin1al
tales are of a greater preponderance in Africa tl1an any other type. In
reality, stories about people, especially of the marchen and novella
,,ariety, are more prevalent than animal tales. It is also more difficult
for foreign observers and researchers to collect them because they
incorporate more societal norms and values than animal tales. Tl1ey
are more intricate than animal tales and therefore require familia1·ity
with the culture and its language in order to be fully appreciated.
The subject matter of Yoruba folktales covers every imaginable
human condition or situation. Their themes include familial problems,
human trials and tribulations, different types of contests, the attainment
of goals, fantasies about supernatural beings, heroes, twins, parents,
godparents, animal characters, and talking objects. Some narratives
have morals tagged on to them at the end, while others end abruptly;
still others have formulaic endings. Most Yoruba folkta les have no
titles; thus, titles in collections are often arbitrary. Folktales are referred
to within the society by the motif or motifs by which the individual
best recalls the story. Folktales that do have titles are those in which
the hero has a nongeneric name or those in which a motif from the
tale has become generally accepted as the distinguishing factor for
example, 'The Singing Object' (ItaY':mi and Gurrey 1953, 19-2J).
28
t0 ols of folktal e pcrforrr1ancc are many. Story-telling sessions
Tit~ es begin with riddles. The question-and-answer character of
s?me~~ al erts th e audi ence and sets th e mood for a udience
rid~I . tion. Some folktales are opened with a song from the folktale.
parti cipa Phebean ita~mf writes in Folktales and Fable.~:
Oft11ese, ·
The song would first be sung once or twice before the tale
· · · begun. It had a double attraction, the children would
5
~~em) or if it was to be one of their known favourites, and
they ~ould know from the song which it would be. Also
nding abruptly at the most exciting part and this strengthened
~1 e attenti on of the li steners w ho wanted to know the
conclusion of the tale. ( 1953, 11-12)
Take for examplethe story of ' The Little Boy and the Piece ofYam'
(F ~ a 1971 , 43-47). A little boy forgets his magical piece of yam in
h u forest, and goes back to fetch it. A leopard trails lum and the boy
~·;s the leopard with sticks dipped in indigo dye. That was how the
i:opard got his spots. The song to this folktale goes:
My little yam - my little yam
o I left you behind in the bush
My mother warned me not to leave you about
My father warned me to keep you in my band
Yet I go and leave my little yam behind
My little yam, my little yam. (Fuja 1971, 44)
Another opening forn1ula is this simple one:
'
A/.60, A/ 60. A story, a story
A'!aw
, , , #
A stooory. (Ogundipe 1966, 16-1 9)
Closing forrnulas can be even more fascinating. For example:
The story I started with, I concluded with
I have forty cowries in my pocket
My pocket is so full, not even
A needle can be added
Let the small fly go tell the big (fly)
Let the big fly tell God that
29
 1 . .. am not going to heaven yet. (Ogundipe 1966, 16-19)
di .cipation is crucial to storytelling in Yoruba. A folktale
artt
Au ence p . d It .
. m
1s . some ways deactivated when written . own. li is not-e.a ive and
. ·
sttmng. 1 W'th an audience '.
storytellmg becomes
•
a ve pe1 ionnance ·
Storytellers become actors ma sort of theater-1?-tbe-round. They 1:18e
all the skills at their command: gestures, facial movem.ents, voice
changes. They use new and stylized images . and they exploit the sound
d tt.c value of the language m order to create an aest etic
an seman
ffi t By
· d h l'
improvisation exaggeration, suggestion, an ot er iterary
e ec. ' Th .
devices, they display their verbal virtuosity. etr au ence responds
di
with nods of approval, laughter at wit or humour, and comments on
the asides of the raconteur. They sing along and clap to the songs that
are part of the folktale.
Major types ofYoruba folktales include hum3? adventure, romance,
and cumulative tales. The adventure story is comparable to the
European marchen. The hero (usually single) is moved.by intolerable
situations in his background into going on an odyssey-like adventure.
The following synopsis of a Yoruba marchen is one example:
Tinringin lives with his impoverished widowed mother. ~ey
make their living from laboriously weaving baskets and kiJJ1ng
bush rats to sell at the local market. Things were bad enough but
became worse when three spirits decided to cheat Tinringin's
mother out ofthe meager living she made by waking up the bush
rat and sending it back to the forest and the basket back to its
original state. Tinringin dignantly decided to go after the three
supernatural creatures who were giving them such ~o~. ~e
sets out on an adventure in pursuit of the three sptr1ts. His
adventure involves perfo11ning superhuman tricks such as sitting
on a strand of cotton in the air, serving meals that could never be
finished. His chase leads him past the homes of Death and
Disease. At the house of the spirits, he escapes death several
times by swapping places and bedclothes with the children of
the spirits. He escapes from the spirit's house by substituting
their mother for himself in a cooking pot on the fire, and during
his subsequent escape be changes into pebbles, cudgels, and
finally remains as the black patch in the iris of a blacksmith's
eye. (ita~mi and Gurrey I 953, 40-44)
30
The myths and legends o~~oruba oral narrative involv~ religious
iefs, speculations on th.e .on~ of the worl.d,.and other philosophical
1·
bel t' ns The many de1t1es m Yoruba rel1g1on become humanized
ques 10 • •
d their exploits ar~ perpetuat~d m myth. Some myths are sacred
and ed in religious ntuals. Invanably, most of these myths are known
~
0
~s0 religious specialists or those connected with the cult or rituals.
h Y ds tend to be woven around a fact or historical incident. Their
Legen
b. t matter includes wars, · ·
rrugrat1ons, an d t h e h ·
ero1c ·
actions. Local
5
~ ~e~es royal successions, and the origins of social practices within
~i~tortm~mory are some of the themes incorporated in legend. Legends
livtng t to many uses m . history, re i·1g1.on, even m . 1aw.
areppuverbs are more widely used than any other form of Yoruba
lklrore. The Yoruba say that the ' proverb is the horse of language;
° .
f 0h work is missmg, a proverb rs . sent to find 1 .t.' Thi s means that
~ ~~ search parties go on horseback to look for a missing person,
JUS do proverbs help to clear up obscurities and clarify language.
so verbs are educative because they are observations of nature and
P ro
b · f summaries of human experience. . Whil .
e not considered great
li~~ pieces, proverbs are value~ for the aphoristic, metaphorical,
d picturesque elegance they bn ng to language and expression.
;:teresting forms include Wellerisms, dialogt1e proverbs, and
rhetorical question proverbs. Here are some examples:
1. ' I hate lawsuits,' said the man who gave his daughter in
marriage to six suitors. (Wellerism)
2. They say, 'Lame man, the load on your head is not sitting
straight.' 'It is not the load, it's the legs,' he replied. (Dialogue)
3. The young palmleaf says he will reach the sky. Has any of its
predecessors told him that they have ever done so? (Rhetorical
question) (Ajibola 1947, 410, 417, 137).
Besides their use in oratory and rhetoric, proverbs have legal
overtones and are effective in counselling situations, as well as being
used for ridicule and mockery.
A large area of poetry in Yoruba fo lklore is lately coming to the
forefro11t, due to Adeb6ye BabalQla's study ofYoruba hunters' songs
(Bascom l 969a) and William Bascom 's compilation of divination
verses (see chapter 4 of this study). Yoruba folk poetry can be divided
into three types the recitative, chanted, and lyrical. It should be borne
31
 . · d h ll try in these three categories is orally transmitted .....,parisons of the Yoruba pantheon to the classical pantheons ·
m mm t at a poe . l d l d yth fi . co~·· yth 1 . 01 '
and based on tradition. Recitative poetry tnc u es egen ' m ' ~ly Greek and Roman ~ o og1es ... 9run .could be taken as one of many
m
and lineage genealogies, and praise names. P~ems are spok:n.at ntuaI ods, a Zeus or Jup1te~ figure. Ellis depicts Ql(>run simply as a nature-
g . o. 16run,
. tate functt'ons and other celebrations. The medicme man, god he says, is
occasions, s ' . h f h .
. b' h b for use on a patient invokes t e presence o t e
concoctmg is er s ' . h h · 1 . . . the sky-god of the Yoruba, that is, he is the deified
deit connected with healing. Recounting t e p ys1ca ~~d firmament or personal sky ... (he) enjoys a life of complete
Y rtt' fhis medicine he asks that nature and deities
supematura1prope es o ' . . . b · · idleness and repose, a blissful condition according to their
work together for the efficacy of his medicine. A pnest egmni_n~ a ideas (that is, to the natives) and passes his time dozing and
ritual at a cult house might rehearse the praise names o~ ~he ~e1ttes. sleeping. Because of his laziness and indifference, man does
At the king's palaces' professional
.
chroniclers and trad1ttona . court
· h c. ·1 and lmeage not waste time to propitiate him. Therefore, Olorun
• •
has no
historians recite local histones, complete wit iamt Y · . f priests, no symbols, images or temples. (1894, 35-36)
and s~on esdo
genealogt'es ' praise names, legends of martial· glories,
important people, places and events. Rec1tat1v~ poe . · try 1nc1 u
, , es Ellis was writing in 1894. His observations would not be
countenanced today but for the fact that, curiously enough, twentieth-
maledictions (epe), incantations (ogede!pfp), and invocatt~ns (zp,e) :
century anthropologists have not deviated too far from Ellis's
Chants are half spoken and half sung. They in~lud.e dirges (e~e,
erroneous view. William Bascom, writing in the 1960s, still maintains
ra1~a) and bunters' songs (ijala). Certain chants m ntual ~orshtp~
that 'Ql<?run is the sky-god who is revealed in Ifa verses as God of
recited in singing or melodic voice by women, are called ~11outs'
Destiny' (Bascom 1969a: 103). Ql<?run is not a nature god. He stands
(igbe) in Ibadan. Street calls by food vendors are also calle)dS's iouts;,
. ' ' h uters' (akigbe ome 1ia as Creator of all. The deities and spirits found in Yoruba religion are
The perfo11ners of ntual 'shouts are s o . . fr believed to be created by QlC;>run, their attributes and powers derived
verses are chanted, and others are recited. Some Iync poe~. is om
from Him (Idowu 1967, 57-70). Their role and function are assigned
song texts (ori11). They include verses, ritual songs or sung iturgy.
by QlC;>run and He is the ultimate overseer and regulator of the exercise
Religion . of their functions. It is true that there are no images of Ql(?run, no
.. li · me brief observations representations in wood or stone. But this is true not because He is
Turning now to traditional Yoruba re g1on, so
can be made. Traditional y oruba religion should not be seen ~s. an indifferent and therefore inconsequential in the scheme of things. It
animistic religion or glorified ancestor worship, but rather as a religion is true because the Yoruba feel that no representation can capture the
1
based on belief in a Supreme Being ((Jf.6J1111) . Belief in Ql(>run as :1e transcendence and immanence of QlC;>run. Today no structures or
. h
Ultimate generates a cosmogony, t eo ogy, P1 hilosophy '. and ethics.
. temples are found en-shrined as places of worship to God. That is
Attempts to examine the religion of the Yoruba from points of view not to say that in times past there were no sacred places to Ql(;>run;
other than the central fact of God capital G and ~ot gods or there are no writings from the past that go far back to prove their
deities have led to many misinterpretations. Early wnters on.Yoruba existence or nonexistence. But who knows? Archeological findings
religion such as Colonel A. B. Ellis (1894) missed th~ ~ot1on t~at may yet prove that there were temples to Ql(;>run.
God is pivotal to y oruba belief. Animistic and poly-~he1st1c theories Be t11at as it may, Qlc)run is still the most important factor in Yoruba
advanced by eminent nineteenth-century sc?olars lik:
E. .B: ~~lor belief. Belief in Qlc)run is shared by all Yoruba and He constitutes the
(189 1), for example, wielded a tremendous 1nfluence.m ~1zmg most in1portant single dynamic, moral, and integrative force in the
God as the ultimate Being, favouring instead the mynad de1t1es and society. Everyone calls on Him. People begin and end their day with
spirits in the religion of so-called primitive societies. Him. His blessings are sought for every endeavor and in moments of
The numerous deities in Yoruba religion could lead to obvious stress and crisis, He is the ultimate recourse.
32 33
 Included in tJ1e Yoruba worldview are the ori:SiJs, wl10 are spiritual
n1ediators between l1umans a11d Ql(>run (ldowu. 196.7' ~9-62). The
oi·i!its as deities have always captured Western 1mag1natton becaus
of ·their similarities to Greek gods a11d goddesses, hence th~
overestimation of their place and function in Yoruba religion. 6ri:iJs
are of lesser significance t11an Ql(>run to the Yoruba. The origin and
meaning of the te1111 01·i{ii are not known, and attempts at a definition
of the term have only led to confusion (Lucas 1948, 58-59).
There are many ori{iis in the Yoruba pantheon. T11eir numbers have
been put variously at two hundred, four hundred, and eve11 more, as
in the following Ifa verse:
Worship to the four-hundred divinities of the right hand;
Worship to the two-hundred divinities of the left J1and;
Worship to the four-hundred and sixty divinities
Who actually line up the very road of heaven. (Idowu 1967, 67)
There are no complete records of all the different types of ori~s,
but the kno\vn ones can be classified into major and minor deities on
the basis of the universality of their worship, tl1e number of their
followers, and the importance placed on their attributes. The major
deities include (:hatala (holiness or purity), (ilng6 (thunder and
lightning), OgiJn (war, metals), E{il and Jfa (divination). The major
deities are universally known, have a large following, and are accorded
a great deal of respect. Minor deities are generally localized, are not
very distinct in their characterizations, and have a very limited
following and command of worship (Lucas 1948, 243-64).
The Yoruba religious world includes both the physical and the
spiritual worlds. QJ(>run, the ori(ii, and the ancestors are totally
spiritual. Only humans belong to a three-dimensional fortn of soul,
body and spirit, and therefore they are not totally in the same sphere
as the others. As pure spirits, ori.Jiis and humans' ancestors can better
communicate with QI(>run, who is Himself a spirit. Limited by his
physical body, man can reach Ql(>run through ori(iis and communicate
with Him more effectively (Lucas 1948, 243-64).
'
Orips also maintain the moral order by punishing or interceding
at times of human misdeed, error, or contrition. The ancestors, the
dead departed to the spiritual world, guard and protect the living and
in return are honoured by their progeny (Idowu 1967, 189-201).
34
Tile Yoruba Today
The Yoruba remain a thriving ethnic group in Nigeria tod W'th
. f ·11· ay. 1 a
population o o~er ten mt ton out of a total of about eighty million in
a loose federation of more than twenty ethnic groups they b
· h h · d I · ' oru
constitute t ~ t tr argest ethnic group in Nigeria. Hoping to achieve a
peace and unity among all these groups through a decentralized state
system, the present government recently divided Nigeria into twel
new states, four of ~h.ich were created out of Yorubaland. The n:
states reflect new pol1ttcal groupings according to historical localities
and loyalties, in an effort to correct the disregard of cultural boundaries
during colonial times.
The creation of new states means new bureaucracies and ne\v
avenues of competition for prestige and political power that the
Yoru~a, ~ith their longstanding record of Westernization, eagerly
exploit. W1tl1 themo:: from a monarchical to a parliamentary system
of go:vernment, trad1t1o~al Yoruba rulers retain much of the pomp
and c~rc~mstance of their office, but have lost many of their previous
const1tut1onal powers. Yoruba kings today are still respected and \vte\d
infl.ue~ce ?~er c~sto~ary affairs, but they have lost their people's
belief m dtVlne kingship due to modernization. Although in the past
they were surrounded by a great mystique, hardly leaving their palaces
except on special occasions, their faces never seen in public or private
because. of the elaborate beaded headdresses they wore, today, the
great c?1efs travel and move about freely among their subjects.
Pos?ndependence Nigeria, with the numerous opportunities offered
by natt?nhood and modernization, has created new social and political
dynalUlcs. The Yoruba continue to maintain an agricultural subsistence
in the face of the rapid expansion of the towns. Market towns have
mushro?med as traditional hereditary or lineage liens attached to craft
professions have been removed. Thus, one is allowed to work at
whatever
. .
craft one wishes, and this in turn has oenerated
b
eno11nous
interest 1n trade schools. The advent of industries and modern
technology has created an irresistible lure to cities for migrants from
the rural areas seeking to avail themselves of jobs in the factories.
New cities therefore have gro\vn around the old ones as the added
population spills over the old city boundaries. Architectural styles in
Yoruba towns today reflect both the old and the ne\v from
35
corrugated iron-topped 1nud buildings to tall buildings and apartment
l1ouses.
New a\'enues for advance1nent have bee11 opened up by the
expansion of educational oppo~nit~es. T~e Y~ruba have three
W1iversities, including the oldest N1genan un1vers1ty at Ibadan, two
medical colleges and teaching hospitals, and numerous schools and
jW1ior colleges. Education up to t11e high scl1~ol level [Yorubal~~d]
is free and compulsory in Nigeria today. There 1s a fierce ~ompettt1on
among the Yoruba for admission to the trade and .tec~n1cal scl100Js
and to the higher institutions of learning, as educatton is regarded as
the way to material improvement and political advancement.
Class differentiations have changed among the Yoruba from
aristocratic and peasant classes, and now include a Westen1-educated
elite. The complex Yoruba fami ly unit remains, although its
polygynous nature is being seriously challenged by mode.m m~res.
Traditional religious practices continue in spite of the deep incursions
of Christianity and Islam.
Note
1. The 1962 census of Nigeria was controversial. No less so was the
latest census taken in 1973 in which the population of Nigeria was
declared at 76. 7 million people. Two major Yoruba areas, the Lagos
and western states had a population of 2.47 million and 8.92 million,
respectively, which would put the total population of the Yoruba at
about eleven million (Lagos Daily Times, 9 May 1974).
36
CHAPTER 3
The Informants
Introduction
This chapter introduces the bearers of Esu traditions interviewed ~
source material during t~e. fieldwork fo~ this dissertation. Althou;
over one hundred were v1s1ted or observed, the infor111ants presented
here are the ones I spent the most time with and whom I came to
know best. All of them are considered very well informed about Esu
by their peers within their own communities. ·
Tl1e inforrnants are grouped according to the two centres on which
I based my fieldwork. Group one comprises the infocr11ants from
Ibadan who are primarily from the Olunk?y9 compound. Four of the
six are women and one of the two men is an Ifa priest who has close
ties. with t?e wom~n o.f the ~ cult and who was often present at
therr meetings. He is highly respected by the women and considered
t? be the local authori~ on every aspect of traditional Yoruba religious
life. The other male 1nforr11ant from Ibadan does not belong to the
Olunl9y9 compound, although he is an Ibadan man. He lives in a
village on the outskir_ts ~f Ibadan where the ~u tradition is strong
and the devotees ofh1s village, of which he is the village elder, holds
~ strong allegiance t? the Olunk:>y9 compound. Group two are the
~f~rmants fr~m the Idd6 group at Lagos. Although I talked to and
vts1te~ many mformants at Lagos, the biographical data of only six
are given here.
Many informants are opposed to having their names and
~iographical data set down in print. Their belief and participation in
B?u cults is a private affair that they do not particularly want to make
public, but as friendships grew and I was taken into their confidence
'
they talked more freely. Nevertheless, as a fieldworker and researcher,
one has to walk a fine line bet\veen rendering supportive
methodological data and committing a downright breach of
confidence. The inf 011nants presented here are not only the ones who
seemed most knowledgeable and \vho made the most lasting
37
 impression upon nle; they ~re also tl1e ones who gave me varying doubt in my mind that he had considerable .influence and was greatly
de ees of pennission to wnte about tl1em. . spected at the homestead. A small, cunous crowd had gathered
I iave made a great ef:~ort
grl 1• to present these 1nfo1 mants• not simpt"
• J ~~fore he came. The more familiar had greeted his wife, entered, and
as statistical, i1npersonal data, but a!so as t~ey are active, Vtbrant seated themsel:es on the benches. Othe:s lo,oked on at the proceedings
individuals in t11eir familial and social settmgs. through the w1~dows. When Gbadam~i Akanni made his entrance,
he was deferentially greeted and everyone made way for him to reach
The lbadan Group
\ his favourite chair near tl1e old stove.
1 Gbadam6si Akanni Gbadam9~i Akanni greeted me warmly and bade me welcome, then
.
I met
Gb ' d: · , , Ak' .\--i u1 September of 1967, at a little ~on1estead
a amost i:llll.1 kn EsU l · turned to greet his friends and ask after the families, their health,
on the outskirt~· oflbadan where there was a w~ll- .ow~ . aterite particular children, meetings to attend or things to discuss later on.
d cm\ G • , •
ea11e .c.;:,u anga. wen I t to observe the open-air shrine nght tl1ere
h b' · by He also formally introduced me to everyone in a way that made me
th e roa d .
s1'de, an d ·
smce there was no visible sign of human a itat1on, feel that should I return to the homestead again, as I would, those
I hoped that I would find a passerby who would tell me wh~re I could who had been there that frrst day wou~d feel an added responsibility
make inquiries about the shrine. A foot-path from the slmne le? me to look after me, bec~use Gbada~i A.kanni said so.
some two miles to a homestead where I was asked what my bus 111 ess I liked Gbadam9~i Akanni immediately. A man of great dignity, he
·
\Vas. I slrrtply ·
expressed my interest · th e sbrine
m . and. asked. who
. would was a fascinating and willing talker. He was also an expansive and
be the appropriate person to tell me about 1t and its trad1tto11s. generous man, because on that frrst visit he sent me off with a carload
On that particular visit I met only a 11andful of tl1e 11omesteaders, of assorted vegetables and yams. Of medium build and heigh~ he
mainly old women and children. Altl1ough I. was trea,te~ very seemed taller than he actually was because he carried himself very
graciously, everyone seemed diffident about talking about~~' for a straight. His voice was rich and booming, his laugh infectious.
'
reason that was not immediately apparent to me. I was, later t? discover Gbadam9~i Akanni was pleased I had come to inquire about~ and
that no one spoke about the village, its history, or ~u, without the he set a date when he and most adults of the village would be home
express pe1n1ission of Gbadam?~i Akanru. The woman wh? t~ok me from the farm or the markets at Ibadan and could talk to me. He was
into her humble house was bis wife; she offered me hosp1tal1ty and rather disappointed that I had not come expressly for the history of
politely asked numerous questions such as who I was, where I .came the village, and during our interviews later on, I found that he slyly
from, \\'hat I did. Meanwhile she h~d already sent one of t?e cl11ldren loaded his answers with a great deal of historical background.
on a bicycle to fetch Gbadam(>~i Akanni? ~b~ was ~t ?1s, fi,~e-a~re
'
Gbadam9~i Akanni estimated he was about sixty years old in 1967,
cocoa farm some ten miles away. My v1s1t with Gbada~~t s wife noting that there was no written record of his birth. He was one of the
while waiting for her husband gave me the opportunity to obse:ve village bluebloods. His great-grandparents were among the founding
my surroundings. The house, which was a very humble dwelling settlers of the village. Although he could not read or write, he had a
indeed, was centrally located. A rural fa11ner's home, its rafters were prodigious memory and was considered an authority on the oral
loaded with agricultural produce and grains. The living room, or rather traditions of the village by his peers.
'
receiving room, was a large one, with long benches arranged on either I conducted two types of interviews at Gbada~i Akanni's home,
side, a sign of a home that received many visitors. The room was which became the focal point of my visits. One type was of a genera\
sparsely furnished, with an old-fashioned stove making it a living- and communal nature attended by Akanni's friends and relatives who
dining room area. constituted an active, participating audience. These meetings were
'
Gbadam6si • •
Ak.anni returned with the young fellow sent to fetch social and convivial affairs during which talk, food, and drink flo\ved
him some four hours later, and the moment I saw him there was no freely and several ~u songs and narratives were sung and recounted.

38 39
 . d h t · d'VI'dual narrators were somel1ow inhibited b" seek ~u's counsel and guidance. Whatever~ recommended
But I notice t a in 1 • f h · · J
. d fi · g to him in tl1e midst o t e1r narration and that famiiwo wou!d ,do. Whc~ Fa~iiwo returned from the KirlJ1
~kann1,l a~vay~~ ~~~er the punch lines. Gbada~i Akanni also wars, he brought ~u back with htm as safekeeper, sentinel, and
a ~\'aysl e. ng1· d to me tl1at it was improper to have any serious guardian of this hamlet.'
pnvate y imp te d · t ·
. . fEsu . such a public arena, so I arrange pnva e meetings
Akanni was the one who informed me about the ~u group at lle
d1scuss1on o . m
'th him in which he enlightened me on .
Fsu his worshipp
ers,
Wt . . d tt'ves about him. Taping was not allowed at OlunloyQ. His reference was in~aluable because when I told the
charactensttcs, an narra · ·11 b · I otunlqyQ group th~t Gba~an*.i ~anni sen~ me, I was accepted at
these sessions and the most confidential matena~ ~ finot ~ tnc uded nee and given an 1mmed1ately cordial reception that probably would
·
m my texts. As
Gb'd' , ' Akanni stated certatn tn or1nat1on about
a a~t , ' . · 1· If d ~ave taken me weeks to achieve had I come solely on my own.
, 1s
EsU . pnvate
. an d secre,t and Esu . devotees ' including. i1mse , o not Gbadan*.f Akanni seemed to hold the OlunlQy9 group in high esteem.
a . reciate making these beliefs accesible to nonbeltevers. in spite of his considerable repertoire~ he felt he did not know a third
p~badamosi Akanni was only at the homestead on weekends, from of all that could be recorded abou,t ~u . As he was fond of saying,
Thursday ni~t until Sunday afternoon. The rest of the we~k ~e _spent 'Who can comprehend the deity ~?' Nevertheless, he felt that I
on his cocoa farm ten miles away wh~re he had a l~g cab~n. ~u oral could probably get more inforrnation from the OlunlQY9 house. Even
.. d d by Gba' d.\~i
trad ttJon as ren ere 1
'" ~
Akanni was higlily 1nteiwove11 at some sixty-odd years of age, he believed that he was still learning
with his own family history and origin. and had a great deal more to learn.
Ayalele Ogz1ndipe. 'What is the origin of ~u, in this village?' 2. Adeteke
Gbada1n0s!Akan1~i: 'The father ofGbadfill*.i Aka1!nirs fath~r, whose Adeleke was an enigmatic figure whom I met during my visits w1th
n~~ was Farniiwo, was the man who brought~ to this hamle~. the women chanters at Ibadan. It was never directly revealed to me
He placed the laterite of ~u at the roadside where you saw tt what his relationship was to the women. I only recall that when I was
and it has been there ever since. By the higllway. At the same '
taken to Baderlnwa 'B?ubUn.mi, the leader of the women's group, and
spot.' , d'd stated my business, she sent a message to Adeleke, who lived a few
Ay[Xfele Ogundip~ 'Why did he bring ~ here, and from where 1 compounds away, that she was bringing a visitor to him.
he bring him?' ,( h Of his biography, Adeleke simply stated his name. He would not
Gbadamosi Akanni: 'My paternal grandfather was a prie~t oflfa t e give any other names beyond that and would not reveal his age. When
deity of oracles and divination). He was also a w~rr1or ai~d. was I asked what his age might be, he stared at me for what seemed an
very knowledgeable about herbs and gifted in curative med1c~es. eternity and slowly broke into a quizzical smile. I received a crushing
He went to the Kiriji Wars' a_nd when he retu~ed fro~ Ikirun, '
look from Baderlnwa ~ublinmi, communicating the impropriety of
he brought back a Jaterite of ~u with him. ~e, ~sta~:d ~ton ~he such a question. It is considered quite rude among the Yoruba for a
mound where it is found today and named 1t ~u Ganga, which younger person to ask an older one his age. One bas to get this
is the name of the laterite until today.' information in a roundabout way, and although I thought l was being
AJ1odele Ogundip~ 'What did ~u have to do with the Kiriji W~?' diplomatic, my method did not work with Adeleke.
Aka11ni: 'Esu was protector and guardian. Famiiwo as an Ifa pnest Adeleke was not an easy man to know; although I talked to him
divined and predicted military strate~ies and their outcome. He through other informants and found him courteous, he kept his
would consult Ifa oracle, keeping ~u laterite in front of the distance. He was an ascetic Ifa priest and a deeply religious man who
divining tray. Whenever the messages were not clear, or the anny had taken the vows of poverty; his house was bare and he did not
bad a bitter encounter and fell into disarray, Famiiwo would drink or smoke. On several occasions that I chanced by to see h~

40 41
 he \Vas fasting. Adelcke was al,:va~s a~ert and attenti~e, but .he chose
t1is moments to speak; when he did, 1t was on a ph1losoph1cal level
and comn1anded e\reryone's attention.
Adeleke did not believe tl1at esoteric narratives and traditions of
Yoruba religious cults should be discussed witl1 wo~1en my age and
he treated me with a great deal of kindly condescension. I was able to
get valuable materials from him only when I brought 1ny father ~long.
With my father he opened up and talked man-to-man. Adeleke ~as
always present at the women's compound on th~ :east ~ays of ~u.
He would say some of the ritual prayers and v1s1t a ltttle, but the
moment the atmosphere took a relaxed and social tum, l~e w~u ld
leave. Each time he left, some of the women would walk with h1m a
little ways toward his house or in whatever directio11 11e wa,s going
and then return to join the group. Adeleke' s vie~s of q u are
particularly valuable in that they represent an evaluation of ~u by
Ifa priests. To him, ~u is primarily a messe11g~r and fri~n~, ofl~a~ tt1e
deity of divination. Adeleke also had an oral history of ~u s ong111 at
Ganga that differs somewhat from that of Gbadan*.i Akanni.
• 3. Mutiu Adeleke
Mutiu Adeleke was no relation to Adeleke, the Ifa priest. Of all the
women within the group at Ibadan, Mutiu was certainly the prettiest.
A stunning looking woman in her mid-forties, she l1ad become a
member of the group when she claimed she had received a vision to
join the cult. An unconventional woman, in spite of her good looks
she had not been lucky in love. She bad been married at fifteen to a
much older man who, although well-to-do, already bad three wives.
Mutiu became the fourth and favourite wife. This special place she
held in her husband's affection made her co-wives conspire against
her and made her life within the household an absolute hell. W11en
she suffered miscarriage after miscarriage, she was finnly convinced
that her co-wives were responsible and, fearing for her life, Mutiu
deserted her marital home for her father 's house. When it was made
obvious to her that her desertion of her husband was a source of
shame to her father, she took off with another man. But that alliance
was not recognized and she believed that her lover treated her shabbily
because their union was considered a social disgrace.
M utiu's union with her first husband was dissolved after she had
42
'Jdren by her lover and she left him as soon as she was frc t
h
tWO c t
again accord'1ng to the socta
. l trad'1t1on.
. e o
I Ier next marriage was
rnarrY 'tinerant Hausa trader from northern Nigeria. Mutiu took up
to an. ga and for a few years so ld cot1 hm . Western Nigeria
. and in the
tradtn . f D h
. hboring countnes o a omey and Togo. Her Hausa husband
~~~~ suddenly a11d she returned to Ib~dan where she married again.
. time her husband was a truck drtver and when he met his death
h
T IS
. accident soon a fter marrying
. M ut1u,
' , ' word went around that she
~ a~ in magic and witchcraft, which she was believed to have learned
. e~ahomey. Stories grew about her ' deadly' beauty and it was said
'~at any man who married her would certainly die. Because men still
~ocked to her, Mutiu had lover after lover? but she lived by herself
ith her children and would not marry aga1n.
w She claimed that since joining the ~ group, her life had become
more settled. I-Ier female co-members in the group were her only true
friends, as women in general did not seem to like her; their malicious
gossip had been the source of her great pain and social stigma. At the
time I talked to her, she had all the female compa!1ionship she felt
she needed from members of the cult, and she had ~' her guardian
and protector, to defend her against all her enemies. She credited her
thriving business in cloth, the health and well-being of her children,
and her satisfactory love-life arrangements to the care and concern of
' '
Esu.
· Mutiu's home was the most attractive of the group. There \Vas
great evidence of her travels carved furniture, religious artifacts,
and knick.knacks from northern Nigeria, Dahomey, and Togoland.
'
Mutiu was also a good 'chanter' of ~u songs and at festivals did
solo performances. The women seemed to be genuinely fond of her
and proud that she was a member of the group. She, in tum, was very
industrious and during meetings at the leader's house would help
with the cooking and serving of food; at group interv1ews she would
keep busy seeing that every-one was comfortable and having a jolly
time.
4. Aj~a~ Mo~eb<)latan
Aj~a~ Mo~eb<)latan was an elderly woman in her sixties or seventies.
No one really knew exactly how old she was. Once the leader of the
group, she grew senile and a bit forgetful as she gre\v older, so she
43
 '
handed over the leadership to Baderlnwa ~ubunmi. The women s .
sl1e '''as quite a beauty wl1en she was younger, but I found that hatd
to believe because sl1e looked so aged and wrinkled when I met ~rd
TI1e women deferred to her whenever sl1e became excited and wa er.
, , . . nteq
to narrate an~ story, but she was prone to 1os1ng her train of thou h
Whenever she 1nixed up the stories, the women would gently co; t.
her. Sl1e also loved to do the lead singing, but l1er voice was so ;~;
and tremulous that one could hardly hear tl1e words.
'
Ajcya~'s family had believed in ~u ever since sl1e could re111e111bcr
and she had learned the songs and rituals from her parents who \Vere
no\v dead, as were most members of her family. S11e had no cl1ildren
of her O\vn and had been ill for many years. Wl1e11 sl1e fou11d 110 relief
from the prescriptions of doctors in the hospitals, she tt1n1ed to tl1e
local herbalists who took all her money without niaking 11er feel well.
Then she consulted the diviners who div!ned tl1at 11er well-being
depended on her becoming a devotee of ~u . T11is was a difficult
decision for her to make because she was originally a practisi11g
Muslim and was cynical about traditional religious cults, particularly
'
the ~u cult. Bereft of relatives and friends and plagued by ill healtl1,
Aj~~ finally became an active member of tl1e cult. Sl1e believed
that was a turning point in 11er life. She lived with a distant cousin in
a large household where she kept very much to herself
5. ~iyanbc)la ~ubunmi
'
~iyanb<?la E~ubunmi was a cousin of the leader of the group,
'
Baderinwa ~ubtinmi. A woman in her late fifties, ~iyanb(>la married
into the Olun19y9 household. She made dyes and dyed cloth for a
living. A vivacious, witty woman, she always giggled or said irreverent
'
things during discussions of J¥!, for which she received arch looks
from Baderinwa. With the exception of~iyanb<)la herself and Aj ~a~,
everyone seemed intimidated by Baderinwa, but ~iyan!J9la often said
to me in a stage whisper that Baderinwa always took herself too
seriously. ~iyanb(>la told me that she believed she had found peace in
'
her life with ~u and that she had learned the songs and narratives
from her husband 's family. Her own fanlily were not devotees of Fsu
' .
and considered the time spent with the ~u group to be wasted. But
since their lives were not going as well as her own, ~iyanb{>la, who
was also called B9la, planned to stay with the group. BQla claimed
44
'
h' l she genuinely believed in R?u and his powers, her children
that w ~and college did not, and whenever they were home from
1
at sch~~hey would question her closely about her beliefs, trying to
00
sch h0 w ridiculous they were. She claimed to have developed a
prove . e sense of humour from parrying her children's questions.
rotect1v . . .
P was a magnificent dancer. During one of the festivals she
Bo· 1da up a storrn, and m . record.ing sessions
. . h h \
wit me, s e a ways
dan~e tum or two until Baderlnwa called her to order. 13<?\a was
too . a larly knowledgeable about ~u's link with witchcraft. Some
partli~u
115
she explained to me confidentially, but she would not discuss
oft important details · me unless I Jome
· with · · d the w1tc· heraft cult
fuemoSt . .
tl rough al\ the rites and ceremonies. The way she looked at
and went 1 .
het1 she suggested that caused a cold shiver to go down my
mew· I did not trust that look or the onunous . s1·1ence that came from
spine. , · h ft
the group. I decided I would research ~u first and, maybe, w1tc era
later.
' ' .
6. Baderlnwa ~ubumn1
Baderlnwa ~ubU.nmi held sway among the devotees of lbadan. A
tall massive woman in her late sixties, Baderlnwa was certainly the
grdnde dame of the group. Everyone else in the group was cowed by
her except her cousin B9la, who was too irreverent to be cowed by
anything or anyone; AjU?afy, an older lady fro~ .w~om Ba?ern:wa
had gained the leadership; and, of course, Ad~leke, .the lfa .pn~st.
Baderinwa was a regal woman with dark glearmng skin and p1ercmg
red eyes that saw through one and I was terrified o.f her at fir~t. She
lived in a sprawling lineage compound, her section of which led
directly to an outdoor~ shrine. F ?llowing the th:ft of so~e religi~us
artifacts , the sacred sculptures of ~u originally situated m the shrine
had been moved into one of Baderlnwa' s private rooms and placed
under lock and key. I did see the sculptures and saw the women clean
and prepare them for ritual worship, but I \Vas never allowed to touch
them or to photograph them. , .
Baderlnwa' s house was the ~u cult house and the central meettng
place for all the women in the group. Most of the interviews took
place at Baderinwa's because it was easier.for he: to call the wom~n
to her place than it was for me to find a suitable time to see the mam
informants individually at their own homes. All the women were busy,
45
 ru1d therefore separate appointments wit11 me were di~cult for thelll
to keep. A Child suddenly taken ill who needed. . . look111g
. after; .Iong
and indefinite business 11ours at tlle markets, parttc1pat1on at weddings,
funerals, or naming ceremonies; social calls on fri.ends a~d ~elatives,
and meal preparations were demands that occupied their ttme. But
\vl1en Baderinwa summoned tllem to come, they caine.
Baderinwa \ Vas not a demonstrative perso11, but as I ca~c to know
her, I could feel the undercurrent of wam1th and. affection beneath
her stern exterior. It was my impression tl1at wl11le she was feared
and respected by the womenfolk, she was also l?ved. A very strong
and capable woman, Baderinwa was spoke11 of m.tot1es of awe and
affection. Every one of the women I talked to had 1nsta11ces. to rel~te
about Baderlnwa helping them in moments ?f stres.s ?nd d1fficu.lties
in their lives, giving them strength, and shanng tl1e1r JOY a11d ~1cf:
Infor111ants were respectful but never sl1y a.bout ta lk111g. 1n
Baderinwa's presence. She directed the operat1 011 s~ correct111g
mistakes loudly, even indignantly, but the narrator or singer always
took her admonishment in good spirits. No one ever seemed flustered
or lost their composure.
The group interviews at Baderlnwa's were joyous occasions
enhanced by audience participation. Everyone felt very free with the
others. I did not seek personal data about Baderinwa at these meetings,
although I did observe and learn a good deal about her.
Baderinwa was a prosperous trader. Her large house and its
furnishings showed her to be a woman of means. Tl1ere was no man
in the house and when I asked Baderlnwa if she were married, she
retorted, 'How do you reckon I came about these five children?' Yet
she would not speak about her husband or ex-husband. She simply
giggled and changed the subject
I met only two of her five children. One was a young lady of twenty-
two, a schoolteacher who lived with her mother in her own living
quarters, a type of studio. Her rooms were well appointed, like any
modem African girl's. She had books on the shelves and a hi-fi, and
talked to me constantly of wanting to go to England for a special
teaching certificate that would increase her earnings.
Baderinwa said her daughter wanted to go to England because she
had a boyfriend of whom she disapproved. She felt that at twenty-
two, her daughter should be married and could not understand her
46
wanting to go to the white man's country for more education.
Baderinwa's daughter went to~ i:iission school and teacher's college
nd considered herself a Chr1st1an; she was not interested in her
~other's religious beliefs. When we became good friends, I used to
visit with the daughter in her living quarters and listen to music on
her hi-fi or just talk while waiting for the women to gather. Baderinwa
would come in from time to time to bring us food and drink or else to
tease us about wasting our best years on the white man's education
wl1en we should be married and raising families.
Baderinwa had serious misgivings about the future of traditional
religious cults. Sl1e was particularly unhappy that none of her children
were interested in these cults. She felt her three sons and two daughters
were casualties of Christian or Muslim schools and she worried about
who would continue in her role after she was gone. Baderinwa's
daughter claimed to know all the panegyrics and rituals and she would
someti1nes join her mother whenever Baderlnwa could prevail upon
}1er to do so, but she was really more interested in teaching.
Baderinwa's second son was eighteen years old and worked at a
textile factory away from home. I met him only once and we barely
talked. He was in such a hurry.
'
Baderlnwa claimed to hav~ inherited ~u worship from her mother.
She said her mother was an ~u devotee lati {htn wa, meaning ~right
from heaven'. In other words, her mother was born a devotee of Esu. •
Sl1e claimed that her grandmother had been pregnant with her mother
for eleven yearst No one but the grandmother believed that anyone
could be pregnant with a child for eleven years. She had all the
symptoms and went about with her distended belly for years.
Meanwhile everyone laughed secretly behind her back, telling her
that she had a tumour or something else but certainly not a child. She
went from diviner to diviner and from medicine man to medicine
man. Finally, an Ifa priest divined that she should join the ~u cult.
Six days after her initiation, she gave birth to Baderlnwa's mother.
Baderinwa's mother was raised in the cult, and when she died,
Baderinwa took over. But none of her five brothers or three sisters
'
took to ~u worship. They all lived in different sections of Ibadan,
but when they came on family visits, they often gave her money to
carry out the rituals in their behalf.
Baderit1wa had a very esoteric knowledge abol1t ~u worship. She
47
 al'''ays ·prepared' l1erself ritually, as did the otl1er women before e the weekly worship. Sometimes when I called before the weekly
intenrie\V. One could not just \Valk in and start a discussion of t~h after . some members were already assembled there and I would
There '''ere sacrifices to be offered and sometimes ritual cleansing·~·0 worshl~~h them to the shrine, which was not far away.
be perfo11ned before any serious discussions could take plac walk Wld·scussions at the Elegushe's house produced a vast variety of
The t 1 .
rial _ myths, songs, persona experiences, and theological
Baderlnwa did not mind some of the common songs and narrativ:·
being recorded but she objected firmly to having materials of serious rnate ·ons _ but since I was the only woman present on these
d'scusst
1 . ns tlle men did . not talk to me as freely as I think. they would
import written down. She was afraid this would commonize the cult':
occas10 ' . .
beliefs, and judging from the way her own kin looked down upon her to a male 1nterv1ewer.
beliefs, she felt that outsiders would simply ridicule them. ha;h Elegushe also made the men somewhat nervous with his own
~ty Whatever part of the room he was sitting in became the
The Lagos Group austen oint · and from there he controlled everyone with . his . stare.
foca lP '
I . The Elegushe . ·
sions at these sessions were fr ee-flowmg · and it· was not unusua\
Discus roup to wander off 1.nto sub" h b d b .
~ects t at a no eanng on i::..'?u.
i::.....••
The Elegusbe was the most senior person in the Iddo co1nmunity. 'The g
for t hewould return to the subject, · however, whenever I tne · d to bnng ·
Elegushe'' is a traditional title borne by Mr J. 0 . Buraim)h, a tall, gaunt
They nversation back to E~u ' ' as uno b trus1ve . l y as posst.bl e. The
man well into his seventies who had a clean-shaven head ru1d a fastidiously t he cO . d. d h. h . l I
clean appearance. Mr BUni~h had a most intimidating presence. His El she allowed the men to talk but in 1cate w tc matena s
luminous eyes looked at one from what seemed to be a great distance. co~fc: record and which I could not by motioning me to shut off the
He had a devastating way ofstaring at his listener while sitting or standing tape recorder.
very erect and very still. He rarely smiled Although the Elegushe was co~unally accepted as one of t?e
As the leader of the community, his permission was needed before best authorities on the subject of ~u, he never narrated an entire
I could speak to anyone else about ~u, When I was taken to his myth or completed a s?ng by h~self. He woul~ start an? let some~ne
house for the first meeting. he bade me welcome regally, offering me l e finish while he listened mtently. From tune to tune he rmght
es d d' .
kola nuts and drinks through one of his many domestics. Important runt at an emission or, in acknowledgment of a goo ren itlon, say,
members of the group were then sent for; as they arrived, they greeted ~It is so'. This comment invariably brought great pride and pleasure
the Elegushe reverently, prostrating their faces to the ground. The to both the narrator and the audience. .
Elegushe did not talk directly to me during that first meeting. He The Elegushe lived in an enormous lineage compound full of kin,
delegated his men to ask me questions. He said, for instance, 'Ask wives children, and wards. I never went beyond the liv\ng room,
her who she is.' On being told, be ordered, 'Tell her welcome, and which the Elegushe called the 'parlour,' and which was actually a
ask her why she is here.' All the while he kept those telescopic eyes huge receiving room. I was never fo11nally introduced to any members
of his on me, not moving a muscle except when he spoke. I did most of the Elegushe's family, although his wives were pointed out to me
of the talking at this frrst meeting, which I considered my trial by and greeted me civilly whenever they looked in to see that the guests
ordeal because I was extremely nervous and uncomfortable; but the were comfortable. The Elegushe had many children, some of whom
Elegushe looked daggers at anyone in the group who attempted to were studying abroad in Europe; I can claim to knovv none of the
make me feel more relaxed. I must have passed the test at that first children who still lived at home. ,
encounter because the Elegushe did ask me back a week later. On The Elegushe's repertoire and knowledge about ~u ca1!1e fro~
succeeding visits, he was never as distant or as fo11nal with me as he his father and his father's father before hun, for the Elegushe s family
had been on that very frrst visit. has always believed in ~u. He showed an early interest in Yoruba
Many meetings took place at the Elegushe's, especially before or religious traditions and sustained the interest over the years.

48 49
 \
2. 3. Tl1e ~ugbayi Brotl1ers
The brotl1ers Ab6sede and Tesebiu Esugbayf were ide11tical tw·111
forty-e1g · · among tI1e youngest
· ht, tl1ey were · of my inforrnants t is·At
It \Vas quite difficult to tell tl1en1 apart until one came to kt a dd6.
. d" .d l OW the
m t\'l ually. Although Tesebiu is slightly taller and a shad 1. lll
tha11 AbQ*1e, tl1ey 11ad tl1e san1e build, the same quality ~f tg~ter
d · ·1 · . 'd · . . voice
an a s1tru ar ga1t~ t entical clotlles dtd not make tt easier to distin . '
~em. They seemed to enjoy being identical twins and were &!H.sh
inseparable. Even at forty-eight tl1ey still found it mildly an1us11 q~ite
1g
\\'hen one was taken for the oilier.
Tl1e twins married on the same day! Tl1ey eacl1 took a11otl1er wi~
after their first marriage and between tllem had fourteen cl1ild e
Both families lived
th · together
, in one large compound. Ab6sede
. . clai111ed
· ren.
ey \Vere spec1a1 to ~u because their mother had been considered
bar:e~ for m~:y years. Then she offered a sacrifice at the Iddo sluii1e
to ~u, ~r~mr smg that if .she ever bore children sl1e would dedicate
tfi~m to ~u. Enter the t\v1ns. They were raised in the religious lore of
~u, leammg about him from their mother and later fro1n otl1er cult
members.
'
The. ~ugba.yi brot~ ers were fi shennen with ' 'ery little formal
schoo~mg. ~heir easy, Jolly, outgoing personalities made both of tl1em
well liked t~ the coi:iununity. Rather restless as well as energetic,
they both enJo~ed dorng orga?izati on~l work in the community. They
spen.t a lot of ttme at the shrine looking after the religious artifacts,
making ~~gements, ~nd overseeing things. There was always a
crow~ of ''lSt~ors at the ~ugbayf residence, a crowd that turned into
a captive audience watching the antics of the two brothers. Together
they m~de a fine raconteur, always telling a narrative together with
mock nvalry. In fact, they were so popular it was nearly impossible
to talk to them alone.
4. B(>Ia ~ubiyii
' '
B(>la .~ubiyii v.ras a short dark man in his late fifties who attended
~e~t1ngs only d~ring the high feast days and festivals. He was
md1spensable dunng the extremely esoteric rituals held at night that
I was not a~ lowed to attend. One of the lead perfor1ners at rituals, he
knew the n tual pra~ers b~tter than anybody else. He was a skilled
dancer who pantomimed ~u characteristics during the ~u festival.
50
ornetime chauffeur, barber, petty trader, and baker.
J-{e was as
Moses Olejede ,
5· es Olejede, also known as ' Baba Ij<;>:a,' was my bes~ informant,
Mostlle man most instrumental to my getting to !<now the ldd6 group,
whom I learned a great deal about ~u. Unlike the other
and fr
1
and onnts at Iddo, Moses was not originally from Lagos. He was
· forrna
tn . Abeokuta, a town about a hundred miles away, but had come
bo~ inos a~ a young man looking for brighter P,rospects. He had first
to ladg at t;ora, on tl1e outskirts of Lagos, then at llogb6, another village
sett e'de Lagos
J--:
and finally at I dd o, wh ere I met h'1m.
0 utst ' .
As his na1ne Moses dem?nstrates, Moses 01.eJ~de was a born
Ch : stian and was still an act1ve member of a Christ1an church when
1
~t him. He had married into the Iddo cult. His wife's relatives
1 1~e deeply committed to ~u traditions an~ he claimed that although
~: had not been particularly interested in ~ at first, he had joined
:he group at Iddo simply to. please his in-la.w~. But Moses was n.ot
allowed to be simply a nommal member. His m-laws pressured him
to learn ~u cult activities. At the time it seemed that he might lose
his wife if did not show a greater interest in her faith, and since he
loved his wife and did not want to lose her, his period of apprenticeship
began. He 'served his wife's people for many years' is the way he put
it and he was little more than an errand boy at the beginning. Gradually
h~ came to know a great deal about the rites and beliefs of the cult,
and he had slowly risen in the ranks to the influential position in
which I found him.
There is an ironic postscript to this biography. At the time I met
him, Moses was agonizing over a decision to divorce his wife in
order to marry someone else. It had not been a successful marriage,
but he had become so close to his wife's relatives that they were
willing to continue regarding him as a member of the family even if
he shot1ld leave her.
Everyone called Moses Olejede 'Baba ljqra' (Father or Elder from
Ij9ra), and very few knew, his real name. He bor~ the traditional title
of Eji11·e, or 'specialist of ~u.' In 1968, he was sixty-seven years old,
although he looked forty . He was a dark, ,viry man who work~d as a
cabinetmaker for a Togolese furnituremaker whose French Wlfe was
my dressmaker. The Togolese furnituremaker died during the period
51
 ' he did not. Visitors had to sit at whatever spot m his
of my field\\'ork but Baba IjQra \Vas kept on in the business by th ost of them d them: to move about without approva\ would be
Togolese family. e Muse he place Jn addition to his other talents, Moses O\ejede was a
' 0
Baba IjQra \Vas a \'Cl)' progressive n1an. In my opinion, he was th hfr0wned uponh. balist and carver of religious objects. Some peop\e
most intellectual of the Lagos group, and obviously the one with the distiogtl15 · hed \der eset fractured bones better than doctors ·in the
broadest \vorldvie\v and awareness, probably because he was the mo e taitrl he cou h rEjiii·e Baba Ij9ra was eighth in rank as a spec1a\ist
seasoned traveller. He had travelled all over Nigeria and the weSt ~05pita\S. Ast ~e se~en titles above his were the Elegi1she, Alash~
coast of Africa in the course of his business. Even before that as St . the cult. do · I
\vithtO , i Adogia, Ala1no, an ')e e.
veteran of World War II, he had served in Bur111a, Ethiopia, an'd th a
0 Illl, vo' onrs ' • ,. t
Congo, now known as Zaire. He had picked up a smattering of vario~ C onsultant-Spec1a is s
Jnfor rnant- . ~ , th'
ants from Esu cults used as source for 1s stu y,d
African languages and, although be had no forrnal schooling, he had
1
taught himself to read and write. At the time I met him, he could react B esides the n onn Yoruba r.eligious life served as consultants. As
d experts on 1
and write Yoruba very well; he understood English and cou ld speak t\VO note the brought a broader perspective than could. the cut
it, self-consciously but passably. discussants hy lace of Esu m the Yoruba pantheon. Being well-
Moses Olejede became my strongest ally and made my accepta11ce 01ernbe17 t~f~ ~i~ination poetry, which is considered to be the
into the group easy. He accompanied me on intervievvs witl1 i11di,1iduaJ versed 1n , f h Yoruba my two consultants provided a much-
members and became my on-the-scene reference and resource person. . tures o t e '
'scrip y ba philosophical referent.
' needed oru
From Moses Olejede I learned a great deal of the secrets of ~u cult
but he did wrest a promise from me not to reveal the 'vital' matenals. Chief Fagbemi Ajanakll .
•
Baba Ij9ra was definitely acclaimed as the most gifted narrator in l. . , . , nakU was born in Lagos in May l 926, a ch1~d ,of ~~o~t~
the Iddo community. He first acquired this reputation by regaling Chief AJa t' His father the late Chief Awotunde Ad~ma
d L g os extrac 1on. ' · · d h
audiences with bJoodcurdling and hair-raising stories about his World . . , , akU was t h e A' ra, ba, (chief priest of Ifa) of Lagos until his eat
an
War II experiences. Besides being an accomplished narrator, Baba AJana ' . f A ' . , , 1,.,', i's the present Araba of Lagos, and as a skilled
• . 1960 Ch1e Jana~u . . f
Ij9ra was also considered one of the best officiants at rituals . in .· · ·cs in the Lagos area. He is the president o
im
list runs two c 1 · ·
Attendance was higher when Baba Ij>ra led the weekly worship. herba .' R . · Societies of African Descendants Assoc1at1on
Ancient e 11g1 ous . . An
Not only did he provide the mouth-watering refreshments for the the · t' of Therapeutists of African Med1c1nes.
d of the Assoc ta ion , ., , , .
after-service hour (He was a fantastic cook, having learned to cook a an t d1·ng political and religious figure, AJanakU ts well known on
variety of international dishes while in the service.), but he also led outs an .
Nigerian television and radio.
rituals with such affecting intensity and exhilaration that one came
away from worship actually feeling that one had communed with 2 Chief J. A. Ay<)rlnde
'
God through ~u ! It was a moving experience to watch him strike ~h· f Ayorlnde was bom in 1907. Educated in igeria, he. w~~ a
'
together the ~u gongs gently and softly at first, then rising into a iv1i~ serv~nt for many years. He is a member o.f the Antiquities
crescendo as he \1erbally whipped and lashed the congregation c . · f N i' oeria Honorary Research Associate of the Yoruba
Commission o o , . . · the
into one voice and ooe heart, to the accompaniment of the maddening . . me and a member of the N1genan Committee on .
gongs and the hypnotic resonance of the liturgy. HtstoncFal S~hel r' Negro Arts. A mt1ch-decorated official, Cb1ef
World est1va o . b of the Order
, Moses OJejede had a prodigious memory and was versed in the .nde holds many l1onours, among which are Mem er. . .
~u myths, legends, and panegyrics as well as Ifa verses. His house ~IT~e British Empire and Member of the Federal Republic of igena.
was a religious shrine-with-ljving-quarters. Mystical signs and figures
cluttered the floors and walls. Some of these he explained to me.

52 53
1\'ote
c IJAPTER 4
I. The Kiriji Wars were fought between Ibadan and other states
lasted sixteen years, fro111 1877 to 1893. See R. S. Smith 19:d
178 - 83. ) folklore of~J?l~gb8ra
Introduction
The purpose of this chapter is to take .a descriptive and evaluative
. rn ey into the fo lklore surrounding a single deity from a
J OU M h .
homogeneous cu.lture. y approac _1S a pheno~enological one;, its
urpose is to am ve at an understanding of the inner essence of ~u
~legbara through a close examin,ation of the content and form of the
~r~ l traditions surrounding him. ~u traditions discussed here include
narratives, panegyrics, song texts, incantations, and ritual prayers.
What comprehensive picture emerges from a close examination of
these fragments? Can they be classified or ?o the genres criss-cross
and overlap? What is the nature of the deity ~u? How does he qualify
as a folkloric character? What possible conclusions can be reached
' '
about the essence of ~u? What is the relationship of ~u traditions
to the culture he stems from? This chapter will attempt to answer
these questions.
The Narratives of~ ~l~gb8.ra
'
In the simplest terrns, the narratives ,of ~u J;:l~gbara are traditional
Yoruba stories involving the deity ~u. Most narratives involving
this deity in the Yoruba pantheon would probably be classified as
myth, but after considering the tenuous nature of folklore terms such
as myth, folktale, and legend, the urge becomes strong to leave
terminologies alone. Nonetheless, in the course of the examination
'
of the content and fo11n of ~u stories, it is important to evaluate
certain observations on myth in African folklore made by Ruth
Finnegan in her book Oral Literati1re in Aft·ica ( 1970, 365). Finnegan,
a literary scholar who has done fieldwork study on the African folktale,
but not on myth ( 1967), seems considerably influenced in her
judgements by the writings of William Bascom, an Africanist
anthropologist.
Favouring the delimitation of myth by setting, content, and function,
Finnegan uses Bascom's definition of myth as the model against which
she detennines the validity of African myths. On the basis ofBascom's

54 SS
 conception of myth as primordial ci11ema verite prose narrati
di\rine directive, creed, and precedent ( 1970, 361 -62), Finne Ves Used as
thatAfiican myths Jack authority, seriousness, ru1d truth andg~ contends
not treat deities exclusively or as t11e central object. Her at t?ey do
myth in ~can folklore is that myths are not common in A~ervrew of
fe\v exceptions do not have a characteristic Afiican fonn ea and the
constitute.myth in a strict sense oftl1e tenn (1970, 362). nor do they
There 1s no conclusive evidence that myths can be r.
· . J.OUnd '
parts of Africa, but they J1ave been shown to flourisl1 1·11 W rn all
· 1 est Afri
pa~cu arly among the Yoruba of Nigeria, the Fo11 ofDa110111 c ea,
Benin), and the Ewe of Ghana. Myths are not onJy pletltifu l .Y (now
areas, but are supported by a religious system of spirittral 111 tl1ese
d d ·fi d h pcrso11ag
~ e1 e eroes as well as cults devotees priests arid . . cs
Es , . ' ' , spec1al1
. ~ ~arrat1ves are an example of oral traditio11s steeped i11 a pail tile st~.
reJ1g1ous. s!'stem. Even though they may 11 0 t meet all of onie
charactenstics ofBascom's idea of myt11. they are still mytl ti the
Yoru~a with~ their own culture. The Yoruba distii1guisl1 I~s t~~ the
narratJ\'es of~ ~l~gbara are definitely considered examples ~f ' tlile
an~ t~ere are Yoruba cultural imperati\ es fostering tl1 oral tradi:t
1 e 1 Tales of the activities of gods in their god-world depict E~u
of ~u .and the folklore generated by these traditions. ns
Bes~d~s their traditionality, their unknown autl1orsl1i
trar:i-sm1ss1on by w?rd of mouth, ~u narratives are myt11s bec:~s:nd
:1~ piigh eworld settJ~g and the app~ce and participation of a dei;r
ou many.social elements in ~u myths are drawn from anc. .
!~~:;eudal hfe, ther~ is at the same time_a happy blending o/~~
the mythological due to the preh1storical setting and th
su~:u:~ pers~nages ~~o behave somewhat like ordinary peoplee
a sense o;1r godlike qualities and powers, deities contribute not onl;
d . af ne~rer-never world but also give the narratives of Es,
ynam1sm o action and motivation B th . .u
and n_ietaphorical or allegorical cha.:acieri~~i~n o~~t1veh lan~~ge
contnbute an underlying philoso h. I ' .u an ot er de1t1es
depth to the narratives and shift t ',ca ' ~e1hysical, and symbolic
entertainment to one of serious refl~~timyt ~ om the rea~ of mere
deities are depicted exclusively m· th ~ns. some of the ~u stories,
e1r own world· · h
are sho\\'n trafficking between th . h ' in ot ers, they
I n the gods-in-their-world type of e1r eaven and a · d.
settin . pnmo~ ial world.
narratives seem like a Yoruba equivalenf' 1eMvo1d of hwnans, ~u
o ount Olympus. The
56
. 1 surroundings of the god-world are not fleshed out in any
phystca rial detail. There are neither adequate descriptions of the types
substan . h h d 1· .
d elling in wl11c t e go s tve nor lyncal or imaginative
of . wations of the flora and fauna. When the gods leave their heaven
de11ne . '
often do, they leave for a synchrontc earth, a fantastic world
as theY .
e gods and human beings and other creatures freely interact. A
wI1er .ety is thus created 1n. w h'ich detttes,
.. apart from their special
~~~~acteristics and functions, behave like ordinary mortals. Animals,
here they too app ear as characters, are only thinly veiled
w rsonifications of human beings. ,
pe For this interpretation and evaluation of~ in folklore, the content
nd plot of ~u narratives reveal significant basic concerns. These
~oncems will be probed by ru:bitrarily carving the narratives into the
following categories; tales of~ and other deities interacting among
themselves; tales of ~u and ?ther deities interacting with human beings
and other characters; tales of~ explaining the ori~ of certain customs
and traditio11s among the Yoruba; and vignettes of~.
'
interacting with his marvellous fellow personages. We see the gods
creating, working, and playing. We see them socializing, competing,
'
or quarrelling with one another. Themes in this category of E~u
narratives usually feature tests or contests, although there are also
themes of jealousy or rivalry, or friendship, insubordination, and
punishment. Themes of contest may include competition for prestige,
position, or honour. For example, in one myth the deities decide to
determine wl10 is cleverest among themselves. An article of clothing
is taken to a town of birds, the cattle egrets. The test requires that at a
later date each deity will attempt to recover this ga1n1ent. The difficulty
in the task lies in deciding which egret has the clothing, because all
the egrets look alike (Tale 11).
In another story, ~ang6 (the deity of thunder and lightning), in an
exuberant mood at a drinking bash with other deities, challenges
everyone, including ~u, to a wrestling match to prove who is the
best athlete (Tale 34). Another story \Vith a contest theme tells ho\v
the beautiful goddess Earth challenges her numerous st1itors to a
contest in an attempt to decide \Vhich one to marry. She decrees that
she will marry the st1itor who succeeds in forging through her
fonnidable bodyguards to get close enough to her (Tale 36).
57
 Themes ofjealousy and rivahy abound. For exam 1 , ,
that an~thcr dei~, Qbatala, has been favoured with fh~' ~u, jea1 0lls
ral deities (Tale 32). ,
of helping God 1n !he task of Creation, peevishly gets Jh,hon0llt seve
In narratives ·tn .wh'1ch Es. u' an d the detttes
· · are not characters
drunk that the latter JS unable to do the work properly (T 1 · bata1a ~. . usively interacting among themselves, other characters include a
· kenng
are c.onstantIy b1c · among themselves or sulkina e iI 8): l"'\ueities"" l
excriety of humans (k'1ng, man, woman, ch.ld) .
i , personified animals
an~ nval!Y of one another. For instance, in the four-head~d n ~eafousy ~orse, snake), abs~act ide~ (Death), myth,ol~gica\ creatures (earth-
of ~u, Ogirn .(the god of War), ~ang6,.
and Obaluway,
.
hfiiendship
e (t e 'rits) and personified objects of nature (lroko-Tree). This type of
I
P agues an d d1seases), the latter withdraws into the fore t b god Of spirrarive' often has severa l themes wt·th·m a story. Furthermore, stories
resents the popularity of the other three deities (Tale 19; ecause he ~:picting deities intervening in human lives .tend to be more dramatic
On ~n~.t~er occasi~~' squabbling takes place when . nd to utilize more stock folktale motifs than stories dealing
respons1b1l1ties and qual1t:Jes are being distributed by th d . divine :xclusively with gods.
He JS . . I . e e1ty 0 1
sunp y going. .to rain down godlike attributes J1'ke n1ann· 9ninfi ·
Most often repeated are themes of jealousy, punishment for boasting
heaven and the deities who gather the most by \VlJatev a ro111 or pride, fulfilment of oracular predictions, tests of friendship and
.
have the most attnbutes. ' er mea11s
In their feverish scrambJ /:'. '\Vrll loyalty, and the redress of undesirable situations. When Ifa's
· e 1or tl1e b
assignments, the most authority, and the best attributes tl est competitors in the palm oil trade plot to harm him out of jealousy
immediately break into a fight like cats and dogs (Tale 42) le deities over his successful vocation, market women who are !fa's friends
'
tale recalls the time \Vhen 016kun (the god of th ) . Another warn him of the conspiracy. Ifa consults E~u on strategy in the
(th ~ ~od who helped \vith Creation) almost lay ,..,aste
e sea and Oba .1.
to the ~art ta.a
'
situation. £.<?u 's suggestion saves lfa from his enemies (Tale 8). In
therr Jealo~y ofeach other before~ comes to the rescue a d h m another tale, when jealous earth-spirits attack Ifa by giving him a
'
the altercation (Tale 44). n settles leprous disease that causes him to lose his fmgers, £.?u stands by Ifa
In tales ~ith themes of friendship, camaraderie and loyalty betw through his difficulties (Tale 9). When Qbatala becomes boastful about
'
the gods, E~u seems loyal and generous in his friendsh . ;en his favourite slave, ~u promptly strangles the slave in order to teach
e~ple, when Death tries to hann Oninmila (the de'ty f d .•~s .. or Obatala a lesson (Tale 14). And as for the man who becomes conceited
. '
and EsU ' b fri · J o 1v1nat1on ai1d arrogant because of his wealth, ~u cuts him do\vn to size with a
. , , . s est end) because Qninmila bas seduced Death 's .f.'. •
JS Esu who sav ll-'.-- ~1 · fro Wtte rt series of personal misfortunes (Tale 15).
· . es Y wuiu a m the \VTath of Death (Tal e 27)
1
Jls , Pride is punished in a highborn woman who desperately wants a
a1so sometunes appears in tales of insurrecti . . .u
occasion Esu 'ded d b on and rebell1on. On one child but who is too haughty to carry out the oracular directives that
an insurr;cti ' a1 . an a etted by several important deities leads would produce one. Because she sends her slave in her place. a child
th S on ~ga1nst the Supreme deity-surrogate Orunmila' h ·1
e upreme deity, Olorun, is awa The l ' . '~ Ie is bestowed on the slave instead (Tale 35). Goat's disrespectful
supporters fall ?n h~d· tim~ (Tale ~O). P ot collapses when ~U 's frivolity is punished by having a rope tied round its neck~ and in the
Other favounte themes in Esu narrative . same story, Horse's vanity about its clean good looks is punished by
boastfulness, or pride. A vari~nt of the st~ are puru~b1?1:nt for impiety, Horse being thenceforth and forever bridled and ridden by humans.
(fa!~ 18) has Qbara1a so boastful about his ~!iQb~tal~ and Creation So1netimes Esu'
. can redress rather than aggravate '
unfortunate
that & u decides to curb Oba''"~I '' . bp pation m the Creation situations. When humans constantly treat Snake badly, ~u, in a show
1.a a s conceit y ttin him
~nk that Qbatala lapse~ into a stupefyin sl!e g so ~et~hedly
•
of support for the underdog, comes to the rescue by giving Snake
is 11ot abov~ being punished for failin gk ep (Tale 16). ~u himself venom with which to defend itself against humankind (Tale 29).
o~e s~ory, ~U neglects to make a !:~n:i:: oracular command. In Another example is wl1en Ollir6mbi, in her desperation ~or a child~
dzrectt\'es. As punishment for his im . ty b '. contra~ to oracular impulsively vows to give her child to the spirit of the (lr6ko Tree
pie ' e is kept m servitude to should she ever bear one; ~u helps her find a way out of this
58
59
 regrettable ' ' OW (Tale 21 ). Anotl1er favourite therne i11 ~u storj .
tl1e test of a relationsl1ip. Two friends who ~l1ink tl1ey can neve~s ~s
cross \vitl1 eacl1 other are put to the test by ~u who soon has th e
quarrelling \Vith each other (Tale 24). ~d tl1ere is the king who thi e~
he is very happy with his wife until ~u causes a fatal rift betw~e~
them (Tale 20).
The next type of story in, this examination of cont~nt is the grou
of vignette-like tales about ~u that seem to dwell on ~u 's parentagp
and his attributes. ~ is considered a god from his earlie,st originse
As a deity, he is part of the Yoruba godhead; tl1erefore, ~u is anci
always will be, just as the Deity Himself (Ql9run) is and always Will
be. In his book, Olod11n1are, God i11 Yo1·11ba Belief, B9laji IdoWu
discusses the place of God and deities clearly and exte11sively ( J 962
eh. 1-2). Very little is known of the folklore surrounding ~u 's earlies;
divine origins. These stories are part of the chronicles of~u'
specialists
exclusively and are not readily divulged. They are an intrinsic part of
'
cultic worship and contain what ~u devotees regard as proscribed
sacred and mystical lore.
What is usually meant by E~ u 's origin , tl1en, are hi s
anthropomorphic roots, his place of birth, and his earthly ancestry,
which gives credibility to his transition as a deity from the abode of
deities to the abode of earth. By endowing ~u with human parentage,
physical characteristics, and attributes, he becomes real. He becon1es
concrete rather than an abstraction. A variety of theories and
. . . '
conjectures m published studies of Yoruba religion deal with Esu 's
earliest earthly beginnings. Perhaps the most farfetched of all ·the
inferences on ~u origins is J. 0 . Lucas's theory in his book The
Religion of the Yorubas, a doctoral dissertation written in 1942 for
the University of Durham, England, later published in 1948. Lucas
a~,,~nces a fartlun? theory that the Yoruba are of Ancient Egyptian
ongin. Based on h1s own conjectural linguistic derivation of Yoruba
~o~ ~cient Egyptian languages, Lucas proceeds to demonstrate a
s1milanty of religious beliefs and practices between the Yoruba and
Ancient Egyptians. He contends, for example, that ~u in Yoruba
myth~Iogy ?1ust have originated from the Osiris-Set complex in
Egyptian philosophy and mythology ( 1948, 55-67).
Closer to ?ome is the late nin~teenth-century theory by N. Baudin,
a much earlier observer of Afiican traditional religions. Writing in
60
188os, Baudin unfortunately referred to West African
the ~~te 1 religions and their adherents as f~tishism and fetish
trad1t 1?n:rs. Terminology aside, Baudin places ~ 's early origins at
worshtPP a former port and city-state situated on the coast of
aadagr)', tern Nigeria. Baudin's position is based on the allegation
sout~W~~s principal temple and therefore the earliest worship of ~
th~t .~ t d at Woro, in Badagry (1885, 44). A supporter of Baudin's
?ngtn~ ~ Esii 's first temple was built in Badagry is Colone\ G. W.
1de~ t 0a e ~f the earliest ethnographers of Yoruba culture, Ellis
Ellis,. ~ tl1 at Esu's original dwelling place on earth was on the top
theorizeuntain near ' , ' close to the Ri ver N.tger; fr om there Es
· Igbytt, ' ' '
.us
of a rn~read to Badagry where his earliest temple was built (Ellis
fa~: s66). In a much more recently publi~hed doctoral dissertation
Lucas's, Idowu suggests Qfa-Ile as E~u's earlest home (1962,
18
than
S) While the fieldwork for his · d.1ssertatt?n
· pro duce d other trad.ittons
·
h ~ suggested Ketu as the birth-place of ~u, Idowu does not attempt
8
t a econcile both traditions. He simply makes his choice ofQfa-lle as
Esur 's place of origin
to · while
· acknow1ed gmg · th e existence
· of th e K etu '
•
theory. f:' h b d. . . F S , , d
In a brief pamphlet on I a, t e Y oru a 1v~natlon system, .. owan e,
distinguishes between two ~us. One is ~u Ebita, who is said to
have led an insurrection against the Deity in heaven. ~6wande does
not account for ~u Ebita's parentage, although as a consequenc~ of
leading a rebellion, ~u Ebi,ta is thrown out of heaven. The other ~u
mentioned by ~6wande is ~u Laalu, who is described as the son of
Ol6ja, a Yoruba chief (~6wande n.d., 4 1). The Reverend D. Epega, in
~n~ of the most informed works on the Ifa divination system, regards
Ire W ara as the original home of ~u on the basis that this was the
pl~ce to which ~u descended from heaven with QrUnmila and th~
earth-spirits (IrUnm9l~) after the Creation. Epega. also states that it
was at Ife• Wara that Esu takes human for1n by bemg born of human
•
parents (n.d,2). . . , , . .
Only one story in this study's collection gives~ d1vm~ p~~enta~e
(Tale 1) . The story is ~ryptic and ambig~ous about E~u s filial
relationship to the deity Ogful, the Yoruba deity of War and ~on. Our
story goes that in the, beginning, the Deity creates both Ogtin ~d
Esu. Thus Ogiln and ~u are created, not born. Then, the narra~ve
abruptly claims that Oglin is ~u's father. Nothing else found in ~u
61
 folklore justifies tl1is clai111. W11e11 tl1is was explained to tl1e infonn hi within a gr?up ?r .communi.ty. ln sto~es that deal with
\\
1
ho pro' '!ded the tale, tl1~ infom1a11t ~la,imed .tl1a~ tl1e cult at ldant
1 ~ii w?r.s pf :Esu worship w1th1n a specific clan, lineage, or family,
finnl) believes tl1at Ogun 1s fatl~er to ~u, wh1cJ1 1s why they h do
1
°
t11e ongtn d s'etting are identified and usually set within a historical
Oglin 's emblem placed beside ~u 's outside tl1eir sluine (Tese~~e the locale. an d so that the stones · seem more l'k 1 e d'1v1·ne legends, oral
~gbayi. pers. interview, Ibadan, 1968). •u u01e pertO~ytl1-chronicles than myth proper. Two examples of myth-
'
\Vhen E5il's parentage is mentioned elsewl1ere in tl1e data forth ' histor)', or included in this study. The first of the two tales recounts
study, he has human rather than divine parents, but the circumstan
18
Jegend.s ~:eof Esu worship at the Olunl9y9 household in Ibadan. In
of his birth and childhood are most unusual. In one account we ~es tl1~ ongth-lege~d, apparently one of the ancestors of the Olunk?y9
told that ~u is born to a man called Osunsun and his wife. Esu ~e t111s. m~ . gs back an ~u statue with him as part of the spoils of war,
born while his parents are on their way to the 1narket an·d ~s fa11111Y. nna successful military campaign.( l) Belie:rlng that the statue
fo!loW•~~ good fortune, the ancestor i~stitutes ~u worship within
18
subsequently named Laalu (The Honour of the City) by his earti11 11
parent~ (Moses OJejede, pers. interview, Lagos, 1968). 111 anotlley bn· 11neag
11
~s e · (Tale 2) 111 the second story, .
~u worship begins at Ganga
.
story, ~u is born ofKetu, a wo~an past tl1e age of cl1ildbearing. s11 r l11 5
2) a sn1all rest-stop-turned-village on the outskirts oflbadan,
a~d her .husband, ~un, live at .¥,ri, outside present-day Lagos. l~ (see vo·1· an ' atte1npt to keep the peace between two wamng · f:actions,
·
following
this particular tale, ~~ is tl1e typical folkJoric e1?(a11t te17·ib/e. Born '·ebu a11 d tl1e Ibadan (Tale 3).
I
of aged parents follo\\'Illg an oracular prediction, ~u 's bi1tl1 is inost tl1eOtherJ stories mention · · of the use of certa'1n art'1f:acts . or
· the ong111
unusual because he is delivered after only three months i11 tl1e wornb sin :Esu worship. In one narrative, we are told that on depamng
He walks at birth, a super-precocious, menacing cliild. His adolesce 11 c~ emblem earth· Esu , leaves behind a latente
· mound by wh.ich he \Vants
from the ' · .
and young adulthood are as terrifying as his birth. He wreaks }1avoc to be remembered, a place where his aid can be so~ght. From this
on all around him until suddenly and mysteriously he refor111s and is · 'dent comes the use of laterite as an emblem of ~u (Tale 4). In
transfo11ned into a benevolent, magnanimous character. He actually 1nc1 . er story Esu , and Ifa transfer rn themse1ves ·into a 1atente· and a
ano tl1 ' • . .
does become the pride and joy of his city. Finally, his mission ost heap so as to avoid the wrath of hostile villagers who are
ac.complisbed. he lea\ es the earth to return to the world of deities as corn P 1 · d
1
chasing them as they depart from earth. From then on, a atente an
mrraculously as he comes (Tale 4). a compost heap together have. c?me to be the symbols of the two
, ~ favouri~e theme before ~u 's descent to e~rth is the theme of deities and of their close assoc1at1on (Tale 23). . .
E$u s expulsion from heaven. In one narrative, ~u is expelled from It is said in some narratives that B?u bore facial marks. He_ 1s
l1eaven to the crossroads ?ecause he is so unruly and troublesome therefore credited vvith introducing them am,ong the Yoruba as a s1gn
!·
(Tale 1 In another story, ~u, lonely and bored in heaven, becomes tl1at the Yoruba are to be distinguished as B?u's c~ildren (Tale 12).
so fascrnated with life on earth that he begs the Deity's permission to Otl1er etiological explanations incorporated within B?u stories include
go to earth. When_pe11nission is initially refused, ~u causes such the belief that the physically handicapped and the misshapen are
trouble_ ~at the Deity finally acquiesces (Tale 4). And in yet another special to Qbatala, the ?eity who makes them that :'~Y while in a
story, ~u laun~h7s a full-scale rebelli~n against the Deity because drunken state caused by B?u (Tale 29). In another myth 1t 1s put for:var,d
anothe~ ~~d, I;la, rather than he, E~u, is g iven the enviab le that Jealousy and Greed come to the world as a result ofhumankind s
~esponsi.b1l1~ ~f looking afte~ h~man destiny. Each day of the dissatisfaction with the original perfect state of the world (Tale 46).
rnsurrection is gi\'en a name, which 1s now said to be the origin of the The composite picture ~at emerges from the substa.ntive con.tent
names for the Yoruba days of the week. At week 's end Esu' d h' of Yoruba tales concerning ~u is one of a formidabl~ de1ty. Descnbed
fo c .h ' an is
v .es are van9u1s ed an? t~own ~ut of heaven (Tale 41 ).' variously as diminutive and dark-complexioned., E~i1. liv~s mos~l?'
Finally, stones about ~u sometimes deal with the beginning of outdoors, particularly at the crossroads or outside h1s friend Ifa s
62 63
 house. 11is emblems include statues depicting a n1ale figu Although myt~ oft~n displays a .strong narrat1ve element,
stylized pointed head \vl10 canies a knobbed club; they a re With a . cally speaking, it lacks the deliberate, conscious art1stry of
found at laterite or dirt 1nounds at crossroads and ot11er pur~ .usua11y
1 thema tl
lkt le. M.ythtel lers are not JU
. dged pnman. .\y on their accomplish-
such as marketplaces, the village green, or tl1e communal y ~c a.reas fo ~ as weavers of tales or as spellbinding orators, although such
private family compounds. His en1blems are also placed at ar Wtthin 111~n are appreciated. Rather the teller of myth is valued for the ability
and exits to towns and cities and tl1e front doors of homes entrances 11
ski 5ake myths 1n1onn
· c. I "fy , and .is revered and adm1red
and can . for the
, to in na1ratives as an old rnan or ev.en an
Sometimes referred to 111 h . . d
capacity to d~monstrate t eir mekanmg adn ~urpose. .
'"'oman (Tale 43), ~ seems to be of dual ge11der as well as · Old Esil narratives genera11 Y 1ac stan ard1zed or common t1tles;
His face is pockmarked and bears facial n1arks etcl1ed in lo agcl~ss. 1 r~fore, identification of a particular tale or references to it are made
from the middle of his head to his cl1in. He smokes a pipe ; g lines tbhe a catch phrase th at reca11 s some s1gn1 · ·fi1cant port10,n
· of the plot.
. . H . , ovcs t0
dance, an d ts very energetic. e is also quick-ten1pered ai1d ~ere are several varieties of styli~ed introducti<?ns to ~u narratives,
when crossed. At times a loyal friend. and a generous ' magna 111n . cruel
1ou ·nc\uding the simple salut~tion of~u (Heepa, Efil.), or the recitation
creature, he can also be very rebellious and cause trouble. He is 1 s ~f some brief portion of ~u praise poetry. For example:
and manipulative. As the intennediary between gods a11 d 11uinac ever
. th c. f . . c l1S, l1e E,su do not undo me
ts e en1orcer o sacnfice. He recognizes no master except tile D . •
Contrary to what might be popularly expected, n1yth and eityl· or: '
. 1·k inyt 1~ He who does not reckon with B?u
typ e s t ones are not 1 e folktales al'"rays sleek ' art1.stt'c, 11Cat}y
structured tales. They are often narrated and passed do\¥Il j11 a Is being foolhardy.
'
~agme?ted, c?ndensed, or encapsulated for1n, i11 tl1e course of Greetings, B?u
discussion or ntual, Do not undo me
. for example.
, or as a narrati,,e within Ifa divitlat·iona
Do not undo any of us.
vez:ses or panegyncs to ~u.
~u myths are sometimes cryptic and abrupt and they are so111eti 111 ~upraise poetry will be discussed later in this chapter.
dull. Some of ~hem, especially those narrated during esoteric rituales The opening lines of~u
'
narratives that depict a time setting usually
are very complicated and therefore difficult to interpret and appreciat~' attempt to i1nply a mythological time by using 'In the beginning' (of
Frequently those who know about them do not want to discuss the : time), rather than 'Once upon a time,' the opening line common in
but o~ the rare oc~as~ons when they do, one finds that the myt~~ folktales. Usually ~u
' stories are more direct in their opening lines.
contain anachron1st1c and seemingly uninterpretable word s Tl1e main cl1aracter is immediately identified and the story line starts
refe~ences, and expressions that have been learned by rote and finn}y and directly. For example:
continue t? be p~ssed along without anyone in the community
understandmg therr meaning and import.
Ql9run created Oglin, (god of War and Iron) and~· (Tale 1)
~u is the messenger of Ifa. (Tale 5)
. . myths are generally not as colourful' dramatt'c, nnagmative
Yoruba · · .
or artistic as Yoruba folktales, because ofthe essentially different primai; B?u
' dislikes wealmess in anyone, deity or human alike. (Tale 18)
roles ofmyth and folktale. Myth has a more serious and complex pw ose OrUnmlla loved Earth secretly for a long time and was desirous
•
than folktale. Whereas folktale fosters education morality and -p . I of marrying her, but Earth was very proud and refused all
acculturation under the guise of entertainment, myili p . ·i soc1a suitors. (Tale 36)
philosophical,_religious, and metaphysical issues in alle:i :xpr~s~~s Esu narratives in their form as myth ust1al\y lack some of the
and metaphonca1 language. A deeper knowledge of a culture~ ym ~ I~ ingr~dients of folktale for creating mood and atmosphere. Landscapes
for an understanding of myth than of folktale. require and settings in myth are not t1sually described in any detail except

64 65
 '''l1en tl1cse arc related to tl1e plot. TJ1is same conciseness . f craft and professional associations (ljala); work
into dialogues, therefore renderi11g tl1em very drarnatic an~s carried (. riJfp); P.0 e~. ~ullabies and children's rhymes (orin pmpdt!). Yoruba
tin1es too w1derstated for dramatic, effect. E1notion is su at 0 ther ~ngs (orrn ~ includes incantations (if.a); curses and maledictions
1

and '''l1en expressed, it is usually througl1 verbal expressiPPressed, SeJiglOUS poe (adura); blessings (as~; hymns (orin Or~.siJ); praise
than a dramatic enfoldrnent. Lea11, single epi~odic plots ando~ rather r(),ne); praye:~ s (oriki or1'.ii); chants to deities (igbe); and divination
r:r f de1t1e ·
of colourful descriptions sometim~s present ~u narratives i e lack poetrY 0 Jfi') (Beier 1970, 23-24; Babalola 1967, 12-22).
picture of simplicity. In actuality, ~u stories are ultimately ~ a faJSe verses (p.>Y ba also have a tradition of court poetry, which is a mixture
because they work at multiple levels of meanings and assoc. ~Plex
0
rhe Yoni ~r and religious poetry because Yoruba kings serve as
At the literal level, ~u myths delineate gods interactingiatrons. of both s~cuand religious leaders of their people (S. A. Johnson 1970,
themselves or anthropomorphic gods participating in tile a;r:iong both secu bar ki'ngs nobles and dignitaries usually maintain a stable
l1urnan beings. At this le\rel, gods are depicted in their cultu a~rs Of ) '{oni a ' ' ·
23 · . . among these are court poets who enJOY varying degrees ·
social guise. At the symbolic, and metaphorical level, Esu ra at1d o f C ourtiers, . h . . d .
and power according to t e pos1t1on an prestige o t eir f h .
·nfluence .
address themselves to various aspects of the Yoruba world~ie:~h~ o f 1 C urt poets serving powerful kings are naturally themselves
1nyths are also subtly philosophical. At these levels of n1ear1in · Esl.u pa trons. o
· 1 and powerful. Some of these men and women are tit e . .I d
l · d· · · , g, t 1e · fluent1a
eva uattve an 1nterpr~tattve understanding of~u depe11ds ultiin in . t Oy6 for example, female royal bards were known as
not so much on \Vbat ~u does in the tales as on 1\1/10 Esu is ai1d a~Jy Jn ancien nba ·(Abraham
·' 1958, 21 ; S. A. Johnson l 921 , 65) .
he represents in Yoruba theogony. · w at A~~:y court poets serve in multiple capacities and all enjoy the
' age of their distinguished leaders. Some court poets work as
Oriki (Folk PanegJ rics) of~~I~gbara
1
patron . ·· ·h
1. Yoruba Folk Poetry . d' 'dual performers but many work m groups rec1tmg poetry eit er
10
tVtms of poets or as teams of poets and musicians (Beier 1970, 12-
The Yo~ba are said to be natural poets because they have one of tl1e as tea .
l S). The duties of Yoruba court poets i~clude annou~c1ng a~d
.
mo~t vaned and complex corpora of traditional poetry in West Africa welcoming the royal hosts and their guests w1th the appropnate pra~se
y
~e1~r 1970, ~2). oruba folk poetry portrays Yoruba life and culture
em s and formal salutations. Court poets perform eulogies
with i ts dazzJmg history of !cingdom~ ~d aristocracies. It portrays a po
recounting the histories, genealogies, and the exploits · o f .thetr
·
cr~wded Yoruba constellat1on of de1t1es in its evocation of Yoruba employers and guests. In this way, court poets serve as the chroruclers
ph1los~ph1cal and metaphysical worldview. The folk poetry also or expositors of genealogies and historical events. ~e~ also serve as
embodies an acute observation of nature and human nature 1. performers of pane~rics and .as cantors for the pnvtleged cl~s.ses.
language that ably lends itself to the figurative and lyrical expres ? a Most of their matenal and delivery style comes from oral trad1t1ons
of the Yoruba. s1on
but there are also many occasions when court poets are called upon
. T?e y oruba distinguish several genres of folk poetry the to compose and perforn1 new compositions extemporaneously (S. A.
s ~1~c~t ?f which are Iwi (Ewi) (poetry of masquerade~)· od;;s~
1
(Ifa d1v1nat1on verses); rfri (eulogies· chants)· , , (d' fur
ifa Johnson 1921, 125; Beier 1970, 15-23).
The apprenticeship for a court poet is long and te~ious be~a~se
' ege trge, enody,
elegy); arofd(bumorous witty poetry')· .. ,, , (p
(' · ' ' IJaia oetry of hunters)· ifi' y oruba court poetry is so varied. While there is glamour m the pos1non,
incanta.t1ons); epe (curses, maledictions); and oriki (praise ' pp
surrounded as it is by pomp and pageantry, court poets nonetheless
=~e~~s). These genres can be divided into the categories of~~~;;; must work long hot1rs committing vast quantities of verse to memory,
re ig1ous poetry. y oruba secular poetry includ .
genealogies or clan histor1'es (o . '/ ' . es verses tracing rehearsino them until they are able to recite the verses perfectly. Court
11 e), communal
accomplishments (orfkl)· chants ( , ')· 1 . , , or tn 1v1duaJ
· d' . poets w;rk under great pressure. Always perfo~tt~ing before an
' rara , e eg1es (ege); witty poetry audience and under the watchn1l, critical eye of fastidious old master
66 67
 poets. tl1ey n1ust be careful 11ot to give a poor perfo11na11 ce tllat . Ifa verses predict the futu~e. They suggest the means of
cause thcn1 en1barrassment or l1unliliation a11d, in tl1c extre Would t good fortune and provide ways of evading illness the
of position (Beier 1970, 12-15). rne, loss fe rned1es.
· abOU ''
bringing ods and natural catastrophes.
In addition to tl1e court poets tl1ere are the minor poets oc . er of the g '
poets wJ10 ha,,e other means oflivelil1ood apart from what theycas 10 ?al aog "ki of &.u Jt,l~gbira
as fees or donations for their ,recitals. Yoruba folk poetry is fre~eceive 2. or•. ·din his introduction to Yoruba poetry that '(the1oriki is
recited in social situations. Jjci/ci, the folk poetry of l1unters ~ently .,uTll' ae1er sat N h' .
a1 . ti0 nn of Yoniba poetry. ot ing 1s exempt ?m it: ings,
fr . k.
fine example. The perfonners of ijci/ci were originally l1u 11 ters' b~t ~ne the basic animals, plants' (1970, 23). The orlki of ~u I;:l~gbara
d s towns, . d. . l
group has since widened to accommodate all who work witli t he go ' . utpourings in flamboyant praise or exaggerate tron1ca
such as d.ri\'ers of automobiles and blacksmitl1s. According to ~eel, P oette o . h 1 . l d
are ce to the deity. They are nc , ynca , an ~x.p~ess1~e utter~n,ces
.
Babalola. who is one of the most knowledgeable specia lists 0111 : ,A ; referen . ·ng Es'u cryptic and tense when satmzmg him. Or11d to
'· 'l ' · ts h · tl 1 h n pra1s1 . ' .
poetry, ya a artists are a s w o occas1ona y ga 1cr to social ' a
rtt' ll ua \'/ ,e t aditional verses handed down over the generations and
~d entertain one another with i_jci/ci chanting. Altl1ougl1 refereiicesi~e Esu·
are r 1· f . Es' , • lf
bly are as old as be 1e m .u 1tse .
Ogtin (the patron deity ofhWlters and iron and steel '"'orkers), allusio
0
presuma mine Esu poetry is to peek into some of the elements of
To exa . · f lie h
to Yoruba mythological personages, and mytl1s in capsule forin ans hi losophy of life and concerns about the capnces o ie, t e
incorporated \vithin f.jci/ci poetry, Babalola does not regard i.ia;: Yoru b·a Puncertainty of the future, and the fear o f the go ds. 0 1·1'Id 1s ·
primarily as religious poetry. He considers the larger subject of i}a/~ 11aunting '
c ned by members ofB?u assoc1at1ons.
· · All b f Es
'
mem ers o .u cuts ' l
poetry to be a salad bO\\'l mixture of reflections on Yoruba lif~ per1on , · d
r. m'lt'ar with Esu verses with varying egrees o expertise.
f · Th
e
are iat · · d
(Babal9Ia 1967). Observations on hwnan relationsl1ips, intirnatioi1s rts are tl1ose who possess a combination of a large repertoire an
of life and morality, and the mysteries of birth and death are thrown expe fl · c
erior ability to chant. These men and women possess a arr ior
tog.ether ~~ random as these observations occur to the reciters & 0111 sup
alanguage · · h · d
and are imaginatively drama!1c, m t err e 1very W1 m e 1. 'th' th
their traditional repertoire. traditional motif, style, and structure of~u poetry.Although the expert
Yoruba religious poetry deals \vith faith and life's imponderables reciters are thoroughly professional in their artistry, they nevertheless
among other things. God. the deities, the origin of the universe' hold various full-time jobs: . . . .
interrelationships between gods and hwnans, the supernatural world, Incentives for chanting~ praise poems are pnmanly relig1ous,
and life on earth are seen in a religious and philosophical context~
Cl. al and artistic; any remuneration is definitely a secondary
~ure : oruba religious poetry include prayers, hymns, devotio11al az1d so )
consideration. A reciter's training is base? on th~ 1n 1_v1 ua s
. d' "d l'
liturgical songs and verses, and religious incantations. dedication, for most skilled perforrners achieve. their .P~l.1sh from
Odil /fa, Ifa divination verses, probably constitute the largest si 11gJe practice and participation in the religious and social acttVtttes of.the
body ofYoruba reli~ous ~oetry. They are tantamount to the scriptures cult. However, it is not unusual to find some chante~s who acquired
of the Yoruba. Their su_bJect matte_r _is wide-ranging, covering every their skill during a short period of apprenti~e~h1p ,t? the more
sphere of Yoruba physical and sp1ntual life. They contain prayers experienced performers. Skillful perfo1111ers of B?u oriki are value?
~roverbs, an~ so~gs. Incorporated within the extremely numerou~ within the cult group and communities around it not only for the1r
' ~rs.es of odu !fa are myths concerning the activities of the ori:Si. artistry but also because they are the celebrants an_d preservers _o f
on_g1n myths conte~plating the beginnings of human beings th~ religiotis tradition. E~u 01·ild are recited at religious and social
universe and e\rerythm,g h~used ':ithin it, and mythological le~ends gatherings such as E~u festivals .and ~tes o~ passage and, of course,
of Yoruba heroes. Odu !fa contains verses diagnosm · g di·s d ·
th · d . ·d or ers m upon special request during an intervte\v w1th me.
e m rv1 ual and the community, for which the verses also provide But the experts and skilled perforn1ers are not the only bearers of
68 69
 Esu poetry. Members of tl1e co1n1nunity at large share tll . is competition to spoil.' Orikl names are probably
of. Est1 01·fki and pass tl1em on. TIle d'ffi
1 erence betwee11 th
e tract 1.
tions vcr VJ ~ h rn there b th
rt nt type of Yoruba names ecause ey arc so versatile. .
. . . ein and 0 0
experts is tl1at t11e repertoire of tl1e former 1s considerably the the rnost irnP . aly the most fascinating because they are the prettiest
8
Nevert11eless, all cult members hear these verses for as Ion lllaHer. r11ey are certaint flattering and endeanng · names o f a\1 . Around a
li\'e \\ritl1in the community and tl1ey participate actively ing r:s !~ey 50 un d . g ' mos
1n . name are woven more · names ·tn a senes
praise · of
tl1e familiar ones. citing erson 's praise until the completed orz'k'1 becomes a tapestry o f
P . 1 verses, . name 1.s rea \ly pra1.se poetry
To understand 01·fki i.t1 Yoruba folk poetry, one n1ust und 1yr1ca . . This type of praise
. ersta
the great importance of names m Yoruba culture. All Yoruba nct charactenzat1on.or appellation but a eulogy, paean, and panegync. ·
. . . W •1arne · st a name ' ' ' · · d d \ · d·
have meaning JUSt as most names in estern cu ltures h s not JU 'ki Esu (panegyrics to ~u), ~u 1s praise an . eu ogae ~
meaning, although in Western Europea11 cultures it would seein ~Ve In Orr ·b lical language. He is also treated to occasional sarcastic
glowing YP e~ ~eatures are described, his attributes enumerated. Some
11
the meaning of names has less importance tha11 tl1e sou 11 d. Fortt at
Yoruba, names are important because they mean so111etl1ing signifi he re1e
8
" rences.. . .is i are
• •
mentioned and his •
character 1S randomly assessed.
.5 acttv1t1es - ·
and because they define tlle individual. There are 011ly tl1ree 111~nt of h 1 1
d function as deity are affirmed. Prayers and supp 1cations are
. ~or 1-1 ' role an · · ·
types of names that every Yoruba child can be named. Boys are 11a11 d rJlS . ' upraise poems are thus a mixture of salutation, invocation,
Es
ffered l11m. . .
on the n~th day of birth and girls on the seventh. 011e type of Yo~~ o lication, praise, a11d witty sarcasm. . .. .
name isAmtlt{i11111i1a, the category that commen1orates tl1e paiticul a supp
The sa1uta ive
t" portions of oriki verses offer greettngs and fel1c1tations
. th f t
c}rcumstances of a child's birth (S. A. Joh11so11 1921 , 79-8 I~r , u Salutations come at the beginnings of the verses m e use o .pe
An1ut{i11nlva literally means (the name a child) bri11g~ (\\ritl1 it) froi~ to Es~· for him, or the use of epithets that are follo~ed ~ de:~~~~e,
heaven. Thus, a breech birth baby automatically has 'Ige' as its na111e nam b t'cal references to the deity. One verse begms with A11b1k~ a
hyper o 1 akin ,
fge me~g 'breech birth.· Any child who follows twins ill tl1e famil; meaning 'one born and petted at w g up :
pet name
is called IdowU, which happens to b~ tlle name of tllis researcl1er. Jt is
Ajibik~, Jealousy seething into war . .
a .name I dislike inte~ely because IdowUs are believed to be very A happening: Carrier of a dog upon ~s shoul?er like a baby
wilfuJ and stubborn children although I do have cause to think this whose ears hear complaints and 1ncantat1ons
name is probably appropriate. In any case, how does one lose a narne 0 ne lik .
One whose ears are perforated all over ea sieve
one is supposed to have brought from heaven onselfl
He spoke yesterday, it comes to pass today. (Text l )
The second category of Yoruba names isAbisp(S. A. Johnson 1921,
81-83), names given to a child at its ritual christening. Abiso names Another verse begins:
usually depict the new atmosphere created within the home ~itl1 the
b~by's ~val, or the situation within the household before the baby's Bu:
Worthy of worship like Fate!
birth. Ab1sp names may express the hopes and aspirations of the
My mother's husband!
family for ~~ cb~ld or they may articulate the family's appreciation
Owner of a golden whip!
for the parnc,1patJon of the ~ousehold or lineage gods in the baby's
Consumer of sacrifice to save man
~afe arrival. A~9dele is an Abisp name. Ay9dele means 'Joy arrives
As restless as a tale bearer· (Text 2)
m the borne.' OgUndi~ is also Abisp, meaning 'Oglin (the god of
War) consoles.' Or another:
Orfki comprise the third category of Yoruba names (S. A. Johnson '
Greetings E~u, greetings ~u
1921,. 85). Orfki are largely attributive names. They are also names
0

of praise or endea11nent. My orfki name is A duK,e, which means 'One

Esu do not cause my downfall
. '
70 71
 ,
~u, do not cause n1y downfall. (Text J2) r'iddled with fungus~
p1ent1 ·rul
steW rtion of inedible sour. 1
Simpler openings might start with
oenerousdpo 'thout solid foothold
Elfin deity, come and eat the festive yam Qutc~· ''san. wi llows one's entire · body . . . . (T ext 6)
Come hon1e and eat t11e festive yam. that it swa , ,' .
•
so . duality and contrariness of ~u s nature are noted 1n
In,,ocative lines in 01·/ki fi!ti refer to him by many names 1 'fbe """'ercur1al
one of ~us names 1s /V[UL/~m1wa, OJw(Opupp, wh1ch mea11s 'B 'l
~- ·,
1 •·
· ,, ,_/_c: · , Oft. :--:l , • . · n fact
lines:
loving One, Bearer of many names.' Among tl1ese names are rave these w"11 o can be good or bad
' ye one
generic and untranslatable names such as Ba1·a; E/eqb.nrn Latori
some Laaro h' can be tall or short.
• ·.... UJa,
Labz't1·tke. ,' generalized ter1ns such as Eba·a; J1·zl111110'~ me ~a; one who can be short or tall (Text 6) .
• • • • • '.If.-, ant one w 0 h hard or easy \ine with anyone. He 1s the
'spirit'; and specific names such asJagz111 (warrior); Laa1·6J'e (Ho ng , , can take t e
of the Throne); Gb~rari! (deliv~rer); an? ?~lab~ (bo1:1 into \Vea~~~r ~u ho knows the hard
OneW
The overwhelming 1mpress1on of ~u 10 h1s 01·1ki is one of· who knows the easy
multidimensional deity. He is a\vesome and feared and respected a one ho can be violent or gentle
OneW
the following sho\vs: ' as After he is gentle
Th n he is violent ... . (Text 7) .
Awesome, fearsome deity e c. s are made to Esu's physical attributes. His
' tant re1erence . . h . h
~ang6 dares not say ~ does not exist Cons . . rt
h 'zed He is an elf of a deity; e ts s o ' as
diminutive s1~~ t~~~~m:~; siz~ is treated with wry humour as these
'
Qya dares not say ~u does not exist
~un dares not say ~u does not exist short as Dea .
'
Ifa dares not say ~u does not exist. (Text 1) lines mock:
yanous appellations in the oriki verses reveal many attributes sucJ1 One so short, he has to climb the hearth
as ~ 's immortality, strength, force, independence, vitality. He is In order to salt the stew
'The Immortal One: Riser to change the Day of Death'; he is 'The As he walks in a peanut fatrn
In\1incible One'; be is a 'Mighty warrior, prominent as the Moon.' As His head hardly shows above the plants.
a compassionate deity, ' He has ears to hear compl aints and There but for his height
incantations' and (H ,;ould not have been visible)
efrog is slightly taller than the lizard .
ething1 (Text 4)
He has no master A
My master (also) is slightly ta\\ er th an som . . .
He breathes and swells like a puff adder . · · l de his thinned hair, his
Deity who acknowledges neither master on earth Esu's other physical charactens~cs me u k d f ce and his facial
Nor lord in heaven . . . . (Text 6) wiry body' his oddly shaped head, his pockmar e a ,
Th~se lines testify to his uniqueness: 'He is as rare as greenery marks. He is as
gro":1ng out of a rock '; his overwhelming presence: heavy rains Angular as the comers of a house
beating on a grass roof; and his infamous reputation of an ill wind Crook ed as the nose-bridge of an aged man
blov.ring no one any good: I mean no abuse to the aged .
The orikl of the elderly gateman goes like that
Mighty calabash fruiting in the heart of a rock!
Heavy rainfall, terror of the owner of a thatched house! Bald as a rock
73
72
 Bald pated man with facial marks
Man with the curved cudgel
You neitl1er grow nor cut l1air at tl1e back of your head
~u, wI1y the busl1y hair at tl1e back of your head? (Text )
6 ~u support us,
Esu's favourite activities include encouraging fights and lo1.1 .
• enn
in tl1e market place:
Stalwart supplier of whips to fighters
Lingerer by the pounded yam seller \.vl10 does not buy
Loiterer by the yam fl our seller wl10 does 11ot buy
A.kinkehinde
•
\Vho stands by figl1ters
In order to aggravate the fight .... (Text 2)
He loves palm oil:
Elder, early riser to drink
He is no friend of the user of palm kernel oil
But to the palm oil seller he's close like t\vo leopards .... (fext J)
He loves to somersault and appropriate sacrificial offcri 11 gs:
Heir to great wealtl1, roaming the streets
Seeking sacrificial money
One \Vho somersaults v.rhile licking his hand. (Text 6)
Interspersed among the epithets and attributes are many supplicati 011s
to him. Pleas are made for health, \vealth, Jong life, and children:
Eat the festive masl1ed yam
So that money may come to us
So that children may come to us
So that we may have good health and Jong Jives
So that we may have good health and Jong Jives
So that our lives may be peaceful .... (Text 9)
There are constant pleas to ward off ~u's malice, beseeching him
not to hann, undo, fight, or possess the suppliants. The favourite lines
go:
Do not undo me,
Undo somebody else's child. (Texts 11, 14)
Cl~sing :e1narks in E~u poetry are usually requests for his blessin s
guard1a11sh1p or protection: g '
74
~ support us, support me!
support me!
~u support us,
o'o not undo me
support me! (Text 15)
•
~u is asked t~ alleviate pain,. to ease ~uffering a~d anxiety, and to
g ·barrenness, m return for which promtses of sacnfice and oblations
cure
are made:
Esi.I come change the day of Death for my child
. '
Let it be far, far removed
Therefore I call to you
Do not let me suffer
Do not let me perish
Take away all worries from me . . . . (Text 5)
or
~u, greetings Laar6ye
He who can be hard or soft
One who with wood from rafters makes medicine for the barren
Break a piece from the rafters to make medicine for me. (Text 9)
t
Thematically, oriki Efu are random, extended definitions of the
deity. Various aspects are mentioned in no particular order so as to
accommodate liturgical procedures, observations of humans, nature,
at1d religious mysteries. Because of the changes of topic, cult members
can learn little clusters of verses and put them together in their own
juxtapositions while still using the traditional phrasings and motifs.
•
What oriki Efu seemingly lacks in unity and continuity in subject
matter is made up for abundantly in style. Free-flowing, stream-of-
consciousness ideas are expressed in dramatic, highly figurative, even
exaggerated language. Style, including diction and delivery, therefore
becomes an integral part of meaning.
'
The most obvious elements of style in ~u traditional poetry include
the frequent use of epithets. These yield a great deal of 1nfo1n1ation about
the deity, such as his age, favourite food, clothing, and his role as deity.
For example: 'Deity of Youtl1s,' 'Elderly deity,' 'Palm oil drinker,'
'Leather-clothed troublemaker,' 'The Stealthy One,' 'Heaven's revered
gateman,' 'Master medicine man,' 'Messenger o~Death'.
Other forms of figurative language found in ~u verses also add to
75
 our kno~vledge and understanding of l1i1n. Powerful . '
Not only was ~u present at his mother's wedding, but
describe ~u as 'a happening,' 'an event'. He is ' today a d 0llletaph0
hustle and bustle.' He is tl1e private household curse n ~ lll rrow~s
0 1err1bfe. h's mother was being married
AS i warrior was parad'tng the house Wlth. a lamp
communal malediction. Similes liken ~u 's perforated an the PUblis 60
Whenrn the meaning
. of h'ts behav1our
. was demanded
his protruding head to a bushfowl 's; his longevity to aear to a sieve: ~u declared .he was interested to ~ow
. , d . VUiture' ,
restIess energy to a gossip s; an his seasonedness to s; h~ I-JoW the penis penetrated the vagina .... (Text 2)
The exaggerated imagery will not allo\v ~u to beJ·ust 1rosewood's.
. . . Jfin d . c. . . S lOrt - h Qtlier allusions to ~u's sexuality include the expressions
'
dtmtnuttve, an. e eity, 1a1ry-sized; He is 11ot J·ust small e is
'
hands are so tiny he needs both of them to blow l1is nos - his Adultery has rendered ~u friendless
. . b d 'th e, a11d h
bath e h1s enttre o y Wt water fron1 a thimble. He is so . 1e can
somersaults without
. touching his l1ands to t11e ground. 11 ~gi le
• e IS SO dt btl at he
and
E,su made a bridge of his penis the other day
th at. he rec~tves machete cuts on his eyeballs "''itliotit, a ira le T~avellers went to and fro on it
feel111g a thing. PJ)are11tly,
Latopa' s penis breaks and falls in the water
Ironic re~erences. are mad: co11cerni11g the paradox of futi's 11 . Rather than salvaging property out of the water
status as deity and his noble birth in contrast to J1is pe11 cliant ~ ~gh Latopa busily searches for his penis in the water. (Text 2)
common or clistasteful things. Thus his poetry mentions tl :~ ~? 10g 1 1111
versification in Yoruba poetry employs no rhyme or meter in the
great wealth who nonetheless feels a need to appropriate . tr .
funds. sacnfic1aJ western style. Instead, tone (not to be confused with inflection) and
tonality are the significant elements of structure and meaning in the
~lusions abound in ~u poetry. There are several all ·
po~s1ble places C!f his origin, among which are Ketu (he u~1ocns to
Yoruba language. For example, the word igba can mean a variety of
things depending on its vowel ton~s. lgba, with mid tones on each
King of Ke~'); ~ri ('Son of King of~ri') ; idere (he is the ailed
the owner of Idere). son of vowel means 'two hundred.' Jgba (Igba)with low tones on each vowel
means' 'time'. Jgba
' with low tone and high tone means 'a vegetable.'
The. origin of one of the cult rites is alluded to in these lin es..
This tonal characteristic of the Yoruba language thus provides a
~u .caus~d Alagbaa to consume a dead young Egun un rhetorical and emotive poetic device known as the ideophone.
Forcing him to look for redemption money . . . {Text 6)g Sometimes onomatopoeic, sometimes not, ideophones convey ideas
Departed ancestors are represented in rituals by masked fi . acoustically. They can be any part of speech noun, adverb, and so
wh~ ar~ covered from head to foot and speak in falsett . igu~es on. They can be used to create a sense of drama, a feeling, a mood

tra
thed1~t~o1ct".es. ances~o~~ ~~sf;t1hsee
'
Db uring the festival of the cult of the
through audio-sensitivity. The following ideophones convey B?u's
1 ion 1or t e masked E ' ' fi ' energy, vigour, might, and furtiveness 'Tabigbongbon' the idea
Alagba . Th gungun _gures to reenact the myth of the conveyed by the sound of the word is one of rushing around in great
a. e story goes that once EsU had
elderly Eglin , · . · conned the Alagbaa an
corpse of a ~ur:;;:oE=:1ng~ eatin~ a piece of flesh from ' the
haste, with great energy:

r; ~~1s~ent for this aberrant

F6f6 bi ol6fof6 restlessness; being on the go; great haste or rush
beha,riour was for the masked fi On ifengefenge expansiveness
the humiliation of going J:..om h gu t (h agbaa) to be sentenced to
", ouse o ouse beg . t". o~~ g~~ g~iP great leisureliness
he had collected enough money fcor d . ging ior alms until
. . a re emptive sacrifi Kontoki mighty
. Some allusions point to Esu 's unusual bi . ice.
his sexuality. The following Ifues allude to
.
Es~~ ~nd. c~lldhoodand to
ep1ct1on as an enfant
Sekete gboligbo stockiness
Takutambalaya formidable
76 77
 Vo~es us~evotees sPo~
Many passages i11 &u poetry are . allY possess an emblem or consecrated place to their Ori.lll

!J~ a~~
ha,,e become obsolete .and because word untranslatable
h becaus stop before the emblem or the consecrated

hav~ allusi~ as~

verses are passed down by word of mouth been cha: the te 'f)'P1ca\\Y, deference by genuflecting or prostrating themselves. After
figures been forgotten, so that add11:Jon, some rnged alld show
. the supernatura \ cLorces of the1·r orr,91
, , , cLor aid
· and guidance

Underst~ of the orr'k'1 of the1r

or are ambiguous. The followin ns to them are n Ytliologj ' ·.,vol<
'" 111g'te abridged versions · · on,q:i.
' ' ' They then end'
one does not
. know whether thesegarpas
e thsages are quite
e names f ambiguotous b -"" u• . rectrshiP with their
·"'eY . own spec1 .a\ supp1ication
. . or thanksgiving.
or symbohe personifications. Esu. is
0
mythological chara
eca\lsc the r;~ipants of comiuunal devotio~ may be a group of ward, lineage,
1 pf: 'tly members. At these devotions, 'leaders' or 'specialists' are
The child
. of 016biiri Wo'. wont11wo
, .. , cters or a111 appointed from among the group to lead worship . on a rotation
The child
· of 016biiri Wo'wontnwo : .. : usua.\\y""he leaders of the devot1.on are usually decided . upon at the
e child of Mojymomumi Kank~ revious
basis. 1 service so that they may have the 1:1me to prepare for their
~oles. ~ere usual!~ ~o m~
. .

Pan egyncs· to ~u' , are recited in a h At Jddo, cele?rants a leader and an

assistant. As the main officiant _at th_e psy (service), the leader guides
congregau.o~ thro~gh proc~dures
that lends great emotional and dram . alf-chanted, ha lf-spok
can create their own style f anc force to the poeny p ;n Style the the ltturgical and decides what
dyn . o poetry from tl . cr1onn ortions of oriki to recite and what songs to sing. He offers the special
,anucs, and the conventional s I
of B;;ll presented in this s d
ie traditional
ty es and motifs. The sixt verbal
ers
~rayers for the day and provides the special sacrificial offering as
the phrasings simil tu y demonstrate this. The line een oriki well as the food and ltquor for members of the congregation after the
of motifs add1'tt' ar, except for slight variations iI1 the s dare fa111iliar service. The leader is expected to be in a special state of grace for his
' ons or subtracti f or er nu ' role. He must also strive for a state of physical and spiritual cleanliness
number of repetitions on o songs, invocations a' d mber
The eh · ' n even by taking \ustral baths, shaving his head, cleaning his nostrils and
anters or perforrners f 'k, . armpits, abstaining from sexual intercourse, and by settling al\ private
wtt~fsve ~ag1c
on their delivery. The can o on i_l;ftican stamp their own .
conventional styles .?:id m their own verbal dynamics i . grudges.
Devotions to , ~U are held early in the morning at the ~U J;.l~gbllra
on th ;~.own c~oice of repetition and th unctuate their delivery
with th · 0 · They can p no the
temple at Iddo. Members arrive and assemble at the shrine in the U-
e e iveiy with their intonation' the. ey can put their signature shaped courtyard. In the shrine a raised steel machete is installed on

~enerate o:~~~nce perfo~m~~

gestures, facial expressions a d ,d. rr own special cadences w·h a mound to Oglln, the Orl,ii of War and Iron. Beside it is an overturned
'
; en whatever quaii; participation, earthen pot with a hole in the middle, an emblem to Esu. As the •

ann~ a perfo11ner's adroitness at d 1· d ~nd excitement they wish members arrive, the men greet each other with a left-handed
expressions . can be a moving theatn'e 1venng I . es, puns, and stock·
rhym handshake; slowly and quietly they proceed to the far side of the
e seerrungly
perform
tb
· ea expenen s
Jagged sequence of thought a d ce. ?1oothing out courtyard where they remove their shoes and clothing to the waist.
fi . er can transform the staccato . nh expressions, a skilled The women go to another comer of the courtyard, where they can
gurattve phraseolo ep1t ets of an . watch and participate in the proceedings yet remain separate from
the men. The women keep their clothes on, removing only their shoes.
While waiting for the service to begin, members of the congregation
Liturgical Verses ty.
quietly exchange pleasantries, asking after one another's relatives,
Panegyrics to Esu are I .
cho~unal, plac:b~el1g1ous
both private an . a so recited during worshi . . health, and business. Meanwhile the leader and his assistant proceed
E$U at home : usually takes devotion, to set out the offerings and the two-footed sacrificial animal usually
. . ' s nne or tern l h iore an embl
iv1dual worshi p ten d s to be pinfonnal
e, t e crossroads em
and rath ' or marketplace.of
Ind er short and simple.
79
78
 a cockerel and tl1e otl1er ite111s to be used during the . Wh at he pleases
. . serv1c
items include kola nuts, guinea pepper, gin, cold wate e. 'fh~A one wb 0 does but weeps wit . h h'is nose
. · · r, the p ·~ e who has eyes, dside market on his mother's way to the
gongs (id11) and a divtnatton tray. raYin On by t\1e roa
\\'hen all is set, there is a call to order.. Cold water
, is ~tetched . & one born .
caJabasl1es from an eno1mo1!S clay pot beside the Oglin and Esu tn t\v0 111 arket rne come to us 'A~' .. .
('So be it') (Congregation)
~K your f:a Asel
The celebrant tmcovers tl1e ~statue from the earthen pot w:th tnollnds. 1v..aY f: me come to us .. ·
your a ~
He s,ips some water from a. calabas~ ~d spi~ it.out i11very fi~e stlle hole. rvfaY f: me come to us ,. ·
~K y your renown a
the ~u figure before starting the Iba, a recitation acknowled .Pra¥s on iv1a spread'. Asel
' ..
~Kay your
O\'erlordship. The service fonnalJy begins as the leader strike~~g ~'s iv1 renown spread'. Asel
' ..
~Kay your Ase!
the two praying gongs made out of hollowed-out coconut shells Soget~er iv.. renown spread'. . ..
tviayyour
on his ~atmches, the. leader ~tiikes the idL1. togetl1er tlu·ee 11 u 11 dre~~tting ElfU1 deityt d . ted as the tip of a razor bladet
as he intones the invocation summoning the deity, affinni rn~ Little ma
n small an poin
' h d'
guardianship and controlling force. The assistant keeps count lou~1 his 'th the jugular ea .
is a lively and spirited worship, replete with audie11ce participatioi1y. It
011e w1h takes on every dispute t .
one w 0 . ' Ase!
interjections. The leader presents a s~on? ~al~basl1,o~ cold water to .::Ud 11.A
lVJ.ay
your fame increase.
• 1 Ase!
' ..
and then to all those present be says, Felic1tattons, ~' here is your c ·1d 11. A your fame increase. ' ..
lVJ.ay . l Ase!
\vater.' He then picks up the gongs again and, striking them toge; our fame increase. . ..
intones the following: er, ~:KJbom on the road to the markett
Roar of the bull-roarert .
Greetings. ~u !
'
Greetings, ~u !
'
May your name spread;
May your name spread.
A: '. .
'
Greetings, ~u!
Father, elderly deity!
May your name sp:eadl
our renown mcrease.1
A: ' ..
MaYY . ' Ase!
Father, elderly deity! (Members of audience respond, 'Father,' May your renown ~crease; ~
or 'elderly deity') May your renown increase. .. · .
Father, elderly deity! Owner of this day, our humble veneration
Agile, restless one! our humble veneration
Agile, restless one! our humble veneration.
Agile, restless one! The Beginning of day, our humble homage
(Here the cockerel squawks nervously and voices from the our humble homage
audience say, 'Tie up that bird's wings, keep it quiet,' to our humble homage.
the assistant, who does so.) The End of day' our humble respects
Father! Father! our humble respects
Father our humble respects.
One who was born on the way to the market Solo is the performance of the heir of the house
He walks through the peanut fa1n1 . . t a solo perf01 mance.
But veneration is no
His head hardly shows. Esu, fatl1er!
Father, but for your tallness! E~u father!
.'
80 81
 ,
Ase.
,.
'
~u. fatl1er! t our p\ace in the sun Ascl
S\\'ift-footed one! Let ~~en by someone else, M.
,.
Agile and restless one! 13e r deeds performed by another. ~
One '''ho scatters himself abroad N°r ~~e not weep with our eyes r•
~
,.
NtaY vv
J'lor disease devour our b. od'hles. ft
One who, once scattered cannot b ~
r•
One born on the way to the mark te put togetl1er again watch a\\ your children in t ea emoon
H~ walks through the peanut pat:h
~
••
. watch them in the early dawn.
rhose who work for the government •
His head hardly shows ,.
Ase.
But for his tallness. Let them go we\~, Asel.
••

H.e has eyes yet weeps with his nose Let them return in peace.
'[hose who work with their hands Ase.
Ttp of the razor blade ••
He sleeps rested against a cudgel. Give a profitable trade.
Those who fish in the lagoon ~ ••
At this juncture, t11e officiant names th Give a plentiful catch.
are offered on that day. Then he b ?se for whom special p
supplication: ray~rs
eg1ns the prayers and special Those w\10 heal ~ ••
Give success.
Esu have mercy ~
Idolu~:Uortal One!
Deity of Youths! Invincible One t I '
The children ofldole from . '
Let it be well for all of us ~
••

,.
Both male and female Let not our homes reject us As&.
••

Have kola nuts, have cold water
Have presentable offerings
Have palm oil that calms the stew
They've brought them all.
They seek blessings of worship
As observed through the ages
~our worship is observed
Smee the time 0 f our great ancestors
Wh o gave us birth.
your wo~ship, now observed,
Has
And
contmued
.
since and grown
c.ont1nues to grow and spread
The c1ty shakes and trembles
Father, do not allow
Whatever we need for '"'orship
Ever to want us!
Let Death not kill us
Nor disease befall us
Nor want destroy us.
Nor the roads ensnare us.
And so worship proceeds with oriki interwoven into supplication,
blessings, and special requests for individuals, families, or groups.
. Kola nuts are broken, divided and shared by members. Libations of
gin are poured. Palm ~il, guinea peppers, cold water, and the cockerel
are finally offered to ~u.
Si!Dilar devotions take place at Tuadan at Agbole Olunlc?Y<? where
the Tu?U group is a women's association. The interesting' departure
from the Lagos group is the influence of witchcraft
' in EsU
. belief. The
women's group associates witchcraft with Tu?U as revealed in this oriki
used at worship:
Our mothers, witches, homage to youl
.
If the little child respects its elders
Clothes will hang comfortably on its back.
Our mothers, witches, we respect you.
•
Ase! '
r•
Deference to you too, B?u.
Ase!
'
Ase!
. Our mothers, witches!
••
' You who kill without any weapons,
Asei
••

83
82
 . fi good fortune abound in ~u songs:
Distinguished ones at tl1e palace, Upp lications or
·iable s
Bards of fastidious cleanliness wl10 pr~y at 11ight, 'fbe inevi good luck
You \vho poiso11 through tl1e male genital , \l bring me. e
And consume livers througl1 the female genital, ~ d me a w1fi ood fortune
f1n t spoil my g . t'nto my house. (Text 24)
Due respects to you. po no . disruption . .
Immaculate birds who ravage at night not brtng 1 of the improvisattona\ song.
po · n examp e \'
'
You are always at ~u 's side. \\owing so11g is .a ' is constant and comes at alternate tn:S.
'
You are closely at ~u's side, 'f\1e fo. 'fsU support himfi long as anyone can come up w1th
efratn . o on or as d
You ask fuu to find you the wherewithal. 'fl1e r t\1en can g ~ the refrain is repeate .
. ' 'f\1e song e melody be1ore .
Humble respects to you, ~u ! O rds to flt th . of sacrifice with k1ndness
'
Venerations to Esu ... \1/ rt the giver
• ~\l suppo .
, . , support him,
Besides the 01~iki ,and devotion~} fo~ ~oetry, anot11er forn1 of ~u hort as Death
traditional poetry to ~u are the lyncs of ~u songs. Tl1ese lyrics ar A man s .
, , support him.
short winsome verses and are so repetitive that anyone or ai1y audienc~ ~u , ).'s policeman
Ol6dumarv .
can quickly learn them and participate in the singing. Tl1eir subject , , pport him. · k d up
matter is much more limited and personal than iI1 the praise poems 8?U su \1 he cannot be pie e
A man so sma.
and they certainly do not utilise as many poetic t~clmiques as tl1e Pp ort him.
praise poems. The song texts admonish adherence to ~u wl10 is called Esu su *********
********* . and so on). (Text 25)
'the father of sacrifice' (Text 17). In one delightful song. the resolution
of conflict between traditional Yoruba religion and Islam is
~U support him ( . f the neglect ofB?il are clearly
d finally, fear of repercussions or
enchantingly depicted: An .ated in this . song··
I will write Arabic and recite Muslim prayers, enunci ·1
' . Esu does not eat kernel o1
But when Esu •
festival comes , . , does not eat hot peppers.
I will worship my deity again; Es.u ty my home
Death do not emp
I will write Arabic and recite Muslim prayers. (Text 18) 1 will ~ot be wicked.
'
The subject matter of another song devotes itself to ~u 's shrewd, . do not ravage my home
Disease, . k d deeds.
sly, and stealthy natur~ (Text 20). Still another song observes the I W1 ·11 not do any w1c e
1 l my home
solemnity with whlch ~u should be regarded: Litigation, do not eve
I will not be cruel. .
Qdara is no laughing matter.
l saw two people fighting
Do not mock the One-with-the-shrewd-character
'
~u abhors levity. 1 stopped them.
Poverty do not level my home
Do not deride the One-with-the-crafty-character
' I will not be lazy. .
Do not jeer at anything concerning ~u,
Or sneer at him.
Esu eats no kernel oil
\
~u eats no hot peppers.
Esu•
does not tolerate mockery. (Text 22) . ty my home
Disease, do not emp
85
84
 1 \\rill not be \Vicked. (Text 3 1)

Note cfJAPTER 5
I. This probably was the Kiri.,1 W '
U ars (1877 .. 93). rhe Role and Function of EIJU
ill Yoruba Mythology
•
Jntroduct1on .
Ah yes! Edju played many tricks
Edju made kindred people go to war;
Edju pawned the moon and carried off the sun
Edju made the Go?s strive against themselves
But Edju is not evtl
I-le brought us the best there is
He gave us the Ifa oracle
He brought the sun
But for Edju the fields would be barren.
(Frobenius 1913, 229)
The preceding quotation is credited to the Yoruba by Leo Frobenius
in the first of his two-volume work on Africa that was published in
1913. It represents one of the earliest documentations of the role and
'
function of the deity ~u in Yoruba religion and mythology. In the
light of subsequent studies of Yoruba deities~ Frobenius must be seen
as a perceptive and insightful interpreter of~u's character and role.
This chapter will attempt to provide a contemporary evaluation of
'
tl1e role and function of ~ in the Yoruba culture, placing special
emphasis on the traditional religion and folklore.
Several observers of Yoruba religious personages have addressed
themselves to this subject. Not all of their conclusions can be or are
worthy of being dealt with here. Nevertheless, it might be a good
starting point in this discussion to review some of the controversial
views on ~u's place and function in the Yoruba pantheon. No three
'
notions of E~u are as questionable or as debatable as those that ascribe
to him the roles of phallic deity, the Devil or Satan, and Trickster. It
therefore seems appropriate to begin this evaluation with an
examination of the literature that presents him in these roles.

86
87
 Is ~ a Phallic Deity? . seated, or crouched on his knees. As male or female in
_... sta11d 111 g~U usually wears an ~laborately .long hairstyle (which
Col~nel A. B. Ellis, in one of his etl1no .
African peoples in the late nineteenth graphical surve cll1Ptllre, · s 'hair dress'), occasionally stylized as a phallus. As a
5wescott . ,teftllua\\y wears a pub'!c apron or trousers; as a female, the
god of the Yoruba (1894·· 64)· TI. . century,
11s Vlew wl · h calls
. Esu' theof \Vest
. Ys
\Vork on the Yoruba of southwestern N ' , . 11c is expres Phallic (113 e, ~u· us ts are prominent.
. Es,.u 1.s a1so vanous
. \y portrayed with a
w:71~na, c~ll~ quite:~~ h~ in fefllat.e b~ea~outh, a club in his hand, sucking his thumb, or blowing
l
pipe ~ ~sseveral necklaces of cowries usually adorn ~ii statues and
11
1
the \vritings of two earlier writers
ackno\vledgment. Ellis seems quite . out g1vmg them It &olli
s wl115 b. carTYing small calabash gourds or wearing them around
:di~, aS~ru~y ;;a~?in•s
Fetishism and Fetish Worshi e. mfluenced by Noel Prope,

~s
religions published in 1885, ofWestAfrican he rnaY c
. eck(\962,339). ,
on the Yoruba and Dahomeans ir f ichard Burton's two d1t1ona1
111511 ott contends that El?il is a phallic god because the most
works by Burton is on the Egba' 'y pebc tvely. The first of tl1 Studies ' w~cnt symbol of ~u sculpture is the long hair dress sometimes
· 1863 · · ' a oru a subgro
. up, and was pubr ~o
csc t\ tin~? ~as a phallus, Jong hair being an important symbol of libidinous
~bhshed • ~he-0
m. ; thirty years later, in 1893 h
srf izcy and power in comparative ethi:iography and mythology.
mission to Gelele in Dahomey (see, I e an account
~er~ott believes that the phallus in E~il sculpture symbolizes
. ~~octual ener~, virility, and potency. According to Wescott, further
Ellis claims that the embl d a so asco111b 1969 13 l 9o his
h1~
In · ems an Starnes fJ'is ' ' - )
opinion, the ubiquitous laterite m o d . u are phal[ic symbo1 '°~ ~ence that Blii is a phallic symbol comes from her informants
a:~ t~ea~~:~lace~, figuri1~es o/t~
locations as the crossroads d oun s raised to EsU at s. evtho tell her that El?il
' · drearns and adulterous
·ts respons1'b\ e '"ior erotic

hair-s~le elongat~~
ca?'Ying a knobbed club, t11:
"'od other promiscuous sexual habits ( 1962, 343-47). ,
3 The whistle, the club, pipe, a~d thumb that appear in El?il icons are
that is sometimes in the fonn ofeas s lO\V1ng an
a phall1c god of the Yoruba . Ell.IS IS . also of t11phallus. attest
. t11at u IS
Es' , .
seen as additional pointers to Blil's phallic role and function. The
om the epithet A on 0 . e op1n1on that the .
fr Esu's cl b . g go go nus-spelled by Ellis used .
to ogo, whistle suggests a phallus, therefore sexuality. Whistling is said to
. u , is acrually a euphemi fi , m reference be forbidden at Yoruba palaces because of the reputed Yoruba sexual
language ( 1894, 64-65). sm or the penis in the Yoruba
association of facial movements of whistling with the facial movement
of kissing! The knobbed club and plastic representations of E~U,
ph~llic-god theory regardi~g Esu. In a v~ voc~fe~ous ~dv?cate of the
Joan Wescott, ho~'ever is the mos .
including laterite mounds installed to him, are also phallic symbols,
artJcl~ for the journal Africa (J 962) W ry ghb, 1magmat1vely written
that ~~U . is indeed the phallic g~d e~c~tt resurrects the Ellis view according to Wescott (1962, 343-47).
Our findings during research in the field for this study do not support
exam1nat1on of the iconograph f ~· t1e Yoruba, based on an Wescott's phallic god theory and will show that Ellis and Wescott are
Wescott does not casually c y o . ~ (1962, 336). Unlike Ellis quite arbitrary and misguided in thinking him so. In the first place, if
omment on Esu b t '
oruba religion folklore and . . u attempts to examine Esu were the obvious phallic symbol that Wescott states with such
~nterpretation of his role ~nd funesp~c1ally the sculpture of ~u for her
Y
facility, then there should be primary evidence in Yoruba ethnology
1ntroduct1on
· to her essay that . ction.I .Although
. w escott states in tl1e
•

fr 1cono og1cal stgnifi and folklore to justify this view; she should not have to resort
om myth, praise songs and ritual ( cance must be sought
a p~allic symbol is based on
constantly to comparative ethnography and mythology to find the
b. 1962, 339), her theory ofEsu as Yoruba interpretation. In the second place, surely previous scholarship
o . u ~conography, where it is not b u ~ectJve interpretation
f Es , . an ar ttrary and s b. . . .
over the years since Ellis's pronouncements in 1894 would not have
symbolism. ased upon Western archetypal
overlooked this obvious symbolism for so long until Wescott's paper
~o develop her argument that Esu
characteriz~tions ~f~a~h~ symbol, Wescott
is .
?eg1ns by reviewing the in 1962
As it. is, none of the leading scholars in Yoruba ethnography,
mclude the representation of Es,
. u as a man R?u 111 sculpture. These
sometimes as a woman
89
88
 y oiuba and their culture for her interpretation. Besides
inclu?ing Bascom and Ido\vu, subscribe to tl1
p~alhc symbol, and some Jess well-known y e theory of Es· caseflll.1}' toe~:ia1ytical fra~~work .from o~tsid~ the:oruba culture, she
bnefly to debunk Ellis 's position· s· s· FaITOW~ruba
Sc Studies 0 nty'u as ~ btllio1og h ort her pos111on sausfactonly Wt~ pnmary corroborative
? ortableto sUP~e '{otuba. Wescott's theory of ~it's phallic symbolism
l11ts tl1e mark. 'Ellis,' says Farrow, 'describes Es~rnment in Pa ~a\tse
5
!I
·

of the Yorubas; but this is not strictly correct S .u as t?e PhaJ~CUlar ~videll~ ~}' on the elongated hairstyles in ~it sculpture, and the
may appear to support this idea but he m . . ome ofhts icono tc go~ teSll! ~ut occasional s!Yl.ized phallu~. ;'hen Wesco~ ~~rts that the
the god of wealth because his w~oden im ay JUst as reliably b &raph~ ob\11°~ d hair dress in ~u sculpture 1s a symbol of ltb1dinous energy,
of co~~es' ( 1927). , ages are adorned withe8 ~UC<I tong-tlltle d ggression' (1962, 349), the grounds for her interpretation
p0wer, an ; orn the Yoruba but from Westem European classical
· ·s observation that Esu
Ellis · is the phalli c god of th y trings
e o~ba has r
co!Tle not aod sculpture (348). The actual depiction of the phallus itself,
denvat1on from any systematic analysis. He
Dahomean Legba's alleged oveISexuality t &~ee~s to impugn lllle fll~~l~ght have justified her contention, appears too infrequently to
consideration that, although t11e Dallomean Lo b . u without taking .the
th y b ' ,
e ~ru. a ~u, he seems to have become endo
eg a inay l1a d . •nto suPP~r to produce any satisfactory authentication or substantial
,vhtC rt her theory conclusively.
ve. enve<) fro ~at ing for her phallic view of ~it from Yoruba sculpture, Wescott
sexuahty m the crossover (Ellis 1894 64-66) Ell' ' we? with a gl'eatlli
supe~il' evide~c~ oruba ritual for supportive evidence. What little confirmation
to the phallic ,theory seems to be the
assumes that ~ 's headdress is always meant
ts s un1que.contributi:r
:~~~ess \vt.th which h~ turn~ 0able to coerce from Yoruba rituals is too superficial for her
1 1 1nous energy fr om ntua· ls
and that when tt IS not (as it most often is not) th. . d a s~ltzed phallUs,
she 15 ritativeness. Her 1•n,erence
e: of \'b'd'
on the part of the native artists t Hi th ' is t~ ue to t11co111pete aut1~onned by possession priests of ~~ng6 and from the long-tailed
th . · s o er contnbuti
eory is a second assumption \Vhich W on to tl1e phalli
nee phe~a1r0dresses worn by hunters ofbthek'Ogi.tn .cultEduringh their festive
··- c. . f
artJ.c e, that the term ogo, for the knobbed cl b 1 ¥ ~atTOts in
her own · J escott wuortunatcl c ·iuals stretches the truth to the rea mg point. vent e meaning o
~bido is stretched too far, in spite of her claim that she is using libido
'
.
IS a euphemism for penis in the y orub I u t iat ~u Carries
speaker of Yoruba, I have not known~~r;,ge (1894, 65). As a nativ~ ~oly 'in the widest sense' (I 962, 348n3). ,
The rninor flaws in Wescott's interpretation of ~it's iconography
make in~es in the field concerning ~e ~e::itrued. ~onetheless, I did
substantiate Ellis's claim ' an iound nothing to include not taking into consideration the prevalence of similar
characteristics in other fo1ms of Yoruba sculpture. The question must
ofAfiicanist scholars to inte ret~' I remarked upon the tendency
In a previous chapter in this stud be asked how accurate is the phallic representation in~ sculpture
can da~ from a foreign analytical as a symbol when the phallus is equally represented in other images
in Yoruba sculpture? If~ is the phallic deity Wescott claims he is,
framework and perspeca·verpW
· escott proVldes l ·
what do we call 6rl~il Oko, whose main symbol, according to Wescott
s tendency. The main thrust of her a g ru:ing ,example of
symbolism is more from a Europe:;:ents regai:dmg ~U 's phallic
thi

Her approach to the icono a h , 3'.1 '.111 African perspective no less, is the iron phallus? (l 962, 347). Another phallic deity? Since
archetypal symbolism a megrthopd tyh of ~u is the interpretation of the long-tailed hairstyle appears frequently in the sculpture of deities
· · · ' at seeks eh t · · such as $ilng6, 6gi.tn, and On~a Oko, as well as in the masks of Epa,
pr1m1ttve, genera] and un·
. '
un1que, and particular to the ob'
1versa1 rather th th
arac enst1cs that are
~I~~, Egi.tngi.tn, and ElUkU (deified ancestors and spirits) (see Carroll
· ~ ect un er ex · ·
d an ose that are subtle
' ( 1967) and Thompson ( 197 1) for beautifully illustrated examples of
sen ously question the soundness of am1nation. One has to
O\vn prepared prepackaged b Ian approach that comes with its Yoruba sculpture), these too presumably would be phallic symbols,
' sym o s and th t · according to Wescott's theory. In this case, numerous images in Yoruba
sculpture in general and &'.o . a interprets a fonn of
.. i.• reign terzns corn I t I . sculpture would be nothing but phallic symbols, if one were to take
trad1t1on and culture to which th ' p e e y ignoring the
The major flaw in We ' ~ ~culpture belongs. Wescott's theory seriously. One is reminded here of gross European
scott s position is her failure to look deep Iy and
91
90
 . ing (347). , , .
interpretations of Afiican art t11at yelled 'fertility S}'rnb ~i.. se of \<iss h d the truth because ~u is not a
01 'tb u•O stretc e h'
breasts \Vere depicted in Africru1 sculpture. !' When . iJlg w~ Wescort has . Esu can be a conduit for anyt 1ng
Wescott also conveniently omits ~u's female re ev~ wll'stlre again d ction exclusively\. 1· ·\ on his emblem. Thus, Wescott
· of h'1m as a pl1allic SYtnb
· l1er, eva1uat1011 Presentation . }'le se u . d \<erne o . d
sculpture Jn duit for urs forbtd ~n, es ons\ble for death, disease, an
figurines, \Vhicl1 ~u 's devotees carry when dancitlg fo ~ · In dan~
1
cofl yooe po \\ make E~u .r p \<es ill or maims at the request of
money, ~u is depicted in paired male a11d fe1nale statur onation8 of if ~nht as we erY time he kills, m~ ndo~ at "E.5u festivals, these are
. h . .
fen1ale figunnes, e is sometimes portrayed as a woma h '. n the
cttes l n~';b\etl'lent ev for \ewdnes~ and an: and do not make ~u libidinous,
breasts, as if to call unn1istakable attention to Iler ~ 0 d ng her 01 1 dt~e\ieve~· A:o t\1e ~u festival a~o the festival of the goddess of the
11 3 tPecu\1ar \ ·¥V\s for examp\ ' k d by similar sexual abandon,
according to Robert Farris Thon1pson, a first-rate icoilogra ; anhood no tt c a1 •~ •
1
d' ) is mar e 1A
eh. 4). ~u's female representation certainly introduces a 11P~er(1971: ll5
wesco
Ibadan
(Oke 'Ba an d ·t· 5 (G Parrinder l 953). s
s other et 1e · . \'
ambiguity to his gender and this cannot l1elp but Iiinit ore ~ent of J-Ji\lS at fi tivals of nu1nerou the facial movements ofwh1st ing
rigidity with whicl1 one ca11 be as categorical as Wescott :bcct th.e are t\'1e .es\ being phallic because ' . fonnants must have been
as t\'e whtst e 'th kissing, Wescott s in
phallic significance. out his for ciated w1
Pleading the unwillingness or i11ability of tl1e Yoruba to are asso t her expense. . b thnography and folklore,
, ' exp\ · . fun a into Yoru a e . hy
the symbols and sculptural eleme11ts in Esu ico11ograpl1y w' ain \'a"'''g delving deeper . d bis equally complex iconograp
.
proceeds nevertheless to compose a11 elaborate cl1a11 justifyitl
' cscou J3Y not duces a co1np\ex detty:~1· ymbol· she also disregards the
. . . Th h . . . g 11er wescott ;~bidinous deity a~d a p a tc sunive~a\ and cultural symbo~s
pha11 JC interpretations. e c art is 1nter~st111g a11d clever but h
to just a t f distinguish1ng between tr te that Wescott' s pha\\1c
precious little to do with the Yoruba a11d ~u. \\Tescott's cliart 0 ~s itnPo~a.ncee~ch its due. In order to .demo~s ha othesis whose validity
demonstrates the author's agility \Vitl1 Freudia11 a11d \Vest~ y and giv~ng for Esu is an assumption an\\ ypd it will be appropriate
psychoanalytical associations as '''ell as her '~'esten1 intellectu~~ symbo~;~tyn1for th~Yoruba need to be c~a =~~ef~lk\ore for their own
preoccupation with reading phallic interpretations !nto anytl1i11g \Vith and ut1 l . Yoruba ethnograp y
more lengtl1 than girth. The smaller features of ~u sculpture, tile o examine
here t . d with libidinous energy'
iconic elements, include the pubic apron, the \\rl1istle, pipe, a11d tl1u 111b.
ev~nc:tt claims that long hair is as~c~~a ethnography yields a
According to Wescott's chart, tl1e pubic apro11 syi11bolizes sexuality esc ~''helming evidence from o les young and old, usually
in a nonprocreative way. ''v'escott reiterates the no11procreative role t ovel "" · tv most ma , d
' y~ view. In Yoruba socie ..;' . h . short or close-croppe .
for ~u even as she calmly dismisses the \\ridely held belief in Yoruba d1fferen~eir heads clean or \Vear their .arrhair long, geometrically
'
mythology and religion that ~u makes barren \vomen fertile. Wescott shave t other hand, wear their . down or are
Ol~~:doi:t~h:longated plai;~ ;:1.c~:::r~ing
'
also says that the pipe, \Vhistle, and thumb placed in ~u 's n1outl1 W braids and toy oruba
represent tl1e phallus as well as signify audacity and tl1e 111ockery of
authority (1962, 349).
sectl~ed into different styles (Farro; l 92 •it i; considered decent and
W11at little Wescott is able to produce from Yoruba ethnology and
folklore in support of her phallic theory includes the claim that ~u is ' \early XXX for men ' and much attent1on ts
responsible for erotic dreams and illicit sexual passions because he ~t\1e hair is the gll9o2i ~fot~)~ ~:~~also notes that ch~\ddren:rn!~~':~
serves as conduit in a seduction ifthe prospective seducer pours taboo (s. A . Johnson'ther shaved
' h d on both S\ es
clean or s ave
.
"ddl (l Ol). Short hair
kemeJ oil on the deity's emblem ( 1962, 343 ). Wescott notes that Esu 's people are e1 · d wn the mi e ·
•
. g a low-cut patch running o . l rm signifying conformity'
festival is marked by dancing with abandon and the singing of lewd leav1n . b the socia no ' t
'
songs (344), and that the \\'histle ~u carries in his sculpture has sexual for men can be said to e sophistication, and refinemen .
connotations for the Yoruba who associate the facial movements of personal cleanliness, decency'
93
92
 . cia\ position. lt is a\so a
. of high birth or so
There is further. evide1.1~e from Y ?ru?a ethnograp} . a s1gn . \\
1 . tinct1on, \ty. . ex ected to keep \t we
profession, and social posttlon can be 1nd1cated by diffi Y tl1at stah ..
· fi eld marsllal erent ha1rsh. nr1' of d~Snonconfor:o wear \ong ha1r a;~ o~en have their hair d~ne
The \vi\res of kings an d tit
· Ie d ch'1e1s,
J:'. · '"S
1
01 bO\ o .~,omen w Samuel Johnso~, \ vanity· the unmarr1ed
. s and ·1 1~
messengers at court, and devotees or pnests and special· genera\ · # '{ofllbad Accor V'f d. g to thetr usua '
ttl s dictated by . h . plaited into sma\\ stnps
.
· · hed by th e1r· Ila1rsty
· 1es (Forde i 9 tsts of Cena·~
01·i..il are disnngu1s 51 ooroe .sorts of ~a~d by having ~he1r a;~e \eft ear, the sma\\er and
me~bers of the nobility in Old Qy9, for exa1nple, usualI ' ~?). Ma;~ ~pill al~ distingu1sheen) from t~e nght to ore admired' (Forde \ 95 I,
beads. Male ila1·fs, tl1e king's bodyguards, also known as~t~ ave thei: otles a:jght to fou~e plaited str1ps the : is associated with s\o~en\y
oftl1e king's head,' shave their heads in a stylized manne ~ke:Pers (frotll nu1•• ..,,,erous t hair on a worn t Long and w1\d or
circular patch t~at they grow out a11d wear in a pigtail at ~h e~vtnga d long
oiore o ogrootne d \ack of cout an
h d refinemen . .
0 \e with insan1ty' t e
h
the head. Male l/a1·is range il1 grade from feudal lordship an~ ac~ or \01)· \ hab\ts .an ociated with mad p~ pth 'Yoruba expression,
the royal households to col lecting tolls at city gates and g running rsona · 15 ass d b dy as in e , ')
roorn·tng pe emPt ha•r. d or tl1e unsoun o ;,s hair like a mad man s ..
the king's horses (Forde 1951, 62).
\lfl~a\anced i;11~vvere ('to grow out on the Yoruba on\y as a sign of
Although Yoruba women generally ~1 ear tl1eir 11air lo11g a11 ct .
. h' 1 S . l d I d' p1attect 161111 ;ru~ b1 t:s socially accepta?I~~~ ' Bodies are buried as so~n a~
there are exceptions tot ts ru e. ome ttt e a 1es at court a11ct oth
t..ong hair ording to G: Parnn ' the corpse is washed, s ~ve -
1

of high position shave off their hair and al\vays bare tl1eir }1cads. ;~s rn\ng. Ace h (the na1\s are pared) d trinkets' ( 1953. 98
wives of the Alaafi11 (~e kin~ ?f Old Qy9), titled AJ·aba, a11 ct th~ n:;ib\e after de~n dressed in the best .robes:;the dead are expected
wives of the B~nm(pnme mm1ster) ofQy9, \\1110 are titled A,,;,1b pfa\\ hair and th d sometimes c\ose fnen.ds d wear unkempt long
always appear clean-shaven in public as a sigi.1 of tl1eir l1ig11· sociai o99) Relatives anh not wash their bodies, an 1921 137-38). Since
position (Forde 1951, 71 ). Tl1e '''oma11 president oftl1e ~u devote~ ·
to "vear o
\d c\ot es,
ad are buried (S. :
A Johnson '
r shaven their ha1r ts
· ·
in Old Qy9, known as the ,pm· 0~ not onl)' is clea11-sl1ave11 as a n1 ar~ de \\y wear their ha1r shortft o the fune~l as a sign of
hair until the n usua . d f time a er
of her titled position ~rithin a religious cult, but sl1e also '''ears i11en's yoruba me w out for a peno o t their hair as a respect
fu\
clothes. The king's mother and the chief priestess at court arc other a\\owed to gro The ]laris at court grow ou(S A. Johnson 1921 , .62).
highly placed, influential ~1 omen \\1ho are clean-shave11 (63-66). grief and \os~. \ sa\ute to the dead at co~rt ~is generally assoc1ated
Female ilaris, the ladies-in-v.1aiting at court. sl1a\1e off n1ost of their and deferentta then \ong hair on Yoru a mef mind and moral and
111 summ~ry s\o~en\iness, feebleness o lon~ hair is socially
hair except for the round patch braided into tv.10 pigtails at tl1e back
of the head, like their male counterparts. Johnson calls tl1ese pigtails \¥ith impur\~' In special circu~stances, Long hair can thus
spiritual \a~~e~ it symbolizes gnef an~ a~~~\\ as represent a,m~r~
'horns, (Forde 1951, 67).
Short hair and the shaven head play a significant role in traditio11al acceptable t and deference for the dea d iconography' B?u lS
religious life. Cult priests and specialists are usually clea11-shave11. A signify res~ec d honour. In both folklor7 ~n m fo\klore, especially
shaven head is required for men at initiation into many religious cults. of distinction a~ Th composite picture of~u fro metiroes elderly'
One of the important rituals during initiation into the ~ang6 cult, after
depicte? wi~:,a:~d ~is myths, is t~at of :c;:''s~~pe of head. E~u·~
tl1e neophyte has been ritually washed, is to completely sl1ave off tl1e
from ~1s o and energetic, with a .p ald' but yet he wears his
initiate's hair with a special knife known as '~u 's razor' (Forde 1951 , someumes young . his hairstyle. He is b , ~g, \ that:
10 l ). In preparation for religious worship or participation in religious head is elongated as \Sf his head. From the o11ki we eam
ceremonies, priests and cult specialists shave off their hair to put hair long at the back o
tl1emselves in a state of purification and grace. The absence of hair in ruined house l' (Text 5)
He peers from a . \ike a bush fow s
Yoruba religious rituals therefore signifies spiritual and moral With an elongated occiput
cleanliness, purity, and spiritual grace. A woman's shaven head is a
95
94
 t .
10
n of Yoruba women's hair-sty\es
And that he is .
bo\tc rep resenta
. d 5 regard1• ng this · •
pract1ce. Th e so-
Angular as the corners of a 11ouse, ffOOl n ~nt '/. oruba attl~c~a\ men in daily life and ritua\s, a~d
5
Crooked as the nose bridge of an aged man bot t"'e atten ses worn by sp acquire their imagery from socla\
' ..rtd ,. ddres d 5 cu\pture, .
I mean no abuse to tl1e aged, IJ'' d he3 t,.10 re an . . t based on fot m but on practice.
..a\1e . fo tu b \tsm is no ·
The ori~7 of t11e elderly gentleman goes like that. ~ 0 ds in th 1·r sytn o t. nal humanizing representations
. . e
b"' gvent1otl, h' conven 10 h .
Bald as a rock d above \S , , deity a suprahuman w o ts
coo ver an . e of Esu as a ' .
Bald-pated man wit11 facial marks. fiJla\\y, o rriding imag onv~ntional human pract1ce. . .
Man Vtrith curved cudgel, . t\1e ove t bound by c d 'ty Esu personifies the mexpl1cab\y
1s
"otate lY no ore than an y other et ' . · d
d attributes. As a de1ty, an even
You neither grow nor cut the hair at tl1e back of your h o ~·\ blYrn ' haracter an d . f
~u, why do you grow hair at the back of your J1ead? (eTad. proba
dent i
·n a god s c, .
d Esu is not im1 e
\' 't d to the human boun anes o
. d
· ext 6 iranscen ntrar)' go ' . \ he is certainly not restncte to
.
From the preced1ng, . 1s
1t . ob v1.ous that Es'.u' ' s i1nagery
•
in fl lk ) t1lore as.a~~s possible. For examp e,x· he is at once both male and
and iconography reflects Yoruba cultural ideas and tl1emes. T~ 10r.e
tllat wh~ist~nctions o~ gend~~:i~n~~y' is depicted as .v.is~a\ly and
?1uch in Yoruba ~ultu~e that yields symbolic i11~a11i11g of ~u a~~r~ 1s hUfllan Although his. mah' qua\ly expressive femm1n1ty renders
imagery concerning him to account for the deity's in1portant he fema\e. verwhe\m1ng, is ~ ontrary and genderless.
1
and function in Yoru~a religion, folklore. and icoi1ography. Pace grapl1ica\\y :us sexuality amb1~u~us~~tive, att~ntive, conformi?g,
The long hair that ~u wears distingui,sl1es 11i111 as a perso11 ofh' \1is en~r~y E,.su is female w~en ~is~ n he is negative, inattent1ve,
birth, status, and ho11our. In mythology ~u is see11 as a l1igli-rank~g
11
figu~ttV~e 'a~d gentle; ~e ts ma e w ~th\ess. For it is B?u who,
deity among all the deities. He is one of the fe''' deities wt 10 ~g pred1ctab ' . unpredictable, and rt!H ho can be short or
always ackno\vledged and recognised. As a deity a1no11g deities 11~ n
onconformtn~, 'k'
. to h1s or1 l, ...
can be tall or sho
)
ew
is lord unto lllinse]f as one of his 01·i~'i sho'\'S: ' according ood or bad. (Text H
' tall/He can be g
~ang6 dares not deny ~u 's existence arsh or gentle
' can be h
Qya dares not deny ~u 's existence
.A.fter he is gentle
~un dares not deny ~u's existence . h h (Text l)
'
~µ9n(> dares not deny ~u's existence Then, he is ars . E , ' knobbed club in Yoruba
'
Ifa dares not deny ~u 's existence. literal references to ~u s al its \ace and function.
Awesome Iaterite! Man~a hy and folklore clearly ~e~~ club fs described variously
Fearsome Root! {Text I) ethn?gt dpfrequently in his sculpture, Esd.u ~l' club' 'a knobbed club of
Dep1c e 1 as 'the eVl s ' l) In
' b students of Yoruba~~ ture el ' or ' a whip' (Lucas, 1948: S . .
Esu
. myths reflect the universal ' awe in which he is held by humans
and gods alike. In some myths, ~u is born into a distinguished or
Jminishing, thickness, a cudg ,
, 's club is a constant pa
rt of his paraphemal1a; be 1s
royal household; in others he is given an unusual birth and childl1ood folklore, B?u . A one of his oriki says:
after which he refo11ns and becomes the Honour and Pride of his inseparable from it. s . l resting against his belly
people (Lcialu) {Text 11 ). His long hairstyle is the conventional mark Ma n who sleeps with a cud~e l . t disturbed. (Text 25)
. art his cudge \S no
of honour and distinction in Yoruba culture; and he wears it stylized, When he wakes with a st ' dh' eapon. lt is his favourite
along culturally accepted Yoruba practice (S. A. Johnson 1921 ). . d arks an is w . . h.
Esu's club is one of his tra e~ k'\\'n attacking, and punts .ing.
From this examination in iconography it becomes clear that Esu
me a~s of aggravating, coercing, i iofgt~his cro\den whip fuels it by
•
's
elongated hairstyle or his Jong-tailed head dress derives not from a .c: ht the owner b

litera1 or symbolic phallic representation and its attendant associations, Rather than stop a tig '
97
96
 supp~ying '''l1ips \\ritl1 '''l1icl1 th fi
''·ho is the e gl1ters can
get badly h
Dissimulator \Vl10 11ides at 11eav ' Utt. lt ~ , , e p el'il? , . .
Stal\\'art supplier of wl . en s gate '% Js ~ th
trovers
y over Esu
..
as the
.
Devil
N
is even greater than the
Akink~J1lnde, \vl10 stan~~sbto figl1ters, rhe con of his phallic. s~boltsm. . 0 le~s than ten .analysts of
In order to aggravate tl1e fi y figl1ters 00
troversY mention him in connection with the Devil or Satan.
Or he uses his club t h g~t. (Text 2) cyof'llba cultureIiest subscn'bers to th'ts th eory was s·tr R 1.chard Burton
L ' o ave h1s w f the ear . h tu d . .
et ~u enter the l1ouse ay, so people say· one o . his late n1neteent -cen ry wan enngs in West Africa,
For ifyou do 11ot let & u . . ""ho, durtng th t the Yoruba had a tern·ble entity · called ~u ' who was
""''ed a b . . d .d ,
Can · m 0 bse•.Ted with the Devil. Not etng .quite ec~ ed. ':"hether ~u was
you not see the cudgel L , , , .
S . aaroye is ea . idennfi h Devil or whether he ~as JUSt an evil sp1nt, Burton took a
tones documenting the use of , , ' Ily1ng? (Text 1 in?ee~ t r~und, concludin~ th~t B?u was probably a b~d ghost ( 1863,
?1an who acquires great \Veal ~u s cudgel i11clude 6) rruddl g A. B. Ellis, writing in 1894, reckoned that B?u more nearly
1~ necessary to propitiate tl1e th and ~uccess and no Ion tf1e story of 9 4
t 93- )h.ed the personification of evil. But since Ellis failed to shed
his children, &u d 'd gods. Since t11e man t k ger consid a roac
8Pp • ht
f . . . .
re . d . . ec1 es to teacJ1 hi a es great . ers 0 0 the Yoruba concept o ev1', 1 1t 1s not quite clear what sort
anY ~fhe meant (65). To R. E. Dennett, ~u as 'the Being of Darkness'
1
fii mm hnn of his sacred duty t tl m a lesso11 in l1UJn ·1· Prtde in
o:~eh!m· ~one of the episodesoof :~;~~s by, ta.king his ch:1~%:"d to of eVltl1e y oroba Devil ( 1910, 9~). S. S. Farrow also regarded ~u as
& , ,nnpious ~an to death ivith his cudry l~u pun1111els tl1e eh ·~d'vay
\\faS
Devil when he wrote that Es. u' ts . ' the pnnce. of darkness' and 'a
. u s cudge11s also used a ge (MytJ1 15) I ren the reme evil spirit' (192~. 85) .
to. watch ~u and Ifa challe s a '''eapon '''he11 son1e ,,i.II supThere is no dou b t t hat Es' .u acqurre· d h'1s first reputatton· as the Devil·
spill into t\vo groups f nge each other to a matcJ1 Tlage~ con1e f om early Christian missionaries and other early European
s~gs rousing songs too sudpporter~, one f?r eacl1 deity.. le \'1llagers a~venturers to Africa. As Leo Frobenius observed as far back as 1913,
smos· goa on thetr man c~ ,' ' eacI1 grou
'Wherever a missionary has set foot, the folks today [meaning 1913]
~ • • .L..?U s group of su p
, Ppo~~ talk of the Devi l, Edju' (1913: 229). This statement is followed by
~U, fearsome figure the quotation that also appears at the ,beginning of this chapter. In
~e Destroyer of villages that quotation, Frobenius asserts that ~u is not evil to the Yoruba
With the S\\'ing of his club because he does so many good things.
He can lay Ifa prostrate (M An examination of late nineteenth-century missionary writings
.... yth 23)
The folklore therefore ak . reveals a close-mindedness towards traditional African religions, if
p~werfuj weapon. m
be a es it clear that ~U 's club is intended to not an outright holy war against them. Charlotte Maria Tucker and
~y mfonnants told me th , , ' . Anna Hinderer, well-kno\.vn late nineteenth-century missionaries to
depiction as an ld at ~u s pipe accou~ Yoruba country, are examples of Christian missionaries who, in their
like to relax wi~ ~an or an.elder, for the elderlye;:;ts abre for. l1is determination to further their God's kingdom in Africa, made devils
li a pipe. My inform oru a society
ves at the crossroads and . ants also told me that . , out of the so-called pagan African deities. The writings of these two
women speak passionately of their work among the Yoruba as their
pious endeavour, fortified with the ar cnour of God to fight the Devil
om the pipe, passersby would spl fr?m ?1spi~e. Seeing and all his works (Tucker 1853; Hinderer 1877).
a ute hun, Epa Esu! '
• As Maximilian Rudwin rightly notes in bis comprehensive study
of the Devil in legend and literature, 'All heathen gods when driven
off the earth by Christianity went under the earth to swell the ranks of
98
99
 Satan. The numberless deth
sub''.JUgatcd races and disc droned ' • outJa\ved
demons. The ancient Here ited religions ch~:nd fallen de· . I
nations with '''hich th bre\\· a Iready cons.d&ed for Ch _lhes or . dited with good and bad qualities alike and that he is
In order to be ey \\~ere at \\·ar as de ·1J ered the nstians. ~ wat ~u 15 c:lent as well as beneficial deity. What then?
· come Chnsti v1 s ' ( Rod '% rna 1ev . . l D) d .
'~ ~·hat proselytizing Ch . .ans, ~fiicans cou.ici 1931, 2J) s Of !Ji bOth a ord Devil (with a ca~tta .. , as use tn mythology and
s1n1ster and pagan god Anfrj~t1an missionaries n?t hold ~ •.: c 'f}le w
.. n rnea 05 the supreme evil sptnt or the supreme embodiment
. .
·1 ·ti
VI J Jed regarded
s
t . ea d . .
n eities \\'e~e th cons d
J ered t
>441}' "-
ue1iM'. rel•gl? 'When used in the plural or with an article, the word devil
. no as de't· b erefj o be ~q of evil. wercase d) comes from the Greek diabolos, originally
L uc1fer in Chn'st'1an tradit'' ies ut as falle n sp; ·ore dethro th~"It 1
outlawed by A.fri ions. Eventually A ~ts comp ed~ 0 (,vith. a ~ ccuser' and ' traducer' (Hastings, VOLUME? 188). The
Yoruba conv can conv~rts to Christiani . fr1can de; arable to 01ean1ng0 ; evil and its representation is one that has evolved through
'Satan ' a d 'dens were alienated from Es ' ,ty. One of the Wa tres \\fer concept es many faiths, and many beliefs. According to Rudwin, in
. ' n emon' with 'Es, , . .u '''as by Ys rn 'Vh' t rnanY raci·n~tion of the Devil in oral and written literature, the history
This unfortunate u
f se o
fEs' , . u m the Yoniba tr
u 's n
rep/acrng 'D 'eh
ans/atj e\'·/ h1·s exam .
Devil is an open ended chronological odyssey that began \V1th
.
0 the foreign with ft d ;ti arne marked the beg' on Of tl1e e·b' I
of·~ftive and pagan religions. t~en tr~~elled through Hindu .and
the result that some a ' onal African reli iou i11nrng of the ru' le. pn . 0 mythologies to the Hebraic traditions of the Jews, especially
clearly d ' . . Yoruba con\'erts th g s personaJ;r· s1on
Wh Jstingu1sh bet\veen the D ·1 ems~J,'es no longc rcs, '"' tb pe~~ apocryphal and apocalyptic literature of the pre-Christian and
en Leo Frobeniu . e\'J and Esu. r arc abJe1 ::ly Chnstian perio~s ,< 1931, 121-~3). The exploratio~ of the hi~tory
European nu·ss· . s included both bi. k o of tl1c Devil in Rudw1n s study conttnued throu.g~ the life of Chnst as
ionanes as ·1 . ac Afr
of the Devil with -c_, h gu1 ty partJes in the erro ican arid \\'}11 d cumented in the New Testament, to the wnttngs of early Church
~u. e \\'as b neous rd 1e
was probably thinkfu l
'Afii . g a ong the s
1
a so utel)' rigI1t. Fatl
. ier
cntificatio
Kc,, n f ~thers such as Eusebius, Ori gen, and Saint Augustine. Enter Marrin
. can1sts are inclined b ame 1mes \\'hen he . in CaTTo// Luther and his preoccupation with the Devil and the Refor 1nation.
~1th ''devil.'' I do to_ lame missionaries for ~0111te~ out that Rudwin also dealt at great length with the fabulous, colourful
identification \\'as ~o~ \\'Jsh to n1align Esbu but' Ientif)'rng Eshu representation of the Devil during the Middle Ages. Not only was the
~hemselves ' (1967 5; e spontaneously by th fi suspect that Devil portrayed as anything from a horrid hoofed and tailed satyr to a
identification theo 'b ). I doubt Father Carro~1· irst Chr1st1ans hairy, homed, and tailed creature; he could change into human, animal,
such as Bishop A~ . ~t do concede that black Afri s spo11taneous and witch familiars, as well as an incubus or succubus. Devil worship
God of mischief' (~ I ro,,.1her certainly regard Es ~an i~1ssror1aries and satanism were prominent in the Middle Ages and the Devil
~onverts such as h. arr~\V, 1927. 86). Even no : u .as Satan. the became the subject of many legends such as 'Dr Faustus. •
Es, , 1stonan-ethn n-m1ss1onary y
. u Satan. the Evil 0 ographer Samuel Joh oruba In more modem rimes, John Milton's Pm-·adise Lost, G. B. Shaw's
prominent Yoruba sch ~e, the author of all evil' ( 1921 nson consider Don Jz1an i11 Hell, S. V. Benet's The Devil and Daniel Webster, and C. S.
the De\'il is th R oar and devout Christian h , 28). Another Lewis's Sc1·~vtape Letters blazed a trail of imaginative port::tayals of the
considerable kne 1e,verend Archdeacon J 0 Lw o regards ~u as Devil in literature. Philosophers such as Kant, Schelling, and
Christian back 0\\ edge o f y oruba culture · · ucas D ·
R . esp1te l1is Schleiermacher, for example, did not lag far behind, what with their
evaluation ofEsugriouh~d and priesthood ceru:· 1ev.erend Lucas 's individual testament to the Devil as the personification of the evil m
Es, , . · · n is book Th R . . •n Y 1nfluen d h. man, the Devil as the principal of freedom in man, and the Devil as the
on . u is entitled ' , , e e/1g1on ofthe Yt . ce is
designation. Luc ~u, the Devil' (1948, 5 I -67) ~rubas, his cl1apter boundary of mankind's self-knowledge (E11cyclopedia Britannica 1910).
whose uni,'ersaJ ~o~~itended that ~u is the sup;e~esupport of th~s The portrayals of the Devil in Talmudic and Biblical traditions
'
malevolence Th. . . p among the Yoruba st power of evil probably have the most bearing on this discussion of E~u in Yoruba
• JS is in spite of the fl ems from fear of h .
act that Lucas ackn 1 is mythology. The term devil in pre-Babylonian, Old Testament Hebraic
ow edged tradition was used only in reference to minor spirit entities, possessing
100
101
 . k way or luring humans to s1n (2 Cor. 6·.
agents, and terrifying 11ostile powers \Vorking within G0 d' . . hts tas or
design and purpose. The de,ril in early Hebraic traditi s •nscnitabt siduous tn 17· 15 and I Cor. 7: 15).
. . . b . on was n t God,"ifatt.
as 6' 13, John . '. d the Devil in many ways. The ear\y
\\rith any dualtstic conception ut u1 tenns of divine . ot see · h s perce1ve . kn the
. d 1. . . fl causat1tt. n \5, ~vJ. criptures t u . d and fourth centuries (a\so own as
P
tl1e Exile, under erstan ua tsttc in uence, later Juda·
ism se
·1. An,..
"' 'f\1e Sf atl1ers of the th1rt to ether al\ the pictur~s fr~m the O\d
e\ril totally from God. Tl1e Satan of Job was clearly de . Paratcd C\1urch f thers), brough g l nd the Apostolic Ep1st\es of the
Ptcted ·
d
Old Testament. He \Vas the a versary and agent provocat tn the pesert ~ the Synoptic Gosp~ sC~uncil at Toledo in AD 447 , the
and re~tless, Satan roan1ed the earth. wit~ the lleav:~~· CYnicat 'feStarnen , rnent. At the Chur~ fi rmu\ated and ratified (Ross,
,.1 w 'festa Christian Dev1l was o
distrusting the goodness of man and testing Jun1; l1e especiatr hosts 1 r,.e t of the
Job ·s fidelity to God, with God's sanction. Sata11 was botli th Y tested conceP D .l the early Church Fathers
eaccu
and the tempter, and be was feared by men for the pain and 8 ffi ~er l ss-90). rrnining the nature of ~he e~~f the Garden of Eden (Gen.
be could mete out (E11c)·clopedia B1·ita11nica, 188-90). u enng Jn dete. observations on t~e er_µ~n d the figurative red Dragon
based thetr of Job Lucifer tn 1sa1a ' a~ b l eVt' cted from heaven,
The Christian concept of Satan as tl1e Evil 011e developed · b' Satan ' ~ t d by M1c ae ,
and pieces in the New Testament. Rambling Old Testanictit id~ its 3), the ions who was de lea e The early Church Fathers
\n Reve~at d for a thousand ye~rs (Rev. 12~. the guise of the Serpent,
devils as \vicked spirits or demonical possessi11g spirits ~of
progressively unified by the time of the Ne\\' Testament \Vfitiiigsere and chat~~hat it was the De~1\ who t~~ the Garden of Eden and
that a comprehensive picture of a single personality, tl1e n;v~~
rea~one dam into disobey1n~ God . the Book of Job, Satan ~as
emerged. The Devil in the Ne\v Testament becan1e the suprenie e\~l
\ur1~g. Ating the Fall of M~nkind. As~ travelled the earth, testing
spirit, the champion of all e\ril spirits and demo11s. He was the
prec1p~t~n close cont~ct w1t~ God ;~e~llian both argued that Sata~,
a\waY ·ng man. Sa1nt Cypnan an h ld's dominions, found tt
arcbenemy of God and humans. He influenced huma11s against God d accus1 d n · e of t e wor d
an d of the Earth an r n~c . blissful state in the Gar . en
possessed human bodies, and afflicted them with pain a11d disease.'' as Lor bl that Adam should live m such a d not from a cyrucal
As Satan, the Devil of the Ne\v Testament acquired new names. into\era ~bus his seduction of Adam ste;meto God but from his
He \Vas Beelzebub, lord of de\rils; the Old Serpent in the Garden of of ~den. f the fidelity and obedien~e of toa; In the Book of Isaiah,
Eden; and the demonic spirit of possession (Luke 11 : 15). He was testing o fAdam as a perfect creation o olt. d being the Day Star,
Appolyon, the de-\\'inged archangel languishing in a bottomless pit . a\ousy o S t was an exa e ' .d
Je L cifer before his fall, a an ho could not tolerate the 1 ea
into \\7hich he \Vas cast after his ejection from heaven (Rev. 11: l l). as u rth' s governance w h (Wheatley
He was Belia! the infidel, another name for the tempting Serpent in the director of the ea ore exalted creature than e
re-Fall Adam was a m
Genesis (2 Cor. 6: 13). The New Testament describes Satan as that P . Church Fathers
presumptuous (Matt. 4: 5-6); proud (I Tim 3: 6); powerful (Eph. 2: 9~ft;~~-~~~d
l phi\oso~hical ":~~~Z !:
deal of 0 caused the Fall
2); \Vi eked (I John 2: 13); deceitful (Eph. 6: 11 ); fierce and cruel 1 ded that whereas indeed it w.as 11 in the day's work for the
(Luke 8: 29, I Pet. 5: 8). Satan's role was that of the tempter who cofnMc:nkind in the Garden of Edhen, iht wF:~:r Origen led the argument
tried to dissuade Jesus from takiJ1g His place on the cross by offering o ' f God C urc h t Adam was
'agent provocateur o . acted out of jealousy t a For
Him the \vealth of the earth and her dominions (Matt. 4: 1ff). He was
that the Devil could not have d. d not feel threatened by Ad~d· d
t11e seducer who lured Judas into betraying Jesus (John 13: 2). As the . b se Satan 1 l cons\ ere
God's creation ecau . d most perfect of ange s,
supreme spirit of evil, Satan was a liar and a murderer (John 8: 44). ·~ the w1sest an
He prowled for weak human prey, delighting in prolonging the anguish Satan as Luc1ter, . H' \at)'
of the faithful; 11e was the natural enemy of humans (I Pet. 5: 8, Rev.
hims~lf superior to Adam. of Lucifer' s rebellion, Saint~ \. fer'~
ln determining the ca~;;d w1th Origen \n denying tbat uc\
2: J 8, Acts 10: 22). Besides being the moral adversary of mankind
Ambrose, and Jerome ag
(Matt. 10: 34, Luke 10: 19, Eph. 4: 27), Satan was the antithesis of
\03
~-
102
 rebellion stenuned fr . --------~------- , of humans, he is also the m~ral ~dve~a.ry of human beings,
G d om Jealousy f
o . Tl1ey belie\1ed tl1at L . o Ada111's er . ,tfcldocer h ir goodness, relentless m hts m1ss1on of leading them
'''asb derived from h'is inordinate
. uc1fer's.d rebellion and eation in tl1e ini . \ .ofdt fetigablY comm1.tte.d to mamtam1ng
cf''ca . . . and spreading evil.
aStr31' ~ comments that EeyU is not like this Devil of the New
th~ e~rthe ~No ~"'nfau
to e at the side of God t b pn e and conceit resultant d ageof
angels'. or to be lord of the wisest and longer 10
130\aJt 1do cc.u' according to !doWU, is more like Satan as the tempter
even higher. He said 'I wi'll ,lSatan/Lucifer da odst perfect Ontent . th~ ,o ld Testament. Both Satan and E~U
'feSta(!ldL~ • are restless,
I ·11b li ' exa t my tl re to . of th
•• • WI
I _Mien the highly res~ect~~1 ~?d,
e ke the mo t H' 1rone ab
(Isa. 14: 13 ~~:)the J~~i~~
aun h'
stars
e o ob .1n beings whose main
f Jdertng
· preoccupation
· 1·s to test human fidelity
wanG~ d (JdoWU \ '
962, 81). Satan, EeyU
, is not an adversary of God but
na~re
p ulosophical fray on the aint Augustine ent . the Old Testament
L~eone of His ministers. The Yoruba God, Q\9run, has a coterie of
Od 10

concep~ Satan/Lucife~c~~=:g ~~~:e? 11:~~­

Jerome, and Origen in a of the Devil and .er.ed the reli .
of the tragic sin of With flllh djutants who help in the overseeing of the human and natural
de1 ~; Just as Satan is a highly placed member of the councils of
later~e;vil, paga1~cb1-~ogma. ·~he
from this early Cluisti D . me. part of the Chu I in Lucifer ry,
w~r vah who metes out retributive justice, so does TuiU belong to the
p~~~~I De~;efs o~~
homed gods, that linked with It
fantastic !echerous satyr, a concepts of the in the !e10r sanctum ofQ\9run's councils while, like a ferocious prosecuting
1 1
~eatle.y
1nnemeY, he wreaks 1usttce 1
. . upon soc1.a and re .1gious. awbreakers.
~he \~ading
horns, wmgs, and a tail uman. part-beast crea evolved _
In what ways can Es . 197 1. 2 11-12) tu re with hoofa myth of Lucifer a rebellion and being driven out of

out of fear of hi~

Cluistian Devil? Certa"u e descnbed as the Yoruba
I mly not as the supreme e ·1 c~t~1valc11t
.
of th
s,
311
heaven is remi~i~cent si~i\ar r~bellion Yo~ba
ofEeyU's in 1:11ythology.
Like Lucifer, Eeyu leads a rebellion against God and is driven out of
· . .. ma evolence as L . v1 sp1nt w h' e
Sllill antJes in the characte . '. ucas maintains· yet tl ors tpped heaven, although he is not, like Lucifer, put away for a thousand
Devil. 1 . nzattons of the Yoruba~.u. andiere the are
Cl many
. . years afterWards. The cause of Lucifer's rebellion is explained
e the Devil Es · . msnan variously as stemming from jealousy of Adam, from resentment at
being to' h~ma
Lik·
supenor u is po,verful because as a spiritual . being asked to worship Adam, or. from the sin of self-conceit and the
a high-ranking d 'ty ns, capable of '"''ielding po e11t1ty 11e is a tragic flaw of inordinate pride. EeyU's reason for causing dissension
E~u is feared be1 working closely ~'ith the yo\Vebr over them. As originates in his disobedience to Ql9run. Envious' of the deity i;,ia•s
tr
oubleshooter
d ·
ecause of his
among de1t1es . . andspecial
. ru a God OJ
m Eduties as a v1.g1·1'a11te . <;>run,d responsibility of looking a~er humankind's fate, Eey\I angrily leads an
insurrection against God. l;.lil plays Saint Michael's role of leading
. oo side because he .
g
influential and powem::;
destiny. Esu w. I
~los;: en. veryone wants t
associate and confidant o on his
e1ty, yn'.mmilii, the dei
~e
. .o another
an
opposing forces ag~inst '
Eeyii, who is vanquished and sent down to
earth. From earth, EsU makes a few more efforts to cause confusion
good fi . ie ds eno11nous power be ty of d1vmation and •

ortune to bad. h cause he can eh but he is defeated each time (Myth 41 ).

Yoruba religion dictates a doctrine of the absolute and unfathomable
. e~ an defer dreams
he can deter bop ' de can mete out punishment fi ange one's
Lik th or wrong doing· goodness of God and the universe. There is no recognition of the
. e e CluistJan De . . • . , existence of absolute evil or a supreme evil spirit in contradiction to
in his
of a co puni h vii, ~u
s ment. He makes the elder! can be cruel d · .
an sad1st1c, especially the infinite goodness of God and the incomprehensible order of the
k' rpse, he causes bosom fii d y ancestor spirit eat the fl h universe. There is no Yoruba word for 'evil' because evil has no
1ng to kill his w·fi
~·b~ sugge~ting en s to fi ght bitter!
t~~:n: ~nves . es
independent reality for the Yoruba. 'Evil' is translated in the Yoruba
~itch-black hi~ ?re~od1ng h~1fe
planning to kill hnr: to the king he a
skin d1.s physical appearance is was version of the Bible as bilisi (.?ug/J9n gbii wa J91v9 billsi 'But
iru1u bi ' trmnuave figure h' b is coarse deliver us from evil'). Bllisi is not a Yoruba word but a Hausa word
mera e facial markin , is ohemian haird d .
In the New T gs generate fear. o, an his from the Arabic lb/is ('Satan'), with the same meaning as the Greek
estament, the Devil is not only th e ' accuser' and
105
104
 u ht and every action is believed by
diaboc~las ('devil ' ~r :evil') (Abraham . l 958, 1OS). , ., . - every tho g . God's Grand Design, even though
bzib111•11 or 0 /11111 b111·11kz1) to ~he Yoruba 1s that wl1ich isEv11 (oh 13veorthtn~o have its p\ace~~d what that place is. But there are
14
bad, unfavourable, or ~ndes1rable. TI1e Yoruba distin .unpleasan~ yoruba t a\ways unders modating the good and the bad,
moral ~vii the e~tl of human. ~uffcring . and~·:~ hetw~ th~ rn~Y .noGod's Order ~or ace: infinite and the corruptible, ~nd
According to theologian James Mb1tt, moral evil in Afri ura1 evil tll\eS \\'lthtn nd the transitory, . dynamism and rejuvenat1on
'pertains to what a man does to his fellow man. There~~ societie~ fll tant a ver-chang1ng
the cons\\ set in motiond an e c
There1ore,
although there are unp\easant or
·1 d 'ty or
laws, regulations and taboo tl1at govern co~duct in society. ~Ustorns, these a \tirnate goo . Es, he is not the supreme ev1 et
of the right conduct amounts to moral evil ' ( 1969, 213). Ybreach for the u elements about .u'. force He is not against human
Moral evil is ~in ~oru.ba c~lture .. The word ~e rncans , . \lodesirab\e. he a totally negat1v~b . g.contrary. He does not ~arm
'crime,' 'fault.' Ql9run m His universe ts tl1e Creator atld F 81n, 1
spirit, nor ~~eir joys for the sake o e e~~n if wants to . His job is ~o
the human and s.piritual body politic. Ql9~11 is tl1e ultimat:t~~c; .o r beings andings at wi\\ , although h e \ect the ori;ii, and flout soc1a\
and the final arbiter of law and order. He ts tl1e legislator of hty hllrn.an. be hose who offe.nd Q\9.run, n ga ainst those who de~y any
and ethical codes. Tl1erefore any unto\vard deed, \Vord, or tl,ou h .1 •nora disc1p\1n~ tcustoms. I-le is part1cu\a~\yha7mony with the deines and
a sin or crime against the corporate body. A11otl1er pl1rasc usgdt ~ \aWS an d d to keep humans m
·fice nee e
· with · the infri'ngen1e11t of ntua · I an d rnoral la''' is ·e· . ,in. 5ac n
connection 'th God.
1 01 ~
meaning, ' to eat the ta b oo. t at ts. to eat t 1e ior 1dde11 food ' 't
• h . ' l c. b. wt ? · h
~-" a Trickster . . . , , is that of Trickster. As w1t
break the la\v,' ' to do the forbidden act' (ldo\vu 1962, i4 9) Is~~ t charactenzat1on of~ d Esu without a
Committing moral e\ril is injurious to oneself a11d otl1er 1ne1nbers of Another fr~quen has been carelessly bes~owe on i· d Trickster
the society. By disrupting tl1e moral fiber of society, moral cvi\ 'De~il,' d:~~~:~on of the extent to w~ic~:t:;:: ~: ~~the ~cient
1
ultimately is an affront to society and an effro11tel)1 to God \Vhict1, if ~rec1se e-old universal character fo~d m t the Ja anese, the Africans,
unredressed, leads to disorder, chaos, and alienation from God's favour is an ~g the Semitic people, th~ Clu~;s~. 195~ ix) . Yet the tenn
and His good graces.
Punishment is a means of restoring order, peace, and harmony to
Gr~et~~ North American Indians It aca~ mean Just about anyth~g:
an. kster' itself is a very loose one. deVl'l a mischievous bemg.
the corporate body. Idowu points out that among tl1e Yoruba, eac}1 'tr1c d a confidence man, a tempter, a ' l b · g
. ther supematura em .
a r:~:st~r can be animal, human, de{u~i~e~ in the f onn of Serpent,
deity punishes ritual and moral offences within his province, each
~ can be eithe: a cultured her~;~en. ls Trickster a dupe or a dud~erl,
ancestor punishes descendants for neglecting familial duties, and 011ly
God judges men purely for their character, for what they are (Ido,vu . Ad m in the Gar en o . human or a go . s
1962, 149). temptin~ a ? Is he a devil or a deity' .a ther the
Therefore, whatever may seem at the time to be bad, unpleasant, champion or a chump. . . g? Do al\ tncksters, whe h
undesirable in short, evil is a necessary element in the long run ~e more sinned agai~st thcan s~e· Dahomean Yo and Le~ba, t ~
erican Indian oyo e, r the Ashant1 Anans1,
for ba1111onious and ordered universe. Natural evils such as disease, North Am . an B r' er Rabbit, the Zande Ture~ ok ters from different
tornadoes, fl oods, famine, and earthquakes are seen as misfortunes Afro-Ame~c l . ks? That is to say, are tnc s
(ibi) in a divinely ordered universe. On the one hand, while witches
· ea tr1c · ?

and social criminals are perpetrators of moral evil, they are also agents
of natural evil when their crimes are seen as retributive justice or part
• d' to Thompson, h l s often vary.
of God's design to punish. When E~u punishes social deviants, his ~ccor ·1~gnt but the protagonists and th e r~~ a clever deceiver to a
action does not stem from an arbitrary malevolence but from his role tncons1s e ' b eficent culture ero
as a disciplinarian. He is propitiated and restitution is sought. is anything from a en
107
106
 . \\y the single similarity of both characters in the 1
stupid numbskull (1951 319 1os .is e ent1a Jung, the famed psychoana\yst, exaggerated when
of
· Trickster's most con'unon -20).
ro1 Jol1n Greenwa
I~ · 55
ref1lllfldenfl
3 · g nature.Jled the Winne bago Tnc · kster ' a creator and a
a misnomer because it im r es, concludes th Y, examin·
a~ 111~ ~e glo"'i~g:~h~:acterization
·

deStJ<l'/~r,
t at most tricksters do no pies a cleverness the term Solli based on Wakdjunkaga' s single occasion

c:~;ta~~~s r:le:e~s mo;telligei.~

characters as dodde . fi t possess. Greenw, Wtt, and i ltic\(st t \ants and flowers for humans and the breaking of a few
~
A~ t~•.ng quat~c~ster reJigioU~ obJ~ant ~U
\vho are subject to who have no of creattflg ts (Radin \ 956, 39-40; see also Jung 1956, 203).

se~uall
a fictional character Trickmbar:assment fro1n point is that the differences between and the
'file t11lP 0rrickster are more numerous than the similarities. Where
~1cally WiO~eb 3~0ht,
vam, unrefined, and ster is flat, stereo . e1r own blues and
Joan Wescott labels Esu y d.epraved (1964
~ ~\J b:\i~h. th~~
stupid ndell. clever, and wise, Wakdjunkaga is witless, blundering,
she claims exist b tw . tnckster-god be ' ff.). , cruel EeyU is nobody's .fool; he fools others more he is
T. e een EsU cause of ' and·15fo Where Wakdjunkaga 1s constantly laughed at and nd1culed,
nckster of Paul Radin, . and U'akcfjunka the simiJ .
fo~\ed.
~u ~e:d ~U
essay on Radin's Ti·· kss study, and the Greek dga, the Win antics pected and feared. 'The Winnebago Trickster is desocialized,
~alleged fK~nts
meanin /IC fer (1956). Th go Hennes o ncbago and unconnected with the world of human beings; is
shared gs of names shared by the Wirn sin1ilariti 15
ostractZ centre
' of life, a vita 1 m
· \ \'nk · · between go ds and
· conunurucat1on
at tie ns 'The Winnebago Trickster is grotesque, pitiful, and revolting
bU~~r i~stance,
1
he defecates on hiroSelf and grovels in his own muck;
p rsonal1ty
h of scout an d restl . Wakd1unkaga
arc etypal 'Shadow, th .
· an d Es'
, ed t)l1a11·1c
ess \vanderer Botl .u share th ;u is not pitiable, is fastidiously clean in his personal habits, and is
53). Radin , , e re1ected frighten in . 1 represcn c
w· b s watershed study f I g unconscious ( 196 t the n~ver the underdog.
In African folklore, animal tricksters are small, weak animals who
tn11e ago's Trickster ur. I. • 0 t 1e North An . 2, 350.
The overall picture
. .is one
' aKdjunkaga.
f I call " iencan
s ior a close . . •an Ind' are usually pitted against larger animals and must resort to using their
possessing a shado o a oosel)' defined und exan1111ation "'its to get out of scrapes for which they are no physical match against
· . '\'Y amorph · ' etenni d ·
th~
mtestlnes and the 1' . . ous silhouette of a b ne figure their adversaries. Ture, the Zande Trickster, for example, is a liar,
Besides being gr:::a e gemtaha are the most clearl ody on which cheat, lecher, and murderer (Evans-Pritchard, l 967: 28). He is vain
unimaginative and esquely. gluttonous and eroti: etch.ed features. and greedy and generally unattractive. His few mitigating qualities
dupes. A deso~ialize~oal~tup1d
and stunted, . , ienated creature he is .
~s
that he is duped m;r:e deceitful,
o en than he
include his perseverance in the face of failure and calamity, and bis
pathetic figure as an underdog. Yet E. E. Evans-Pritchard writes of
fool an i'con w1lth the mentality of a child
' oc
Hph~s1cally u11developed him, 'What Ture does is the opposite of all that is moral; and it is all
ast of d · e is a bi d
un erer and a of us who are Ture. He is really ourselves. Besides the image
values h . .
, e is und1scri · ·
sacre taboos and 0 b.
sexual drives H . nunating and non conform. . .
~ects i~g
Hav·
no ethical convention bids us present, in desire, in feeling, in imagination and
·fiu:~: ~reature rathe/~;a~n
claims~
He is often of instinct his overactive beneath the layer of consciousness we act' as Ture does' ( l 967, 30).
end of th · e and cheated and h · good sense. Now Tortoise. William Bascom is the divine counterpart
e
The diffiJeers and d · · • e
ens1on of others (1956 1 is always t th
a e receiving of Tortoise in Yoruba tales, but Bascom should know better (l969a,
erences between Esu , 32-46) I OS). As the favourite animal trickster in Yoruba folktales, Tortoise
relevant than the 've
That the Winn b ry. sinking parallels indeed~
. : and the Winneba o Tri .
ckster are more possesses his fair share of the obligatory animal trickster traits: the
the name ofth: ago
on th y
T~cks.ter's name, Wak£1'unk that Wesc?tt finds.
Ash~tt animal Trickste h ~ aga, means Spider '
buffoonery, gluttony, and lust; the telling of lies to instigate fights,
the foolishness and the stupidity (Wescott l 962, 344-47). For instance,
e oruba and Es , ( r, as no bea · '
similarities w ·u Wescott, 1962· 351 ) M nng whatsoever Tortoise incites Hippopotamus to a tug of war and dupes Elephant to
symbolism, w~i~~tt :oinbts out between th~m
as een dealt with in an
are .bas 3;;Y of t~e other
.e on their phallic
pull against him (W a\ker and Walker, 196 l, 59-60). With Tortoise
earlier chapter. What
109
108
 nothing is done rn . mode t .
Unhappy that Porcu . ra ron and eve
food in the mann pfrne was feeding him ryT ad~antage . ot tolerate mockery. (Text 22) I
on th e stove and sa .
er o Porcup · b
rne y placing h.
' Ortors · is ab
e tries to Used ~does n , . .
· onstrate that E.?u 1s usually misrepresented as Trickster, let
himself to death (I}'Jtayng s~me magic words· he s1umseJf in a cook~rocur~
H" emi and G ' cceed rn rode~ frequently quoted myth about two friends. This myth is
T rt'~ attempts to be clever fail ~rrey 1953, 67-77) 2 sonfyinhe!t~or . . 1'111ne
OS eXlP"" a rfi I f Es'.u, as a common tnckster
~ ed to as a pe ect examp e o
•

o orse ~ecides to collect all th ecause of l1is bas;~ . rng usuall~ reh ~rrous deity.3 I have found other versions of this myth that
~d hang rt on a tree h e knowledge in t11 stupidity and fJlJSC ie: important info11nation within the plot \vhich the most
tred the calabash m· fr, e has trouble climbing th e World in a ca·f\\!Ji b~ include so~on leaves out. But first, the myth:
l on t of h · W1 e tree b a ash
c~ a ash behind his ba
b '.m. le11 someo11c ecause h ted vers
quo friends made a vow never to quarrel over anything. They shared
gives up his n'dr' l ck to cI1111b tl1e tree 1 suggests "'.1 e has
cu ous rn · · ' 1c real· 'J 0g th !:~ing and were very close. Both men were fanners and were in the
Tortoise is almost al rssron (Itaye111i and G 17cs f1is folly c evei1~--- day each working a different side of the fann \Vhen a man
He is henpecked an;r.s ca~ght in 11is nefariou:rrcy 1953, 92.9~~d field odnbey gre'eting both of them. The friends paused for 1:inch and \Vent
Since Tortoise h~s no ~s ''''fe Yanrfnbo can alw:cts and PU11ishec1. Passe't under ' .
considered an . . ends~ l1e tl1erefore k ys outsmart h' . the shade of a tree. One said to the other, 'Did you see the
to SI b . .
1aJ fi
1ud'rcrous .ticnire antrsoc,... . &Ure. a de,,ia11t fir
eeps to 11·
i111self and .
1rn with the red cap who went y as we were working and said 'hello'?
• o....... • l ortoise ne , . 0111 soc · 1 is :°was nice, wasn't be?' The friend replied, 'I don't know about the man
at and ndiculed (85-86) 'er \\'I11s sympatl1y but . ra norms. A
In · · is al\va wearing a red cap whom you saw; the man I saw was wearing a black
vie''' of these tra 't Ys Jeered ap and I was just about to mention him to you.' The friends argued; the
counterpart of Tortoi~~' !3ascom 's statement that Es , .
superlati\'e character . is hardly persuasive E , .,u is the divine ~gument led to an altercati~n, and soon they were at each other's throats,
ordinary. Where To '.m ~ontrast to Tortoise ~h ~u. Is a complex fighting to kill each other. ~u came by and revealed to them that they
Restless and ene z:o1~e zs slo\v and weak ~ , . o JS common and were both right. He was the man who had passed by wearing a cap: it
than a Trickster Hrgedtrc, ~u roams the earth 'Es , ._u. 1s swift and strong \Vas red on one side and black on the other.
·
survive· Es'. u' has any e oes n o t h a\1
e to play
·
tri. k.
u JS more f
o a tempt · I have heard o~her versions of this myth from~ worshippers that
b c s on p 1 . er give the reason B?u starts trouble between these two friends. In the
them a lesson or to num er of ways of upsettin eop e in order to '
happiness. No put obstacles in their way t g people to teach above version, it would seem that~ simply causes trouble bet\veen
matter that h 1. o success these friends for no other ~eason than he is Trickster. But my
usually for his · . e ies or cheats o ' peace and
0\\.71 cuno r wears a d · · ' inforrnants say this is not so. ~u is tempter, not Trickster; therefore
of a bad situation L us a~u~ement rather tha hi rsgt11se, it is \

feared that no on~ d;ast ~fall is ~u ludicrous Hen. s o11ly way out they always explain why ~u causes dissension between the two men.
so at great persona ~es augh at him. Anyone. w is so respected or The different versions of the myth of two friends in my collection
against jeering at hi! ~sk. One of the songs of~? does laugh does forth.is study (Myths 24 and 251 illustrate quite clearly ~u 's role and
, ,. m. . u warns precisely function as tempter. Although B?u gets obvious pleasure in proving
Qdara is no laughing matter his victims wrong, he does not engage in trickery for amusement
D o not mock th , alone; he also does it to prove philosophical and aesthetic points. His
Do not deride the one E$u abhors levity primary reasons for trying his victims include punishment for
D . e crafty one
o not Jeer at anyth. boastfulness or self-conceit and for defying the cardinal principle
Or sneer at him ing concerning ~u that life, with all its certainties, goes hand in hand \Vith the
Do not ridicule th . . unpredictability of chance and change. So for two friends to boast
e ingenious one
about their friendship is to commit the sin of self-conceit. For t\vo
friends to say their friendship will endure forever was to be
110
1l l
 presumptuous abot1t tomo
1·fj ITO\\' and t
' e; therefore they co111mitted o deny tJ1e Un
personification of flux and b' . an affront a P.redictab·1·
. overlooked tJ bimuta
fiiends'11p . 1l1ty TJ
. 1e two ~ . ga,n , ''"·
sr Es' ,, Of cE-JAPTER 6
1e ess1ng of G •nends . u, lh
k
as ed for their troubles. od tl1rougJ1 Es , \Vho in c
. u and their
sacn~
lll'e ~ Jn The Diaspora
Notes
Introduction . ,
1.Paf!inderJ953, 15-16 25 d . hapter is a survey of the man1festations of ~u worship and
at O ' • Ok ' ' an 28 desc1ib 1
. ~a o 's festival. tl1e dis la e t le considera 15
Th • fc 0 utside of Nigeria in Dahomey, now known as Benin, West
of Ogiyan· and the . ' . ~ y of sexual orga bJe licen bell~ and in the New World, particularly in Brazil. Neither in \Vest
d ' smgmg of l1centi ns or1 the . ce
~rulbedsexual representations during t~~~ so.ngs arid brandis,'~ages A~ca, nor in Brazil have European cultures succeeded entirely m
a an. estivaf of the H'Jl 11ng of A c~ing away the influence of African culture, although
2. A field collection of West A.fr:' r Goddess ~e:~ernization has cut. deep]!' into both areas (B~stide l 97 l, 1;
and a professor emeritus of t~cea~ofolktales by an educatio11 fl rskovits 194 l ). The 1ncurs1on of European \vays m both settings
kno_v,'Il as Legon University. - nner Gold Coast Colle officer eries. In West Africa, Westemization came primarily by \Vay of
3. Vanants of the tale . ge, now ~hristianity and colonization. In Brazil, slavery was the means by
132 and 311 and F~arobe m~nttoned in the following · Ba
en1us 1913, 240-43 . . scorn I969a, wl1ich millions of African peoples were forced to become part of a
foreign society.
Whereas West Africa has managed to maintain its traditional
identity, kinship structures, and language, the descendants of Africans
in the New World have been physically removed from their original
home, alienated from the social and cultural instttutions. African
kinship patterns were suppressed by slavery patterns. Portuguese
replaced the African languages. Yet. in spite of the displacerrtent factor
of slavery, Africanisms still persist in the arts. music, and religion of
Brazil. This survival, especially m the area of religion and belief, is
worthy of a closer look because it portrays the essence and tenactty
of the African \.Vorldview and culture follo\ving exportation to a ne\v
land. Forced to intermingle with people from various cultures. Afro-
Brazilians devised psychological and social mechanisms for retaining
certain aspects of their African worldview and culture that gave them
the will to carry on and survive tmder the regime of slavery (Franklin
1969, 39-41).
'
This chapter will focus on how ~ is represented in the rel1gious
practices and mythology in Brazil and West Africa compared '~ith
Esu in Yoruba folklore. It will be sho\vn that in spite of subtle
~odifications, E~u is still a very alive and complex deity in both
areas. The conceptualization of ~u·s essence as a dynamic pnnciple
112
113
 and h'
is representation as the . .
endured in both tl1e Old and tb;nc1ple of chance or
Bsu.
• in the Nelv World· B .
New World
.
Uncen .
a1n1y h fs Jave
. tn'bution Bahia channelled slaves into the fields
d ts ' . .
es o work the far cns and to render domestic serv1ce and
Th • raz1J
. e sto~ of the slave trade in B .
as cell
8J1 d
tr
P tanta
t'1ons to
I bour on
.
the coast (Ramos 1939, 22; Franklin 1969, 120).
.
'
lines as m ot11er parts of th raz1l went a Ion t anual a . . orders known as candomb/e..'; were founded tn Brazil.
to the discovery of new la e world.: the quest for f~ he sarne cl .
111
rJanY religious highly ritualistic and complex religious cults for the
and the need to find nds, which led to settl rtune of trad ass1c cand~niblesd ar~eration mainly of African deities. They are grouped in
Franklin 1969 men to work the Ian ements on ne e lerj "''P an ve
,vorsi.u known as seitas, w here ntua· l worsh'tp ceremonies · are
gold ore. ti' ' ~2-59; Bastide 1971 l l 9-20d) (~an1os 1939 w land cult cen~es ccording to fixed, traditional fonns. Candombles are also
xo cspicesandotb ' . Fired b ' ls .. 18·
economy, the Portugu er marketable goods to s y the quest fc , con.ducte tr:s where Afro-Brazilians reaffirm their cultural identification.
ese set out t d ' ave th · or
not tum out to be th . . o iscover new fr . e1r totte . social ce~ candomble is, as Pedro McGregor says, 'a closed community,
ho~ed to find. Rath::p;hcee orfcJewel-laden frontier tl1~r1pt1crs. Brazj/~~J In sh~~b ~tself, fully organized hierarchic, obeying no outside authority'
Indian Aft
s.
. . ' Y ound an
er their mitial d' .
.
agranan country .
Ortugu
ese had aW~~ Bastide 1971, 11).
7{.
C Th' e ~re three types of candombles at Bahia. The Gege-Nago
stay to make the land isappointment, tl1e Portu i11l1abited b 19
community led to the tr\vork for .t11em. TI1e fou11di11gug efse decided t~ er y b d' .
adheres closely to the Ewe- oru a tra 1t1on. Members of the
ofAfri I . ansportation of l o an a . domble wear Ewe-Yoruba vestments and observe Yoruba ritual
. ea. t is generally bel. s aves from the grar1an
in the early sixteenth ieved that tl1e firSt slaves arrj c~astaJ areas ca;ctices and religious beliefs. The Congo-Angola candombles
documents to nail down tcentury, altI1ough t11ere are ve sometime p~serve Bantu traditions and languages from East and Central Africa.
slaves were brought regu~e ,exact year. During the next t:o authentic ;e third type, the cabocios, are a melange of the frrst and second
The exact number f ar y across t11e ocean from A . o centuries groups who have ~lso borrow~d from ~e Tu~i Indi~ pa~theon and
slave trade until its aobo~!~''es. transported from the be ~ea. to Brazil: rituals. The caboc1os are very mfo1 rnal m their organization and are
range between four •?on m B~J in 1888 is Unkn ginning .of the resented by members of the other two. Worship and ritual are carried
for the three cen,,,..;and eighteen million for the traffi .owhn. Estimates on in the Portuguese language (Bastide 1971, 83-86; Ramos 1939,
t.UJ. 1es of slav tr d ic m uman b .
Where did the slaves co ~ a e (Ramos 1939 16-20) ' emgs 93-97).
ho me uom? Th ' ·
...... dme~ of the slaves is another d .k e e~act locatio11 of the or· . The Gege-Nago candombles are presided over by the paes de santo,
u a e in the New Wi ar area m the hist ig1na1 the priests and priestesses (babalorl"Cas and iyalorl"Cas). In Brazi.l,
the ethnic and cul orld. !fie slave masters com le ory o~ the slave unlike Africa, the priesthood seems to be dominated by women. Cult
together tural differences of the 1 p tely disregarded life centres around the candombles, where the paes de sa11to live and
or separated the s aves and herd
prominent of the diffe~ m a~ best suited their labo ed them wield absolute power. The priests and priestesses perforn1 a multitude
Yoruba, Fon Ewe ent ethnic groups who came ur needs. Most of functions. They take care of the orisas represented in the temples
h
The Yoruba' D Hausa, Tapa, Mandingo Fulahto Brazil Were the and they clean the temples. They officiate at public ceremonies and
establishing ;nd ah o~ey, and Ewe g ro up's w ' an? Congolese.2 worship . They perfo1 rn all sacred rituals. When a worshipper goes
Tapa and F l . s aping A&o-Braz1l1an . . rel. . er e s1g n 1·ic.·1cant zn
.
into a trance or ecstasy, they claim the possession to be a sign of a
deity manifesting himself through the worshipper. The priest or
Bah1a is considered one of or ~rankJ_m 1969, 123-25 y p ayed priestess of the deity manifested then prescribes and supervises the
appropriate sacrifices. As intern1ediaries between humans and
divination, a means by \Vhich they receive and interpret the \vtshes of
' au o, Pernambuco, and Mara mas Gerais, Rio de the orisas. Some paes de santo also hold the office of cz1randeiro
nhao. As one of the .
J J4 SIX (healers), whereby they diagnose ailments and prescribe cures. Some

115
 rt of Jesus Christ. ~ang6, the deity
. ed the co~nterp~ba tradition, is known as Xan~o,
of tl1em go furtl1er and deal in black magic. Priests and . . coflsider. htning 1n Yo . fro-Brazi\ian mytho\ogy. O~n,
. .
also m1n1ster . congrega t'tons as counsellors Pneste
to tl1e1r .. sses Otofo t~er and \t~a\nt Jerrnon~ ;n ~s Qg\Jn, Saint Anth~ny' .or Samt
sympatl1etic ear to all 1natters of daily existence. Wor~h? Vtng a
1
o:
of wun icbael,, of war and str1 e,oddess of the Niger Rive~ ts kno'.';1
ca11do1nbles is a complicated matter that involves special preplp a~ the s~int Mfl)b3 or•f ()'fa, the Yoruba g In both traditions she IS $1mgo s
· of sacn'fiices, ntua
the offenng · l dances and music, arattons,
· special vesttn we yoe ill srazil.. or Saint B~rbara. 7 635-643; Ramos 1939, 94-97;
and special foods and drinks. 3 ents, oeorg '\as yansa (tlerskov1ts 193 '
Afro-Brazilian religion and worship is an an1algamatio11 of c ill l3~d be\ptna~07). . m is similar in both the Yo~ba
retention and syncretism. In Brazil, Roman Catl1olicism wu tura1
1
to.~~on 197~' ?~f divinati?n and w~~~il'. Ifa is not identiti~d with. a
religion of the slave masters. Social stigma and public disappro~s t~he p1e1fa, tbe ort:Slli\ian tradit1ons. 1n served a\ong the same \mes as ~ts
of African ways quickly created for the slaves a desire to be bapt~ •on Afro'B~~ . n rituals are ~re d' . ing board, she\ls or cha1n,
Conversion. for slaves was th ere1ore
"' ongma
. . 11y a way of seeking sot Zed. · tlll? t '{'be d1v1nat1~ cornp\ete with the. 1Vl~ Nago a Yoruba dialect
. . .
acceptance, rather t11an a re I1gious expenence (M cGregor 1966 c1a\ 47
_ ~:~bac~u?t:J:n ~ers~s .tha~ are r~c~~r~ event~, ira.remains very
51 ). At the beginning of slavery, tl1e Ron1ru1 Catl1ol ic Church did n d tbe d1v1n d ity of divmat1on an . l life (Herskov1ts l 937' 635-
go out of its \Vay to accept black Brazilians into tl1e white fold. At t~t a~rtn· /\S the e tre of religious and soc1a 06-07).
same time, separatist cl1urches were 11ot encouraged. 111 the so-calle~ ~uch at the c~;39, 94-97; Piers~n l ~7~; ~lays as predominant a rol.e
mixed churcl1es, black slaves \Vere segregated. 0111na11y pla11tations 643; Rarnos as Exu in Brazil an . Yoruba worldview. H1s
slaves worshipped standi11g outside the plantation cl1apels and . . · known .. he does tn 'th
~u 1s ilian trad1t1on as . ave been preserved w1
communion was administered to them tl1ere. Slaves could not be in Afr?-Brazracteristics and symb~l1s~ h .es to Brazil identified E~u
priests for the curiously mixed parisl1es. Even when churches were essen.tta~~;fications. The :ar~y ro~~~o;-; whereas this identificatt~n
later built in black communities, they have only recently been pastored ce~a~ devil just as they dtd m A f ~u cults among the y oruba.' m
by black priests. There is no doubt that slaves i11 Brazil in tl1e earlier with t e 'd of by members o . . l f syncretizing African
period had no true sense of identification with their new religio11 .1s d'isapprove .ently comp1ete d the c1rc eyo b~ the identification . ·
(McGregor 1966, 47-51). Thus they fell back almost secretly on a ·1 it conven1 As with the oru ...., .
Braz1 . C tholic personages. . . d 'th the non-believer.
more meaningful faith. \\ ith the religion of the most dominant slave · · with a h ngmate wt
de1ues 'th the devil seems to av~ o nl . the sense of a messenger
1

groups, the Yoruba and the Ewe, supplying the leadership ru1d di1·ection ofExu w1 bl Exu is the devil o y m rrands He is even
(McGregor 1966, 57; Bastide 1971 , 89-95). In the candom ~~fu malevolent and benevolent e runs s~all errands
The influence of Yoruba religious culture is prodigious in Bahia deity :'ho runlsl d a 'slave' because he fre.quent\y sugar and oil, or
and Porto-Alegre. For example, the ten major deities recognized in ettmes ea e · s a little rum, '
som h insianificant remune~tton a . t-black diminutive creature
Afro-Brazilian tradition come directly from the Yoruba and Dahomean for sue o-~ . d ·puon as a )e horns a
pantheons. The Afro-Brazilian pantheon, like its Yoruba cot1nterpart, l' ttle money. Hts escn . \ e stuck-out ears, '
very t d h lf feet ta\\) with red \1ps, arg is reminiscent of
is crowded with deities. As in Yoruba mythology, the exact number (two-an -a- a d ormous eyes o 263·
of deities is not known. They are called orixas, from the Yoruba term ue like a snake's, an en fri beliefs (Landes \ 94 , .
ton g . . from A can
orisa, and retain the essence of their Yoruba attributes, in spite of mythological descn?ttons ·1· n
65) · the Afro-Braz1 1a
their adaptation to a new setting by way of syncretism with Catholic Pierson 1970, 2 ful nd highly revered god 11.1. d humans, be
saints and divinities from the Indian theogony Oxala (also known as Exu is a ?ower a . . ':ink between de1ttes an . \ and
tcatton l • e socta
Orixala and Obatala), is the Yoruba orisa with the same name, Orisa-
nla or Obatala. In both Afro-Brazilian and Yoruba mythologies he is is at the cen ° . d by the Afro- '
considered the father of all deities. In syncretism with Catholic saints, metaphysical order perceive
ll7
116
 . e bearer of prayers and sacrifices, the link between the
hun1an \VOrld is part of I _,,\ f;"11 's th t ' and the heavenly hosts. Prayers and sacrifices
supernatural. Therefore ifl a arger world that
~lso
th~e s~pluctes
_...., o coOo·
\e•· nregah Ithe
00 rnight pave the way for a fnntfu\
. resolution
. of
I•
world, the human , .1uma.ns are not at o in

re<luestsri~ate hurn~n ~e~g i~ be\ie~ed p~ss7s~

disorder. Order an;op:ld IS believed to be with the th b1J1•·
oie ove"3d'. ,pd so ft the
a worshipping
. . congregation.
·
su ace can only b eatened b erna c

~nd r~resentatives wh~~h~nd appeaseme~t vene~~s

pematural forces at all ti e achieved b y eh t\Ji-a1 die \eve\, every to his
on the P £ u the principle of 1nd1v1duahzed life. The 1nd1V1dual
~r ach1~~g
the.ir an a alid
these ends, which .1ngs go sour. Exu is of these ton of r ber"'° 0
;;'s assistance and support to define his or her own

J'c~remomal ~:and. appe~anne\ ~

e beginrung of an
(Ramos 1939, 94;
0depends on nd to reaffirrn his or her place in the human and
. is why he is evok a maJor c orces
ellistence world. The individual Exu is an object of private worship
5upern3::tf~rnages
dialogue with

assure~ tt~eataphpropi:·l ges~es ~o Ex~asthtide ~\

After makin regor 1966 20 36· e spuitu eQ at of him rnaY be carried by religious devotees or
rest ate
e w1 I op
1971 , 7'Vor\d
' e \Vo h' '20) and s:~~ncept
place e personaliz~d.
an altar within their own homes.
of Exu as a companion of individuals
. emselves and the su
ma state of
th
en co1nmunicati
pematural world and w
. rs ippers .
on hnes be can ~ d to speculations about the probability of the existence of many
ba5 e pedro McGregor gives a sample of the variety of Exus ( 1966:
~;~;: becaus~
~
e espacho rite: gives the followin d w.orsh1p . l:{e claims that Exu is considered the orixas' servant
At the beginning of sean . g escnption d rnessenger to human bemgs, each orixa has his own Exu who

~as
anrves as a personal aide. Omulu, the deity of diseases and pestilence,
may not trouble the cult b d~e. sacnfice is made to E
~u the power of life and death and is therefore considered to be the
~ds
1i:ave the room. Exu des/e isrupting the ceremonies so that he
gives to Exu a little va on a female medium Ar!' the faithful supervisor-general of the inferior, personalized Exus. All together
there are at \east fifty Exus, each with his special affiliation and
from disrupting the se:e. o water to salute him and t eiwards she
frantically in the m1'ddl s1ofn. Exu possessit1g her m ko prevent him function. for example, 'Exu Barabo belongs to Xango-Agaju (Saint
d e o the r a es he d peter); Exu Tiriri belongs to Ogun-Megi; Exu Tranca-Rua (road
an throws the container of oom. Then she goes int r ance
gesture in the middl f water. She returns and ko the street blocker) to Oxossi ... Exu Caiver (a skull), an assistant to Qmulu..
11
r tu e o the room E . ma es as· . dominates the Ameberies and all Black Magic worked there, Exu
e m to the room. (1960 290 . xu is despatched Th iml\ar
As messenger of th , -91) . e faithful Marabo speaks slowly, uses words delicately, likes fine drinks and

e~trances
a e gods and th b expensive cigars, and proves very difficult to get rid of, or to handle
re at the crossroads e earer of sacrific
once he takes hold in a 'terrevio'; Exu Airado (The Healer) knows
cour1~r
believes that Exu, and to homes or cult e, Exu's shrines
protective role In ssl role has been subs l1oudses. Bastide the value of herbs and cures as well as kill ... ' (McGregor I 966, I 9 I -
. avery time E ume und .
an champion of th s, xu was regarded er his 93;Juan
Landes 1940, 263-70).
liberator
d of Afri e downtrodden. In mythol as the defender Elbein and Deoscoredes dos Santos have examined the
can slaves d h ogy Exu b
individualized aspect of Exu more fully. To them, Exu Bara is the
de;~te~xten~ed me~t parti~~l~p~~e~sors.
characterization an t e enemy of th . ecame the
one who 'speaks,' who guides and indicates the way of the individual.
,:s. .c~amp1on,
hC: came to be to their His
friend to black slaves e saviour, and: ig t, s.o that Quoting the lfa oracle from the traditional Nago system, they report
oppressors (Bastide j 96~ile ~mpass1onat.e
k11lmg, poisoning, and dri 'lf someone did not have his Esu in his body, he could not exist, he
Exu is also '350-52). vtng mad their would not know that he is alive; therefore everybody must have his
. represented a d .
as the pnncipl f . . . s a ynanuc colle t'
placed in comme o ml d1v1dualized life. As a colcl
una or pubI·
iv~ .
pnnciple 1as well
ective p · ·
individual Esu' (Elbein and dos Santos I 97 I).
To illustrate Exu's origin as the first form of existence, Juan E\bein
ic p1aces: at crossroad . nnc1p e, he is and Deoscoredes M . dos Santos make reference to t\VO myths. ln the
s, ~ marketplaces,
outside homes shrin
, es, and temples. As a des
pacho deity, at the public

118
 first myt/1, only air and water existed at the very begin .
God himself was an infinite mass of air. Then both thening of tilJJe . un l'k
htm t e in Brazil where
, priestesses
.
and water began to move sow l ly until the movement
mass of ai ·
riestesses to. f the outdoors, Legba s !~ages are
metamoiphosed into. a small mound o~ red.dish _rock. Godp~d4ced1 p~:rate. ~ crossroad~,
· . sts and p god primanly o ket places and otherpubhc places.
or As the m;;U has no favourite ritual animal,
gave life to the latente stone by breathing into it. This first (i, 9flln)
B~~:arly l~d
1 proll d outside a ·1 and Nigeria . . Dahomey According to one
human life was Exu. The second myth attests to Exu's sup 0'1li or
pa~c
pJoce ugh in sacred t? him eat wisdom and awareness
character. As a supernatural being, Exu lived first in heavene:atura1 th
4~~3!
p.lthdo g is 1 red because tt show gr f things (Herskovits and
o s sac . th scheme o h
Jll(!~ ;~San! examh~.:V~o
later transposed into the human world through 9mnmila and y e the dog cestors m e hen Legba and two ot er
who gave him birth (Elbein and dos Santos I 971, 21-23). It e 11\ place 42-48). For equally divide a pile of
11
then that in the Afro-Brazilian tradition, Exu has an added si""ifiseellls o ersl<:ovits I aving an argument on it was the dog that came by and
as the first fonn of lrfe.
. It might
. also be constmed that as the0• ea
1 h
ICanee fJ . 'es weretween
de1ll h the three of . ·them,the leftover cowry to the ancestors. h
~s ~s ~opbeld so~~~ value~ ~~us s~bolically
son of Qrunmila, otherwise knoWn as lfa, the relationship bciw::Y wries be . I norm by g1v1ng . home because it eats t e
If3 and Exu that of a father and son, opposed to the prevafe n
~ew ~ti Y~m~a ~ti an~ Wi~
the generally _m helping to
fbe dog 1s a
l ft outs1 e .d for the de1t1es,
.. .
~ti holding a senior partnership in the fiiendsh1p.
among cults of the that !fa are friends,
.Hsu
• in Dahomey ~eliver
acrifices e .fices to the deities.
-~·a:
b the devil in spite of hts

Dahom~yal.
the sacnans do not think of LeJ do both desirable and
~ti
In the West Afiican kingdom of Dahomey, ' is known as Legba. In
The
ambivalent p:.
The idea that ;; iet Afncan religious beliefs.
gs is prevalent in all of esL ba's characterization,
many ways he shares sin1ilar characteristics with the Yoruba Esu
~U.
undesirable
h t tn o diabolical overtones toh eg standards. Whatever
which is not surprising since he derives from the Yomba Among
.'
e are n
I~ . . dged by uman . fi
~·~
' But t er . e all deities, he not JU the credit they are given or
the Fon of Dahomey, Legba is characterized as the youngest son of because might cause is negated by ds there is supernatural
Ma\vu-Lisa, the supreme deity in the Dahomean pantheon. He is , 'l' de1t1es d . · other wor ' . th do
evt . the cosmic or er, Ill · 1 Therefore, the evt ey
inteipreter and messenger between humans and gods. As assistant to uphold1n_g or the necessity of such evt . a s not 1
understood by
J
Mawu-Lisa, he is in a unique position to bear and inteipret Mawu. ·ustificat1on £ hi h is undesirable and perh p 1 ·1 Both Legba
Lisa 's will. Mawu-Lisa 's pleasure is revealed in writing through Fa, · I that w c . d ·1ty of mora eV1 · .
is sunp Y . . are not constdere gut ot man fulfils his
the god of divination, and inteipreted by Legba, tbe linguist between humans. Deines
Es, do uood or evt ·1depending on whether or n
humans and the gods. Since Legba is the only one who speaks Mawu. "'r . us obligations.
Lisa's language,
through him. any messages to Mawu-Lisa must be channelled
and .u
moral and re tgt~ arture between the oru
Y ba EsU and the
. exuality.
The major point of dep b in Legba's alleged gross s I in

~~~phallic characterizati~:;~~ee~o~ba, se~ms th:itc~~~~~

omean Legba seems. to e a found to some extent a so .
A Dahomean origin myth narrates how shortly after the introduction
of Fa, men became so involved with him that they neglected Legba but i.t
(Herskovits l 958, 142-48). Three men, Acljaka, Oku, and Ogbena, Brazil, does not ex1s~:~enced Hersk~v1ts~s a:~~egba
by the \vith
·were sent from Nigeria to point out this neglect ofLegba. They were writers have been so th ake a total identification riestly
Dahomean Legba that ey m Whereas the Fon have a p ruba
, , (especially Wescott 19~6). d . a public festivals, the Yo
also to remind the Fon people that because Legba was the son, brother, Es
and assistant of Mawu-Lisa, sacrifices must be offered to him before .u h mime coitus urm,, . . ot uncommon
any other deity so that Legba would bestow his favour upon humans Legbano class w. o in EsU worship, although tt _is n, the thunder
and reveal their destiny.
have nothing equ1vale?t d d.urino the festival of ~angdo,t think that
· antom1me
o~
b trage o
0
Legba 's worship is simple and universal. There are no cult houses to find coitus p Silng6 adherents would e l times among the
god. But even so, . . d a hallic deity. Festiva
their. det'ty was cons1dere p
120
121
 Yoruba are periods of licence and release & th awu by throwing dirty
. f . ' tri' Th
artx1cty o society s s nge11t nonns. erefore dur· 0111 e repre .
ssion a d worn an to annoy
M wuMmove even further away
1ng rn?st festiva~ wi:~e Th~~sa~nd ~5h8;ve
. an ol . t made a 149-50).
people take to the streets and smg . bawdy songs , n· lld
coos~ater
ired sl<Y· Herskovits 1 done so much to
swap lewd jokes, and make obscene gestures' ~rth Worneri
n:::
ea~fying ~e persona~
at h (J-lerskoVI Herskovitses, wh l'ty and the Dahomean
necessarily has any bearing on the festival itself, but be ecause thi; dish the that of Legba's ba's misconception
taking advantage of the social indulgence that comecaus.e they are
·og o~ shout
celebrations. s With PUhJic
From
l the Herskovitses we gather that Legba 's dancers
Panto~'"Ille Vlew~ctcster de1~~d . Legba s sex . f his more meanm
•1
b:Orld to the detn'?1ent. o between humans and
·
copu atJon. Hi s human representations· · cay
rn 1 usually sport ~ em~h.as~z
5jJTlplY,: are as a link and lmgu1~ith Melville Herskovits
erect penises. In the mythology, Legba is a gross and int 1arge and
being \vho is given to alimentary and sexual excesses. lie ~j~rate li~e o~tujfjcant pos1~~ ~gree
It is difficult t? trickster, for in thesa~e
3od s1gllrnatural wor L. gba is essential y a . man lives secure m
any woman he chooses, and in one myth, he renders all
!mpotent so ~e c~n publicl.i: have the king's daughter. He al11: :
ave
~eri tbesu~: writes~ha\h~ world rul~d D~~~"iate
by laid down for an
mtercourse with his mother-m-law, a scandal for which he was pi ad whekn be states, hint between the 1nexolr.a s the possibility a way out,
wor convt.ction ht aexecut1on
. of the fate ie
outdoors forever (Herskovits 1938, 223-25). aced

iodi~~' 2~~;ngs o.ah.ome~~t ~though peo~le

Melville Herskovits remains the leading ethnographer on Daho tbe. 'dual and t e 30) . the same way that
His two volumes cover almost every aspect of Dahomean life111 ae~ (1938, 2: .to the some
culture; his delineation of Legba shows insight and perception. ~
is.~a= ! miracl~:o~~~ion.
Leg ba is manY h' gs to Christians. k His essential
rejects the misconstruction of Legba as Devil on the basis that the Je:U:gchrist :perstar or. a Although
dualistic or Manichean concept of Legba, as opposed to God, is forei~ see Jesus.C~stian theology is H1~~e~e:limatic prim~
life, His
to Dahomean thought; he reckons that such a misrepresentation function III d'd perform miracles an ~ onsidered the Son of Go
probably
223-25). arose from the trickster aspect of Legba (Herskovits 1938 ' Jesus Christ ' Christians is that He is c the world. In the same

In another work, his collection of eight myths about Legba reveals

.fi ance for
siglll c His life on the cross ~ . order to save Dab mean
d of his place in the . o f hi
who gaveh essence of Legba's bemg an in human1 'ty's fate ' in spite o s
Legba 's alleged trickster qualities. In one myth, the brothers Sagbata way, t e . . b"lity to intervene .
and Hevioso had a quarrel stemming from rivalry between the • pantheon is hl~s. a ~hat are dramatized m myth.
trickster qua itles
Sagbata wanted control of the earth, but Hevioso jealously refused 111to
let rain fall from heaven. In order to relieve the situation on earth
Legba supports Sagbata by starting a conflagration of such proportions'
that even the deities in heaven thought the fire would affect them. Notes date of the arrival of the first
The Creator then decreed that water be sent from heaven, thus 6 20) speculates the five million slaves
I. Ramos (1939'. l - und 1502, and reckons that riod See also
establishing Sagbata 's hegemony on earth (Herskovits and Herskovits slaves to Brazil as ~:mg the entire slave trade pe .
1958, 2: 229-30). Another myth recalls how Legba, resentful that
were transported rankl' 1969 119-20). th e arbitrary
Mawu-Lisa, the Creator, has accused him of every evil act, decided
to tum the tables against Mawu. Legba planted Mawu's footprint in
67 6· F m ' '\into re
Pierson 19 ' 6-20) divides the slaves to Brazi s His classifica~on
2. Ramos
gr oups:( 193 9' l Muslim, and Bantu group . Id be Muslim,
his own garden to imply that Mawu stole yams from himself. Mawu the Sudanese, . Sudanese group cou
felt so humiliated. At that time, the earth was not far from heaven . distincnve as a
and Legba, still irritated that Mawu reproached his every fault,' is particularly un . to have given the
and vice-versa. The French are believed
3. Bastide (1971, 93-97).
122
123
 name Nagos to the Yoruba and ' t 1
l ·
11 1
\V c l Afro-Brazilians are Jo
t 1as ·
since becorn
tl1ey speak and use in reli~ow11 a11d also for the~ a nicknani
l 966, 31. o·ous ceremonies. S oruba Ian eby cllAprER 7
ee also ~ IDlagc
CGre
&or al Conclusions
Gener
selection of ~u as .t~e su.bject for. examination ~n .this study stems
fhe y deep and ab1d1ng interest m Yoruba religious beliefs and
fr0 t11 m 1t was an easy choice because from my research into Yoruba
folk1ore. · h d '
ythology, no folk.lone c aracter stan .s .out more than ~u. No Yoruba
111 . culture hero, ancestor, or sp1r1t force is more vivid, more
detl ty,rful more complex, more subtle, and more philosophically and
co ou ' . ' '
thetically pleasmg than ~u.
aesNo Yoruba or1.:i:r · more graph'tea11y and more frequently depicted
' ' ' is
. iconography or more enchantingly dramatized in narrative and song.
~o Yoruba folkloric cha.racte~ is more lyrically, imaginatively, and
symbolically characte~tzed tn pros: and. poetry and no deity
intellectualizes, ge~eral1~es, and part1culanzes Yoruba belief and
folklore better than ~u. ~u is the root, the centre, and the backbone
of Yoruba belief and folklore. Yet he is the most often misrepresented,
most often misconstrued, and most often misinterpreted. For all the
fascination he holds for ethnographers, art hi storians, and
anthropologists, the misconception persists that he is Trickster, Devil,
phallic god. ,
This study is an attempt to divest ~u of these misconceptions by
surveying the folklore around him, by demonstrating the beauty,
literacy, and philosophy of Yoruba belief in him, and most important,
'
by restoring to ~u his true place and function in Yoruba mythology.
'
This study sh<?ws quite clearly that E~ is not Trickster phallic god,
7

or Devil, but ~u the Yoruba god of chance and uncertainty.

'
Misinterpretations of~u derive from ethnocentric biases and close-
minded prejudgement of Yoruba culture, and from a subjective
evaluation or unsystematic analysis of Yoruba mythology. For how
else can B?u '
be equated with Trickster, Devil, and phallic god, given
his attributes of intelligence, sexuality, power, unpredictability, and
divinity, and his major roles as deity and guardian-protector? It is my
thesis that most interpretations of~u have played down these essential
aspects in favour of exaggerating his secondary and minor roles: How
else can Joan Wescott take all the pointers in her analysis of 1¥1 as
124
125
 . .....bodY ideas or ideals that render the cosmos inte\lio;blc
tncdiator
. . bct\vecn hum ans an d god tJiC eittes ble.e... Gods persont.fy many s1gn1t1cant
. . c: aspects of human
b"

~nd
antithesis to Ifa, god of fate k s, agent provoc t
conclude that Esu is a T' . ekseper oftl1e peace, law-abeur, mess~ aJ!ddbe3r3 'fheY provide a source and meaning to ritual, they capture
~ p a lus? (Wescott 1962).
ts th h I . nc ter-god h reake ""l'Rer eitis~eoc~ake sense of nature, and give meaning to life. They giVe
~.
w ose most impo r, Parado •

G;::~m1lar
It is my conclusion that ifEsil . . . Ttant 8Ytn fC91ttY• he cosmos, set values, and provide a moral code.
foflll tot urveY of Yoruba ethnography and especially from Yoruba
and rituals, it is possible to assess~ as a deity. E.su
at all, he is most similar to the. to any mytholo . bot
&o~ '.'"?1113cults
5
~u
messenger god in Greek mythol J:Iennes. Like g1ca1 fi&ur

re~pec~~~:· Go~. g~'.

between for humans de. . ogy, is an erran Hennes t e ,.
.-P.\1g1on, nts a \Ink. between humans and the sp1ntual .. world where.
frequently in their ;nd Both god: ;od, the' represe the Ultimate, 1s · supreme. Es ' .u
' embod'1es the pathway through

because they are associate. d with. al ythologtes than most oth PPear rn ore . " h humans may stnve
otof\ln, . to come as c\ose as they can to the Ultimate.
whtCf.ttforcer, ~ii
.
ts regarded, as a d'tvme . wayfare most d everyone · L'k 1 eH
er deit'tes , represents the motivation
· · that keeps humans on the

h~mes i~ th~~~~ 'ate~~nd o~

the roads, Esil lives o td r, go of the countrys.d ennes, Wh A5 . ght and narrow path. As the personification of ideals and
and cities. He at the crossroads, and god rinciples, Ei/U
strat , , rendersthe y oruba cosmos .m mythological narrative
~~e Hennes, who is god
. u wears necklaces of mone
ofthec::r~n~ ~ane of travellers an~a~c~s
e p .ace and patron of c v1s1tors.
to Pmo'fbis study has attempted to show that the essence of~
re graphic and more concrete.
. lies in the
at markets and at an y around hts neck and is I ommerce dyttamism of impermanence and change. He is the embodiment of
d Yopen place wh a ways •
an .. Hennes are considered th I ere people congregate Bpres.ent the principle of chance an4 uncertainty. It is primarily on this religious-
de1aes · ·in their respectt've mytholo e c· everestd and most precoci . oth Esu · philosophical basis that ~U ,be~on?s in the Yoruba pantheon. The
ece1VIng nomads B 'd . gies an both are restle ous of y 0ruba say that each person s hfe 1s to some extent predetermined.
d 'd . est es their spe d ss, energ .
God, through Qrunmila or Ifa, the deity of divination, is the Determiner
d1g~~ce,
gu1 e and guard both e , energy and intelr etic,
wooden clubs :xude avelrt evil and bestow good Both both of Destiny (Eleri Ipin). According to Bolaji Idowu, human beings
· . '
m the1r emblems by the phallus (~u~
ma e sexual'ty d
are sometimes
·
repres~~~
e1t1es
obtain their destiny either by choosing it, by accepting what is chosen
for them or having their destiny thrust upon them. In a pre-natal state,
Ii . The key to compreh d'
en mg and a e 1950,
. . • 87-94) . ed
es m never losing sight of the .pprec1~ti.ng ~ii in Yoruba folk unborn persons kneel before God to receive their destiny, whichever
Yoruba culture and that Es. twm. prov1s1ons that Esil is a d . lo:e one of the three types, after which they are then horn. As they make
fot 01 of. myth'Jc expression.·uOnce narratives
th in y b ·
. oi:u a folklore take the eity m their entrance into the world, their fate becomes sealed, but they do
everythmg falls into place. For Esil ;se pnnc1ples are understood not recall the contents of their destiny (1962, 74).
pantheon because he is mischiev . ~e~?ot belong in the y orub • In this way do the Yoruba believe in destiny, but they do not believe
in unalterable destiny or immovable fate. Yoruba philosophy and
dcommand respect
~ii, because he ous, · 11b1dmous ' or evil, nor can ha
1 worldview hold that human life is a complex of predestined and
~revered ~~I't;~~~o? becau~e and~~
. emanding. is in the Yorn is crue , sexually depraved e
and worshipped as a he is deity, accidental elements. Human destiny, which is chosen, accepted, or
actor ~at the y oruba never lo .. s is a crucial, basic, under! in inflicted upon one before birth and forgotten at birth, can be
personify him with sha .se sight of, no matter how th y g ascertained and verified through consultation wi.th the Ifa divination
first d fi pe, emotions and acf . ey may
hwn:ze o:emost, no matter the l~titude t~~~~· !'f e is a.lways a deity
system. Qrunmila or Ifa guides the destinies of gods and humans,
him F him, n~ ma.tter the lyricism ofth I
knows all the secrets of humankind's being and, according to ldo\VU,
in stones woven to
Ifa not only knows what is pre-determined, but can also foretell the
~s idea~e~dmg
. or as a deity EsU i . e anguage used con .
principle, and as s;ch .he e!1sent1ally an abstraction, an future and recommend actions to take. Ifft is the advocate or witness
The bas· ways present ' n a of destiny. He is also the 'great changer,' the one who can alter the
tc reasons for go ds m · soc1et1es. . such · as th e y oruba is . that
l27
126
 d' fnguisbes seven types of sacrifice among the Yoruba
future and its outcome (ldowu 1962 1do""1 ~~ 1 g.25). Food offerings and ritual libations demonstrate
But .free \\'ill a11d acct'd ent al ' 77). . ~do\\111 ? 'and
1 11 fellowship between deity and devotees. Thank
ha~~~nd~~ wit~~!1
predestined a l1uman b . so exist. Altho
~
cof1lfllun 100e gt'f\S offered in gratitude or appreciation of success
o~e !ed hands:~
wait for the' future to not sit still hurnan Hr. .
. aror divine favour. V ottve
jfefl.ngs . ouenngs. are .111 supplication for'
0entei:Pfl;:~ours. propitiative sacrifice is for appeasement, to ward off
or suppose one is afflicted witl1 :pdolse llllwisely
e Yoruba sa 'O , a uck m that ose a b nd
special tb of the deities and of Go~. Sustentative _sacrifice is similar
, y, . ivp p1i ni aft 0 tzin " ,
~an ara eni , tne? 11i
'It . .
th prenatal ti ad 101
ts m one s hands to h
by individual effort i~d ange one's lot., Chang~s a,'£, Which me en ~e ::Cept to the Lamb of G~d tak1n~ away the ~ms of the world in
accident. And tl11's . , h ustry, and will, as well re brought abans1 1n c Christian faith . Preventive sacnfice 1s _designed to ward off
eleme~ts ~~~-~s th~ f ....,, e disaster, and danger, generating protection of the
f: ts w ere EsU . as by h ou
e~tiny.
date: He represents the 1 m. He is the co: tnce and
ior by ~ o
e not accounted e: P ernent t '" O•unity.
..,IS •- 0 ' 'fhere is also the sacnfice
· of the earth. B?U
' is the father
EsU · .
studYce.attempts to d~monstrate that the essence of the deity
. !snot the antithesis to Ifii n . . ate or coJllJ11 .fi
t~at !fa represents. With the thr or is he I~ opposition tot .
~w ~fthe
'fhissacn
fall
tnes to ascertain what is and dice, the Ifll divin :e Pnnciplc
0
~ii as Enforcer, the embocl;i~ent of chance, and_father of sacrifice is
necessity controlling all' th' w atl is to come from fate 'tla
whi h ll 111gs t 1e ab I .
~11 system
' 1e tnc .
b~rne ut by the folklore. B?u narratives have simple themes, which
c a men are subject' (Ha '. so utely mscrutable Vllabic . chide0 heroic quests, tasks, and adventures filled with tension,
I stings 1921). The Ifll divin ti power to ~ostility,
i~n:red o~
contains a series oft dispu!es, friendship, love, and magical or fantaStic deeds.

~
representing a permuta:Oo
problems and gt've sol
· · uuons In th ·
IS ID store: for them and what.
communicates the will f G
'.111d the Yoruba seek ans°we o and
fifty-six figures : system Nevertheless, B?il myths go beyond simple storytelling to depict a
n \Vtt verses that deal with ' ac 1 figure natural and social order in which fate and destiny are counterbalanced
a probl
a~tions
. is way, the y oruba ascert . em or by chance and uncertainty, where moral evil is punished, and where
they should take. In tl . a1n What
th~ Ori,ii, the ministe~; way, !fa
observance of the religious order is demanded.
Last but not the \east, B?il
' myths reaffinn and reiterate his place,

~pects
important decisions on all rs to troubling questions and guid of God, role, and function as deity. The narratives are not too dramatic, too
yet, in as m h of human life. ance for entertaining, and too absurd to overshadow E~U's ~\ace as a
. . uc as there is no .b. . fundamental and abstract paradox. In spite of the appeal of B?il stories,
d el~ment
tv1ners throws the· d'
;~:t p_artic_ul~r
poss1 ility of knowin b fl
m:yo~~cthe
t~
thC: of chan::: : : combinationg their reflections on life and its meanings endure. No matter bow
pnnc1ple of certainty I rtamty introduced. Thus If:' ur, harshly B?U
' is depicted, no matter how many women he seduces, no
uncerta. . , comp ements Esu a d a, as the
a~d If~
tnty m the certainty of the thr . s or ered chance th matter how extreme he is in punishing social and religious deviants,
are complementary, not opposin o ow ?fthC: dice. Thus Esu his symbolic truth lies in who he is.
~gy
they are represented in myth l g r antithetical forces. That is This study is the outcome of an analysis and evaluation of a
It should also be bo . o as two close friends why collection of B?U
' traditions in narrative and
' poetry forms; the orild
'
sacrifice In Ii . me ID rrund that the deity Es , · · and the song texts describe and eulogize B?U. Tue oriki portray B?U
sacrific . thr a re gion such as theyoruba, s h. h :u is an enforcer of
e ough communion or . , w tc ts based on kinshi with poetic eloquence, in tum exalting him with glowing, exaggerated
because it re-establ' h ntual feast is of prim . p, epithets and satirizing his peculiarities and absurdities. I¥i's epithets
enhances th is es and reaffirms the famil e importance engagingly humanize him, while at the same time they retain a sense
affi1 . e bond between human bein
matton of the social and r l" .
y of God. Sacrifice
gs and the sacred It . of the deity in the anthropomorphization. The language of folk~U
of the status e tgtous order It is an . is an poetry gives him shape and meaning thus generating and sustaining
of the . quo of the deities and their
society and its continuation.
fu f acknowledgement
nc tons. It is a recognition interest in him. The content of i¥i folk poetry is an exploration of

\29
128
 tJtl1e relatio11sl1ip
· between l1u1nan b ·
1at is punctuated . h e111gs and tl
;r:un nd ~ purpose for being anx1ettes and ho' :n explora.
hu ki ' \Vil human . . 1e gods
Baderlnwa Esubiinmi
•
. . provides enonnous i . . . P s cone t10Q Late sixties
deity because he is th magmative conce erniQ nt· }'larne:
3 Trader
God and h e messenger of th ptual irnpr . g lJlfoffll · p...ge:
urnans between ord e gods, the . icat1ons profession: Moslem/traditionalist
and death, fate and accide er .and chaos, sin a mediator be as a
then, that Esu in myth knnt, certainty and uncert . nd punishrn tweei, Religion: lle-Olun\oyo, Tuadan,
t~at .ows no master, that 1i:1?ty· It is no:~ place : Nigeria
~1ale r~:der,
he is tali and sho life
lives at the crossroadrts'• kind and cruel, an elderly idsetty 0 fanctYouth•11aJ e,
Who
1.
' , , ., ,,
Ajibik~, owuru Ja s ogun
ise\e; afa ja b'oriin bi eniyan
E,\ett gb6fo, gb' aroye.
A bi etii lu ka bi ajere.
5 0 sQrQ ranaa. 0 ~ l?nli
sang6 o gb<?d<? pe t'~u o si i.
i)QpQnna ogtJ<?dQ p~ t'~ o sii
<)sun o gb<?d<? pe t'~u o sii
10 Ifa o gb9dq pe t'~u o sii.
Yangi ki yangi.
Gboongbo ki gbongbo.
Ajib6ke owuru ja s' 6gun
isele; afaja boron bi enlyan
15 ~uni
' babalawo gbeboo. . . run
Esu •
mase•
mi 0
Ajibfk.¥. ma ~e mi o
Esu
'
•
mase •
mi o
Mo rubo• Esu o
20 J;,ni ti on ~en b9 l'qna, ~
•

Iwaju ni o maa gbe

Oluware• lo ma se •
mi
Ma
' . oroo
se . mi
. . . enu
Ibosi agb6 o
25 Amele 'mero
Nigba ti o'mero tan
0 run lo• mele se.
•

131
130
 Ajibik# , ' Jealously seetl1i11g .
A Happening2.' Carr1er . of a dointo war. ii gbe'yaa ~ niyaw6,
611
W· n\abi ntanna kale kee,
0 ne wl1ose ears are perforate g upon J1is shoulde . Jaflgu . ,,
He spoke yesterday it c d all over like a . r ltke a b'llL v;bn ieee tir11,
5 s' 4
. ang6 dares not d
' omes to pa
c_ , . ss today.
sieve J
·
<tU"
,,
i6un wOb6~. _ok6, tii w9le 16b0 Obinrln ni .
11
o s etl:y .c.:>ll s ex1sten 15 6 -'''ee aroko n•J9 yb9 le,
. ya dares not deny EsU, . ce. a~l\. , f: , ,. ,
~un6 dares not den ,· , ~ ex1~tence. ~, 16 fokO ~a ara 01J9U0
Ifli' dares not deny ls~u s ~x1stence.
N. ugbogbO er6 iilQ, I' ero n\J9,
I 0 Awesome Iaterit rs . s existence
L~k6o L{ltop3 b3 k3n pQniln sinil omi.
F e. J(llkll k'~u 6 rnaa k~rU 16dO,
earsome rootf9 20 ok6 n' Latopa nwa kanu omi
AJ"fbik'~' ' Jealously
. seething . t ' , ,
An Event· c · tn o war £?U. ma ~e ,m1. .
Es, ' am er of a dog like a b . ...
Orn<? ylorntran n1 o ~e.
15 D . u, to whom priests offer sacrifi aby upon his should . t;u lo ~al3gb3il 16 jOkil QtnQ eegiln ni fin k6w6 kiri,
o not undo me ce, e1. • ,,
Qdun pee e e,
Aj1bikee
' · ·'
do not. harm me 25
odunj99 9,
~u, do not hann me . f:mi giglin, O 6 ~amqdun-ful
i~ffer here, ~U sacrifice. •
odun 6 k<?dun lqna o .
2 e man who has not'o is c . •
0 Move him ahead of me ommg on l1is way, Esu Dissimulator11 who hides at heaven's gate!
Akin~nwa, 12 a creature called Latopat14
13
Do not undo me . .
Stalwart supplier of whips to fighters. 5
Do not confuse the words of m Lingerer by the pounded yam-seller who does not buy,'
Help me' sacrifi c1a . 1 1ambl Y mouth
5 Loiterer by the yam-flour seller who does not buy,
He who can b h .
25 Aft h . e arsh or gentle Akind~hlnde 16 who stands by fighters
er e is gentle
In order to aggravate the fight.
Then, he is harsh.
Little father, 17 a fairy called Latopal
2. As he strolls among peanut plants
Ele,ebo, bani-bode-16run l 0 The back of his head is only slightly visible. 18
0~n~nwa ;., L~atopa They say, ' There but for that Father is so talll'
d, , . . ti IJe
ebora
, uro toniyan mas'·,, ' He climbs the hearth to salt the soup
Q d, , .1 JI,
5 Aki du:ho 'talamala ma ra, While his mother was being wed
n ~ inde dur6 to ,. , Born warrior roams the house with a lamp.
K , 1' b , n1Ja
? e aa ru gege. 15 Tuey ask, 'How come?'
He says, to see how the penis penetrates the vagina\1
9
Bakee ebora tt' 1,. , L ,
N : ·, ·, J~ atopa
Little father, farm-bound on difficult sacrificial days.
, 19 nmu epa
Ipak(> ~ nh~n fii fii ~u
' made a bridge of his penis the other day.
10 '1v,v''0'. D 1'O~lo~ , ' , Travellers went to and fro on it.
0 gb ; , ._ : : ~ gt ga t1 baba ga ni 20 Latopa' s penis breaks suddenly and falls in the water.
on aaro buyo-6b'
. . y, '

132 133
 Ratl1er tl1an salvage pro
~atopa busily searcl1es fo~(. out of tl1e Water duo pee ee,
~u, please do not undo lJS penis in the W;t 0 . 0
odunJ99.
Undo me. er.
, somebody else's child ~rni gig\ln,
25 ~u makes Alagbaa20 eat a corpse . 21 h . 6 sarn<?dtin-un,
n money·22 ' ence Alagbaaa 1 gdu~ 6kqdun lqna o o.
le yearly festival is come. Ooks for 30 . 23
' worthY of worship like Fate1
'I
The yearly festival is up ~u.rnother's husband!
Long life to us. · d h' 1
owner of a gol en w 1p.
1v1Y

30 May we 1·tve to see more festiv I consumer of sacrifice to save mankind!

As the years roll in and out. a s, 5 As stealthy as a tale-bearer.
3. Little father, only the rich can afford sacrifice.
'
Es''u. put money in my bands.
• I shall worship you, my mother's husband!
A t66 bg bf ori,
Qkg iyaa mi. 10 Little man124
o .ni jclnm<)an \vtrra, Deity of yout~s 1
5 AJ~h<? Iaayan. Who should ~u defend
Fo' fi'o b.I olof06f66
· oko nfd', , If not I?
Bak, , , 11 oro Support me, and l shall worship you.
ee, o1O\VO nii mebo • 15 Tenacious solver of problems, my mother's husband!
Fow6 sf mi 16\v6 . . ' My master, it is the rich who know how to sacrifice.
N 6 sin g oko. iy~ ·
10 K6nk6to 0 · · mi.
My mother's energetic husband!
.O~a eweee
' Procurer of whips for fighters
, . ' Your handling of sacrifice makes one doubt your fairness.
BI a Se mi
• •
Gbe mi n 6 sin 6 0 20 Do not fight with me!
LO , . I have no money for sacrifice in my house
B .o~ to t'granyan, oko iyaa . Akind~hlnde, my mother's husband!
15 aale ~ni o16w6 nii mebo. nu.
Oko Elder: early riser to drink palm oil.
. . o. yaa, , InJ· ta-biri-gbOn
· · · bo , ,
He is no friend of the user of palm kernel oil.
25
26
A-b6nfia-w , '--'--
a-Aw1mo . · g . n, nle
, 'J 25 But, to the palm oil seller, he's close like two \eopards.
~owo teeb6 ni beleb6 0 .' , '
Climber of the hearth to salt the stew!
M6 ba n'··
Ja, Jape o seboo
· · . . re. ,
The yearly festival is here.
20 No J6w6 ~bg file.
The yearly festival is up .
Akfnd~hinde oko iyaa .
Baale ajimup~ · nu, Long life to us.
K 0' baladii sore' 30 Greetings at your festival!
9gidenjobf ~Je.p' 0 nf , b,, As the years roll by\
25 o b , , , , n aa se,
g or1 aaro buyos6be
. . .' .

134 135
 4.
'
~u ~I~ o, rnii re, .
6 00
Laar~ye, atn~ly a1nero · o ol<C? l<a rru,
~tl . ·u ogiri nl n r6,
AJekUni Iega, AO J>J6 k~ tli das<? bodi lm~\~
Alega Je kUru ~b~l«? Arn<?k? k? o d0W bOdii mi,
5 9 gori aaro b~yo 6be ~ O,u ~e n gbe k1_<? ,
9 ta p6ti ti se · · ·
o o\abi oj{gan ~6?~~·
9 nka k~~n~: 45 0 16w6 orl A~<?k~ oo;, .
~ ~ 1,9 n inu ~pa, c·wo odun m o ya waaJy·
Ipak9 ~ nhan fiifii pe ..
• Es
' ' 1
1O Balubode 16run ' felicitations, .u.
9p~J9p~ gfga tcS 0 a Laar6ye, one who can be good or bad
0 gon' aaro '' , gboru g ' o ne who can be short or tall,
0· P~' .J9~, oko esin 't
. . o o pa o ne who can be tall or short.
0 m ga nga moo ga o ne who bas to climb the hearth to salt the stew,
27
I '
5 Qp~I~ ga di~ jaamu ' 5 J:le stands on a stool in order to pluck ketenfe.
Baale, mi Walking through a peanut farm
, ga d 1,,~ JU . nkan lo
Atakoro wonu ' d , .. His head hardly shows.
An' . a o
, ikan dorni ado ~e 10 Heaven's revered gatemanl
0 fow6 ,·, , ., ·' But for your height (you' d be invisib\el)
20 0 , . , : meJeeJi stinmu sf
. ga la a n pe: · He climbs the hearth to reach the pot
ni 6 :sebo
E. bo t 1' 0, But for the horse fatm you plowed (you' d be thought weak.')
: 'd. pe Gbirariii
E. . re. 11 a'' ' Stand tall, you said; and I stood tall.
Gbirari mo ke pe , , , 15 A frog is slightly higher than the lizard
Qkllnrin ona gbe~ r' My master (also) is slightly taller than something\
25 Qga 9m9 Onidc':r~ . iwa na {>run koko
Short, diminutive man
Idere, la ti waa 5e, 1',u, Tiny, little man.
S0 m1-adi kllrllku. ruru, He uses both tiny hands to sniffie1
etete
'R ·
gb6ngb
, , 0, ,,
rui gba bodo fee 20 We call him master
unm9J~ agbalagba' , , , gun He who sacrifices without inviting the manumittef!'
30
Pak , k , oosaa
9 9 nif gba oode ,· Will find his sacrifice unacceptable.
Olu'a' mi• nikan
,
n ''• b'oro, , . Manumitter, I call on you.
Dudu a boko Ien~ gd~ bode n1 Panupanu Man by the roadside, bear our sacrifice to heaven directly
18.kU . 0 J, ' 9
' n ewura soda 25 Master, and son of the owner of Idere2
Igb in
' o' larapfn ba-nm ' '
' d' Who came from Ide re to found the town,
35 Ad ' bu' ahun m , · o t
- un The son of the energetic small fellow
A 'k ' , UJ~, The little man who cleans the gates for the masquerade.
' ~~1 ' an da omi ado we
Itele 1dii mi gbo ·' Elderly spirit deity1

136
137
 30 0 11ly a victi111 enters by tl1e gate\vay of OroJo
My rnaster alone comes by tl1e gateway in tlie . , pa ' bode fee>. ba\agba orl~a
Cut me the stems of the loveliest yams 0
Utskins Oft
en• tl ·ru'nrno\~, (lg '
\5 · egUO l . 'bode orO
A snail cannot be shared, bring me w11 ~1e
.
.
sna11s
°Wn. ~aicokQ ni ~P~~an nii. ipabQde
For the slaughter of tortoise for consumptio ' oiuwaa tn• ~'-gun dudu
. jagunJa
35 One who bathes with water from the tiniest cn, t . fllf~baewtira asogba
My underwear is old. on ainer. JakiU1 , , e .
I am dumbfounded. zO Jgbill .a:;~ adu~b~ a~unmJ~
My husband 31 is in fu ll contro l of me. aa~ orni ado w~
I modestly tie my 1oinclotl1 facing tt1c wall. ,An\ka~ d~ won ahun j6ko6
40 One ~ho wraps even the lazy ones with clotl1cs (Jonlkan _a i'· waa mi
, o'rnt o u
Be Am{>k~'s husband, wrap my behind wit11 cloth 2s o16w~ ,d~nd6g6
32

That is why I sing your praise. es. 0 1001 an1 , ' ,

061abi, mighty at medicine. 0 f odan we n ' '
' f' ~ dan da ~okoto
An1Qk~'s master, 33 ~ . , fi aa bante o
9
f,sU tun ;•
45 Come and eat the festival-e\vo. . , labi ojigan \oogun
0 owo ' l' ,
3 Gbagburu nile 9 <?_t~
Info1111ant: Name: Mutiu Adeleke A koo ' nu aho Y9JU
Age: Forty-ish . ako soo bi aparo
Profession: S tp . d'' ' t '
Trader Soro di~ wa oo 9
Religion: Is Iam/traditionalist 35 Atakltl po la , .,
Place : Ile-Olun l9y9, Ibadan, Ab'omi s'~nu ~'n~,JO .
Nigeria Won , se tan WOil nl \Va 0d1 0 gun
' · , ,
5. Afcinfemiwa, ol6ruk9 l'~P<? .
G~~ ni n 6 maa t'agb6 l~hin, G~~ o. Esu ~on se tan, isron n1'wa od1 o
A da 'ni ma gbagbe o .6n ni gbogbo Qy(_>mesl-m,el~ o,
W , \o tun wa
~b~~ ni n 6 maa t'agb6 I~hin, gb~~ o. 40 ,
Akind~hl11de ,,v9n ni ~ · '
~u, Kii n ma baa jiya
Iwa ti o bane ,
5 Kii n ma baa s'oro
• Oluwaa m1 ji 6 sl tun n ~e
Kii
, n ma baa ri idaamu Onile, ql(_>na t1 n}~~c) ososo
Begun 'bile wiln mi
Nimon see r'6so l'ehin re 45 M(_>gaji, onile qlqn~ , kiri
• • • • • Ti n tq 1gboro ow~ ~b~
Gb~~ g~~ g~~- Owolabi, ojingan .~0 ~
1o Nin 6 maa t'agba l~hln ~- lkU debi ol6w6 nu m ~b<?
9ga 9m9 onidere Takutambalaya
Idere la ti wa se 'lu
• 50 Aya lo fi ngbe ogbo
01no
• •
ak6w6
• •
adikukururu . . , ni fii gba agada
Ey1njU :l,,', d,
~~k~t~ g!J9ng!J9n Oblriiti, aji p'qj(_> ~u a
139
138
 '
~u
K ., ,.,a p'o1o ikU omo da
.'J • its on the tortoise she\\.
55 ?J\lffi\l na gbongb~n J-l 3 \one S
e \ord, rnY roaster\
Nt mo n ~ee ke si o
Ko ina ma J·e. nu· ntya
: , z5 MY of substance
K Man h d in a turban of the grassy plain,
ma maj~ n ~oro
0 swat . eg trousers made of the grassy plains,
Ko ma ma J·e. n n'da'amu
, , w~~g loin cloth made of grass.
0 ~e 9k9 Amokee wealu• d'
\abi master me 1cmeman.
60 Ni ,mo ~en ro.. le°t~'
. m re 6 ' r a whole keg of palm wine at the bar
30 O"'.oker
0
01ow6 Baderlnwa,
L , ru: mo se n , I' Ort .
B peers from a rume ouse d h
~ndori, Lanbureke · l'\l \)hln !"\: ~th elongated occiput like a bush fowl's,
Laar6ye, okllruin. k. nk . With him, few words become the truth.
, ,. · o on
El
' e,tiJ gbaroye Nimble somersau\ter,
65 ~u
r:~
mo sa di 6 35 Lighter of fire with mouth full of water
Mon glx?n l~hin re. •
Afterwards, they claimed Mute is devious,
Akin~mia, man with many names.
Leisurely, I will tra'lI a ft er you .I
H e who creates w1t l inusic E,su afterwards, they claim Mute is odd,
I, will follow youman I · and never . fiorgets J1i111.
, o TheYasked all the Qyf? chiefs and counsellors.
& , e1sure1y w1tl1 m . 4 A.kink~hlnd6, they say, 'Go refonn Mute's character.'
. u, so I may not suffer us1c.
AnY character needing reform
5 So I may not perish '
Shall be put right by my lord and master
So I may n ot ha\re any ' wo . Man of wealth and substance who jests endlessly.
My household dei . mes,
Are the ty gt\'es me pleasure 45 Mqgaji, man of considerable means
reasons why I 1·1 ' Roams the streets collecting money off sacrifices
Leisurely I · .tra after you.
10 Will I la ' e1s~ely, leisurely Owolabi, distinguished medicineman
P Y music after you When death finds guilt, the rich sacrifice.
Master
J '
son of ~he owner of · Ide
, ,
J0-ie came from Id,ere, to found a re, Invincible one,
city 50 Receiver of blows on his bare chest,
s::rt w~? t~ke~ money stealthily. . And machete cuts on his eyeballs.
Immortal One: Riser to change the day of Death.
15 ' tnunuttve man
Who perpetually guards the ci ~U, come change the day of Death for my child
Masquerade of h ty gates,
Spirits of cri . e~rt -spirits, elderly deity Let it be far, far removed.
My lord is th:;;:ly ~:rd ~rO
gates, ' SS Therefore I call to you,
Do not let me suffer,
From the dark wa . w o guards the city gates
20 M k mor. Do not let me perish,
a ~ a .fence of yam tendrils Take away all worries from me.
Sacnfic1al snails It is because you are Am9k~'s husband
Help me take care of th l 60 That I trail after you.
Tiny, little man, e s aughterer of tortoise.
Baderlnwa's master, I follow you everywhere,

140 141
 LLandori, Laburek
. e, J4
aaroye mighty ·
65 ,
Com '. man,
passionate one with f.pM~ ~::~n apari fojU dabl;
~u, I take refuge with ears to l1ear compl . ,At61Ug ·
lciiJlrin l(onko ost,
I tremble bel1ind
you.
you, aints, Q }<Unf{ b¥, loo sl j~ ge,
oo , ' , ' k '?
35 fJ?, }<in \o do~uu pa 9 ·
' 6. .u rna'be }owo danindanin, sale,
ArOni w ' I ' 'fO a . l'A ,
Ee~, da' e o. waa j~w(x) ootabi ojigan ougun,
' ?9 un ru 0 ya waa 'e o1ow6 Gbar~yee ?o , , .
Ko lo6luwa 0 J· • f,ew9 <;>dUn m o ya waa J'<·
A
, ,wu'b f9kci, yagbayagba
' 40 Elfin deity, come home and eat mashed yam,
5 Oo~a tf o l61ua l , , '
B ', . aye, come and eat the festive-ewe),
~n1 o ni 16run
Ak .. .. , Be has no master,
oni-gba1e tii so J,' · ,
aann apata ,
A\ , , , .
v vara OJO t '' b , , ,
Be breathes and swells like the puff adder.
OkU, , , b ,11 , a onJe 9gba Ieru Deity who acknowledges neither master on earth,
~ o araye 'nu · ' 5
I o AJagbalugbu obe ti i , . , Nor lord in heaven! 35
Alagbalugbu ~~ t'' y9p1n l~nu, Mighty calabash fruiting in the heart of a rock!
Yeepe O ni bi ·ia· ~ ;~a::~ukomu,
3
1 Heavy rainfall, terror of the owner of a thatched house
Poverty never angers detractors,
Gbogbo ara ni fi' . . '
Ata'k1't' , I Jon mu \Von 1o (~u is like) plentiful stew full of fungus,36
Y 1 JJ9n w6 l ' · '
15 Ob . . a, Like a generous portion of inedible soup.
Omt ~nu fena '' 37
lI T' . JO, Like quicksand without solid foothold,
: se
vvon · tan w9n , n1wa , odi , ,
0 So it swallows the entire body.
Won se ta , . gun un
; · . n w9n n1wa od · ' k, One who somersaults while licking his hand,
Won ru gbo b0 0 I o o,
w6n . ,_, g , . y(>mesi-meJu 15 One who lights a fire with a mouth full of water.
20 , • nJ ~ K9k9 kadaa ' Afterwards, they claimed Mute was devious
~ ,19 ,ree tUn 'wa od''1 se
1wa t1 6 baje oluwaa ;ru· , , They say, Mute behaved irregularly
Oniie-o16na .tii . , , o s1 tUn ~e, They say, Mute was capricious
38
Mo ,.; · , , , J~wa ototo They called on all the <)yq-Mes\ to a man.
. ga11 on1le o16na tif t , b
Ow6 ebo ki · · · 9 g oro, 20 They say take hoes and cutlasses
25 · · n, Let's go regularize the behaviour.
Qtakiti p9n 'w6 la Man of means and property who eats ordinary beans
0 bomi ~nu re~a ?'
0 fid ' . JO, Heir to great wealth, roaming the streets
, 1 aro iya e selee ,
Kc;>r9yin bi igun. . ·1, ru, Seeking sacrificial money,
,, . J e, 25 One who somersaults while licking his hand,
Kooy1nkooyi b, . .
30 Agba no. bu ~ ' ig1-mu agbalagba, One who lights a fire with a mouth full of water,
One who turns his mother's dye to ashes
Balubode, 16 i6oki lo. bee. .' Angular as the comers of a house

142 143
 Crooked as tl1e nose-bridge of an aged 11 an. , .,
30 I n1ean no abuse to the aged 1 te ngo r'€?l€?J9
.ere rno.ku~, · '. 6 ba tir~ 19.
gbt bt,
The on1d of the elderly gatema11 goes like that z5 c1ej6 tt . e
Bald as a rock, P. • ·rengifeng ' laatan.
Ot ~ngo n feg~ ~ ni 0 gbodo
Baldpated man with facial marks
Man with the curved cudgel g b t'O rt ..
;\tang a Alaketu.
35 You neither grow nor cut hair at the back of your head ni popo AA. an
i:{;U, why hair only at the back of your head, · 30 f ,egee o ni fitila l' n:~eeree ka'ko
ow fi ntan ... .
While in hot pursuit holding fast to a razor? O·u ni wqn .. . . omo o\a gttgtn,
Born to wealth, mighty man at medicine ~ onii g11g1n, . ; d.. ba
Orn<? • 0• J''6we o ag ,
Wealthy listener to complaints! i otlinWO N ' ta nm oye
40 Come and eat the festival-e\v<;).
35
"W.
Won 0 pee 1'9m9
· ko maa ~ JO
9 k'-umo np6p6 Al{iketu,
. o iyaa m1 .
7. ow
r/' ma a J. 'alapeeJa
Aroni,. wa 'le \\'a j~wc;>c;> o, ~o o c:;).re J·a ju wq 19
\
Orn
.E,pe.wqn J.aJ.'oogun , •

Ewa• odun • ni 0 yaa \Vaa le . , ., ?

0 j~ t'owo o
40 E,~e
' ,
t ep .
ee l1ll 0 Ja• • , .l. d
, le maa pqga u e,
0 j~ t'9m9 , ba nu n P<?gaa '
B1 o , ,, ·e 'Kupin,
5 T'aikll Baale• oro • • Ma pebo ti1 J ·, , l am'ero.
Ti ara lile, ~mi gigiln gh9f9. Okunun, ol6ran . . ame . e, · ·
t' ode okuu Ja. .
Ki aye awa 6 tutii, ko si nini, Ee too · olowo or1
Ko j 'aye ow6, aye 9m9. 45 0 towo eboo kooJe
06labi, ojigan 1'6giln, Amoke o ,, .
, . , . dun ni o ya waa Jt:f
1o Ale 'te j 'o\vo eke Eew99
A wolu se bi are ' u' rele o,
Es ,, '
• • • ' y-: ,· ', l Am ero
Are I'Ogiln tin ~ee wc;>'Iu, Laar6ye, Am e e, , , . .
. , · 1'a1aj'6gilnagan
Onile gogoro ala 1'6do peegede, 50 Oseg1 'J • , , , • 26
• , . ·, fegi· l'aja JO eenu 0 : ,
Oo~a tii gbe'Ie OI6dumare, Esu, .wa'le 0 waa , , J·' e' woo o 1.
'.
Ar9n1,' ' . , , , .e . .
15 OJuwaa mi Anile l'6de
Qigrun atanna an j6 Il19 E, ew
, o' odun n1 o ya waaJ .·
d'
, . : omo Aobo igun,
Firi o, oju alaa o Onisen, . . 0 , d' ,
55 On~ri, 9m9 Agbo osun,
016w6 aye J'emi 6 mc)mc) sin.
Eh~ osa l'o wa
Alaketu ere ja ju 'wo lo,
\

N e~i o pe a o r' ok~ " a fun

Il~e -'sl!ri modi - Ql9fin laa~.,a?
20 Epe a ja 1'6giin
•
Esu l'omo ereele, I wakun Okurnolee bo
oi<umoleeia, o~_o ~e bebi too<l~ qmq t' or' owo ~ .
• • •
Omo
• • ere odo
&u
. , , , , bebi won o mQ le g . ..
Omo okUnle-1 'OgUngiin 60 Osun t1 o g . .. ,
Ere ·mo-kun·-1~-l 'og(Jn~~ Bo ba wa b~e KaJa le loode awa Ak.1gbe
Osiln wqn o gbebi . o mo
. won
144 145
 Tinu
<?J6,i.r6on1i
orfl'o
Alariba \ Vat',.--~~---------- ,----~--~--------~------------
65 ,Ab'! ti. Rc!IUwc! ni0orin? ' 111u oko l 'o gba I<;>? . from the household curse
Igba o ba gba ti reluw~~... ~U denvesutcome 0 of malediction sitting on top of mortar.
r.J is the
Gbogbo won obw-ek t;cc r•e . the curse of ben d'1ng on one' s knees,40
Esu'
. ' d3kun. ma it: nrln . ~ wonnibeha si t'OJ6
. . run Qba lo ~.J,-.e is e of kneeling fioreve1..Al
~topa, Labureke, · un. ·· 'fbe c~e of kneeling without the accuser, 41
70 OJ1gan l'oogun 25 fbe curuser i1is guilt accepted, goes his way.
Am" ' fbe ace '
ele, Am 'ero
Ee too t'ode ~k~uJ·a
B ansive one
"hp beetle may flex his muscles on the compost heap
0 t O\VO ebo ko · 'f
B et the lizard, seeing · th at ,
0, 1,0'" 6ori Alan
, te 0 u es not do the same OJ? Alaketu's street.
1
75 E e\v<;>
· • <;>dti.n ni 6 ya0 iva. . 30 ]\1onkeY ar has no lamp at Ak,c;san
,
M~ nib~>, mo nibo a Jt:. Jts lantern eyes search for beans on the fa11n,
K'E~ ma semi~ 0 o utcome of today and tomorrow's hustle and bustle,"
M~ nib<;> o. · contemptuous looks have stunted Monkey's growth.
K'E~U ma ~e mi!
44
They call him the end45product of attenuation.
35 My mother's money, let him dance on Alaketu street.
Let him not be the harbinger of trouble,
Elfin deity' come home and Child of the curse worse than the evil eye,
Come quickly and eat mashed yam curse that does more bairn than medicine.
Eat, of money eat the festi ve masl1ed yam.
40 Why are my interdictions not effective?
Eat, of children Call me the house-, not the out-, master,
46
5 Eat, of immortali And I'll make the sacrifice for immortality.
Of th b ty, Master of wealth 39
e a undance of d ' Troublemaker, who knows the easy and the difficult,
That our lives ma b goo health and long life Like the one you rescued from the grave.
That our 1• y e peaceful and calm 45 One who dares appropriate sacrificial money,
Ives may abound . h '
10 Born into wealth mighty wit money and children Amoke's husband
•
Shrewd taker of , man of medicine •
Come and eat tl1e festive ewo.
money from Ii ' •
H, e enters a to\vn lik ars, ~,
' greetings! Laar6ye !
o , e a stranger
gun usually enters a town 1· ' One who can be hard or soft
Owner of tall h . ike a stranger. 50 Maker of medicine for the barren from wood in the rafters,
The deity that if:se,. bnhdge at the wide river E~u,
' break wood from rafters, for my barrenness.
15 B es m t e A1mi hty'
ut my lord's hous . g s house. Elfin deity, come home and eat ewq
My lord who scorc~e~ ~~~of doo~s, Come and eat the festival ewo. •
Owner of ~ri,
47
Moves swiftly 1.k a hot 1ron ' son of Aged-like-the-vulture
I h 11 J e a dream
s a forever worshi h . 55 Owner of i~~ri, son of Aged-like-Rosewood~
King of Ke'tu h p t e lord of the eart11 On1*ri, the offspring of Agb6d6sun
20 , w ose curs b. .
Curses do more hann th e its. h.arder than the eye Situated behind the lagoon,
an med1c1ne. '
No matter how late \Ve shall return to l~ri.
146 147
 Okunmoleela 's ~u, Okumoleewaku11's
'
. d' .
ba meJb lgt , , , Olojo bab'Onikoro
.
60 Agba is usually bougl1t for Okumolee
ba sori a. ab'awU baba ~ubunmt
9
May rosewood' that cannot deliver women · Bi o ·1akara k t
Be incapable of delivering anyone who has mon~n 1:bour Ap6ti ~a ,,,,',-l6hiin, , b.
~ A n\J\.\.ol ' , WO log tn,
More than that, Y 0 0 ffersacnfj om<? i-µbkele tokuu
May rosewood that cannot deliver women in I b ~ am<? A,~ . okU wode, .
10 L606t9 n,• rn muyan an re Je,
65 Be incapable of delivering anyone of us shoute: our o n1raa d
He comes by the s. OJll<? . moku wo e,
'
Alan's 1naster, will he go by boat? i.,ootQn1 . aa mo run re mu,.
Or will he go by train ?50 Orn<? 0n1~ . kU leje arinlogbtn
. ofo ttl
When he goes by train 5 Ero teegun po
1 Bi lepa ~ , n fi gbingbm je ra won
70 ~11 passengers perisl1 and go to God, tl1e Kir g. Orn9 egungu
~u, please do 11ot let n1e go tl1a t way.
1
· gan
Latopa, Labureke, o ku a
, a-rere lo Dl n
. waa se' lu o o
. .
Giant at medicine. I w . d , n ni o ya waa J~·
- E woo u .,
~ne who knows the hard, one wrho knows the easy, 20 e ~i 'wale o waa jewQ<?.
75 Like the one you caused fro111 beyond tl1e grave,s1 Ar9 dun ni o ya waa J~·
EeW9 9
?.A \owo er
1 'Awara
One \vho dares appropriate sacrificial 111011ey.
Alari's husband, iv1a 'Awe-roro
Malowo le r a ra loja toba lore,
Come home and eat the festi\'e e\vo . Lakunlagbe 9m9
I offer sacrifice, I make oblations
•
25 Oni n'o lo ree bQsun
80 So that ~u may not undo me.
'
Ola ma boke Awara,
I make sacrificial offerings to '
Esu Eni ti o glJ9n,
' . .Eni ti o m9ran, ' '
So that ~u may not undo me. , , ,
Won a le kUro Oke Qy9 l kun
Info1rnant: Name: ' 30 W~n o jy t~w<? Oslin nle w9n e .
~iyan!J9la ~ubunmi •
Age: Late fifties Omq<;>ba-sawo, .
Profession: Cloth-dye1·, trader Omo-ori rekun n1 wara, 6 , o Ar6ba mu rele I;.dt?,
, ' mu r' yo, om .
Religion:
Self-avowed 'witcl1 '; Muslim W9n law?n ~ roy~ bo o~n ·m~ s~se bo oko,
traditionalist 35 Awara o Jt?Pa to n1 a
Place: Awaadu o je sesee,
Ile Olunl9y9, Tbadan, Nigeria
8. Ilee M o lekun ' Omooba-sawo,
··
'
AJVni wale 0 waa jewg 00 Omo on rekun ni Wara,
Eev. 9 9dun ni o ya waa j~.
1 Om~gila-lewoo, .
Iwin Elenpe Agbo, 40 E ewo . odun
. ni o ya waa Jy.
Iwin Agbedudu w9lee Balogun, A.wan 19,
5
Iwin Aj~gbin-j~wa bi Eletu oko Ta labi. 6 dlgba 6 ~ee,
' Ka ma fikU yaraa wa,
J~ru 0 j~ atejo m(>l~
Ka ma farun yaraa wa.
148 149
 45 ~1:9nf
' wale 0 \Vaa jewc)OO
Eewo
. odun'
. ru· 0 ya, wa,
....
. bo ti 0 pe Pirarii,
~1ya11b6la abed' . a J~. £01 6 ~ .
SiyanMia 0 .n_1 i11w9n esin, ebQ 1'* 1t da. •
' · Dl.KOfO ... 'i rno ke pe 99 o.
~IUko barangad ·d.' 5 pirart . An.>. gbebo tiwa na Orun-kokoko,
50 AJ·'.1-, . 1 t,
W\ 0 blllili ore e b · . 8 o}dlnfl 0 y ~ . .
~iyanb{>la o s~s~ .b. ~1 a0019 onidere. , .
Omo AJ-<1-, mni ogun n lo
6: ~ ~ lo ti w!i!I ~elu 9m9 Akowo~wa a dt kurukururu,
( . (1.Kesan n se niy
Ak~san o 16 , .
.'
a\vo lorun
~e;ete gbongbo nii gba 'bode Jeegun in'.tnm9J~
0 . . . run. Agbalagba oo~~, . ,
55 ,. m9-ad1 ti ndi~'o 90 pakqkQ nii gba b9~~ Or~, , , , . , ,
Ak~san o J6nin uwaa mi nlkan nu gba IJ9de 01 JagunJagun dudu
9m9-adi tin di leke 01
A funfun l~nu odi,
A~bi , 9mo. Ir6ko, ; ·' Jal<Un ew\lra s9gba,
Oluwo ow1 A.kan666
Jgbin alarapin, .
Ee\vo d · ·
60 M , <? un ~1 o ya \\'aa J·e ' 95 Adunbu ahun muJe,
o rubo· ' k'Es.u' ina, se 1n1'· · Anikan da omi ad6 w~,
M o rub k' · · · •
' ' ' 9, ~u ma se mi Ol6w6 ori Akank¥. oo,
Ar0n1· , va·1e• o \Va je~,·0 · EeWO 9dun ni 0 ya waa j<?.
Eewo oh , . , oo.
. b . ~ ru o ya '''aa J·e A.rQn1, come home and eat mashed yam
,· Ill a p 'C~'.
E ~u lorun ara • ·
.·
Come and eat festival mashed yam.
65 lb· · . · ·
, a pete o~ro' i' ba' nkt, . , '
e ru
, , ·, • • • ' ,.,'=' e ese Small-sized fairy
Iba atelese t ' · b · · · ;'
~~t~ ~~ ·1 0~: :run to fi d6jugun. Fairy carried with great care to Bal6gun's house
52
5 Eater of snails and beans like Eletu, Talabi's husband,
Oke, Ioht!n ijesa gun,
E ' I ''' .. Fear prevents us from stepping on Snake 53
• Ill .J~a 0 ki k6 ma rabt!n m6 Or else we'd have tied firewood with Snake to Olojo's.
70 Kik1 Qwa kankan mi ., .' '
Omo ol 0' b' . , , n1 mo Iara. A stool wounds akara seller, ~blinmi's father,
. · m W9wontiiwo' The offspring of AnikU-l6hiin.s.i
0· mo· 0 I0' bm
· · Wowonti·
, · 1 ··'
Qm9. o16bii Moi,,-..:,_ ~<;>,
1\.WUmOJe
10 Tempter of the dead in the graveyard with food,
He really wanders with the dead
M, .o ~~ momumi Kankan., 55
He disappears like a morsel of food,
75 ~e to ba re ni y66 m ~
Ee ti 6 ba fe nj yo' , a w9, s~ru ~ni ni, He truly roams with the dead
. o ma wo seru nk 0 And vanishes into the ear or nose.
r
E·. ank o a maa , . . . era
m~~ . 15 Traveller to Qfa56 who enjoys walking in the farm,
lJange oore n o pe ~ o o If Lepa is too small for Eegful to divide,
~ewo <;>dun ni o ya waa "e EgU.ng\in's children answer each other by grunting
80 ~ w9n Joni Dand66 6 n J.. .
Oga omo On1'de' , g ~e n1yawo Jorun Replies to greetings.
, · . re · ' Good fortune brings me to town.
Idere lo ti waa ~eltl om
. 9 Akowo~wa adi kurukururu 20 Come and eat the festival mashed yam

150 151
 An?ni con1e 1101ne a11d eat
Co111e a11d eat tl1e festi I inasl1ed Yan1 'I offer sacrifice, that~~ may not undo me
May I J1ave ino11ey to :a:e·~:sl1ed ya111. (song) offer sacrifice, so that B?u may not undo me.'
May I have moiley t o Awara, s1 1
rne home and eat ewo,
25 Lakunlagbe,s9 bougJJ~ :;~:' to Aweroro,ss 60 J>VY
l ,..liJ1l co .
and eat fest1va\-ewo,
Today
T I shall worsh. A
1p usun market as gift ~
•Or the Kin come . ns to palm of the hand and soles of the feet
omorro.w I shall worship Oke A g satutattl~o ns to soles of the feet, bald to the shins,
He who 1s unwise wara. satuta l 0movement 1s . the 1anguage of war,

30 SHe who is undisc~rning care fu .

65 'gh is the voice o J~a,,
f 1' • ' ' 69
hall be driven away from 6 , ~~ that is not greeted b~ lj~ll .should not grumble,
TIJey dare not eat Os ' . y9-quarters. owa's greeting usua~l~ ~s g~at1?g·.. ,
Qm99ba'sawo's60 h~~es n1ashed yarn i11 tl1e Yard the offspring of 01?~11: w,9w,9n~1w,9 ,
~e offspring of Ori- ici
With no title to ta
'
~ ~-111-Wara,61
of The offspring of Olo?~ W9w,9~t11w~, 70
70 The offspring of 010?11 MokUr:umo](?,
Aw . ke to Qy9, Aroba to k
35 A barad refu.smg peanuts, asked for b o one to !;:de." The offspring of MoJymomurm Kankan.
g aa u will not eat t11e b ea11s ft·orn tl1e. ~ Those who cherish us shall come to us,
The househ Id f ear1s. arrn. Those who hate us shall go to animals,
o o Molekun th ffi
Th e child of Ori-re'~'-- . ' e o spri11g of Oba Who will eat them.
The child . . Aw1-n1-\vara. . sawo 75 Jjange,71 I shall call on you from afar,
of G1Ia-le\\'OO 63
Come and ' Come and eat festival-ewo,
40 (son eat festival-ewo.
g) Goodbye for now Come and eat the festive mashed yam.
May we not pa rt bY way of deatl1 How is it Dand6g672 has, a wife in heaven?
M
, , , ay we not part as a ' 80 Master, the offspring of Onidere,
ArQn1 come home a d result of disease '' '
He came from Id ere to found the town,
45 c n eat ewo ·
~me and eat festival-ewo ' Child of appropriator of money for sacrificial beans
~~yanb{>Ja, one that has ' . . He who makes sacrifice and leaves the deliverer out,
~1yanb{>Ja of Ikoro 64 magic wh1cl1 befits a horse Shall find his sacrifice unacceptable.
Alllk'
, o, 65 is• a small' b. d '
85 Redeemer,73 I call on you,
AlUk , 66 rr ' Man at the roadside, carry our sacrifice straight to heaven,
. o, swift as his mend ,
50 St 1yanb6J ,
• a makes haste as . . Master, son of Onidere,
~~san 's 61 child has a . war is m progress. '
Who came from Idere to found a town,
Ak~san has no bow dwife round his neck. Son of embezzler of sacrificial money.
Th · an arrow
, e child of the ma ·c th 90 Little man who goes through the gates in hot pursuit of
Ak~san has no bow gi d at stops the eagle, , , 74
Egun gun.
55 Child an arrow
, , of the magic that stri Elderly or1~a,
~~bi, child of Ir6k , 68 ngs beads. Spirits of dead criminals take the Ora gate 15
Ak' ,, 0 My master alone talces the entrance of the black warrior,
ano s master
Come and eat f~stival-ewo. 95 One who turns white at the town gate
Make a fence from yam tendrils.
152 153
l_______
 Tl1c snail of tl1e buyer of destin
•
One \vJ10 slaugl1ters tort . y, , . 1.c,1a J.6 temi oo.
Sl1ort, small inan. oises to eat, ~\J ~gt ~J

9. t (the festive food) of money,

E?u ea
Oj~ tow6 o o·f children,
Of i01J110 rtality, the chief ingredient of wealth
0 j~ t9mo.
0 j~ ta iktl baa le oro Of sound health,.
0 j~ tara lile, · · · AJld long, long life.
5 on behalf of Adeklinrhbi's masquerade, child of ~Utay<},
5 ~mi gungun gbooro ~u is the offspring o~ househ~ld. curse,
~tori
, l eegun, Ad6k~un' b'i omo Esuta, , , The offspring of public maled1ct1on,
Es. u ~m9 Ereele, · · · Y9, The offspring of the curse of kneeling in darkness,
9m9 ~reeode, The offspring of the curse of unending genuflection
10 9m9 Eree mo klu1J~ l6gt111giln 10 The curse of kneeling without an accuser,
?r~e mo kUnl~ looku11 bere . My mother's master, the plaintiff has conceded guilt,
Ere ,mo , ,kUnl
, ~' n o re lego· · and is on his way
Owo . 1yaa mi ~l~J9
' · , t1, gbebi o ba t .,
1 Expansive one
~n1fege-nfege.
1
· ~ 9, The beetle struts on the trash heap
I_g~~go n fege e Jaatan. l5 But lizards dare not do the same on the street.
15 Alangba to ri bee ·
Alaketu. . . iu o gb9d9 fege i1 p6p6 King of Ketu,
'
The monkey has no lamp at Ak~san,
Owe o ni fitfla I'"
r\J\.esan
1-' , My mother's money its eyes serve as lamps all over the farm,
O\vo o yaa mi oju ~6n fii , Product of today' s hustle and bustle
9m9 9la giigiri. · tanna beere kciko, 20 Offshoot of tomorrow's hustle and bustle,
20 Aw9n-lumo o jowe o dagba The evil eye has stunted Monkey's growth.
W9n n pe 16mo n mola .6 : They call him child of no means and position
Ow6 o yaa ~ .ko . '. moye, Let him not consort with people on Alaketu's street
Alaketu moo Ja lumo npopo
Let him not bring about the curse more effective than poison.
~o moo jalapeedaa omo .. 25 Curses do more harm than medicine,
25 Epe w9n a ja1·00 , . . eree Ja JUwo 19. Child of the unmitigated personal curse,
' gun,
0. m9 Ereele Child of the communal curse,
0. m9 Ereeode,
' ' '
Adigtin' s master,
016w6
E oori Adigu' ·
no, Come and eat festival mashed yam.
, WO 9dun ni O ya waa · 30 Salutations to ~u,
'

30 ~ti ~l~ 00 J~. Laar6ye,

Laaroye, He who can be hard or soft
~ele, amero Discoverer of medicine from the attic with which to cure,
~u ~gi laj~ j.6 ogtin agan, Esu look in the attic for medicine to cure my barrenness.
.'
154 155
 10.
-
9~9 ?n~ri, Qm9 Agb6digt1n f iseri, aged like a vulture
Oni~n 9in9 Agbodosin, ' owner of ;.:~ri seasoned like rosewood
..111er o ~ ' h k 1...:.. ·16
Qm9 Agbotoda ka rele 'Seri m0 d.1 0 , 0 V: •• f the aged one w o ta es one to ~n77
9m9 QJ(>fin Aare, · . J9fin Chtld 0 f the owner of the graveyard palace
s ~ee ti ogb{> tikU, Childnh
'fhe u
Oeeding dies
, , ·
Bee t6 fo tiku gba lee 'seri 19 5 d the dead go to I~rt.
Qm9 Qnisebora, ·· ' An. d of the tireless worker
Iwaju okoo babaa mJ. ow6 ,, ~~~1front part of my lord's boat grows money,
' · ·· n11 so back, innumerable beads.
J;:Ilin 9k(> soigbara i Jeke ' 1 ~ the unskilled boatman flounders on the water
l 0 Agbe degbe QI6ko n.ii t~yebe loju .
Kawa toni pa~ ~arin derin ' o1n1, l 0 o~ y ing forwards and backwards '
Ka to toni f9'"'6 \\rake) dele 'S' . . U~~l we paddle even with our hands to 1*ri,
Ol6fm · · ~n-111od1 l(ing of Qfin, ,
'. . '
~u Okumoleela okUfOoleela' s ~u ,
I5 Ookumolee\\'a~. Ookumoleewakun's ~u,
15 Agba is usually bought for Okumolee78
Okumolee la a ragbaa fun
May rosewood that cannot ease labour be uselesswith someone
?
Osun ~i g~ebi n\v9n 6 m~ le gbebi l d ,
Qm9 toro\\'Osebo oo o Who has money for Sacrifice.
B ~' b'a '"'a b~e gada, ' As soon as that is done,
May such rosewood be ineffective with us singers
20 Osun \\'9n o g~bi \\'9n o mo le gbebi
Loode awa Akigbe. · 20 He comes by the water-way,
Inu omi 16 ba wa, Alari's79 master
016w6 ori Alan Will he go by boat?
Tinu 9k9 ni o~ba 10 Or will he go by train?
When he goes by train,
25 f\bi ti re1uwee ni 6 gba
25 All passengers will crash and go to eternity.
Igba 6 ba w9 re1uwee o~,
Esu, do not let me go that way!
~~ogbo w9n 6 ferireke won a si b '6Io'run b , I •
Latopa, Labureke,
~u dakun , · · . a o
· ma J<; un rin nfbe un · · Mighty man at medicine,
Latopa, Labureke · '
30 Ojigan 16ogun, ' One who can be kind or cruel,
30 Like the one you rescued from the grave.
Amele, amero . .' One who appropriates money placed on sacrifice
Eee too tode okuuja, '
Alan'' s master
0 to'"'O~b9<;> koo je, Come and eat the festive mashed yam
Olowo ori Alarii 00
(song) '~u do not undo me~
35 ?e.wo ?~un ni o ya ~aa j~. I make sacrifice for ~u.'
~u maa ~e mi oo, Moo rub9 Esu.
•

156 157
 Infonnant: Na111e:
Age: Aj~~ Mo~cbolata
Late sixties · n hter ofhis
tort
oise for food,
'th ad680- water.
Profession: staug
rnealone takes bath w1
Religion: Cloth dyer/deaf
M I. er ~e i's rnaster, ·va\-ewo.
Place: us •m/traditiona1·
Ile-Ofu111oy0 Ibad ist A~b and eat festl rt us· support me.
Ar9ni wale 6 waa jew9Q, · ·' an \.t· corne 'Esil suppo '
' ' ''il&eria 15 csong) D~ not undo me.
Eew9 <?dun ni o ya waa j<;.
t undo me.
Qga <?m9 Onfdere, Do no t us· protect me.
'
ldere Jo ti waa ~e Ju, Esil protec ' ,
5 Omo Ak6w6 ebo Adi-Kurukururu. . no t undo me.
Do
• • • •

Setete gbongbo nii gba bod 'fecgu11 12.

KunmoJe agbalagba oo~a, ' ale 0 waa jew?, ~'
Pak9k9 nii gba b9de oro. ArQnt w . , waa Je.
Eewo qdun n~ o ~aJagun ~ filo, di koya
OJua mi nikan nii gba b9de 11i Panupanu n a lee b1 o~u
lo Dudu a book Ienu •
odi, Jagu . d'mu-tambala
I akim eW11ra soda. 5 01od1mu ' , , , . l 0
Igbin o larapin ba-nmodi
Agbo sun kyyft? J7Y. , . gun 0 teni lara.
. l ' binrin ko Jy Ja ·, . ' b'
A fynt o
A-dunbu ahun muje , b' .o lamon. a ba won .
ro maJy t
Anikan da omi ado "'e, lg tn J , b' A.fija
' E o mby len~ ~
15 Ol6w6 ori Abebi oo g . , ·' rt pa
, , beeni o j6 g~bc?
•

Ee\\'O <?dun ni o ya '''aa j~ l 0 AfinJU a Ja o

'
Omo a-j6-gbewu~ ..
(song) ~u ngbe ni 0 gbe mi, 6toto eeyan lo gba l~~
Ma ~e mii oo, . . . odlin ni o ya wa J~·
Ma~e mi oo, Ewo . h me and eat mashed yam,
' d 'ty come o
~u ngbe ni o gbe mi, Elfin et ' t the festive mashed yam.
Mase mi oo. Come and e~ inent as the moon,
'
•
.ghty wamor' prom
An;>ni, come borne and eat ewo. Mt
w am. or-rests . ter of maltreatment,
Come and eat festive ewo, d powerful man,
'
Master, at Idere 5 Fat an uts like a goat.
' Gobbler of palmn Esu friendless
He came from Idere to administer the town, Adultery has rendered . . . the whole world,
5 Collector of sacrifice money in a great rush, Devourer of all the sna~s. mrtigation but never loses
Short little man who secured the gates for the masquerade Snail is always involv~ m t ith the skill of a fighter
Sneaky one, elderly deity h akes his case w b ven
(Because) e m l liness he is clean s a .
Only the spirit of decapitated criminals pass through here 'd' s about c ean '
l 0 So fastt iou . der to get a goat,
My master alone lives outside the gates. One who dances m or . e sacrificial gift.
10 Cut yam stems to make a fence, l dances to rece1v
He a so h 0 le man at Ofe.
Snails are not sold in bits, get me whole ones for · ffered a w
He is o fi tive mashed yam.
Come, eat the es
158 159
 13.
Ar9ni wale o waajewoo Name:t
Gbadam~i Akanni
Eewo 9dun ni o ya waa j~, Jnforrnan Age: . . Sixty-ish
Ma looke Awara Profession. Farmer
Ma looke Aweroro, Religion: Traditionalist . .
5 Lekunlagbe ara lgja taba lgn;, Place: Ganga, Ibadan, N1genal4.
Onf n 6 I ree b'~,
Ola ma foke Awara sinse, , , Esu, Eepaa.
' , ' I
£ep~a, , . , se mi o
I;ni tf ogb{>n,
• • •
, , Esu ma .
I;ni tf o mgran, ~
~u
n{a semi 0 , ., • ,_._ omo EegUn
. Baale lo J 01'~. . .
10 W9n a le ktiro oke Qyg, ~u l~ ~efi , wa ow6 kin
W9n o j~ t~w9 osun, 5 .
.,..r· won n
1~• ,
Nle Moiekun, F,su
·
ma ~e
elom1r?11a
' n n1
· o se
· o.
M99ba-Sawo, Qm . .
0
, Alekuru-le-ga
Omo
• • ori rekun ni Wara,
Ma ~e mi, , ,
15 Qm9 Nla 'Ieewooo, Alega le kUru nk n wo Afon 1'6ke
, ' n' loro, a ·
Eewo 9dUn ni, o ya \\'aa j~, 0 0 duro ' . ' . ' n le guru koko
1 Ok6 oju qna, tl . l' ofu ofa
Mo ru~ k 'E~u , ma ~e mi, . mu qga?, tt nsomo
Sebe .
Mo ruboo k 'Eesu ma Se mi.
'
• • • •
~u ma ~e ffi1 .
ArOni
• come home and eat ewo, OmQ ' inln
. (fl om . m o se
. o.
Come and eat festival e\\10 . 15 6 g'oke odo , ,
I shall go to A\Vara district,81 6 fi ok6 ~e afara
I shall go to A weroro district, 82 Ok6 da gb9un
Ero da 6do ,
5 LankunJagbe, one who shops in the market for gifts for the king,
Today I shall worship Oke Awara Esu ma ~e rm .
He who is not wise, 20 O~Q ~lomiran m o ~e o.
He who is thoughtless, Bara ti nje Latopa o
0 1iamba J. ~mba l'awo E 'gun
'
Shall be driven away from Qy9-quarters, , · , 1~'.' omo e
I 0 They will eat mashed yam to ~un, ~u l6 ~e Baal: lo J?~=
J
· ·
In the courtyard of Mokekun, 84 25 Ni w(?n fi n wa, o"!"? .
Son of the king of Sawo. 85 L0, o'gun' abati alapa
, '
Come and eat festival mashed yam.
Esu ~l~ o' Laaroye
Son of Nlaleewoo, kiete m~rQ. '' ' ' ' Esu segi
A ' ' l'a1a JOOgun agan, · ..
liljil, j6 ti:mi 0
15 Come eat festive yam ~g1 ~ ' .
I make sacrifice, so ~u may not hann me
' . Es'
Greetings, ·u,
. Greetings B?u.
downfall
I make sacrifice, so ~U may not hann me. Esu do not cause my
' ll
&u'
,. '
do not cause my downfah . orpse of the masquerade,
d the Baale to eat t e c
Esu
•
cause
160
161
 5 So the masquerades go about seeking money
&u
• do not 11an11 me, ·
Hann someone else's cl1ild, ,0 0 o.
Ma pa rn1t heavens
, gate who cures diseases,
Do not hann me, He who can make himsef f sh I-Jaster a like Death
He who can make himsef f tall or short. Ort 0 r tall
short rnan of Death
l 0 Standing in the forecourt, he stares at breadfiuit
!v{essengerebody else, not me. n
Hoe on the wayside tills the hard soil, 1ree above,
fiarrn som lagbaa to eat dead Egungu '
The snake in the ant-hill makes a waste of arrow s r. .. u caused A_ h' to borrow money.
Esu
' • do not undo me s. 6 5 P=? forcing Jm
Undo somebody else. thereby d,/,. do not undo me.
f kehln ti , d
15 Going up the river, Ak n . ld me defen me,
6su, upho e'
He makes a bridge of his penis, · t undo m ·
Penis snaps, Do no rt us support me,
F,su suppo '
Travellers
'
fall into the ri\rer. · t undo me. .
10 Do no
~u do not hann me, E:su do su stain us ' sustain me,
20 Hann someone else's child. o'o not kill me.
Bara, \Vho is called Latopa, 16.
Leather-clothes troublemaker.
0 0 l6okan
He sleeps on a Ieather bed like the elders of isOna"
. O mu ta Bara 19ry: , , ,
~U
'
made the Ba3Je eat the corpse of the young masquerade 0 o leeji owawa 1 ~uu,
25 Hence the search for sacrificial money began. . , l'E'su' a gbeun ladofo,
Warrior, in\rincible as e\1erlasting walls, BoJI a 1'' '
' , , Akesan o gbe ni ladofo, aasan,
~u, greetings. Laaroye, 5 Esu . , ,
E j~ Bara 6 w9le e, ,
He who can be hard or soft,
B'' J'eBara6w9lee , , , '?
One who with rafters makes medicine for the barren, , ~ ).u n1
~ym , , 1~'
l\.u·nmo. ti Laar6ye gbe 19w9 ·
Break a piece from the rafters to make medicine for me. Ma giin un o,
15. 10 Latopa o bu-kenke
Eleebo bani-bode ni warun Ma giln un o
Kuktiru bi ikti, Latopa o bu-kenke.
n
I;ni 'ku ran porii w9n, . · ·
Do you have one dtV1Il1Ilg
•
cowne
'Ma se
. mi omo
. . elomiran
. ni o se.
.
5 ~U JO ~l3gb38 16 jokU 9m9 eegUn b<i ii k6w6 kii. To give
D
Biu as a gift? ·es for palm oil for }¥i?
have two cown th.
Akinkehinde
' •
ma se
•
mf o o. o you .
Do not on nsmg as . . k Esu to bless for
th' no ing.
~u
' ngbe ni o gbe mi, Ma ~e mi o o. 5 Esu
, A. i ,, , does not bless for no ing,
l"\.1\.ysan
~u ngbe ni 0 gbe mi, L~t Esu enter the hou~e~ .
I O Ma se mi o o.
' •

~u ngbe ni 0 gbe mi, For if you do not ~et Bi~g~i L8.ar6yi: is carrying?
Can you not see t e ct1
Do not possess me,
162
163
I
 1O Latopa, srnall but terrible man,
Do not possess me,
Latopa. a terrible ma11. tf'~I 2 . ·rnulator. , u lurks in many guises.
~
•

1c;..· p 1ss1
'f}le 1· e name. .
Praise Poems 11· ascu 1n · . 's diminutiveness.
tZ· /\ Jll a refers to ~u . that he not only starts fights, but wo~ld
NOTES 13. J..,atoP such zest for life . fighting if they start without htm;
~u nas fi1ghters to continue 1
Text I 14. · urage fight · ·
encowould not. try
. to stop an 'aleave'. as well as 'buy'.' therefore, this ts
I. Ajfbik# is a Yoruba fema le pet name meaning ' on he word tizri can me fi dsellers and does not leave or buy.
t 5. 'fhe Es, lingers near oo . b '
cherished.' It is one of the subtle allusions to the ande Who is a pun: , .u de means 'manly, l~s:, o~ .
conception of ~u . as male or fen1ale. m~ ous Akink~hln
J6 h 1.s a re c.ierence to Esu · s size.
2. qne of the strongest allusions to the supra natural aspect of~- . Little Fat er Esu's shortness.
Esu is no 01·di11a1J' human bei11g
• or deity. ~u. 17. ical reference to . h mother copulating.
\ 8. Ir~n taboo for a son to watc athe masqueraders who represents
•

3. There are many references to E{;U 's facial and body marks Ii 19· It ts nking titleholder among
the referen~e is to his pierced ears. Once again, there is ~u~r~, 20. Ara
allusion to E{;U 's female self. For in Yoruba society, ordinariJ 1.e the dead. · · fan ancestor. ·
c~tef) ha~1ng
. only \\'Omen \\' ho have t11e1r
is . ears pierce
. d. Y, It reincarnated sp1nt o . . infracted a taboo by eating
21 . ThThe senior title holder ( lot of money for the rituals
4. $iing6 is the Yoruba deity of thunder, lightning, and storms. 22. e, se' of an Eglingun. nee s a
5. Qya is the goddess of the River Niger. In Yoruba mythology, th~ corphi h to redeem himself.
with w c
she is considered to be one of the favourite wives of $ilng6.
6. ~n is the name of a river that flov.'s through Ibadan. ~un River 3
is deified as a goddess, and an earthen pot filled with stones Text d for 'human head.' The human head . as the
eat
23 Fate is another wor II tal faculties is regarded with gr f
symbolizes her shrine; her devotees wear brass dog-collars. Her . seat of wisdom and a b i:~d is considered an object worthy o
worship is most pre\1a1ent at ~ogbo. reverence by the y oru a
7. Ifa, deity of divination. deference.
8. The expression Yangf Id yangi is difficult to translate. Yangi means 24 Diminutive person. Es.
'stone mound' or 'laterite' but the word kibetween the two nouns
. k el oil is taboo to .u.
25. Palm- em born of the leopard.
could mean 'no matter what,' or 'any' or 'a bad kind of. ' The 26. Fiercesome man,
'
reference here could be that E{;U's laterite is not just any laterite
but
' rather an extraordinary one. There is the double meaning that Te~t 4 .
27 Herb-like plant which ~ows
to about ten feet with \ight purple
'&u 's laterite is also a fearsome one, a bad or evil kind,
•
. flowers and crimson fruits.
9. ~U is meant here to be at the bottom of, or the root of, everything 28 Mythological name.
good or bad.
' 29. Village west of Ibadan.
10. ~u is always wished upon somebody else. • • A hose soun
d . the roar of the bull.
15
30. The deity Or'!,"'!'
31 . Pet te1m for ~u.
32. Another pet term,
33. Another pet term.
164 165
 Te-rt 5
. of , /o'hu' n is one in whose voice there is
An1'k u-
34. Praise names of ~U refening to his elongated head
'
meaning
markings. and facial 54. rneth
dea . d to appear and disappear at will. Here the reference
Text6 ~u is belie~e
55. . th to hts sm
allness and his mercurial nature.
35. ~U is unique, peculiar. He is as unusual as a vegetable is b~ a Yoniba town.
()fa tS ' \} ge
from a rock. , growing 6
5 · · y 0 ruba v1 a ·
36. This is a reference to tl1e duality of Esu 's nature He . 51. Ay
A o
ruba village.
, ,
'
much food (plentiful.soup) that one cannot •
eat before 'tISbl'k
1 e too 58. E ithet for ~u.
sour (grows fungi). ~u is good and bad. 1 ecoll'lcs 59. p
Obscure. .
37. A reference to ~u 's quicksilver-like nature.
'

38. Council-of-chiefs. 60-

61· Obscure. .
Esu is said to o d the impossible. He takes a title where there
Text 7 62· Here · Ob are all
isMolekun,
none. Ori-rekun-nz-. wara, Gila-lewoo, asawo
'
39. Here ~u is being beseecl1ed to eat tl1e food tl1at will pr 63. lo ical names.
.
munorta 11·ty ior
c. the giver.
. ocurc mytho g f mythological place.
· , name o d ·ft
'
40. lkUnlrJ:!Ogitngzin means 'I-kneel-on-n1y-knees.' ~U drives People
' 64. Jkoro,
65. Aluko
f b' d that is small an swi .
to therr knees. , , .s is a type
being o rrd to the bird ' Ali1ko. He is just as small and
compare
66. ~u t . .
41. Mo-kU11/f}-logz111 bp;;:_ means 'I kneel humbly on my knees.'
swift as the bird. h . which case the meaning of lmes
".illother reference to ~U who is capable of humi liating anyone. Akesan could mean a eunuc m
42. ~u 's justice does not require a11 accuser. 67. 52-.55 would be very unclear.
'
43. This is a reference to Esu •
's restless11ess. j oko is a type of large tree.
44. Obscure. 68. r . f 11 Yoruba town.
45. Tenn of endearment for Esu. ' 69. Nat1ve o esa, a . d . tin Esu's tiny frame .
0 Ideophonic expression epic g .
•
46. 'Kupi11 literally means 'absence of death. '
7 . ' '
71. Epithet for ~·.
47. Mythological name. 72. Dandogo is a .n ch man, ,
48. Mythological name. 73. Pirari is an epithet for ~u.
49. Osu11 is rosewood. Yoruba women wore rosewood after 74. Small man. , ,
childbearing. Rosewood paint was a sign of ferti lity. E~u is 75. Black is the colour of~u.
believed to be capable of helping women through difficult labour
at childbirth. Text 10 '
h. f: One of the earliest settling places
50. Mention
'
of train is a definite incursion of modernization. 76. Most senior o!~~g~~ ~s ~~ed with ~ri.
of Lagos was I~n. .u 1
51. ~u shows no respect for the dead. He is the only one who can
start an altercation while returning from a funeral. 77. Obscure.
78. Obscure.
Text8
79 . Mythological name.
52. Mythological name.
53. Mythological name. Text 11 ourd fruit.
80. Tiny container made from the g
166 167
 Te\·t 13
81. Mytl10Jogical place gs _ fexts
82 · Myth olog1cal
· place · foll' son
83· Mytholog1caJ
· place ·
84. Obscure myth 1 .' . saderlnwa ~ubilnmi
85. Elder. o og1cal place. Jofort1lant. 7
1 .
Text 14 E rnu t'~u gb<? o
86. blt would be difficult to try d . ~u ni ~a~a ~~
87 PJ
Y sl1ootin an d1slod
g arrows at the anti ·11 ge a snake fr e'rnu t'~u gb9 o
. ace name. lt . om an ant,hil! ~u ni ~a~a yb~
E rnu t'~U gb<.> o
~uni Baba yb<,> .
•

Attend to ~u
~u is the father of sacrifice
~u is the father of sacrifice
Attend to ~u
E.?u is the father of sacrifice
. '
Attend to ~u
E.su is the father of sacrifice.
•

18.
Esu•
ma se mi 0 lailai !
' ' , • ,
Esu. ma
'
se
. nu o.
Eni
•
EsU
•
ba sori
•
re ki 6 ro
•

Esu
'
•
ma semi•
o.
Ma kewli, ma kirun, lailai !
Ma kewli, ma kirun
'
B<?dun ba de, ma t'~ mi sln
Ma kewli, ma kirun.
Egfulgiln 9l<?m<.> lailai!
E~gful 9l<?m9.
~u
' A~bi,
' Baba diln-ful sln
Eg{mgUn 9l<?m9.
Eegful l'y ri un, lail~i!
I

Egtingful l'y ri un. ~u Agbo,

'
• l'e• ri un.
Baba diin-lin n sin Orlsa
~u, do not trouble me, laila!
168 169
 '
Esu,
. do not' trouble 111e.
Anyone ~u troubles will not sta11d
'
~u, do not trouble 1ne. 6 1ro6 d'~l~d~ Baran y9 16kere.
J 1\- y6 lo koro
l
aara n . .
I \viii write Arabic a11d say Muslim prayers .l ing away
I will write ~bic a11d say Muslim prayers. rJe is s •PP.
n 1·pp1ng a
way
.
Wh.en th~ festiva.1 cornes, I'll worship my deity J-{e is s t . . stealthily away.
ra is slipping, ?
I Wiil wnte Arabic and say Muslim prayers. a a fter a beauty.
He is the masquerade of children, laila ! Is be a ·fut woman?
Behold a true reincarnated spirit. A beau~ . g stealthily away
. sl1pp1n
' Be is the cheater
~u, aged father, is marvellous to worsl1ip Waits for. . stealthily away
He is a veritable deity. is sl1pp1ng,
aara . 1· ping stealthily away.
19. aara lS s tp
K'o 166kan, k6o ta 'Ba1·a 1'6re 21.
• •
Ko r'obi meji , Lamon , s' arufin elebq
· · o
Koo owawa f EsU •
Aserin!
'
B'6 o ji, a ni '~u o gba un' ArUda elebo 0
Latopa Asefin!
' '
~u A~bi kif gbe I6fifo Jasan. Igun gbe ~b9 da , nu o
LaluP<;>n o Asefin!
B'6 j'6kot6 ma i ~nyan. Igun gb'~bq ja' nu o
Asefin!
Take a cowrie, make a gift of it to ~u
' •

Buy two kola nuts Make a gracious sacrifice

Cut the midrib of the oil palm for ~u. May the sacrifice be favoura?le
May it be an acceptable sacnfice
When you ~ ake, they will say, '~u
1 '
will support you ' ·fice be favourable.
~atopa h
May t e sacn . ·f1 between its beak,
Vulture' is beanng the sac~ ice
~u A~bi supports nothing for nothing!
LaluJJ9n . b ropitious sacnfice.
May tt e a P . .f1 e between its beak
Eats his yam only with a small snail. Vulture is bearmg the sacn t~
May it be an auspicious sacnfice.
Info11nant: Mutiu Ade1eke 22.

, ,
20. 6dara oj~y~y~ 0 . ,
N, Y919 o
£ ma r Agbunwa' ,
~rre
Esu 0 ma fy YYY~ 0 .
(

Ny{> 19 o, I

Bara n y9 19, koro E. ma r Agb;inwa ~~e ,

Tabi elewa
• •
o E·• ina f 9I'Q
, , Es' . yeye
.u se · ·
' ' ,
Oreke 1'~wa o Bara nY9 19 koro Se YYYY o.
E ma r Agbunwa ~ire
. ,
•

170 171
 ~oma~y~y~o
F~ y~y~?
~ ma f' Agbunwa ~ire. cc:\l o! i 6 baj~ o
~ ·e
~ Aa J.
orf rn:
Odara is no laughing matter !Y> 1 '
•
cc:u o · · 6 daru
Do not mock the shrewd one ~ ·~ ile rn•
'
Esu . ?Ja J.•
• abhors Jev1ty ~L"ll o1
Do not deride the crafty 011e V?"" • ood luck
. , brings g
Do not jeer at anything concemi11g ~u ~u . u'
Or sneer at him oh! ~ . d luck to me
. g goo
Do not ridicule the ingenious one
13nn . , 1
' Oh! ~u. 'fe
Esu• does not tolerate n1ockery. . d me a w1
f 1n , , 1
23. Oh! ~u. ·1my good fortune
Do n~t ~pot
Eleebo d9m9 ayo o.
Aare o o o. Oh! ~u: . disruption into my house
o not
D ' '1 bnng
Are laa fQm9 ayo ~e, Oh! ~u .
Eleeboo d9m9 ayo o
Aare o o o. 25.
Are laa fQm9 ayoo ~e. f,.su, gbe, yn1, s'ebo
. . . l6ore o.
' . ' ,
~u dagbado o o. E.su gbe e
Nwan\va ni o \\'a, . · s'ebo
En1 . . . l6ore o
Esu dagbado o o, D\.\'an\va ni o '"'a, etc. £su gbe
E~i ~' Yb<? l6ore o
Eleebo becomes ayo 2 counters .Esu gbe' e,
Let's play.
E~i ~'~b<? l6ore o
Just as one plays with ayo counters, . ' ,
Let's play. ~u gbe e , , , . ikU
Ol<Unrin kUkfuil b1
As one plays with ayo seeds, :Esu gbe e ,.
'
Esu
• transforn1s himself into corn, okunrin gbalaja bt ikokun
Look for him: Akuru m~e i gbe
'
Esu• turns into maize, Esu gbe e ,
Find him! Oi6na Ol6dumare
. ' ,
24. Esu gbe e
'
Esu gbere naa wa 0 E~i s'y\J<? l6ore o
' . ' • ' ,
Esu
•
o! ~u gbe e , , .,kiln
Ghere naa wa ko mi o Ko sun nile f 9g9 t1
'
Esu o! Esu gbe e
•

Ba mi wa iyaw6 o &u gbe e.

. · s'ebo
E• 01 . . l6ore o
•

172 173
 f the drummer
. 0
' . mc1ser h drummer.
~ gbe e o b'~I~kun o ,,;\\fu\ c1rcu . umciser of t e
ElekUn 6 sukUn, ~cil, sav kil\fu\ c1rc
• • P: ·s the s
Laar6ye n sun ~j~ ' il l
~u gbe e ~ t•
Ch'ef
1
Ajanaku
1ofof111aO .
( . . . 16ore o
Eni s'ebo
26.
~u gbe e
Esu 16 da ok6 onflu 0 ··ga
;\\anga-~1 a
&u dak6 onilu reberebe \ nga-Jlg '
•
L' 6 dak6 onilu o A~~
~u u
g~yln
. ,
o
Esu Odara dak6 onilu reberebe. . beje ado
• • e,\eg ·1 a
Esu j\\anga-J ,g. o
. ' reward with kindt1ess tl1e giver of sacrifice ~ .. • 0 g~y1n
Esu, reward him ~u 'd'
t,\egbeje. a o
&u.' reward with kindness tl1e giver of sacrifice 1 ga-Jlga , ,
~u, re,vard hin1 j\ a~ a £su kenke, ~~
Esu LatuP , ' ~u kenke, ~u
. ' reward \\rith kindness tl1e gi,rer of sactifice Latopa, · , 'l' o
~u, reward him . dako ont u
Esu
• • re\vard '''ith kindness tl1e gi,'er of sacrifice
Lase~td' , dak6 onilu o.
~u, re\vard him
Esil y ara
A\anga-jlga
Man short as Death. ' .' '
Alanga-Jiga
Esu, re\vard him
Man, so \\1ide he cannot be rounded up! EsU rotect you
May . fp thousand gourds
Esu. re\vard him owner 0 one
M~ so minute he cannot be picked up Alanga-jiga
The policeman of God L atopa, ~u little man
Esu, re\\ ard him
1
Latopa, ~
' u little man
. d the drumffier
~u, do justice to sacrifice Laseni circumc1se . d the drummer.
Esu, reward him. Esu 6dara, circumcise
• •
Man who sleeps with a cudgel resting on his belly 27.
Esu, reward him
Abimq-tUnmQbl
When he wakes with a start, his cudgel is not disturbed
'B?um
' 6 bimi
. , ,., 6fid'ol6ribw~u---'
, \,,',
~u, do justice to sacrifice
Breather with the breather to frighten him iwQ lob~ l~gb~~ott fi dol6ri ibi ,
6
Esu, reward him l WQ lo b1 t~O , ko fi r6ju aye ~ mQ
two lo bi tqun t1
Weeper with the weeper !O terrify the weeper
The '"'eeper sheds tears, ~u shed blood!
Esu m6 bimi
Abim9runmQbl
~u, reward him
The one who does justice to sacrifice
Esu 6dara
· · , , · , un ko o o
On ma maJ~
&u,
•
reward him
175
174
 Esu Odara,
ori ~ maaj~ un ko 6 0 ·fice ot harm us.
E16 Jow6 re Odam? 1sacrt t31cu maY n
h at ~ , '
06kan low6 ~u Qdara so t · , si Akann1
Baba awo. ....,,ant.. Gbadatn<?.
lflfOl••·
One w110 pushes and pushes man agai11 29. ,
. , on1
Esu do not pusl1 me , , ga t6 lQJQ ,
Y~u push one to becorne unlucky ccu Gan . ro s6riln rt:?
~ fi'"''u tni . .
You pusl1 anot]1er to beco1nc u11Jucky
MO ~~ '
Aye le o, . ro soriin rt:?
You push a tl1ird to becon1e u11fortu11atc Mo fikUU t1ll . . ,
Esu do not pusJ1 me
Aye le ?, . ro sqriln rt:?
O~e w110 pushes and pusl1es again i}<UU ffil •
fi
Mo 'nga , , t o' lo16
,,
0011 ,
Esu Odara G
~u
• • .J.
a . nu· r0• s6run
. ftk{iu . rt:?·
May my Fate not allo\Jo' tne to 111eet you
Esu Odara. Mo , , w~o owns this day
, ·u Ganga death 1·n your care
Es
May ·my destiny not include an encounter with you
Odam I place my . difficult place
. ' ho'''' much is your n1oney? ld lS a
A tenth is Esu ·s mone)'. The wor deathm . your care
•
Y
I place m . a difficult place
Odam
. ' father of secrets.
The world ~ th in your care
28.
, I, place m~ eha
, G', ga w o
owns this day
K'Esu, • ma see •
~u an ath in your care.
K'Esu •
ma, see
•
, ,
I place my de
Ebora
• • k' Esu
• ma se
•
wa o 30.
Laalu
, mo rubo•
Oo ~ran rt:?
K'Esu •
ma se•
wa o
OO O reran rt:?
Mo rubo• o · ' n re.
K'Esu
, ,
ma se
,
wa o
E.su
•
Ganga, oo n?ra
Laar6ye
• •
mo ruh9 o Oo ~ran n?
,
K'Esu ma se
,
wa o. Oo ~ran n? ,
• • , , Ganga oo ~ran n?
' E~u , re
May ~u not trouble :Esu laalu oo n?ra,n ·
May ~u not trouble &u Giiiigii, oo n;ran n;. . . al
May ~u not trouble us . h's sacrificial anun
Laalu, I offer sacrifice He looks upon ~ acrificial animal .
'
So that ~u may not hann us He looks upon hts s his sacrificial animal
Laar6ye, I offer sacrifice
Esu Giiiigii looks ~pon "ficial animal .
So that Esu may not hann us
~u looks upon his sac~is sacrificial animal
• ~u Laalu looks upon
•

176 177
 ~u Ganga looks upon bis sacrificial animal.
Laar6ye, f1 ght, then stands aside
31. ho starts a t d
one w at the crossroa s d with ill and i\\ with good
IkU
'
ma so . ile mi d 'ode. old roan compenses goo
Arnn ma so• ile mi d'ode. who re
N ko ma sika one do me ' '
• p o not un y 'yes' to no
'
A t'(>ta at'odi mo ~e \Vgn 16ore nko 111aa sika p o not change my 'no' to 'yes'
change m
Mo ~ni meji nja, mo la v. g11 11ko 111aa slka
1 p o nO t
~u Odara ki i j~ ata · Jea\ous man
~u Odara k~ 1j~ adin Laar6ye.
Mo fepo f ~eni ho\ogy as a bearer of sacrifice.
N ko masika ~otes . egarded in Yorub am yt
•
IkU maa so• ile tni d'ode. 'fhe vulture ts r d me with counters .
1. pu\ar boar ga
N ko n1aa sika•
. 2. APO
Death, do not destrO)' t11)' l1on1e
I \\rill do no cruel deed
Disease. do not destrO)' ffi)' l101nc
I \\rill do no cruel deed.
I do good turns to fiiend and foe
I \\rill do no \\~eked act
I found t\\' O persons fighting. I settled tl1e quarrel
I will do no v.ricked act.
Esu Odam eats no pepper,
~u Qdara does not eat palm kernel oil,
I give palm oil to the evil doer,
I \viii do no evil.
Death, do not destroy n1y house,
32.
Laaroye,
AdijaaJ~ takete
Baba orita
A fi 'bi dire, a fire dibi
Mase •
mi o
f\13 so• beeni
••
mi di ooek6
• • •
Ma so beek6 mi di ooeni.
Ojo'~ ~;ku~rin ··
Laaroye.
179
178
 NARRATIVES OF ESU BLBGB
. . ARA d b"s fortUnes would change.
e was tol ' 1t to war Whole cities were sacked, homes \Vere
iis bancestors wen
d1·dour &:re. spoils· of war were garnered. On their return,
1. Origin ofEsu • ged and set on 't
d their . d money, oth ers received
loot. Some receive, .
~ 113e victors shar~ o ur ancestor found an ~U statue covered ~vith a
1
•
Infor1nant: Tesebiu Es, , ,
01 'd'
, o umare created 0 ,
.ugbay1 ;aves or pro~e br~ught it home. Soon after his retum, his wife became
~u 's father.' No\v , g~n. god of \Var a11d i ~c1othaod . e So be set up this statue and offered sacrifices to God
feared by eve Ogun \Vas not an ea ron,1 and Esu A regnant agatnd. took EsU as his own deity. Then he made a laterite
ryone except 1 · sy n1a1 H · · Ven'.
proved to be a diffi I 11s O\Vr1 so11 F . c Was fio"'n was P . base an ·
d 'ffi cu t son A 1 · ro111 J ierc at its ~u outside bis home.
~nd ~rst ~i11:e cv~~·
I cult to control At fi . s ie grew oldc I e i1idhood c and
oiound to b.een in our family ever since.
he became more he lived at hon1e beeanic "4u ~u has
now lives half.va be ' ore troubles0111e, 6 . his father, bu lllorc
Go~ 1': ~en \V~cn
•

messenger of Es' heaven and ea rt Igun threw hi111 t 3. origin of~ oansa.
0 1' . . u IS not a11 d 1, '''11cre J1c out, Es·

10 laterite to ~ii at .Gilitgil, outside of Ibild~n, was erected by ~he

. grun. The success f or mary mess serves .u for!llant: Gbiidiln*.i Akilnni .
must give his a o any hmnan cndcavo cngcr. Ile Work as the
to any deity b ~P;?val
or disapproval B r. ur depends on E.s· s W1th
Esu Wb . e it . ang6, Qya. or 6 . . c ore any sactifi .u, Who Egbils6 to prevent the I~<; u om ov~~~1ng " an. s ong as .u
'[he · ' b ' 7 fr . Ib"'d' A l Es'

• . • . . en a mother is in la gun. a portion of it I cc is given Was present, it v.:as believed that the lJt;bu would not be able to extend
~u. If It pIeases Esu .hour. her safe de Ii vc . _n ust first o a civil ,.var into lba~an.
be \'ery diffi CUJt • • she \\'111 be safe I)' deI l\'Cred;
. ryifisllOt111 dtl1e .l1a ngds Of
' el1vcry
to Ij~bU
In those days, the used to waylay travellers to and from
8 Ibadan.
'[hey would abduct peop!e at the R}ver Qnil and at Gaitgil. This led
2. Origin of Esu \\' . Will to civil war between the lj~bU and Iblidiln people. War was fierce at
. or sh1p a t O lunJo '
Odil Qnil when the lj~bU
' '
were forced to retreat to M3.mu. The Ibildiln
purs~e
Infonnant: Adeleke . YQ s Co mp ound
people used to their enemies, who usually retreated, at the
TheEsu · 0 f our fathers is kn , chase. Whenever the lj~bU were near, the cry would go up in Ibiidiln
that the Ij~bU
to the E\\·eday , . O\\'Il as Atoled6Je 2 0
. . eP9 age-grad 3 I · · · . · ur a11cest were coming. As soon as someone said, 'They have
is is the only .true Es. e. t is thetr statue ofEsU I ors belonged '

environs. Whoever se . u_and the only one in all· o t 1.at.\v~ worship.

Th entered the town,' the people would reply, 'They have entered what
here. and ultimately ee: information about Esu in 1:·~~adan
and its town?' So the Ibadan people would summon their fighting forces,
'
Ij~bU.
who would mount horses and chase the ' When they had pursued
lj~bU-
comparable to th . Es .n. up here, just as you. l a an is referred '
· fr is . u in all the land. One of o 1ave. TJ1ere is no Esu
back \\rith hun them as far as Ma.mu, at a place called Idi-Aka on the river
on1 war 4 H ur a11cesto b · OmU,9 the ibiidiln pursuers would go back home. This river separated
lj~bU
all O\'er Yorn'ba'Jan d At .th e .was always on th e move firsh rought it
son~ ~t tJ~e,
. the ' from the 'Ibiidiln. A market sprang up on the banks of the
to say, he had no All he had no real offs , . g tJng wars
river and grew into the village now known as 'Miimu.'
Ifii, the deity of d" : . his chrldren were dau ht pnng' ... that is
designs of the d ..1v1nat1on. Ifa is the deity thg ters. So he const1lted ~U
Besides the ' mound at Gilitgil, another mound was constructed
eit1es to m rc. 1 • a commu ·
... for success . e. ra is consulted o nicated the at Mamu to keep the peace.
1n " 'ar good t; ver every · .
The ancestor told Ira
h ortune, whatever. senous issue
All he had \\'ere dau e \V~uld like to know wh
of great importa ghters. Ifa replied that h y he bore no sons
r1ce from the next war. He shoulde would
bringfind someth'
. it. home. Ifing .
he
181
180
 4. Origin of~ . , sed so much trouble that when he was married he even
Infor111ant: Moses Olejede ~ ~a:ife. Another wife was sought for him but by then no woman
)cilled:~arrY him, for he might kill her in a fit of anger. For twenty·
Originally ~ was not born· 01 0' d , , ,voul rs he was a public nuisance and menace, at the root of all
from th e East, West, and Middl
· 10 umare made llim I-I
into it and gave it life Es, e and moulded it.
016d' • • · .u \Vas a shot
Th
c took e
en hcb anh
one ye~ n confusion, and pandemonium.
, umare called &u 'Ayanda, (A , r J)Crson and rcath issens10 '
'f)le!l suddenly he started repa1nng
. . the evil he had done. He started
d . g kindness and mercy to people. He comforted widows acted
. . . m ea e Olodumare 'Eda' or .. • .c. l~scn to be srnan
&u in tu II d · -yan-da· one 1 very C<1

which is a name by \vhich one . r. ~l~daa, mean crcateql 5

]!oWlllfather to the fatherless, and became a ~stworthy friend,
' a
extreme distress re ers to 016dUmarC mg C'rcato . 35 a rous being. So people told Ol6dUmare that 9u was now doing
A , di\ ,. m Sttuati gen~ that he cured people with good medicine. ~U said that if he
~U,
r,
yan. ' or lived in the heavens " '
people Jived and multiplied 01 'd ' , ttl1 Ol6dt1111arc 0
ons of ~?; n~t do good he would gain nothing. He had gained nothing from
th fi . o uniarc a d I . . n ]I~ evil deeds and he was tired, and bored, and old.
is'fhen ~U called lfli, who was also known as 'Labatiri,' or 'Eleri
e our comers of the earth. As AyiJ. d , ' t iat l:.\;U shou Id eanh,
the earth, he found nothm in n a \valkcd the four c Wal~
of human beings, \\•ho see~ed ~~eb dchghtful than to watch t~rners
of Jpin' (Giver of Destiny). He said lfil should work for him by curing
peopl~, assuring pregna~cy.and easy bi~h. ln return, lfil would always
be among them. Ay3nd3 corn I e mcrc?s1~1g forever. I le w c deeds
roaming the four comers of tfi::e~I ~d~· •?at ~ie
to was bo~~ted
to give ~ his share of his gifts and sacnfices. .
When he was getting ready to leave the earth, ~ told lfil that his
wanted to go and live amon I 1 an J\~ng m the heave With
not grant l1is request A)ffll"dag 1u111ad11 be111gs. \\TJ1e11 Ol6du1n n~.
lie time was up. lfil called all his children, male and female, and told
g tro~ le itl tl1e l1eavc
Ol'd' ' starte caus111 b are d1d
cu•
0 umare \\'Ondered hO\\' SUCll a tiny them, 'Laa\u is leaving.'
so m h fu . creature as A , d, ns •What will we do'?' they asked. 'How should we call him and
to1~; tn.'"':t•ie tocon1pany
do \\•ith him. A~:~~~
uc co11 sion. He didn't la yan a could .
said he was lonely and \vanted remember
Labariri him?'
told LiilU about his children's questions. Liia!U asked' that
a mound be built. This brought about the \aterite mound used as ~·s
of men. of tl1e cl 'Id a
, , 11 ren
016dumare reckoned that Ayanda . emblem. He sat on it and disappeared. People say he changed into a
he . \\'ould not li\•e peaceably an1ong'''as
menso But A , todi.live''
d1ffic,ult . ith tl1at

doinm~~ agre~d.' Ayii.nd~

mound.
going to eartl1. Finally 016du , . yan (1 i11s1sted o Hence B?U
' is worshipped at a mound. Labariri gave the mound to
do"'ll to earth. But before and. he pus!1cd
he wanted for a father when he :ot ~s, Olo~uon1are asked Aya11da \vl10
'
sixteen chiefs, Esll's descendants, to worship him.
•

to Ketu and Osun who 1· d , ?~art . l6dun1are ga\re Aya11d'

~ketu. Ketu and ~un had no child~e .
Al . ·. • 1ve at Isen 11 Ketu
was the daughter of
a 5. Ifaand Bsu
•

th~ee child!ec~:~pre;.nant. afte~

haired. Mysteriously Ketu b n, they were old and white Informant: Adeleke
Esu is the messenger of If:!.. In the old days, Ifil was a trader who
months. What 'a She bore the child
c1.11ld \Valked. He was very small an~ t ird month after his birth, the ~dged all over the countryside from dawn till night, then returned
disturbed the whole neighborhood dark and nev~r grew taller. He home dusty, footsore, and tired. He was not a very good businessman
assaulted all the other child . ~ecause he maimed, blinded or because he was too kindhearted; he was not firm enough. People
Onjj3ngbgn' troublcmak ren, ie got the name o'mo·E~u. would price his wares and bargain with him until they brought his

~U 's earth father Osun er~ve h' . . .

honour or fame of the 'city) ~ k . .1~: ~pec1al name, 'Qlli-ilU' (the
price down to one half. 1fll would always give in to selling his wares
at a loss because he did not like protracted arguments. \-le was a peace-
, o tn- o (restless spirit, wanderer).
l83
182
 '
loving man. \Vomen particularly took advanta Ifa always put aside ~'s share f1rst.
known donors.
him sad stories about their lives sick children ge ~~ lfa. lhey ht bY un
poor harvests, little money. Most of the time th'eun atthfu1 hush l()\d bfo\lg r of the Deities
se sto · ands 1'1 ..tessenge · d d
true, but they always touched a sympathetic chord . nes \Vere 1 ~ T• f \\ deities. Sang6, the de1ty of thun er an
6. . the messenger o Es. a s his emissary
. "k
be so moved that he would either give away J1is w tn lfa. Be \Von~t
A. •
before he stn es. vgun,
ridiculously low prices. As a result, Ifa \Vas a veryares or sell the~ d ~u is·ng always sends .u a to war without Esu's kno,v\edge. Any
. poor m ··•at • ,.,htJll , never goes . . . Wh
was well liked. an. Buth \\19· deitY of war, rs or at the roadside be\ong to ~u. enever
One day Ifa met ~u. ~u \\'as sitti11g at tJ1c cros c the ·fices found outd~o . f1ces he asked that they be taken to the
. , sroads 1 5,act1 ped with sacn ' h tree
and teasing people. He \Vas a very s111a ll 111a11 \\'llo c Id. aughing . was swam the roadsides the bush, the ma ogany '
seen within the cro\\'d tl1at surrounded 111111 )'et, Slllal~u ardly ~ 11 ~ussroads, the towng~t~~~ beach next ~o a waterway so that other
1 cro rubbish heap , an . . \s and insects might share the
canied himself \\ itl1 great dignity. Tl1cre was autllorityas1 ic Was, he
1
the es birds, an1ma ,
. 11 l11s v · . creatur b
an d gran deur m his n1anner. H1s au d1e11ce scc111cd to fear 311 d 01cc \ivtn.g This is why the y oru a say,
him at the same time. The)' stood at a resr>ectful distnticc 3 d rcspcct saco flee. i2
. ,, 1augh
when he laughed. \\'l1ethcr l11s Jokes \\ere a111us111g or 110 t p cd Whatever the .dog eats
. · h "- · asscrsb
greete 1m. \\'It ....great de1ere11ce ~1e11 bo\\ ed · \VOtlicn knclt Y
d h E,su provid~s .'t.
touched their l1ead to the ground, and restra111cd tl1c1r noisy ch'l or Whatever ~u eats .
1 dre
Ifa \\'ent to tl~e crossroads. cunous to find out \\'110 ~u \Vas. Son. The troub\ed man finds it.
h~ bega~ stopping regularl)' at the crossroads to visit l~u and a f:on
friendship developed ben,·een tl1e t\\'O 111e11. A ltl1ougl1 &u di' d ast 7 ~I fa's Friend . f the test lfa gave his friends.
(Thi~ is one of the best kno\vn stlor1des o1973 59-62· Bascom 1969a,
· not
seem to \\'Ork. he \\'as \\'ell dressed a11d \\'ell fed . Ifa told Esu ab 4 3· Cour an er ' '
his unsuccessful business enterprise. ~u sn1ilc?. He told 1fa no~~t Cf. Thompson \ 97 3 , , '
\\'Orry, tl?at 11e \\'Ould remedy tl1e situatio11. So ~u ca1ne to Il\'C \\' t~ l 06.) ~ . , . ''~ ve one kne\V him because they consulted
lfa. But ~u did not live m t11e house. He remained outdoors. 1le s~id lfa "vas a gba1i1mp. E f'j
. y had 10 store
c th m When a woman was
LOT e · b b
J1e liked _people and he liked to talk to tl1e1n and \\1atcl1 tl1c1n coine him about \Vhat des in t .~ was to be taken or a a y
· potent \Vhen a \Vlie \t d
and go. ~u ad,rised Ifa to gi\ e up trading in order to i1111)rO\'e his lot barren or a man im ' ·1 or drought people consu e
Since he had the gift of foretelling the future and l1eal111g, lie sl1ould named when there \Vas fire, pestl enc~ t d the wishes of the or1~as,
practise di\ ination and medicine. People already ki1e''' l1im. I le sl1ould lfa and he helped them. He cf:o~l.un1~eeprov1ded ct1res and found
. ted out human ai ings.
make house calls and attend to their needs. lfa excha11ged his tra)' of and he po1n .
~rares for a bag of medicine and a divination tray and beads. In the solutions to problems. f l who claimed to love him.
morning, I fa would greet his friends. When he came back in the Ifa's house \Vas al\vays full o peop e If:' 's house. One day lfa
. patter of feet at a \
e\ ening tired, footsore, and would pick up his bag and as he crossed
1 There was a continuous . r whether he was the most popu ar
tl1e thresl10Jd, he would greet his friends. Wl1en he came back in the overheard two men ~gu1ng ove an contended that lfa was not
e\ ening tired, footsore, and weary, ~u would ask hin1, ' What did
1 and best loved man m to~. One mPeo le only went to hin1 becaus~
,,ed but that he was just being l1sed. h tpo the hol1se where there is
) 'OU bring b~ck today?' I fa \vould say, 'Nothing. They could not afford 10 v • d 'Feet rus · th
n1)' ' 'isits. ' ~u ~1 oul~ say, 'They will.' Then in the dead of night,
they needed him. He sa1 , . there is no more to give, e
· ay· as soon as d ry few
~ 1hile Ifa \Vas asleep, ~u \vould make the rounds of all the homes Ifa something to give aw yth , . should happen to lfa to ay, v~ k
l1ad \'isited earlier in the day. In the morning when Ifa was ready to stampede stops.ls If an ing ld take his place and do his wor
. him Another man wou
set out, stacks of food and gifts would be in front of Ifa's house would nuss ·
' \85
184
 and no one would feel the difference ' Tb . in order to break what
convinced, but he said nothing in defen~e f le ,0ther ll1ah . ed to take action il trade. Anned with
""' gave a 1ot of th ought to what he had oh fa. ., \\r:1~
"' n~ ·1 sellers ~~~1dstranglehold on the.~ sh Orunmllll on bis
e pal!Jl o1 d ()r{Jnm1la s they decided to ~~ ~arket women who
I1a
his friends by having it rumoured that he Waea~d. lie decidect
"fbconsider:nd cutlasses, ately for <)rUnm1la, ·uOrfuunllll and ~ent
filled with a log was put out. Ifa hid behind sth ead. A. ciosect to1tst
reactions of his friends as they came to pay the .e door to Wat ~lliQ ~:~s. stic~iciu F:::
hiDl· the conspirahcey~~t~r to his friend Esk.u~
feigned grief and sorrow. She tore her hair With ~;;spects.1ra•: Iii, cro\lfldS .anfrteO
. ds \earn
.
rn him. .
, 'la took t t to run away' as the mar e
QriUUlll
herself at the coffin at different times. She ~ands anct th;re
re btS did not wan
:~rd to. W:as baffled. He in at first. He allowed
inconsolable.
One by one Ifli's friends came. Most of them chatt d
P tended to '11
be
O~oJlllla d suggeste~. but did not say anyth ~Ill had finished
.women ha5 ve~; f*\/ attentive d fury. When . . h' Throughout
~ii~~ to unload s , ' Ill to share a.mea Oninmllll's problem
gaily on the way until they got to Ifa 's house. Then they e dand laug1ieQ hi. anger an \ with 1m.
a fulse serious look. It was quite apparent they felt no ~u fd~ YPuton 1 ()rU111~11la EsU invited<)~ u the subject of . hout the dinner.
desultory conversation with If.i's wife, then settled into a he:t ·d .ey made . -"1ng, , . , d. d not bnng p Es' , clowned throug ersby
b ld ak r~' e d1sri1.,~·
spe"" I E;>u ' In tead, .u d ut to pass '
a ~ut w o wou t e u" s position
h · · and minister to their aid. -..,.1111J tbe Jllea , aim oil sellers. des grimaces: He ca~le tb~m. By the end of
~U was at his farm by the crossroads when news ofJfa•
death reached him. He threw down his hoe, put on moumingsc~~:geQ
~~ ~
with a~d
okes m:nd bantering jokes w:d had almost forgotte_n
lle greetm?~
ng in abumo~
good d both men were m
and wept. He then demanded that the coffin be opened. lie had t he~
t .
exchangt·ng Au1lllu.-~
...'.rorn1 \a was
b. w1t . h palm wme an
his friend once more, embrace him, and say farewell. His grie;,~ee the event_ ; Esu plied jm . g bawdy songs. • • h t Esu bad not
heart-rending to see. as t~
bis won:1e They started to ~mdawned on QrUnnnla t a t~esbold of
The other 'friends' laughed quietly at ~U.
' They said, '~U is makin good spu:' . time to leave, it When he reac?ed the
When it h was lf his problem. d 'd 'Esu my goo
d friend,
t
a spectacle of himself. Why, no one is indispensable.' Ifli's wife th/ imse to d an sa1 , . ' · do no
quietly opened th~ coffin for all to see. !fa's throaty laugh came fro~
addressed QrUnrollil turned aroun .oumey, if my eneffiles
EsU's house, . I return from my j ft
behind the door. ~Uran to embrace his friend, leaped for joy, and . ·usee you when . if you use the so
danced around the room. The others sltmk quietly away, with lfa•s I ain
WI h nd ' nem1es
the upper a . will vanquish your e e ocket. Do not fight
and ~U's derisive laughter ringing in their ears. ~U and Ifa remained
' '
g EsU replied, 'Youd bring kolanuts from thth~r than bear arms and
the best of friends.
ans
~er. Gentle wor s
When you go
on your rounds, ra. h mile on your face
b siness wit a s
8. &u with any~nea. fight go about ~ou:th ui·s manner:
• Protects Ifa from Danger
prePare lor . our' mouth. Smg m
(Cf. Abimbola 1968, 2.23-24.) and a song m y t come my way
akers do no
•
OrUnmila used to trade in palm oil. His trade took him on journeys to Troublem . ' delicate trade
many towns. He would go away for days on end. His clients liked I am engaged ma .. palm oil I bear.
It is palm oil I be:· not cross my path; it is
him because he was fair, his prices were low, and he only sold pure Rabble-rousers,tn. me
red palm oil. Women used to say that if one wanted to trap a man, one do not ru
Rabble-rousers, ·1 'th a big
should cook with QrUnmua 's palm oil, for no man could resist food palm oi . hi ounds w1
cooked that way. The other palm oil sellers became jealous, for By spilling my , d . He went on s r ·uage people
. his mouth. ~
Es, 's a vice. At very vi '
•
Onl.nmlla almost had a monopoly on the palm oil trade since his palm ,,., , '\ii foil owed. .u The market
vrunm1 d Esu's song m . of his song.
oil was preferred over and above any other. :le on his face an . t the first strains
sm1 0
f their homes a
came out 187
186
 \Von1cn said, 'WJ1at is the matter with Qrunmila today? F'
is about to be attacked, he is certainly very happy. whor One Wh . dship with Ifa
s.,u's Fr1en
know? Why is he so happy?' at does h~ lo. . . bos~de ~ugbayi , ,
c)rUnmi18 's ambushers also felt the sa~e way. The ringJea forJ!lant. A. . · 016dUmare created all; created l fll and ~u a~~ng
'One must not attack a man when he is happy. Oninrn' J' der sairi Jfl the beginning, f rom t he begi'nning' Esu · liked Ifa best of all the deities. ·
must 11ave been warned by tl1e market women that we• rne 1 a ce,.. . . · ...,
''<ltniy Jo deities. fi d of Esu. Whenever there was an altercation
ant to. att~
0 tber was very on · · · r. d h.
him, and he 1.s on ly one man agamst. many.' Another palm "•Ck in return, . . . h aven Esu would side with Ifa and de1en 1m
said, 'c)rUnmll8 is so cheerful and confident it must mean ~~ Seller Jfil, og the de1t1e.s .i:1. e Ifll ~nci Esu became inseparable ~ends and
better strategy than we do. It would be wise for us not to toucl h~as a ai;;~ the other ~~::~ other's sight for any length of time. ~ always
this moment. There must be some power behind him.' And1 1111 a1 ~ere never out ?. s door Whenever Ifii went out, he would say goodbye
palm-oil sellers were afraid and left Qrunmi la alone. so the t in front of Ifa h h. red with Esu whatever he brought back.
sa · d and e s a · · · r:~.. , · as
to }ljs frien ' . s were offered to other detties, ~u s portion w
9. ~ Taught c)ronmna Ho~v to Di, ine 1
When sacn~ce d hundred and fifty-six children who ran errands
fi t Ifa ha two . . d
(There are numerous stories by E{;U followers that ~U taught ~.
1 0 a-ered
' 1J.• • irs
b ·t Esu
, remain · ed If:a' 's chief messenger,, hts errussary, · an
divine. Recorded versions include Baudin I 885, 3 4; Frobcnius ;, ~o for bun, u ~nl the most important erran?s. Ifa had s?e~ta1names
1 c..;eod who ran y
d Esu whenever e h wanted to send EsU
. on a rruss1on.l h dThere
I : 229-32; Farrow 1926, 37; Lucas 1948, 73-74. !fa diviners, of course'
~
u•
reject the notion.) , he calle ecial . . names that Esu . was called whenever . peop Es · ope
' 1 P
E{;U had taught If3 how to divine with ikin. In this way, Jfa beca are aOso od sfortune. These names are found in incantations to .u.
for g
very important as the communication link between men and the Ori~e 111
BsU and the Cattle Egr ets
The hzinmp(ds-(the earth spirits), who numbered two hundred "and
one, were j ealous of If3, but they could not hann him because Esu 11. • . t He liked to provoke people
Es
, u' was always starting an argumen : h l1'ked to boast about
· t. ns Sometimes e
was always on hand to fight on Ifa's behalf.
'
· ·~st to watch their r~ac io . . Esu was sitting at a banquet
Once upon a time, E{;U bad to go away somewhere. As soon as he J. lf On one particular occasion, . . as served in
himse . 1 tiful and palm wme w
was gone, the earth spirits attacked Ifa with the dreadful disease with other ori~s. Food \Vas P.en nversation was loud and loose.
leprosy. Ifa fought for his life as best he could, but although he did large calabashes fil~ed to the bnm. Co d him Esu decided to create
not die from the disease, he did Jose his fingers. This pleased the Becoming bored Wlth the compadtar~:ori.ii ~ittmg next to him that
earth spirits, because Ifa 's stunted hands no longer could cast the ikin his own amusement. He re?1~r~e tooether. The oriiz took offence at
as nimbly as he used to.
' he was wiser than all t~e orz.:ns h g Es ' , was no wiser than be or any

When ~u returned from bis journey, he was very angry with the d 1ed hotly t at u
this statement an rep i Wh Es~ suogested putting the or1.:n s , • ''
earth spirits and blamed himself for having left Ifa defenceless while other o1·i~, for that ~a~e:. e~ Esu
b;ought out a very big black
he was away. He swore he would never leave Ifa again and that he wisdom to a test, the o1:1~ ~gree ke it to the town of the cattle egrets
would stand guard over If3. He then made If3 the P~(d ' 1 to replace ag
ba'da 1s and asked the orz{Lls to ta
.•• thought s w thi as an e~~ assignment.
~, I
the original ikin that If3 used before he lost his fingers. EsU
' told Ifa to and to sell it ther.e. :ne ori;n and advertised that it was for .sa e.
.
~tay behind and do curative deeds. A fter ~ti left the earth, Ifa kept
'
He took the agbada to the to\~ed the agbirdci, liked it, and sa1~ h~
Esu
• 's mound in front of J1is shrine. One of the cattle egrets exam1n d e mission to show it to a frien
ld like to buy it, but 11e b~gge P.dr th house. The egret never
wou . d fi hun outs1 e e 'd d t
h 'l the 01·i.il wa1te or h'le the ori.iz dee\ e 0
w 1e
came out agam. ·. After waiting for a long w i ' .

188 \R9
 go i11 tl1e house to fiild o~u:t~~I:=~--~~-----~,~----~--~~~----------~-------
Entenng· the l1ouse the ow,1at was k · because people behaved as if they could cope entirely
, eeping the
filled with egrets. Si~ce th:·1,sa discovered that th:gret
Se'
beeafll.e worwn. First carne a . N.ext came drought, and finally,
famine.

;a~1~~ b~,
,tofrgo he could n~t ~~e~:~edh :~~e
alike, and house"'
on theirp o pie began to d'1e \'k 1 e fl'1es. Es'
.u came among people to see
death· eogoing on and was displeased by the situation on earth. He
'g a. a om him. Perplexed b
tell lum what had 1
. t e egret wh e he had lll
. y the situation h o had tak no 1~ b 3
t wasticularly displeased with . the lawlessness, laziness, and
Or;.:r~~;ed.
the agbtidti. The B)U smil~d 'sa~ ~astened to~
and the ,~as ~ar. he was indignant that human beings did not rightfully respect
garment. . I not see how &U · could le. would
poss1bl r .ll
ecove to d1so~ ~~s. And so he decided to bring humans to their knees by
t11e urt.ing their cond'1t1on. . He created more d'1ssens1on . and chaos.
On the next market day Es. y recovcqh r
everyone into tl1e town ha1i uf;e~t t? the egret's town and e
\vorselen no longer un derstood their
peoP
afflicted with d1sea~e
. an d misery.
.
. neigh
. bours and everyone was
Very so?n 1t. became apparent that
they were all assembled Esu k dn important announ summoned
that they had no king. fisu .fe~s e to see the king. Thec~mcnt. When Jllan rnisery had increased with the amval of a certain short little
long speech on how imPort ~~d great surprise and laugrcts replied bUan who wore his hair long, tied in the back with a cowry string.
crowd was soon swayed an;: it was .for then1 to have :c~~d into a
!TI people said, 'Let us go to the man who carries a club and smokes
a pipe. Let us go to t~e man with the !acial marks and the body marks.
the others to nominate him as grkmg .eed \Vtt11 l1i111. Everyon
The . ing.
e tried t0 The
tvfaybe he can alleviate our misery. In those days, people did not
e:e;;,~;e l~~s '~~~~:1011.
C I
a med th e crowd by · · re was great . &et
have facial or body marks; nor were they circumcised. So they went
who stood out from knew of a way in t4u to ~U, bowed before him and worshipped him. BiU revealed himself
who had a black agbtidQ in hi e cou.ld be appointed kin omeone
soon as he said th . s possession shou ld beco g. Anyone as the messenger of Ql(>run, whose mission was to initiate law and
He was . . is, one egret crune out wearin . me a king. As order on earth. He told them that they must live in peace and harmony
like itEs~tdiately ~ppointed king, since no ;na b~g black agb4dQ with one another and with nature. In order to be at one with every
of th . . u a so appomted six chiefs to hel . e e se had anythin . living thing, they must sacrifice. That is why human beings sacrifice
today. Sacrificial food is placed at the crossroads where ~ lived;
birds and beasts partake of this food, in keeping with ~U's dictum.
was only one robe, it would b g and his administration. Since ~hthe
c?pies of it made for the k~ ne~essary that.he take it away to here
As soon as people stopped their slothful existence and began to till
disappeared with the a . • ng s new cabinet. In this wa ~v~ the ground and plow the fields, the rains crune again. The fields grew
acknowledged Esu's
·
sugpbea~a an.d brought it back to the
nor wisdom.
0,.;l,' Eh~u
. ,wo
green and luxuriant once more. Famine and drought disappeared.
When it came time for ~u ' to return to heaven, people tore their clothes
in grief, saying, ·~u
' Laa!U (Honour of the town), do not \eave us. What
12. Ho"v Esu . Introduced Circumcision and F . shall we do when you are gone? Who will look after us and defend us?
Info11nant: Chief Ajanaku ac1al Marks How can we reach you?' Bill ' told them that as long as they sacrificed at
the crossroads he would always be with them. Then he turned into ' a
Th~ ea:Iiest people on earth had an
beg1nrung. In those days the 0 . • easy and comfortable life in th laterite mound. That is why today people make sacrifices to Bi\i at
associated with the deiti·e' F
r.or a r1v1ng,. rd1~s roamed the earth freely and e
s. oo was pi t' ful men
the crossroads, in the marketplace, and at \aterite mounds. Before
and there was no death en I ' nobody worked hard Esu left, he cut and circumcised the men, telling them that this was
the
• sign that they were his children and be was their father. That is
But people did not conduct them . .
~~e~y and cruel towards one anot::;ves with propriety. They turned why Bill is called 'father' and the tradition of circumcision and putting
o11;!Ds, most of the major oris?is tu . Because they were rude to the marks on the face and body is observed even today.
. re med to he aven. Then everything

~~~~~~~~~~~~
190 ----~-------~~~ 191
 13
• ~: The Al'enger'9
22
Info11nant: Chief Awrinde Obat818. a Lesson in Humility
~ teaches.
The elders sometimes
· · begz.n th .
e1r peroration on , , J'· t· Jvfutiu Adeleke
May 919~ protect us from ~u With: r11forf11an .. d t967 90· Idowu l 962, 83.)
parnn er , '
us before ~u.
jJ'
anyone Who Will betra (Cf. G. ing past a market place when he saw a good-looking
On da
, , ' e y, a vengeful man decided
Yor de
ny obatala ~as ::ctioned. He took an immediate liking to the young
~u s anger against him probabl to harm another rna 5'1ave bei~g ght him. He took the slave home with him and treated
He went before Esu 's l~t . y because tl1e man 11 d n by brino; Jllatl ~d k~udness and affection. The slave responded to his good
, . ente and said· a Wrong c:>•ng 10
&u L , · i , · cd h11h
· with 'th loyalty and devotion
hi1l1 · to h'is master. Ob ' ...t.l'a became very
. al.(1
· aa u, stealtl1y one ··•. fortU11e W1
Who has water in tJ1e house d of his slave.
fon day at a gathering of the deities, Qbatala started boasting about
~et bathes \Vitl1 blood. . o~:ve. ~ overheard and was displeased because Qbatala \Vas
Fierce one in the farm
You are present · · wshoWIs ·ng off Es
· ·
' u decided to teach Obatala a lesson. When Obatala
' ·
It is to you I co~:.st as I am prese11t:
5
turned home, he called loudly to his slave but received no ans\ver.
~ thought at first that probably his slave was running an errand and
Then he raised his .
Michael had an ar voice and continued 'I Ja w~uld be back soon. More time passed. Qbatala called out again for
' gument \\ritl Alb ' ' mes tl his slave and once again received no answer. Qbatala decided to go
you are fond of palm ·1 b l ert, the son of David '20 ie son of
palm kernel oil So I hot . ut Albert. son of David cla. . I say that looking for him. Although he looked everywhere, he could not find
"J •
drums. - Here. take th a\'e come to ' 11ns You him. When he went to his bedroom, there lying on his bed was his
Im . you, fleet-footed d Prefer
slave, who had been strangled! Qbatala threatened to find the culprit
At this, James poure~ ~~me oil \\'hi~h I know you like~~cer of bata '
and punish him. ~u appeared before Qbatala and announced that he
he continued 'H palm oil on Esu 's laten·t
' ere are some kol e mound Th had done the deed to teach Qbatala a lesson in humility.
~a\'e brought you the best kind '~ nbutsk, one of your cl1oice fo.od e~
em on the effigy. 'Now I . e ro e some kola nuts and s. '
15. Three Akara Balls
generous. and be fi pray you to reward me wi'th 11 thre\v
ne 1cent deeds tb a the g d '
Info11nant: $iyanh<?la ~bfurmi
offerings of your favourite foods ~you reserve for those who ;~k '
suffer personal loss nor loss of fanill on~ Jet me die; neither let me (Cf. Epega, n.d., 8)
says I should offer you palm ke 1 ~or ~nds. Albert, son of Dav· e Long, long ago, there was a man who had everything: wives, children,
the son of David., James took me oil ... This oil, then, is from Alb ~, houses, large far1n everything. He had not always been so
the Iaterite. 'He also gave me ssome palm kernel oil and poured ite , prosperous, and he became very conceited. At the beginning of his
you snuff from Albert Wh o~e.snuffto give to you Ip on rise, he had always sacrificed to the orijls and had given alms. No
lm · atever it is d · resent to
pa kernel oil and snuff. ~ou o to those who offi one who was hungry or thirsty was ever turned a\vay from his door.
, your taboo Items, that do., er you Everyone thought highly of him and regarded him as a godsend. The
gods blessed him.
But pride took over. The wealthier he became, the more reckless
he became. He grew selfish and avaricious, arrogant, and insufferable.
He did not go to the diviners anymore, because their homes were too
humble for him; he considered the diviners too dirty and unkempt
192
193
 . u dcc1ded to teacl1 ltim a I ce. e' right hand man. He would walk with Ol6dumare and
so that he lost all l1is crops N~ssot~1. He set tl1e rnan' o16dil11l~p:cial chores. At that time, the world was not as we now
wJ10 had see1ned so con1p;tibJew 1at the man Was s fal'llls on perfo~ 'fhere was no sky and no earth. There were no mountains
throats. They quarrelled and b. ;nd peacefu I were Poor, his "'i6re, J<!loW 11· iand. There were no animals, birds, or plants. Ol6dUmar~
finally they left him, one by one1cThered and fought onat each Oth Vcs sea~, ~~ to create the e~rth and appointed Qbatala to do this task.
frot 1· • e man e an er' dee•~ h d witl1 some soil , water, a palm tree, and a chicken Obatala
n sett 111g their quarrels that h was so exha Other u .s
Then, one ~y one, ~U struck edwas almost happy t~sted and ti~~I fll
rn1s e
t down to create the earth.
' .
c~dgel. Next, ~U invited Deat oi:v? the man 's chil sec theni eQ was senad of going directly about his errand, Qbatala sought out the
111m wl1enever God g
·u . I ~ to v1s1t tl1e rna11 D dren With&,~·
ave t 1e s1gnal Th · eath w 11s
rnstedeities to boast about h.ts m1ss1on
. . an d his . importance
. in the
was I m his stomach and could . e tnan fell ill 1--I as to tak other e of things. ~u got the wind of this and was very displeased.
body, and legs began to swell r:ot walk or stand. His ~ ached an: sche~er to teacl1 Qbatala a lesson, he placed a large gourd of excellent
four comers of the earth The . e. s~nt for tnedicine rn ace, hands ~:wine where Qbiltala woul~ find it. Qbiltala came to earth and
~weet concoctions. The; male al~~1~1~t:~d to him bitter ~:troni th; P rted the arduous task of creating the earth. He was soon very tired
ays. He was bled and pununell d r11d o11g draugl1ts of ionsand stad thirsty, and decided to rest for a while. Then he discovered a
dowt1 with palm oil and e an n1assagcd 1-Ic Water for ~urd of palm wine, which seemed to come from nowhere, right before
ritu 11 coco11ut oi l a11d I . Was lllbb
a eaves. Yethisconditiond 'd 1c was wasl1cd . eel ~Un· Qbatala could find nothing more irresistible. He drank one cup,
of his money on the uac ' not change. When he h With the then another, and another. Soon Qbatala had drunk himself senseless
looked as though he !a ks'. they deserted him. I Ic was ad spent all
and fell into a d~ep stupor.
Finally, in extreme di:;omi to die at.any moment all alonc. Jt Meanwhile, E~u started asking about Qbatala in heaven. His
persuasion Es, ess, e asked Esu to l1el I :
ins~le~~:~~~~:o ~~asked ~~:~Iler
insistent inquiry after Qbatala's whereabouts made Qbatala' s
for his r;erp the man. h/:n much protracted absence quite noticeable. Ol6dumare therefore sent
before God and ' he advi::~ ~oted that the matter had alre:darnends Chameleon to find out what Qbatala was doing. Chameleon was not
ball_s.~U took these to the ;;;;;1an to sacrifice with threeya!?"~ the fastest creature in the world and it was a long time before he
decide the man's fate Esu ffi ghty, and when tl1e tim ara brought back word that Qbatala \Vas in a drunken stupor under a palm
The food stuck in his ihr~a;r;:done ~f ~1e Q~GrG balls to 0~6~~~: t.o tree and had not completed the task of creating the world. Ol6dllinare
offered him another GkOrG _Olodumare could not speak , r~. was so puzzled at this news that he would not accept Chameleon's
force down the first one ' re~son1.n g that the second morsel . El)u story about Qbatala. It was inconceivable that Qbatala could have
as both balls were stuck. _o~·dU:are complied but choked evenwould had any palm wine to drink, because the earth was empty, void of
it~ot. no farther than the ~~h~: :;oat. Then he tried the third on:~e; people and vegetation. Even more puzzling to 016diunare was f¥i's
Olodumare signalled that Es , ho. Unable to speak and in great ' .u behaviour. E~u ' did not seem surprised at Chameleon's report; he
dealing with the cu lprit. Esu· ~: ou~d take over the responsibili~'~f seemed to smile in a knowing way at the news of Qbatala's condition.
and forgave the man . . mp antly left 016dumare's presence He also had been the one who suggested sending someone after
Qbiltiilll. It was almost as if he had expected Qbiltillii to be
16. Qbitalaand&u
• incapacitated.
Not wanting to accept such a bad report aboutQbata\a, 0\6dumare
~Cf. Idowu 1962, 22)
Es. u' is
. a force to be reckoned
sent Dove to reinvestigate the situation. Dove came back quickly to
w.th confrrm Chameleon's story. The earth was not yet created and Qbata\a
an archdivinity. In the b . J • among the deities, even byObat 'l'
. a a,
eg1nn1ng before C rea t.ion, Qbatala was indeed in a deep, intoxicated sleep. Dove also reported that he
was
194 195
 w~Y
the river. first he washed his clothes and hung them to dry
11~d seen a11 en1pty gourd of al .
\V111e next to Obatal.
· 1. Es
"· '
u, p n1 w111el ·a11d a 11alf-e1n
greeted piS to ent into the river to wash himself. ·
'file~ne
" wobat313 came out of the nver, . h'1s clothes were nowhere to
b~t ~
muttered son1ething abou·t peo 1 t 11s news with Pty cup of
spend time braggm'g b p wl10 never co great gl Patil\ Wbend ·Stark naked, he began to look around for them. Esii was
'F.su di a out assign . mplet ee
~heir ~ foUllu~ Qbil.tAI~ a~,d
~U
. . , d you have a hand in this?' , ments instead. 016e err and in a tree watching laughing softly to himself.
sitt1 1~
in the task of creating the w .
Th usmess '
~,
answered, 'He _dumare ands
pride and conceit is my b . orld is Qbatala 's bus· lp1ng
mess b
016ct~ukeQ,
Illar
Qb3~.s 13 looked up at the sound of Biu s laughter and saw that Esu0
Qb~tSl3
clothes. was very angry but he kept his anger \
p~d se;f. lJe asked Bill what he was doin.g up in the tree with his
httllh ~U answered that he had been taking a stroll by the river and
e, other
, deities understood . u and started c . , ut CUtb·IJ\g!
E(;u, a for?e to be reckoned with hantmg: c\ot ee5 .bad. come across the clothes, which . he thought belonged to a
He can bnng low the higl1 . titn
that h of a drowning . acc1'dent. He had not been aware that they were
~e, can make anyone lose face ~~at313's ~lothes. ~~ ~etumed QbiitSl~'s t~row.ing
clothes Ii{' them
B?u, do not confro11t me down at him. As Qbatala bent down to pick them up, Biu again poured
Co11front somebody els~~. ii down on Obatala and his clothes. Both Qbitt.3.lll and his dried clothes
And so 0 16dillnare .
~ere once again wet with palm oil. Qbil.tlilll was angry, but, as before,
Qb3tlil3 was so embadapomted another deity in Obiita ., pe kept his anger to himself. He washed his clothes again, spread
today. As for Esu h ssed that he never drinks i'a s place and
~re,at: t~:v:~~eased
thetn out to dry, and went into the water to wash himself.
almost helped 1. teasing Qbata1a !ao: tWth'ne even
e day he When his clothes had dried, Qbil.tSlll put them on and continued on
his journey. He had not gone far when it grew dark and Qbiitala decided
to rest inside a clump of trees. Just as he had settled himself for the
17. QbataJ.a's Travails Before Beco ming K'
.c~urlander 1973, 79-82)
night and was lying down looking at the skies, he noticed a gourd
(C: ing tied to one of the trees in the grove. He reached out to untie the vessel,
Qb~tala was going on ajourne B but he lost his hold on it so that it slipped and spilled more oil on
~ut
which told him that he \Vas Y·. efore he left, he consulted t
that he should sacrific gomg to become famous and
Journey Ha . e to ensure a successful
r~e
oracle,
spected
him· ln the background, QbiitSlll heard !¥i's chuckle. For the third
time, Qbatala had to wash himself.
. . v1ng rendered tl1e necessary 'fi completio11 of hi, Finally it was daylight, and Qbatlllll continued on his journey. He
sacn ice Ob · •1•
s Journey to run
hi he was wron sn;;oothly,_ confident that there
But w~u.ld ~~:
expected
s came to a town, a strange town, for no one was about and nothing
stirred. All the windows to the houses were shuttered closed and there
eventful. g, or the Journey proved to be both unp lo m1sl1aps.
easant ad was no smoke from the rooftops to show that people lived inside and
cooked meals. Qbitcilll did not know what to do. He kept on walking
S?on after Qb:!tala left on his .o
Ha v1.ng tried .to please Esu befc1re u;:, , n
he met £\ill at the crossroads down the deserted streets, listening to the lonely echo of his own
cord1aJ.
as h And ~u was cordial b t . e
, u m a cunous n~
out, he expected
· • Esu t b.
· o e
footsteps. He stopped periodically at front doors to knock and seek
. e went by and asked for a favour way. £\;u hailed ObiltAla admission, but no front door was opened nor did any voice return his
hi:i.head so that he could carry it Ob~~~anteda pot of oil lifted to greetings. Hungry and tired, he hoped he would reach the market

enoug~, ~ii J~~~~: :s lifted!~

o. ige. It was a very hea . . a a was only too pleased place where perhaps he would find some food . But the marketplace
high release7 soon as Qb:!tala had was also deserted. Stalls were closed and it did not look as if there
drenched with oil Oba'~~t ' ' n the pot so that Oba'ta'l' had been any marketing for days. Qbittll\ll sat down on a stone to rest
h d · . "' a s travelli . a was
a to bathe himself and wash his cl ng c ?thes ~ere soiled and he
1 his feet. With his head bowed and his shoulders slumped, he was the
othes m the nver. Qbatala made
197
196
 •

picture of dejection .
. Suddenly, Qbatala 11eard th
faintly in tl1e distance, and tl1e~ sou11d of running fj hecou Id
to resist it because he became inebriated very quickly
·
sound came toward 11im Th gradually loude ootstcps ()eSt as this and whenever he wanted an upper hand, he always
· ·
d tsgu1sed · en he s
and carried wJ . r
aw men in the d' and I ' at fi
ouder 'tst ~iJ Jcrlew d Obatala to drink and thus demolish his resistance.
surrounded Qbatala, picke~ ·~~and axes and clu'~~ance..They~ the eocoura~~ ~as helping Olodumare with the task of fashioning
screan1ed and yelled at1d a k d up, and threw him . . Quickly ere Qb~t! ~batala would procure the clay and mould men into different
were, but no one answere~ hie' what 11e l1ad done andin ahdungeon t~:y manldn · dsizes and two sexes. Whatever Qbatala did was good. I-le
M m. w o · · 'le shaP~ a:1ace these forms before 016dumare, who then breathed into
\voul pd gave them life.
town, the towns people had b . On th~ day Qbatala h the intenni the~ ~la was very proud of his work, which he felt was of such
offended the deities. Eve on een looking for a cul ~d co01c td . Q0 ~ance that he needed to be secretive a?out it. He would not
the cu~prit that they had
tl1e gwlty man had b
:ri
c.
st: ha: lbeen so afraid of b:rrt Who had
ye 101ne, but whe ng taken "1
1111
P any of the deities at his place of work. ~u became curious. In
al1owr to prove to Ob . ' ' l'a th a~ it. was n'd'1culous to think
ata . that no one
een iound . n Word or de
was purged. , nonnaJ life resur11ed . carne tha else knew about h1·s work , E~u· changed into
or · the wind,
· went to
Th. agarn Th t
Obatala 's place of work, and planted a gourd of palm wine there.
ings \Vent \Veil for a '''h ·1 . e city
wrong again First th J e but t11e11 evervthin · Soon Qbatala arrived for his day's work. He did not notice the
·
h. arvest, and with ere was a d 1 JL g stan d
the short roug 1t: tl1e11 tl1e farm e going palm wine container at first, but as he worked harder and became
like flies. With disease and ~ge ~fbfood a~1d water, people ~trs lost their tired, be felt like having a drink. Then he noticed the keg of palm
consulted the o 1 ea 1 ordenng on an e . . arted dyin wine, and making himself a promise that he would only drink a little,
that there was :c .e for the reason for tl1eir sufferi~g1deTnh11c, the elde~ he had a little more, until the wine was gone. The human fo1111sQbatala
mnocent man la · h. . · e oracl .
man was released and ngurs u1g tn prison a d ~said made before he started drinking were all well made. But as he drank.
to suffer. The to\vns amends were made, the town wo n until the he became careless, and the more be drank, the more careless he
They looked in aLJ th~e~f~e had c~mpletely forgotten ab~~~ ~O~ti'.JUe became. The human for1ns he made in this intoxicated condition
one day a little boy sh~utedru;;; p~sons and could not find hi!atal~. lacked arms and legs, or eyes and ears, some were bent and crooked,
grotto down in the \' at e had found a man in until and yet others did not have the proper colouring. All manner of
found Obatala h alley. The towns people rush d a deserted physical aberrations were created by Qbatala in his drunken condition.
· ' w o was nowga t e to cl1eck
out of captivity 1c. d un and long-bearded H and That is why there are cripples, hunchbacks. blind, albinos. and various
' e , and dressed · h' . · e was bro gh
arrest and punishment h m w ite; m restitution for h. u t types of physically handicapped people in the world today. And
, e was made king is wrong because Qbatala felt guilty about creating them, the physically
· ~Makes Qbatala Drunk
18
· handicapped are sacred to him and receive special care and blessings
~c:- :ourlander 1973, 18-23) from him. The Yoruba believe that the defo1 rned mentally handicapped
cannot be abused or maltreated without risking Qbatala's anger.
~u, dislikes
. Weakness i·
n anyone de 'ty
Es. u discovers Palm wine is forbidden to the followers of Qbatala. But that day
a flaw in , J or humans alike Wh '
Tak th anyone, he alwa . · enever long, long ago, the being who caused Qbatala to stumble \Vas ~·
e e case of Qbatala. Obatala ys uses it against that person
m.a ny ways, but he had one .ma. . was a very remarkable being ..
wine. Although he sometimes haydora1mperfection a liking for palmm
n urge to drink, h
e always tried as
198
199
 19. ~ nnd Other l\lajor Ori~.\· t been given to him as the others were. The king had spotted ,
nd o0 . he was going to the brook one dawn. Taken by her ch17J.lmg
Info1111nnt: B61a &ugb.l
ii YI,
• .
11\!er v~11 ' 1ethe
5 king wooed and marr1e · d her. As the favourite wife, she
~c:. Courlander 1973, 39 _40 ) IJCllol)'~re of the king than any of the others. She cooked his food and
£5u ?~d.6glin, tl1e on.sasof war and . sa'v to e of his clothes. They were very happy together.
the o1·1~'l1 of smallpox
;~s;~:it~er ~icnd. s::::~·
iron, were fri tool< cardaY while the k'ing an d h'1s f:avounte . w11e
.t'. were sittmg together
thunder and lightning: Now 9ba1Uw
same mother· . uwayc were brotl1ers
. eh., the or1~
, aye, .one·ng the cool of thc evening,
. ;...t:.:iu
-'· came to them. lie told them'

. These four went together. The w , lldrcn Or t~f enJ0 Y' s haPPY as they seemed, he .could cause a dispute between them.
th~tha ut waiting for an answer, BiU left as suddenly as he came The
~it :nd his wife were disturbed. The king looked everywhere for
cros~roads, fo6rs~me ~ad
friends, and were a fonnidable y ore the same clothe e
inspecting sacrifi in town. Es .s, ttiu11i '?~gbot could not find him. Finally, he decided to give up the search
Oba1!:aty~ok tleasu~e :u~~st ti~e~·
wagmg wars Sitn . ces. gun was awa . u hvect at al
nostrils, but in belching of the ~~to forget about the whole incident. Many days passed.
one day a man came to see the king's favourite wife. It was tiu,
~his
He was n . , a.one, did not have ames fro 311
histri . ot as popular as his three friends 11 such an enviabJ bot she did not recognize him. He said he could make a magical
. onic and unpredictable as the tl . e was not as 11 e t11ne. oncoction that could make her husband love her even more. The
him. o 1crs, so J'eop1e tc11d d amboyan1
0 e too " ~g's wife was delighted and wanted to kn?w how to secure her
ne day QbalUwaye sudden I . vcrl0ok husband's affection and good grace forever. BiU said that he would
boring for him. He did not en·oy de~tdcd to leave town Life
~ wa~ need some cuttings of her husband's hair, and that she should cut off
se{~eople ye~ts
nor did he relish the \Va y bemg over-shadowed .b . too
some with a razor while he was asleep and bring it to him the next
pretending they didn't spat on him or step fii ends
home at the top of a tree N m. So he left for tl1e forest :nd on hun, daY· The king' s wife promised to do s~.
· o one \\'Ould b bi made hj As soon as he' d left the king's wife, BiU went to the king. The king
any more. He equipped himself . ea e to step or spit .s \ '
did not recognize BiU either. Bill was ingratiating with \um and after
of which were evil and th . with a bow and sixteen arr on him being asked his mission, Bill
' declared that he had discovered that the
at once. Of the three b d irteen, good. He sl1ot the sixteenows, three1
a arrows 0 l · 1 arrow favourite wife was going to try to kill the king with a razor blade that
another
. · hits the bJ d d ? . ne 1its t 1e bone a11d ea s a I
00 an turns 1t into · uses death same night. Therefore he had come to warn the king to be on his
iIJing the victim · Anyone h'1t by any water,f a third l1its the marrow' guard. B!ll advised the king not to reveal this information to his wife,
c~red. T~e only other people wl one o these arrows cannot b,
k
but just to watch her. The king became quite uneasy. He went to bed
Ifa, and EsU.· 10 possess such arrows are witches . e but remained awake, wondering why his wife would possibly want
'
to harm him. ln the dead of night, when she thought he would be
lO. ~ and the King asleep, the king's wife stole into the bedroom with a razor blade in
There was a king long ago who had man . her hand and crept up to the king in order to cut off some of his hair

:a_~read th~ougho~t Mathe~

and good-looking, and his fame y wives. He was tall, state! for her love medicine. The king jumped up and grabbed her. Seeing
"'.ere always giving him their the land. the razor blade in her hand, the king concluded that B!U was right:
kmgs sealed ~acts of friendship w~~t~~~ ~ m~n:iage .. Neighbouring she was trying to kill him. So he took the razor blade from her and
or daughters m marriage. Almost eve y gtvmg him their sisters
related to the king by marr1age
. ryone of any consequence was killed her with it.

h The king was fond of all h'is ..

wives and h t
e could. But there was one wife he I d e reated them as fairly as
ove more than the others. She
201
200
 crson. Those who knew him greeted him with respect as
2 1. ~ and Olti1·6unbi
TJ1rce \vomc11 \Vere friends . Tl1ey were fiic d
th
~ s because t
911)'elde:e~:becausc
1 they were aware of what he could do .
"'e!l ~s would answer these greetings as he pleased. Usually, he would
c same problen1. T11ey had all been ~u pleasantries with the people he knew and asked after their
l~ad ~~~';,they ye~
and had borne no children Alth mamed for a nu hey SUffe
they been unsuccess.ful. tried almo:b:r of eJ(C~~~eJ-Ie would bless those who greeted him with awe and deference,
baba/awos' one last try; if they failed rh .th~y decided to Vel)thing
f3!111ltfti · advice about how to behave so that evil would not befall them.
and accept their fates. IS ttme, they w give th , lll'd 0 e\ ways teased those who did not recognize him.
Th b b , OUJd . e 9ut he aman went by bearing a gourd full of palm wine. He had an
e a a/01110 asked then1 to mak . give Up ~ne s face and looked very tired. He also seemed to be in a great
At the tree, they could make their de:r:::cnficc beside an lr6k 1111"100and was so preoccupied t~at he did not seem to have noticed
to them. This seemed simple e h wish and it would b 0 tree.>•
offering to the ir6k6 tree and vow:~u~ . The first woman ~ !lranted
~u~irting in front of the house.~~ was peeved that the man did not
if she ever bore a child. The second s ie wou ld give a goat in Ook. her ~~et him or even recognize him. ~U smiled. ~U watched the man
g by his house until he was almost beyond hearing distance. Then
w~~jJh~
woman, 01Ur6unbf v . won1an vowed a Ian sacnfice
child to ir6k6. ' owed that rf she bore a chi ld she third ~~hailed the man familiarly by his name. On hearing his name, the
asserbY thought he must have been called by someone he knew. He
Soon enough the three became re
and excited that they did not recall ~h ?nant and t~1cy were so pi
give the ~topped in his tracks and looked. back, but he saw no one he
were born Two of th e1r vows until aftcrth . eased recognized. However, he could see ~U's silhouetted figure seated in
their vows. but or . e ~omen did not have any di fficu tlr children the distance and ~e walked back towai:ds him. Wben he was close to
co:1:0~1b~:~~:ad beauti%1~~~lling
given bi1th t? a
f:sU, he asked if ~U had called him. ~ said yes, he had. The man
l~oked at~ closely, did not recognize him, and diffidently mutteted
t~ :~~j;!~if l~s.mg S~~
fair as pam'.i oil,
longer wanted to give the chi ld the child. as that he was sorry but had not had the pleasure
' of meeting Esu
. or ifbe
had, bis memory failed him at that point. ~ did not introduce himself.
she had promised she re o sp1nt. In despair a no
the fulfillment f'h turned to the baba/tiwo for help in t What
o er outrageous VO~' Th b b l
coul~
preventin Jnstead, he asked the man to sit down and talk with him for a while.
get ou.t of her bind if she would sacrifi e a a tiwo said she The passerby thought the invitation was very strange, but since be

i~;~~:~c~~~~~~twith we!~:
her child. She did so and Es, ce several animals instea was a younger man, he decided he would humour the strange old
the ir6k6 tree and decreed her t.hat he man, stay with him for a short while, and then go on his way. He set
boms be sacrificed to tree sp1nts.
. . Esu, made J was forbidden that fi
tl i ,k, 1rst down bis gourd of palm wine carefully and sat at a respectful distance
seven sacrificial animals in place of .01'uroun, b~e ro o spirit accept from EsU. EsU asked him what was in the gourd. The man answered,
~ine''. ~U
1 s child. ' '
'Palm said, 'Good.' He would furnish some kola nuts and
~2. ~ and the Man Who Had to Sacrifice some drinking cups and they could both have a' drink together. The
~u takes great pride in testin wh h
passerby said unfortunately he could not offer~ a drink from bis
One ~ay, ~U was sitting in gfron;to;rh~r not he can be recognized. palm wine because it was meant for someone else. His children had
watching passersby. He was a little darks house. at the crossroads, smallpox and be bad consulted lfii oracle for their cure. lfii divination
from. the centre of his head to the ~d man wit~ deep dark marks verses had revealed that he needed to make a sacrifice of palm ,vine
wearing flowing robes, and seated h;e of both his cheeks. He was to $iinpQnii, the deity of plague and smallpox, and be was on bis way

At the mention of the man's mission,~ used every trick to make

one could see of his diminut· fi ' looked smaller than ever All to do this so that his children may be well again.
whites of his eyes and the gr1ve I~drebengulfed
in the robes
ay s1 e urns unde h' d
the wer~
him stay and drink palm wine. He offered the passerby food, a bath,
os
M t passersby greeted Es . . h h r IS og-eared hat
. u wit t e same deference they would gree~
203
----------- 202
 rest an)Ttl1i11g at all to keep 11i111 at tl
'''as not ~t all receptive to ~u 's su le c~ossroads _ bu 'file other camp sang this song about !fa to ~U:
, WI1en it bcca111e obvious tl1at tl ggcst1011s. t the Pass
Jfa says next to the Almighty
Esu. s~1 , T le palm wine is i11ine ' Th
'd ' I 1e ina11 w
as about to
, efb
y
\Vhat ~u meant, but he felt J1e had .l e pass~rby did ngo on his w
}-le is rnost po':e?Ul·.
As all destiny JS 1n his hands
his. apologies, took his leave. Esu s;umoured ~U enoug~t unde~ta~ J-{e is the one who holds Fate
~tng to prevent him from maldn 1out~d, after 11im that ahnd, lllakin J-{e is the one w~o makes all quake
Esu . said. g one Journey twi ce. ,youe Was . onlyg J-Ie is above all or~a
Mucl1 later on in the day Will see, ' '
, ' a weary and . , Even~u.
s taggered towards Esu this t1'm . now frightened ~u was very angry at this song and he wondered whether Ifa had
· · ' e greet1 h' tra
greetings. It. was our fonner passerby. He bng im, ~itl1 tl1e Veller . ti·gated it. He set out at once for Ifa's house. Ifa too had heard the
for not having recognized 11im th fi .egged ~u to fo .Proper
indirectly implied who he was The rst time, for Esu h il~e him
ins credited to Es'.u' an d was not partJcu · 1arly p1eased. So, as soon as
g ,
taken his palm wine to SannA ~ e passerby explain~d tha Indeed Jfa saw B?il b~und'1ng towar.ds him
son , m . a. gre~t rage and with a fearful
. t"..,nci as ordered by th at 11e h xpression, Ifa shouted to him, What JS this I hear of you?'
hb een told that since the palm .
wrne was tl1e fi t · e oracle b
' Ut he h ad e ~u roared back, 'Nothing as much as what I heard you say of me,
~ would have to make in bel1alf of th trs in a series of off; . ad
wme belonged to Esu th Id e J1ealtl1 of l1is child enngs for ~l1icl1 I shall bring you to Death's door.'
therefore take th : ' e ,o, tnan at tl1e crossroads H re11, the Ifa replied, 'Whatever you bring to me shall come to you, and to
. e wtne to Esu. So the 1 . · e sho I
pa m wine belonged to t~
make sure it does, wherever you go, I shall go. If you tum into an
after all, just as he had said! . animal, I will turn into an animal, and should you ask the earth to
23 · Tlvo Friends . open its mouth and swallow you, I will do the same and follow you
to the furthermost ends of the earth.'
Info11nant: Adeleke Esu was too angry to speak. He took his friend's answer as evidence
. '
that Ifa had indeed joined with enemies against him.~ swirled
'
~u and Ifa were fiiends close fiie
you found the other. They never miss~d:~e~e;ever you found one around and went back the way he came with Ifa hotly at his heels.
day and neither went to bed without b 'dd. ~ ach other for a sing!~ Esu broke into a run, shouting that Ifa would be sorry. Ifa pursued
one understood how two people co lid bmg t e other go?dnight. No ~u,. saying ~u '
would be sorry. Tuey went over hill <i?d dale. Hard as
was so magnificent that it made pe~ple e s~ close. Their friendship ~u tried to exhaust lfa, Ifa seemed tireless. When ~u walked fast,
was a .conspiracy to put their fiiendshi e~;1~us of the~. So, there Ifa walked fast, and when B?u '
broke into a run, Ifa did the same.
break it. Ifa began to hear Illl. h' p . test and~ if possible They continued in this manner until they arrived at a village. At the
b . ._, sc 1evous stories ab t E , , '
a out 1ia. The conspirators divided th I . ou ~u and Esu village they were both welcomed by the villagers who did not kno'v
camp held that Esu was the m emse ves mto two camps. O~e they were having a quarrel. The two visitors \Ver; treated cordially
this orfki about ~u to Ifa: ore powerful of the two and they sang and given rooms for the night. During the night, ~ stepped out of
' the house, picked up a chicken and wrung its neck, then put the blood-
~U, fearsome figure, dripping carcass in his bag and continued on his journey. Ifil heard
T~e Destroyer of villages him leave and quickly get into his clothes and follo\ved him.
With the swing of his club The villagers soon discovered in the morning that their guests had
He could lay Ifa prostrate. left unceremoniously during the night. They found it very curious
I that the visitors had left a trail of blood behind them, which the villagetS

204 205
 . . and Ifa are still friends. If you should s~c a laterite
t11ot1gl1t '''as l1u1nar1 blood. Fearing tl1at tl1cir guests in· h . heaP· ~u. h at some crossroads, they are E-1'1 and his
son1eonc surreptitiousl)' du1i ng tl1c 11ight, t11ey aim~~ ~ havc tnurcte11
1
clubs and otl1er \Veapo11s a11d set out to fi11d the ' murd emsctves ,..~
bb1sh
fll d bY 3
rubb1sh eap
erers' "'Ith f11°\1° ifa.
It '''as 11ot difficult to find tl1e cu lprits simply by ~ 11 : friend, d 1'WO Friends
of blood ~u 11ad leftbel1i11d. Very soon, ~u and Ifao OWtng thetra·i J,61, ~ I\

distance. Tl1e villagers gave l1ot pursuit. ~u, turning~~~~ see.n in th~
z4. .Pi.. A·isafe Mo~ebq\atan
~ ftllant: J . .
vi llagers are going to kill you; see what you can do t-; 'said, 'lhe 1010 8)
cf. fa\e 1 tWO friends who dearly loved each other. One day
With tl1at, he climbed a tree and l1id himself in the br orh Yourself '
, anc es I . ( e there were 'd to the other that they could never, ever quarrel.
not understand what ~u meant at first. Why should the ·. fa did oneof the fri' ends sat . d 'Let us hope that B?u ' ' agrees to keep us
want to kill llim? But as he heard tl1e angry calls of the . villagers one friend rep11e ,
11
tu1ned around a!1d noticed the trai l of blood for tlic firs;~. agers, he 'fhe other
he realized that ~u had probably left so hurriedly i11 tlie d t~e. ~en friends.' h. Esu came to the n.vo men and infonned the111
because he l1ad killed someone in tl1e village and wa11 ted hit~~0 of night r.Jot long after~ : 'fight between them. They replied that no such
blame. Ifa said, 'Where you go, I go.' Witl1 tl1at lie comm ~kc the that be could sta en not between the two of them. Thre~ days
branch of the tree on whicl1~u was lliding to low~r itself andar~tti~d the tl1ing could eve~ h:e~ds were talking, ~u rode by on a horse tn full
• • ' St ng
it too, he commru1ded tl1e brancl1 to retui11 to its fo1111cr position on later, as the tw he two friends. He was wearing a two-toned hat.
The villagers arrived at tl1e foot of tl1e tree \Vl1erc tl1e trail of bi gallop. and passed. t
white one s1
'de was red The clatter of horse hooves
· d th
stopped. They looked up and down tl1e tree but could find noth~nod one side was ' l ft . their wake startled and prevente e t\VO
Nowhere could they find otl1er traces of blood. A11d so t11ey retu g. and the cloud of d_u st ~e ~der clearly. The two friends start~d an
to their village. rned friends from seetnf of the hat the rider was wearing. One sa1~ the
'
~u came do\\rn tl1e tree and this time l1eaded for Death 's ho arq0ment on the co our . ta' ed i't was red The argument quickly
h. th other main tn . d
Ifa follo\\ ed him tl1ere and tl1ey were both received witl1 great kin~se.
o
1 hat was w ite, e fighting Esu appeared and stoppe
~d hospitality. In the middle of tl1e night, ~u went to Death 's w~ss grew into a fight. As they ":er~ 1 t to defy him in the future because
fi ht He cautioned the frien no
Ojontarigi, and in the darkness, he slept '
with her. He retun1ed,
to h~'IS the g . fight whenever he wanted.
guest room before da\\'11. At dawt1, ~u went back to Ojontarlgl's he could cause a 1
room. this time wearing !fa's clothes, and once again l1ad sexual
2 s. T he Two F riends
intercourse \Vith Death's wife. . B d rinwa Esubunmi ·
' Infor roant. a e . e two friends who were th\varted m
In the morning, Ojontarigi told her husband that his two guests
had 'visited' her in the course of the night. Death was furious. With a Everyone knows the story of th f eternal friendship to one
. b Es' , Tuey took vows o , f
loud ,noise, he picked up his cudgel and vowed to loll his gi.1ests. Ifa their friendship . y .u. Esu into consideration. ~ took note o
and Ojontarigi heard the commotion and saw Death in a lethal rage another, but neither ~ook . something about them. . .
coming towards them, swearing and cursing. Quickly they scrambled their actions ~nd decide.cl to ,d~ decided to put their friendship to his
out of Death's house with Death hotly pursuing them. They ran until When the tlme was npe, ~ The right side was black, the left
' own little test. He made a cloth cap.
they reached the crossroads where ~u turned to Ifa and said, 'See
' side was white. . th fields ti\lino their land. One \vas
what you can do for yourself. ' With that, E~u fell into the ground and
Th e two friends were out m e i' . othe bushes to the left.
turned into a piece of Iaterite stone. Ifa found himself alone with .d h ther was c eanng h
Death dangerously close to him. Just as Death was about to come too hoeing on the right s1 e, t . e. o een the two men. Tue one on t e
close, Ifa used his magical powers and transfor1ned himself into a
Esu came by on a horse, nd1ng betw
•
207
206
 rig11t sa\v tl1e black side of J1is l1at. Tl1e fricr1d tl . and true to each other, did y~u rec~on ':"ith
011
sheer whiteness of ~U 's cap. le lefl noticed t
ys t 0 be faithful h
w that e w ho does not put ~u first in all his doings
Tl1e two fiicnds took a break for lu11ch under th
S
he
fAU·
po
~I~~ you I<n°1 e if things misfire'?'
trees. at'd one fri end, 'D'd e coot sl
1 you see the man with a w . lade Ofth If to b am
k3S hirnse 't is said:
greeted us as we were working? He was very plea htte cap \\the JI d so l
' Yes, lle was charrnmg,· but 1t · was a 1nan in a blacksant' wasn' the?'o An ot undo me,
not a wl1ite one.' cap that I recau ~u, do n \ .fy the words of my mouth,
'It was a wl1ite cap. The man was riding a magnificentl c . ' v·o nott fam1sgu1
.s1 'd the movements of my feet.
e , d
horse.' Y apansoned po no who trans \ates yesterday s wor s
'Then it must be the same man. I tell you, his cap you el utterances, .
bi ack . ' Was dark -.. Into nov d me I bear you sacnfice.
oo not un o '
'You must be fatigued or blinded by tl1e l1ot rays of tlie
a white cap for a black 011e.' sun to take f he Bondsman
26.
'I tell you it was a black cap a11d I a111 11ot 1nistaken r r · , do not undo me.
him distinctly.' · emernber ~u, t refute the words of my mouth,
The two friends fell to figl1ting. The neigl1bours ca1ne runn · Do no . h movements of my feet, ,
the fight was so intense that the neighbours could iiot stop it t~g but Do not dtsarrayht e d the consequences of yesterday s events.
It is you who c ange
m1'dst of th is · uproar, Es'. u' ~etun1e d, Ioo k111g
· ' 'ery cal111 a11d pretendin
· n the Es, do not undo me,
not to know what was gomg on. g .u, eone else's child.
'What is the cause of all the hullabaloo?' he demanded stemJy Undo som a o who was wealthy and blessed
'Two close fiiends are fighting,' was tl1e answer. 'They seem int~ There lived a man long, lo~glarg e house. His farm extended for
on killing each other and neither \Vould stop or tell us the reason tint 'th many children. He had g l d with food. He became so
wt . bl was always a en
the' fight. Please do something before tl1ey destroy each otI1er.' or miles around. Hts ta e wn that success went to his head. He b~e
~u promptly stopped the fight. 'W11y do you two life-long friends important and so well ~o h' f Ol6dilmare and disregardmg
make a public spectacle of yourselves in this manner?' lecting hts wors tp o '
careless, i;eg . h him a lesson. ·
'A man rode through the farm, greeting us as 11e went by,' said the sacrifice. ~u decided to teacd the sound of wailing people commg
first friend, ' He was wearing a black cap, but my frie11d tells me it One day, the fa1mer hear in uire what was going on and
was a white cap and that I must have been tired or blind or both.' towards his house. He went. ou~s~~e t~ break some dreadful news t~
The second friend insisted that the man had been wearing a white found the elders, who took himkilled at the hunt. The fa11ner tore hts
cap. One of them must be mistaken, but it was not he. him gently. His sons had been l . He was inconsolable. The
d t ·nto sec us1on. '
' Both of you are right.' said ~u. clothes in grief :in wen .~ e It was most unusual for all of a ~a:i~
'

'How can that be?' elders advised him to sacn c . be the ori.ils were angry. He s o
'I am the man who paid the visit over which you now quarrel, and sons to die on the same day. ~~y as only. an accident. After all,. he
here is the cap that caused the dissension.' ~u '
put his hand in his sacrifice. But th~ farmer said I!r: were many more sons in his lo~!·
pocket and brought out the two-coloured cap saying, 'As you can was still in his prun~. Surely' th filled the air. Women \Vere weeJ>mo,
see, one side is white and the other is black. You each saw one side Not long after thts,.a great cry . ashes on their heads. The farmer
and, therefore, are right about what you saw. Are you not the two tearing off their he~dt1es, and puttm:bat was wrong this time. :ie ~vas
came out of seclusion to find ?ut .de and broke the news. His \\rives
fiiends who made vows of friendship? When you vowed to be friends met by his mother who took him as1
208 209
I
 had gone to the river to wash clothes but they had
. 'fied to mention it. It is only a thought that
river and were drowned. a11 fallen into lh that I am JUStt e sat drinking palm wine and eating
His mother said, 'Surely the Ori,sils were angry l e fll oot sur~ very strongly .as ':e the bad habit of looking serious
babalch110 (divi11er) and find out tl1c cause of our. n~t Us go to th a to rn st forg1ve . . h' .
through my mind ' as 1n t 1s instance.
.
must sacnfice.' r rsery· 'T't...
'nen we c".ifl'le uts. you muh ght wings .
Jcola
~heneven r a slight t ou k ou· this new bondsman of yours, he was
Id like to as y . ,
The man said, 'Ther.e are many women who Will be h e
' I wou . d is he not? . .
take the place of the wives I have lost. It is only an a .donoured to f jrst,5till is your fr1en . , U about the circumstances oft.heir friendship,
. h . . . I cc1
nc 1nan, an important citizen. cannot make a fool f · a111 a ent I
andfhe nc . h man th told~b en prosperous and celebrated until the.bondsman
going to the babalinvos and medicine men who respect 0 lllYseJf by
theY had bo e d was reduced to working for htm.
up to rne. They must not see that I am moved by these erne and look bow fallen on bad days a~' Esu answered animatedly. 'I have always
Gradually, the man lost everything . his farm hVents
· b ··· , had'"fhat ·s i what I thoug ' . . t gn'ty and now that you tell me
daughters, his house. He was soon in debt and in ;de;sto eautiftiJ man of great me , in
.dered you a deeper esteem for you. Few men
debts, he became a bondsn1an to another rich man in the city r~y .his constt your bondsman, I .ha~e afriendship at such a high level with a
0

was to look after the rich man's fam1, to till it, and to plant c · ·hs Job aboU . . uld ma1nta1n . ?'
os1t1on wo . 1 a bondsman, 1s he not . .
were harvested and sold. He paid back niost of the yield tor~~s tha1 your!on bondsman. He is o.n y e to correct Esu 's notion of his
man, keeping only a little for llimseJf. e rich co~he rich man wanted to mterv,e~~t Esu rattled "on as if he "'.ere
The rich man and his ne"' bondsn1an were on very good tenn . d as , a common bond~man, , he. continued 'and interesting.
better times, when both of them had been rich, they had been 8· In frien . f , Ah 1 Life 1s strange, ' . d
~am
lking to himsel . . . f h an nature and our first meenng prove
.
fiiends. So although one \Vas no~' a sharecropper to the other cth1ose a great connoisseur o d um a man with rare qualities, full of
still accorded each other the respect and goodwill of their f~nney . I judged you then as I o nlow, ted that people must probably
fii endshIp.
'
. er
~~mpassion and kindness. I a~~ ~:exploit your thinking that they
~U did not like this at all. He was still after the bondsman Wh take advantage of y~u. Such p phoose to let them do so out of the
until now had still not sacrificed. ~U decided to sow the se;ds ~
dissension between them. He befriended both men, and so gained 0 are c1ever, not knowmg ,that you c
oodness of your heart.' . h man asked.
their confidence that there was nothing they would not tell him and g 'What do you mean? the nc d the other day and he told
he, them.
' 'Well, I was talking to .youro~ono::ensely. In fact, he said he
One day, ~U went to the rich man. He brought palm wine with me that he enjoyed working.fi ~ur land with the minimum amount
him and the rich man supplied kola nuts. They drank the wine, broke made the most profit by f~g y ial status completely' because by
the nuts and chatted amicably. When ~U'
saw that the rich man was f W ork And he has not lost s soc to rub shoulders with people
o . . h till manages h he
relaxed and in an expansive mood, he suddenly became serious and being friends w1th you, e s da in the very near future, w. en
mysterious.
' The rich man was puzzled. Finally he took courage and of your class. He c.an see th~d ~'fact, be rich again from do1ng the
said to ~U, 'You are my trusted fiiend from whom I bear no secrets. will have paid all his debts ' .
We drink and eat together as fiiends. I do not like the look on your least amount of manual l~~=~sed at this revelation, but he tned not
face. Tell me, whatever it is, what has made our visit acquire such a The rich man became 1s rice 'l repeat that you are a
.t and Esu pretended not to no
tgoo~~o;'~, especi~lly thg~ ~~':nd~~o
secretive turn. Maybe in some small way I can be of help.' . ot mind your friends
A mischievous smile played around ~U's ' mouth. He drew close I since I can seurae so. Ho\V altruistic
.. ou in fact you enco
to the rich man, suddenly bashful, and said in a sort of stage whisper, explo1tmg y ou must be!' . bondsman
'I ~'ould never have mentioned this if you had not insisted. In fact, I I you are, how ~a~py y the rich man was ftrrious that his
By the time ~u had left,
210 211
 could tl1i11k of treating J1i111 so. He started h. . . friend and 'informer'. To the bondsman, the whole story of
Iltm.
· L ost tn · J11s t 1nk1n
· thougl1ts, lie l1ardly noticed , ' g of Ways to erst\vhtle rnade sense. He had overlooked sacrifice and therefore
After leaving. the ricJ1 1nan ' Esu
· head d ~u leave.
e straight 10~
Punish i.is tife noW eckon with. l le decided to sacrifice.
I1ouse. He was . 1nfor1ned tl1at the bondsman wa · r the bond " d ccu tor
fa r111, \vorktng. It was harvest time and tl ~ s Still at the . srnan's b3 ~
. ~ peacemaker
E~u ~e~~;;e
.
e;en longer hours. found the the bondsrn::lllan•s : ~ and <)rUnmilil were close fnends. They shared secrets with each
dtshe\relled. His hands, once soft and perfum man there, di Orked ~u ci always helped each other.
calloused
·h from handling the hoe H. I h ed, were now hrty and
· 1s c ot es w ard other an ortinmlla desired Death's wife, Ojontarigi, a very beaut1ful
wit mud. His sl1oes were worn down at tl h ere shabby and and once, s.o much that he decided to take her from Death. When he
~u sl1outed greetings as he ran tow ~e eels. caked ;.f':;1~ath was enraged and took his club to QrUnmilll's house to
makes you so happy in a world full of suc~r a~ tl1e .bondsman. '\1n
asked ~u. vers1ty?' tile b 'v nat
1
bhirn to death. ,
cluon his way to QrUnmilil's house, he found ~U at his home at the
In , , ondsrn
•. · . answer, ~u started singing a song about bei an ads Esu could see that Death was in a rage and he knew why,
o11:fD_s: l?e b~ndsn1an s1niled sadly and said 'JI ng on tl1e side Ofth cros Sro he· pretended
lthough · not to know. He greeted Death and asked him .
the o1·1;!lJs. I live my life as I tl1ought fit ~ t' lave never been aga· e 3 here he was going. Death told him that Qn'.mmllll had taken his
~y h~ad, and my heart. For a while th~y b:o·~;h~1y hands, rny e~:~t ~fe and for that he deserv~d to die. He was going to see that Qninmilil
O\\' cannot seem to work l1ard enou 11 I me good fonun , ~eceived his punishment. ~u asked Death to st~y a while for some
~=d wo~ked hkard enough, things would gc~111:1~;~: .bclileved tl1at~f ~efreshments with him. It was a hot day and ~U said that he felt
as wor for the rich man, I can l1ardl in t le e11d. Bu some palm wine and kolanuts would certainly refresh Death. Death
let;;?ne .ha,:mg e~ough left over to pay m~ ~:~~ :nough to live on'. complied. ~ cleverly kept Death at his house until sundown. He
. u said, .That is not \\'hat I am told by tl1e rich clowned and joked and made Death laugh. Just as the sun was setting.
c~~e from him and he claims that you make tl1e m man. I 11ave just Death wanted to leave. It was time he went about his unfirushed
rrun1m~ amount of work. that your debts are ai:st pro~t from the business. He thanked ~u for his hospitality.
'

you will soon be a rich man once again ' ost paid, and that Esu said he was about to eat his dinner, and that the day \vould end
~e bondsman \\'as enraged. He icked u . on~ sour note ifhe had to eat alone, especially after having enjoyed
~e nch man '.s house in order to ha:e it out !i~sh~oe and made for Death's company all day. Would Death therefore kindly oblige him
m the meantime, had set out to the bondsma ' un. The rich man, by eating dinner with him? The busi?ess of killing <)n'mmilil surely
crossroads and began to violently challen e th ~ s. Tl1e~ nlet at the could wait. Again, Death acquiesced.~ arranged a sumptuous meal.
learned about each other. They shrieked g d e mfonnation they had During dinner he \Vas more delightful and ~cious than any host
cursed and called each other names d an shouted at each other could be. Death spent a most pleasant time in ~u's company. Then
physical tussle when they heard am' a;:_in were about to engage in ~ he remembered he was on bis way to kill Qrfuunila. He started to
the crossroads. There was Esu Jaugb~c g la~gh. from the comer of fidget and to lose his concentration, so he asked Esu to excuse him.
. . mg and s1ngmg his song·
~t is best to sacrifice. · ~ii again asked Death where he was going. Death ~nswered a
He really bad to go.
~u sides
H h only with he who makes sacn.fitee little impatiently, 'I told you once before where l was go1ng. 1:'1-ay?7
e ~ o does not sacrifice, · it's the palm wine we've had that makes you so forgetful. Qruruntla
Has ~u to reckon with, it is best to sacrifice. took my wife and I must go and kill him.' , , .
Suddenly it da wned on both opponents that ~u had been their Esu walked Death to the door. At the threshold, B?u spoke Ill a
•

212 213
 •
sc11ous a11d inte11se \vay. 'Tliank fl
C\'cni11g with tne' especially at d'11111er.
you TI or espcndi11g su h shed under a man's staggering weight. Thus, Snake became
1 · c ad .
rou, though. Any food eaten at my house re IS one thing I ehgh~, and crubeings' plaything. People picked him up and threw him dow
urnan d Snak e as a JUmp1ng
. . rope. People constantly n
1ave botl1 dined, so to speak, witl1 Orun co~ne~ frorn Om must te1 b . Children use
One. does not eat a man 's palm oil a~d h.mlla, since it ~asn~lla. \\I~ at wt 11d . at and ridiculed Snake.
forbidden, as you well know., ts salt and then kill ~~s foOcl S ke was unhappy and d'1scontented being
soeere . a constant source of
'lll. It i~
. 0 .a He particularly resented being a creature of no consequence
Death stormed out of Esu 's house H dertSlsnakes
00 . .
~topped and burst out laughing 'Yo~ e walked a few step of the world decided to hold a congress at which they.
~u. 'Tell OrUnmila h h . . are a clever man 'h s, then h 'fhe ld decide h ow to st ren gthen the1r · pos1t1on
· · and pool their forces.
An . e as a good fiiend wh h . ' e shou e
done more thing I, too, wou ld like you o a~ JUst saved h' te~ at "'0thu ough the meet1ng started peacefully, it became unruly. Everyone
as a friend , is hfe A
bad1 a different perspective · an d propose d ·incompat1ble solutions.
28. R,u and ~pQnnQ · · Towards the end, the very best. the sna~es achieved was to prevent
fights among each o~her. Th~y dispersed in great anger and confusion.
Info1·1nant: Chief Ajanaku Through all of this the viper alone came out well. At the meeting,
Once. upon a time · ~u
' catne to wear raffia T . e was calm and sensible and wise. He listened to what everyone had
of lus altercation with Obaluwaye Sa o. !11s,was tl1e co11sequ 11to say and, before the fmal pandemonium, had managed to hold
'Isogbeto.' This is l1ow it l1appened: np .11119. ~u is also knowence everyone's interest in a moving oration in which he condemned the
SannA , d ' , · n as
. 1:"'';'1:1119 an ~u ~'ere arguing about wl negative and unconstructive attitude of delegates to the conference.
Each claimed seniority O\'er tl1e otl1er. Sa11 1? w~s tl1e greater dri.cfi His main observation was that it was obvious they could not do it
was ~e gr:ater, more po~rerful and older.01·i~n~9 conte11ded that·h~ alone, Man, strong and superior as he was to all living creatures,
~hbal~wlayde for nothing. His praise-na1ne Ob.alu~waa~ also not called never did any important thing without consulting the gods, and that
,o ~s or .on earth.' ' · ye, meant 'King was probably why Man remained strong and invincible. Snakes should
~u ~'as infuriated at this He said take a leaf from Man's book and seek the help of the gods through
\Vas 'lord' or 'owned' th .h no one otl1er tl1an 016d '
e eart . TI1ere was a dr dfu umare
, ~u. If they would not take his suggestion, he, Viper, would seek help
\Vas the fight that SannA . h'1s own defenea I fight. So
• 1"';'!1119, m , fi1erce at least for himself.
sma 1lpox. Every part of Esu 's b d . ce covered Esu with Viper's suggestion was greeted with great derision by the other
an inch was spared He w. o y was riddled witl1 smallp~x· snakes. What did the gods care about snakes? The gods were only
that he hid himself.at a fai3:i1s~::~~rked and tormented by'~~: concerned with the affairs of men and were partial to men. If this
raffia covering to hide his hideous Jb~d e t~wn. He tnade hi1nself a were not so, surely they would be aware of the maltreatment of snakes
he was healed. That is why toda y an , s~ayed at the fann until at the hands of men and would have done something to stop the outrage
raffia at farms. y one sees ~u symbols covered by by coming to the aid of snakes. Viper nodded sadly, saying, ' He who
has a thorn lodged in the sole of his foot must of necessity seek the
29. &,u and Snake medicine man who has the knife with which to extract it.'
0 .. The other snakes laughed at this. Viper's problem, most of them
nginally Snake was a faint hearted thought, was quite different and more serious than theirs. Why, Viper
spoke softly and never Iook~d cr~ature, shy and diffident He
delicate and fragile he would a1n1 yh~ne m ~he face. Because he .was
was even beginning to think of himself as a man. lmagine him quoting
· ' ro unself 1nt · h Man's proverbs at them. Take a leaf from Man's book, indeed! And
bemg bruised and battered p I o a t1g t coi l to escape so they ignored Viper and proceeded with their deliberations that
· · · eop e mocked h' b
retmng and never put up a fight H . tm ecause he was
. e was afraid he might be trod upon came to the end that has been mentioned.

2 14 215
l
 Viper left tl1e 111eeti11g witl1 a ~ly smile on l1is lips. He hea to throw
him when Viper turned his head and stung him.
tl1e crossroads \vl1ere 11e fou11,d ~u playing the ayd gam Idect for going d ng cry of · ' Viper
pain. · has acquire· d ast'ing, ' he
35 10
good sign, for it 111eru1t tl1at ~u was in a good rnood ~Li t. Was a w rnan uttere ah venom.' And at this, the two men took to their
r~e 'Viper now as
Viper to play tl1e ga111e wit11 him. · ·t 111Vited c~ed· , .
Now Viper was very skilled at the ayd game. As a matte eels. . s read among men about Snake s new protective
1 .
no snake could beat 11m. Es'. u, was very good too, and was cr offi fa et, b ~ir
vv
0 rd quickly p
d bittemes s came between Man and Snake. But Man no
that he would win. So he played the game witl1out much conce~~~ent .~,er anuffed
pOvY
a at Snake or misused him. Instead, whenever Man found
joking and tnaking hilarious comme11ts about everyone w1 w tion,
10 longer s~e tried to kill him.
To ~u s amazement, 1per won t e game. . u was furious and ·ent.by·
' ' ' v· h Es' ' snake,
· to a second game, glVtng
y 1per · · hi m the fi1rst 11a11d. Viper noticed
lUVJted
h 'fhe Earth Spirits
~u was no longer clowning and jesting. He was playing very Seri t at 30. 32)
and after each hand wo~ld stare clos~ly into Viper's face. Viper °~sly
demure and spoke to ~u poljtely. ~u wo11 tl1c second ga 111 e. ~h~d
10 (Cf.
Epega n.d., 2,
.
a time, in '
d
· the olden days the earth spirits use to ta e a
k
kd
played five ~ore times. an.d ~u won all five. After eacJ1 garne h~ o nce upon ear in which they did nothing. When they were as e
returned to his for1ner JOVJal, noncJ1alant self. Over dri11ks of p day offh each Y d 't
y cla1me 1 w as because they used that day to fast for God.
wine after the ~·o game, Viper said very little and looked preoccup~1~ whY, t e k them why they fasted for God. .
and unhappy. ~u, by this time, was iI1 a 111ost expansive a11d generoe :o
NO one dar~d as t to the earth spirits and asked them, 'What is the
mood. He said to Viper, 'You are my frie11d. I 11oticed that y~ One day ~u wen 11 d f:ast for God? Is it to prevent Him from
l for your so-ea e . b. t
deliberately played a \Veak game. Tell 1ne what your trouble is and I rationa? 0e to abate H'1s anger?. It is ridiculous for you little e1ngs . od
\vill help you.' dying. r Bein who is the Truth. He is All-kno\vmg an
fast for the Supre~e g . k never angry and never dies. So of
This was the moment Viper l1ad been waiti11g for and l1e poured rful He 1s never sic , ' d
out his tale of Man ·s d~risi,,e, cruel, and malevolent treatment of All-powe . . £ G d?' Then Esu became angry and cause
members of his species. ~u told Viper what to do. what use is your fast or h o : .ts T m·fi·ed the earth spirits fled from
· g the eart spin · e ' £su
Viper returned home, a happy creatu~·e. He called the members of confusion a1?on .
Esu in all d1rect1ons.
And
as
they dispersed all over the earth, .
J?s family together and told them \Vhat ~u had cow1selled. They did •
sang this song: . .
f'..?u 's bidding. Later in the day, Viper and his fami ly sat together We can never hear it said that 016dumare ts dead,
outside their home singing:
Unless it is a lie,
We are saved, we are saved,
Or a foolery.
He who seeks the counsel of the gods,
That one will be saved, will be saved .... 31. Three ~
26

The hissing noise of the song came to the ears of Man. It was
(Cf. Epega n.d., l, 8.) . d &'. many years. They bore no
strange that Viper should be making such a clamour, because ordinarily had been marne ior · rty
lie \vas quiet and demure. Two men went up to Viper's l1ouse to find A man and a woman 'th d what little they had m prope
children. They had no m~ney et . ~r, an in sacrifices to procure a child.
they had gt'ven to babalcnt'OS (dt~~ers)
out what was happening. They found Viper dancing to the music
' d the door of her house,
provided by members of his fami ly. They asked Viper to stop as sittmo outs1 e .
disturbing the peace and be quiet. Viper said, 'I am in my own home.' One evening, the ':"oman '\V a ea;ed before her, but because \t \Vas
dejected and weeping. A man PJt his forn1. He seemed to be a tal\,
At this affront, one of the two men picked Viper up by the tail and dark, she cot1ld barely make o

216 217
 . without stopping to rest or looking backwards.
dark n1an \Vitl1 intc11c eyes and a deep, kindly voice. t wa\klng h. h. ll. h.
f'{e iceP . mething or someone was pus 1ng tm on, te 1ng tm
'Don't wony,' 11e said to tl1e woman. 'Wait for tl1e gods· th felt as 1f so
good things in store for you. You are tl1e motl1er of a king', ey have tJe...urrY· w a city in the distance and his steps quickened.
tl1at, tl1c nlan genuflected in greeti11g to l1er as one w~ ~~d With to••suddenly he . sa d t the city gates, he ciound a th'trd c~ , 'G.
L1u. ive me
someone from a royal l1ousehold. Tl1en l1e disappeared. u greet he arr1~e a. .
Tl1e won1an was astounded. She laughed for a long time Utltil t
When . . , Esu said to hun. . .
ur akar~, · g man. 'I am in a hurry to get to the city. Besides,
can1e. Who could possibly take her for a queen mother? She didears yo 'NO, ' 5atd the youn . \ . .
, k , , probably all you would do 1s et tt ratn so t at
h
even 11ave children. not ou my a ara . ,
ifl gave y indered in my Journey. .
She went into the house and told her l1usband wl1at l1ad llap would. be,h u became very angry. 'If it is rain you are afraid of, the~
to her. 'A man came by, mocking me today,' sl1e told her hu~benect 1
At thtS, ~. ' w ·th that the sky became clouded and heavy and tt
'He greeted me as a queen mot11er. ' Sl1e expected her husban~nd. · \1 get 1t. i ' · h d h ki
laugh. to you Wl in The poor man arrived at the city drenc e to t e s n.
started to ra . . t wn he did not know exactly where to go, but he
He said, 'I know. On 1ny way back from t11e fam1, I too met at t
stranger. He was tall and dark, ~ ith piercing eyes, and l1c prostr~ ~
1 1 ° ' ·
AS he w as new. in . the rain trying to decide which house 1ooked ·
00 walk.mg m ' .
l1imself in the dust, greeting 1ne as a king or a cl1ief. Before I cou~d kept . ough for him to knock on its door.
stop him or ask him ~'hy, he disappeared. ' hospitable en d to a city where no rain had fallen for many
an ha come h d d. d
They both looked serious but decided to dis1niss tl1e tl1ought that The m bad failed, there was famine, and many a ie
came to their minds. Could it be tl1at tl1ey would bear a cl1ild? months. ~he cr~psresidents of the city had learned by divination that
of starvation. T e . t town bringm·g rain and that he \vould be
Soon after, the \\'Oman becan1e pregnru1t a11d 11ad a boy. The babal6wos r would come 1n o .
came to divine and said the boy \vould be ki11g of a large city. Althotigh a s~ange. So when it suddenly started raining, people ran ~to
the parents did not laugl1. they did not believe it. How could tl1eir 8011 their saviour. k d t their windows into the streets to see if a
become king of a city? The nearest city was very far away. their homes and loo e ohu And lo and behold, there \Vas such a
stranger would be out t ere.
When the boy grew up, he decided to seek his fortu11e el sewhere.
His parents, being so poor, had nothing to give lmn but three bean man l . d · and they surrounded the
People rushed out of their ~:~s :1c~~~ed him in rich clothe and
cakes (akara). He set out on his journey. He 11ad not gone very far
when he came to the place ~1here three roads part. There 11e found the bewildered traveller. They fe k himanto t he elders of the city \vho
' beads and gold. T~ey t_oo known as the ' stranger-\vho-
first ~u. ~u saw him holding the three aka1·a and asked tl1e ma11 to
'
immediately made him ~g. ~e, was
give him one. The man held out one to him, but changed his mind came-into-the-city-beanng-ram.
and put the aki.J1·a in his mouth saying, 'If I give you my akara, for
recompense you might let it rain on me until I reach the city.' With
32. ~asPawn
that he walked on.
\\'hen he reached the edge of the village near the cemetery, he (Cf. Epega n.d., l, 8) o' , ' l' o' ns' a'-n' la Or1sa-oko, and
' ' h. lf to runm1 a ' ·
found another ~u standing by the roadside. ~u said nothing to the Esu once pa\.vned tmse . . six d~ves .five pence, half penny'
man. He only stared at the aka1'a be held in his hands. Again the man a·glin. He was asked to sacrific: his debts: Esu refused to sacrifice.
held out an aki.J1'a to him, then changed his mind as he had done d Ifa leaves so that he could p y th fi hin~ The deities to \Vhom
' an , , d'd
1 o work other an s o · h t
before, put it in his mouth and ate it, saying to ~u, 'I will not give At this time, B?u n · of him \Vhen he broug t ou
himself \.Vere envious d m
you my akara because you will probably let it rain and thereby hinder Esu had pawne d fr .d that Esu would soon re ee
. fr his nets. They were a ai .
me on my journey.' With that he continued his walk to the city. the fish om
219
218
 of the noise, he found vi\\agers running helter-skelter. 1-\e
l1imsclf ,,,itl1 tl1e 111011ey 11c made from fi sl1ing. 111 order t the cause h village and found a handsome youth who was
services, tl1cy decided to send l1i1n on lo11g, tedious errand~ ~~~in his .•,ent into t ed tied to a tree. ~u said, 'What has this handsome
same day. on the YI \ded an
"'
bliJldlO ?'
Qnin111ila sent ~u to Oke Bfsf to fetch his bag and h vouth do.ne · said he had carnal knowledge of the wife of one of
Qninmila decided to consult Ifa on this matter. He cons:it. lhen } rhe villagers
babalm110, wl10 advised him to sacrifice. He did. Six garme ~d the ·11agers.
tbe VJ d 'Where?'
put in a bag and given to ]1im. He was admonished to have~h. Were '~u aske.d ' in the man,s house.
with l1im always. is bag
'fheY skat d ' Did anyone see him?'
6~a-nla as~ed ~u to go to Iranje28 to bring his staff and b ~u as e ,
Ori~a-oko se11t ~u to bri11g him a1·a1·e29 from t11e Heavenly Way. a~. · was no answer.
0 There . 'W t h me closely. When you fmd me, let the young man
30
wanted a gba1nda1·i from Ire. gun ~u said, ac
~u sped on his way. He reached out a11d gathered all the item . go.' h d Esu suddenly disappeared from their sight. They
his ar1ns quick ly. But as soon as he left, tl1e envious de'ts' in
• •
immediately collected his nets fron1 tl1e nver and took all his ti h
1 •es
As th~Y w:; : 11 ,ov.er the village. l? the even~g, the youth ~v'!5
looked or h ·uagers had found EsU in the dishonoured \vtfe s
'~u returned to find them sl1anng . }11.s fi sh amo11g themselves. As soo
IS
· released, for t ~ v~ seen him enter Th~ door was locked, but they
as they saw ~u arrive back. eacl1 god quickly put his own shar~ room. No oEs!1e, a latm·g with the woman. The villagers knew it
a\vay in a bag. could hear .u c?pu
' was ~u. Tuey said:
After delivering all his assignn1e11ts, ~u asked tl1c deities how
they had come about the fisl1 tl1ey \Vere sl1a1i11g. Some begged t1im Don't undo me,
not to get angry. Others were silent \Vitl1 gui lt. Those wl10 begged Esu don't undo me,
him said they would cancel l1is debts as long as 11e did not reveal they u ·ndo someone else's child,
had been stealing, for stealing was ,forbidden at Otufe. Qrunmila Esu don't undo me.
.'
denied stealing any fish e\'en though ~u insisted that Qrunmila had.
Orunmila was asked to empty his sack, and when he did, six gannents 34 . ~ and~g6
~ere found in the sack. ~u was reprimanded. Begging Qrunmlla's (Cf. Idowu 19 62 . G Parrinder 1967, 90)
' · h ·...,'c-JC'\ive Among
i· kin in the heavens w ere 01~ .
pardon, he promised to give QnJnmila all he owned. Qrunmila was Once the on~were fro lC g A , ' l' o' rlsa-nla Og\ln, ~ang6, and
adamant. · · · · esent were vrunmt a, · '
' ' the maJOf on~pr . , : . d spirits were also present.
The elders at I~ asked ~u what else he would do. R?u promised to S• annAnn6. A host of minor orzyas ~ . take of palm w\ne made
go home with Qrunmila and serve him forever. The elders handed t'~ · d the contmuous in 1y
As the day wore on an ll .nh.b1 'tion it was sudden
Esu ·h th and lose a t 1 '
. over to Oninmila,
. who took' him home. When they reached everyone glow w1t wann xh.b.tion wrestling matches to
Qninmila 's house, Qrunmila told ~u that he must stay outside his and spontaneously decided. to have e 1 ~· on was warmly received
11ouse, but that he would share everything he ate with E~u. From that'
challenge one another's skill. The su~~:r:d with ofi?ti throwing or
'
day, ~u lived outside the house. the fields and copses were 1
and soon . tl' no contests. .
. thrown by others m wres i o . . te in this fr1end 1y
bemg . bl d' d not part1c1pa , ,
33. ~Seduces the Villager's Wife Two or1~as not1cea y ' 1 ano6 Everyone kne\V ~ \VaS
'
~u was roaming the countryside one afternoon. He was tired and competition. They were E~u and ~ d But Sang6~ When it became
unpredictable, so no brows were raise . .
rested under the shade of a tree. Soon he heard a noise. Searching for
22\
220

apparent t11at J1e \Vas indiffcrc11t about the wrestling bo
o~~isasked 11im \vl1at the matter was. $ang6 said, 'Wha~~' the. Other
is cl1ild's play. If I go into the ring, I \Vill probably forget is going on
injure n1y opponent. No one ca11 wrestle witl1 me with myself and
11urt. I an1$ang6, the breaker of bones.' out getting
~u, overl1earing the declaration by $ang6, l1otly interrupted ,
that include me, $ang6?' ' Does
'I don't lmow,' said $ang6 vaguely.
'No o~'sa can do anything without my assistance,' continued ' ,
'If I do not support you, you cannot break any bones, not to
kill anybody. Any on:,a that does not reckon with n1e 11as hi:e~tion
blame if he comes to hartn, as he surely will.'
$ang6, now angered by B?u 's comt11ent, reiterated that l1e was sa11
' that she would not stoop to perfonn the task herself. She designated
the hurler of thunderbolts and the l1arbi11ger of ligl1tning. He ci·d g ,
engage in wrestling bouts for fut1 but he would not mind a ~ not
with anyone to see which of tl1en1 would lose. ~u, ratl1er than acager
$ang6's wager, walked away in a l1uff.
The next day ~ang6 arrived at work listless a11d unable t
concentrate on anything. Every bone in 11is body acl1ed. He could n ~
perfo11n his nor1~al duties and ~ras wondering wl1y, whe11 he recall~d
his wager wiili B?u. He asked people what tl1ey tl1ougl1t was wrong
with him and e~eryone said in unison, 'Who dared challenge Esu
yesterday? Ask B?u, maybe he can explain why you are ill today.,·
~ang6, realizing he was sinking fast, conceded that ~u had won
the wager. He went to ~u and said to him, 'Forgive me. ~u. When I
made that wager yesterday, I did not mean it to include' you.'
35. The Woman Who Wanted A Child
(Cf. Bascom (l 969b, 279-281)
Once there lived a very distinguished woman. It was said of her that
she was more beautiful than a gazelle. A prosperous trader, she was
very wealthy and owned many houses and many slaves. She had
everything anyone could want except for one thing: she had no
children. Her relatives and friends thought she minded this because
although she was kind and gentle, she never smiled. Knowing that
she was secretly unhappy about her barrenness, her relatives and
friends ran from pillar to post in order to seek a cure.
???
1
d y her best friend came to her with the news that she had
one ~edicine man who had a cure for infertility. If she would
nd a l'" . .
foU lamb on her back, as one cames a baby, to ~u's base, she
carrY;bear a child nine months later. The woman was skeptica\. She
woul ht it was beneath her dignity to carry a lamb on her back across
th0 ug n to where ~u lived at the crossroads. She was too well known
the toWople would laugh at her if she should do such a stupid thing.
and P~end assiduously advised her to do what the medicine man
I-{er ted but when she saw that her arguments \vere not working,
~· requesught' the help of the woman ' s re1at1ves.
.
she so h pressure was put on the woman by her friends and relatiyes
uche yielded somewhat. She said a lamb would be taken to ~
5
se f to
buts , ,
6 .te female slave to bear the lamb. EsU touched the slave,
her f:a Voun · .
and nine months later, the slave bore a son. The woman \Vas so Jealous
and a ngry with herself that she sent the slave away. But her husband
. l .
cept d friends and relatives would not hear of 1t The s ave was gtven
: r freedom and became a wife in the household. People told the
woman that she had allowed the goodness meant for her to flow to
someone else.
36. E.,u Helps Qnmmlla Secure Earth' s Affections
(Cf. Bascom 1969b, 155-57.)
OrUnmi\a loved Earth secretly for a long ~e and ~ante~ to marry
her, but Earth was proud and refuse~ all ~utt~rs. Q~lla would g~r
to Earth's house and sit from morrung nil night, ?op1ng to see h
and tell her of his love. But Earth never gave him a chance._ She
surrounded herself with servants and never create~ an oppo6'1ty :~
'th OrUnmila This went on for a long time. But . runnu
be a1one w1 . .· . Earth's house, talking ,v\th
was very patient. He JUSt kept gomg to rtun' ty \Vould
everyone except Earth, hoping that one day and. oppo e~ and was
lf B t th'1 g changed He gre\v iscourag
present itse . .u no . ~ h ·Earth announced that she wou\d
almost at the pomt of givmg up w en h t touch her 3\ At the
marry the man who cot1ld get close enoug o d' .o her and
. d th number of servants surroun ino
same time, she mcrease e e ests who came to the
had bodyguards be~veen the serv~t~ :°~~ l~eemed more difficu\t
I house. Qnmmila did not know w a o .
223
 tl1a11 ever to sec Earth, let alone talk to her T j!.p !\'lakes Men Mad
.1mposs1'bie. yrunm1
A , 'I'a dec1ded
. . o touch h
. f ·
to take a walk to d .
cc1de wh er sec Illcct 31· all the deities were gath~red together to present their priests.
I1nc o ·1actionI \Vould
. be. But he , was not
, very hope I fu at his n e'<t once 'ty had a priest except .~u. I le had no one. When they asked,
Wh1 e on ltS walk 11e rnet Esu. Esu could h di · ci:-~eh
, dethere is your pnest.
· ?' Es'.u sat·d, 'J ust a moment. I wtll
· fetch
friend. QnJ.nmila walked witl1 b~wed. head and a~ Y recognize h' '~u: ~e took his wa~ home. Whe~ he got home, he took pieces of
He seen1ed terribly preoccupied. ~u joined his sr:;:~ed shoutde~s turn· d defecated in them . He tted one smelly cloth around his
and after several unsuccessful attempts to mak on the Walk. clo~h a~d another around his neck and went back to the meeting.
A , 'I' h . e conversat· ,
as ked yrunmt a w at was troubling him. Orunmila . ' to Id h11n
. h•on, r;_,
~u waist athe deities saw h'1m, they c.ie11 back tn
· repu1s1on
· crying,
· 'Es ' .u
• 15
•
1ike to marry Earth, but Earth had declared she would e Would W}le~ g the cloth of defecation.' That is why mad people are said to
man who got close enough to touch her. Meanwhil o~ly rnany the weann
herself with servants and bodyguards. He did not : ' s e barricaded ar E.su's costume.
we .
and was at the point of giving up. ~u said, 'Is that all ~ow .what to do . ~and Hor se
you?' Qrunmila said, 'Yes.' Then ~u said with mock1at is botl1ering 38
(Cf. Epega n.d. , 3, 55; Courlander l 973, 29-30.) .
he could not see why Orunmila 's whole mien sl1ould besternness
so dr · that
·
changed because of one woman. Earth was not tile 1 astically I-Iorse was one of the most beautiful animals created by O~ala. So
the world, so QrUnmila should find himself another w on y ~o:nan in Horse became bigheade.d and inordin~tely proud. Soon Horse
'd h . . oman. vrunm'I' 1 onsidered himself supenor to other arumals and sought only the
sa1 e was not interested m any otl1er ,v0 n1an. · a
~ompany of men. Men looked at hun and showered him with affection.
Se~in~ Qninmila so smitten witl1 love, ~u promised to hel 11.
He said it was a very simple matter. Onininila should return to Earth' P •rn.
One day Horse went into the fields to play. He saw a short. dark
. old man sitting under a tree. The old man tried to start a conversation
house and when she \\1as alone, he should toucl1 11er Oru' 'I' . s
'B t E rth · •' , · · nmi a said with Horse, but Horse was too busy having fun, gallop~g around,
~ a 1s never alone. ~u replied, 'Leave tl1at to me ' '
and staring at his reflection in the river. The old man was ~ and he
~u transforrned himself into the wind and went to Ea~h' h
to watch her daily routine. Eartl1 was not alone all day S~ ouse
was angry at Horse's rudeness, he told Horse he \Vould be sorry. Horse
did not take ~u's admonition senously until he \Vent into t0Vt11 and
surrounded by loyal maids who fetched ai1d carried for he.r e.1was
. h . unti the suddenly found a crowd of men running toward him. They told Horse
everung
11 h w en she retired to her room with seven inaids . M ea11wh'ile that there was going to be a pageant and they would like him to
ah t e guests had come · and gone except Orunmila
· ' who re ·
1na111e md .
participate in it. Horse was very flattered. He went home and bathed
t e courtyard: Then ~ touched the guards one by one witl1 medicine himself so that his skin looked fresh and lustrous. Then he returned
~nd they fell mto a deep sleep. He did the same thll1g to the ·ds to town. Horse thought he was going to be the central attraction .
Es. u, th en ask ed S. ango
, , ma1
to send a thundersto11n. At the rumble of th d · because when he returned to town, he \Vas caparisoned \Vtth bel~,
and fl~h of lightning, Earth was very frightened and rushed to a::k er beads, and other trappings. But when a saddle \Vas placed ~~ his
h~r mauls. But the maids were in such a deep sleep they would n:~ back and the king of the town mounted hi~ Horse felt h~m1liated
stir. ~ the thundersto11n raged on and on, Earth rushed out of her and wanted to protest such ill treatment. But as he opened bis mouth
room m great fear into the courtyard, where Qrunmila touched h to do so, a bridle \Vas thro\\1l in his mouth and all be coul.d do \Vas
And so Earth and Qrunmila were married. er. · h When he tried to resist more vigorously, be 'vas \Vbipped and
ne1g . . · ·dd d
stirrups were dug into his sides. That is \vhy Horse 1s n en an
whipped today.

224
 39. ~ '"'ins Sla\ es for Jr'""""~
1
or man was frightened out of his wits. lie implored Esu' t
'fhChilll·
pO ~U, only stood there and star~d a~ the man. The rich. man 0
Infor1nant: Moses Olejede
he1P d making offers to remedy the s1tuat1on. l-le offered to gtvc
(Cf. Epega n.d.: 4. 91)
~~:milil a slave in place of the dead slave. ~U looked uncertain.
Qrunmila once. had a slave. He was very c.iond 0 f h -fbe frightened .man offered more, and .m?re'. and more, until he had
h~r o~
sueh an attractive woma11 that On.lnm' J' t k er and ffered all of his two hundred slaves. £.iiu still made no sign to help
He talked incessantly about so :: her \vith him eve she Was
People would say of Oninmil; 'Th uc so that he becan-. fY\vhere. ~e poor man ..In a ~nal,, d~sperate act, the man threw himselfinto the
h. . , ere comes 6 . •ue a b ain. At thts point, ~u accepted. He brought back the man and
not ing else to .talk about these days but his slav , . tunrnl!a Who ore.
called upon his slave and fiound h er dead He. One day' Yrunrn'JA • has
his gtwo hundre d saves
bar 1 A ,
to yrunm1, l'a, who was very pleased.
.
d tstressed.
6 , , , , The poor woman was known and ~ was
. l1k d b shocked and 'a . ~ Causes Confusion
. runmtla s household so that l1er sudden . e Y every0 n . 40
great
, , uproar. ' mystenous death e
caused ain
(Cf. Epega n.d., 13 , 237)
.~u cam~ to tl1e scene. 'What happened?' Orun , , once upon a time, the great Ori,iis gathered for a f~ast. 0r¥13, the
gnef a~d with great big tears rolling down hi~ f: m1la, sh,ocked With arch-Orl,ii was there, resplendent in white; so was Oglln, the god of
favourite slave was dead. 'You are mak· ace, told ~u that h' war and iron, covered with sweat and bespattered with blood. ~ng6
D«ln' . mg a specta l is
I t it ever cross your mind that she would die c e of yourself. came belching smoke from his nostrils. ~anp<?nnq attended the feast
h~an bemgs do?' Nevertheless Esu was so mo done day, as all in raffia-fringed gear. The feast on this particular day was tn honour
r1~f some~hi~g ~e ~~ '
that he decided to do to make O </nlnml!a•s of 6r~ala. Therefore, every ori~ went up to O~la, who was s1n1ng
Give me the body of the dead slave , Es, 'd ,· ru11m1la feel better on a throne, and paid him homage before joining the other deities. At
with "t?' 6 ' ' l, one point, Ori~ala
, '. . . runm1 a asked in amazement. ' Leave that to me' . ~ou do
' ·u sat · What would · ' interrupted the celebration to make an
~u took the dead \voman 's corpse to his b ' ~u said announcement. He infonned the august gathering that he \Vas going
dressed it. Then he took her to the market l ousde and washed and away on a journey and while away he would like to appoint one of
th h d Pace an sat her the ori~s as a surrogate in his place. O~ala told the oriiDs that
'
so at t e ead ":'oman looked as if she were alive on a chair
greet the
if th slave. Hiding behind her Esu wo ld . Passersby
u answer tnaki . would whereas any one of them was qualified to act as his representative
as e woman were answering. · ' ng tt seem during his absence, he thought QrUnmilil possessed exceptional
A man who Jived in the same town 11ad two h dr qualities for the position and would do the office justice. Therefore.
was very rich. He was also obnoxious and Es , h u; ed slaves and Or~ala requested Qn'mmila to act as his lieutenant while he was a\vay.
~ettle wit!1 him. When he came to EsU's stall th: i: r:~
old score to Cheers and congratulations greeted Qriuu:nilil at this news, and all
ignored . ~u, but started talking t~
the d ea d womanrket place,hhe
pay·
except one Ori,ii moved towards c)riuunllil to compliment him and
comp Iiments about how well she looked He d . ' .. ing er promise him support. The one Ori,ii who was not pleased at this news
her health and wellbeing but since sh d·d ma e mqu1nes about was Esu. He stood transfixed, his face puffed with rage. He did not
be looking past him, he re:iched out an; Id n~t :nswer and seemed to go to~ards his friend QrUnmilii to wish him \veil. Then, to dra\\
At ,th!s, the woman promptly collapse;: ~ehea~.to
get her attention. attention to himself, he threw down his drinking vessel, which broke
into small pieces with a loud noise. Every Orl.;ii was. startled at this
noise and turned in the direction of the crash. When ~ saw that he
~u, who had been watching the proceedi
raised her, and let her fall back sa in ,ngs, i;ushe? to the woman,
dead! You have just killed 6rUnm;l' 'yf: g, ".'ou ve killed her! She's had everyone's attention, he threw back his head in a mirthless laugh
QrUnrnii3 will do to you when h: ~e:~:~utnh~e ~lave. Just think what
IS.
and stormed out of the gathering. He had succeeded in disrupting the

227
226
 proccedi11gs. Qrunmila \Vas no longer tl1e centre of atte t' . terrupt his conversation. If they had anything to say, they
10
' · ' then co~gregated m
01·1{DS · smaII groups to express theirn ron and the rudely it until he was free and then, provided they conducted
and sl1ock at ~u 's bel1aviour and to conjecture on w:rn~:rnent should lwas in an orderly manner, he would listen to them.
bel1aved so badly. y ~u had the!11~e,~; continued to talk with Qrunmila for such a long time that
'
Esu \Vent off to his house 33
and there he waited fo the o'r' , Q~~tne he was ready tO listen tO the Ori{ils, their anger \Vas Spent.
. , is:is as h
returned from the feast. ~u cornered the major oi·i.iJs · . t . ey by thehtt d hoped for an altercation with 6t¥1a. but since he had been
$ang6, Oglin, II~, and Qsanyin, and hailed them with th~i~n~Iu~ing 'fbeY a e yet fit 1n, they felt foolish and had no choice but to wait
praise names. He recounted how great and prominent they anous so ~leb~la would grant them an audience. Finally, 6t¥la concluded
saluted $ang6 as t11e mighty 01·iiJ who could bring down thu~~:e. lie ~u . 't with Orunmila, who bade him a safe JOUmey and left. Then
~15, ",'~~ tumed towards the other orl{ils and bade them \Velcome. He
0

1,ightning from the heavens on anyone who defied him. He r .and

Oglin as the mighty warrior who won all battles and to whom rJra•~ed 0 ( adahis servants to bring them palm wine and kola nuts. His visitors
was indebted for iron weapons and implements. He lauded I~kinct cal e ow very uncomfortable because they had come, not v..ith good
01·iiJ of the earth, for providing food for the sustenance of d · ~ ~he were
·ubut n in anger and md1gnatton;
. . . they \Vere baffied that ~v h"l1e o· rt?a'la'
. · th'
men, an d aII II\'11lg rngs; an d ysany1n
r. , he compl1mented
. as thee1t1es
d.' W1
was w
ell aware of their disposition, he had ren1ained hospitable toward
, , , , ~ h . . . H
whose smile protects mankind, from scourges of plagues and dis eity Wl .th a smile Orisala asked the orz!lls ior t etr m1ss1on. e
, , , were fl attered at CA?u t:-~ , ' d d ease them ' · ·
Th e 01·1.fXJs s wor s, an were encouraged · ·d he did not mean to be rude but that they should be brief because
~tay and talk \Vith him. They insisted, 110\vever, on a11 explanatio11 to 0
f ~:was already late starting out on his journey. He suggested that
' ' . 1 d b
Es. u s seenung y ru e e 1av1our. l . be they had come about a matter that could be settled by his
'
. ~ii . looked distressed that tl1e 01·iiJs 11ad so grossly 111isinterpreted may ArU.nrnila At the · of 6 runrru
mention ' 'las' ' name, the de1egat ton
deputy, y . . . f th
his actions. He had not meant to e1nba11 ass anyone but he had certainly became angry again. ~ang6 \Vas the self-appointed spokesman o .e
been taken aback by the de\1elopn1ents at tl1e feast. He was 11ot seekin Up Emitting fire and smoke from his mouth, he splu,ttered the1r
gro . hil 0 , ~' ,
bis own self-interest, but he had certainly co11sidered Qrunmila'~ displeasure at Qnlrunila's elev~ti?n as over~eer. ~v e fl?<Ua ,,·as
appointment preposterous. All s01·i;siis were equal, therefore Ornala's away. It was their concerted opm1on that Qrurumla \Vas not the best
claim that Qnlnmila °"'as pre-eminently qualified implied that the iatter one for the position. .
~'as considered superior to all others. By the end of tl1e visit with 6risala listened quietly and intently to all that \Vas said., ~1~ head
~u, the oriii_s bad been persuaded to reject Qrunmila's nomination was b~wed and he looked g1avely at the floor. \Vhen the ori~s had
and to draw O~la's attention to the slight done them. finished, he looked up and, scanning the angry faces around ~
'
The 01~i~s trooped back to Or~ala to air their grievances. smiled faintly and asked one question: "Is there any on~ amon~ y~u
Meanwhile, ~u remained behind and did not go with them. On their who considers himself more ~pprop.riat: ,for the ~k. Tue o~i~s
'
arrival at O~ala's palace, they found him packed and about to leave. . . on 'There is &ii' Orisrua bo,ved his head again at
answered 1n un1s , . · · h · d
'
He was giving the final instructions to Qnlnmila, who had come to this answer and stared at the ground for a long time. Whe~ e raise
' his head, it was to ask them another question: "Did. you am.ve at your
see him off. Orl?ala did not seem surprised to see them. He greeted
them and having motioned them to sit down, continued his . · f: tt' wt'th A,.:.nm1la by yourself or was it at the mst1ganon
d1ssatts ac on 1
Y \,UllLU ' •
1 ft
conversation with Qnlnmi la in his slow-paced, gentle way. The ot·isits f other?' The ori.sizs did not answer the quesnon. Tuey e m
• • o anfu . ~d emba~ssment. Orisala smiled and said nothing, ~or
did not bother to return O~ala 's greeting. So excited were they that con s1on . · H kn from their confus1on
t?ey alJ began to speak at once in a mixture of rage and indignation. d'd he try to stop them from leaving. e ew .
O~ala was not perturbed in the least. He simply reminded them gently
6runmila became the overseer and \or o e an ~
r'e!
~at they had been prompted by ~u. 6r~ad'la o~ h~ :~~'brsrua
.
that courtesy demanded they should not come into his house and •

229
228
 . everyone ran helter-skelter in the direction of the uproar.
'''as a\\'ay. He ad111i11istered equity and j ustice to all. He rent the atr. f the pandemonium
. was soon revea\ed. l le, the deity of
accessible and l1e I1elped wherever l1e could. One da 8-V:as al\vay 'fhe cau~~ ~anp<)nn9, the deity. of smallpox, were clasped in a death
runni11g to Qrun111ila witl1 tears strea1ning down his r:' · ang6 cam! earth, a , ·hi\dren had mystenously caught the pox and were dying
sons had 1net their deatl1s suddenly and tragically Wilenet~ Two of his griP· ~l~ s;e was absolutely convinced that it could not have happened
trying to put out a fire iI1 a barn. A third son l1ad inhaled ey had been
titce flies. sanponn9' s connivance. He had asked ~anp(}nn<? to do
of sn1oke and was about to die. $ang6 l1ad tried everyth. a great dea1
with 00 ~
to save him all to no avail. Qn1nmila said to $ang6, ,~he kne,v 0 to s~ve the lives of his children, but~anp<}nnq had refused,
so~e~ ~hat he had mysteriously lost his power to control plagues
comet~ me? According to you, we are all equals. If you hy do ~ou
cta1rni_ng ses. Ile, not believing ~anp<)nn<?, waylaid him on his way to
everyth111g you could for your son and fai led, then there i ave ~ed
that I can do.' s nothing and dise~ would not let him go until he promised to revive his children.
work,an , claimed he was innocent. He had not brought the plague
$ang6 begged and pleaded with Qrunn1ila, asking him
$at1~~ household and it was true that he had suddenly lost his
09
cast his divination nuts to ascertain tl1e cause of tlie cv'I 1 t~ please n Ile s ' .
suddenly befallen him. Qrunmlla cast the nuts and read th t lat ~ad 0
o1',,.1ed1
. ·. l and curative powers. Once agatn, the matter was brought
cina ' ' ' were rebuked e:ior d.1sturb.1ng
that $ang6 was guilty of co11spiracy, envy, and jealous~m, 11sayu1g ()r(inmila and both I\~ and ~anpqnn9
misfortunes that befell hin1 were a reprisal. If he would sac'··~ d tlie to · ce. As with the others, their problems stemmed from their
amend his \vays, then his two sons could be brougl1t back t~ :~fie 1 aiid
the p~a cy with Esu. The ori.ils made the necessary restitution and
consptra . · . . · ,
all was well with them again. For his part m these events, ~u was
811
the critically . d ill child would recover.
. Sa11g6
. . left Oruntni
. la w'tl e
I 1 tears
d
o f grat1tu e. He concurred Wlth the find111gs of tl1e di vitiation th 8 banished to the crossroads.
had been resentful ofQrUnmila 's elevatio11, but lie knew that E , ~ he
~rought , 'l'
the matter to a head \vitl1 11is relentless urgings a~u . ad
ga1nst 41
. How~ Was Thrown Out of Heaven
0• runm1 a. Informant: Chief Ajanaku
':'- ~ew ~ays la!er., anoth~r ?istraught 01·iji came to see Qrunmila
(Cf. Epega n.d., 13, 237) , , ,
This tune 1t was Ogun. Clamung he had not had any sleep for a wliol~
Esil Ebita was a spirit in the spirit world. When <?lodum:ire ~ated
·ankind on earth and when the Fashioner-of-Des~y, Qronm1la, had
week from \vorry and concern about his wife and children o' ,
· d h ' gun
e~p lame t . at they had suddenly t~ken ~I with an epileptic type of
di~eas~. W!th four members of his family thrashing around with
~omp\eted the task of fashioning human ?e~tiny,_1¥1 grew angl)' and
discontented and was disobedient to Olodumare.
Esil declared war. 0 \6dilmare requested ~ii~ w~o v.:as. a\s~
ep1lepttc seizures, he was worn out from running from pillar top t
• fj-C. • OS
m_ an e_1ort to relieve th~~· As in ~ang6's case, all medication had
failed; m fact, .most med1c~e men ~ere afraid because tl1ey had not
kno~n as 'Elil , to lawich a defensive war against 1¥1 ~1~a. 1¥1 an
· ' . d d thr ut of the st>tntua\ \Vorld
been a_ble to diagnose the disease. Oglin 's wife and children were at his followers were vanqu1she an own o \ .
The day when these events took Pace ts
the ~01nt of death and he had come to Qrunmila as a final recourse and d escended to earth· · · o \' d' '
as 'a oEn:' Arriving on earth, ~ said, 'l;.l~ whom .o umare
Agam, as with ~~ng6, the divination lots found Ogiln guilty of pride~ kn~wnd t ·;age war against me in heaven is probably go~g .to b:
envy, and conspiracy. If he would sacrifi ce and give constructive or ere o arth on an offensive against me. Should O\odumare
suppor: to Qnlnmila, his children and wife would recover from their sent do\vn to e . . I would do al\ in my power to prevent
mys_tenous malaise. Ogiln l?romised fervently to do what was expected d him on such a m1ss1on, d h
s~n . Should he overcome obstacles in his \Vay a~ _reac ,
of him and be denounced ~u for having encouraged him on the path \ bun from ~orrung. . to erform \vhatever errand Olodumare
of self-destruction.
A few days passed. Then suddenly one day at noon, a loud clamour gave m.
231
230
I ~--~-----~
 . be sent to c.)ronmi\a to present grievances and to request a
ss. }3ut since th~ orr9CJS
dePuwtion . . , d'1s~sted each. other, they feared that
11in1 fron1 returning to 0 16dumare.' These were tl1c thr
made with his followers on the day that came to be kno:e vows ~U
redre resentatives might seek thelf own sel f-mterest. Therefore, they
of the Three Resol~tions, ' (!IP Abit M fia .' n as the 'Day me rinot agree on the m~~b~rs of the delegati~n. .
co111 he meantime, each orr9CJ began a self-seekmg campaign. 9gUn
Ol6dumare, as ~u 11ad expected, sent t 1a to earth Th
Jot t rivatelY to Q\Qrun and asked.for power and res?°nsi~ili~. Ori,ii-
which ~Ill came to earth is now known as '0P 9.!J'!.' On ~he :0 0 .on
day
wen P ent by night to seek more mf\uence from Q\9run. ~u became
day, ~Ill perfonned some good deeds. That day is called , ~~ Wing 01<0 ':ociferous in his demand for authority. <)rUnmllil wanted more
The Day of Good Fortune. All good deeds, good luck g ci:1P;(ie,'
wealtl1, and goodness came to earth this
tl .._ day. Esu· wa~ ·noo
1 fortune,
censed .
[!lore sang6 too, craved more power. All the Ori,iis lobbied in their
1e new devel~pments brought out by i;.lil's good works J with swaY· .
tried to build, ~U tried to demolish. · ust as t1a 0
wno interest.
iorun, watching the proceedings, was troubled by the unrest
· ~g the Ori.ils. In fact, so distressed was he that he could neither
day, i;:ta once again besieged Esu
3~0 drink, no; sleep. He started taking long walks to think about the
On the following
. . and 111s
· ctollow
and vanquished them. This day was called 'Q/6 ~un ' tl
b-i~mPhed ~ :;rter. On one of his walks, Q\Qrun encountered Ag~mc;i, the
ers
Victory, because it was on that day that Etit le ,Day of
all his works. · ver ~Uand chameleon. Ag~mc;> ~bs~rved Q\Qrun's sad and pre~ccupi.ed
~Then ~u
• found himself powerless to do anytl1ing against Ela countenance. Ag~nc;> said, Why are you so troubled? There 1s nothing
~athered
Es ' · d
a new crowd of followers. 011 the day after the Day rv·. ' he
· · o 1ctorv
coming by that the road cannot contain.'
0\6run replied, 'The Ori,iis trouble me. They are all equal and I
. u tne to create more d1ssens1011 and co11fusio11. There ·;,
pa~demoniwn on earth, but all of ~U 's strivings came t:as great1 ha~e ·not given anyone, except Qbatala, any powers because I do not
ThlS day was '0.0 Rzi,' the Day of Confusion. Then once a;~~g~1 : want them to become jealous of each other. Now they all seek
influence and authority. How could I grant that without creating
brought peace and tranquility to eartl1 by overpoweringEsu . once more. ·a
jealousy and rivalry? Those at the bottom would hate those at the
42. The ~and Their Portfolios top. Trouble will ensue.'
Agc;m<? said, 'This is what you do. Send your messenger t? assemble
Info1111ant: Moses Olejede the Ori.ils at the town square. Tell them you have given great
(Cf. Courlander 1973, 43-46) consid~ration to their proposition. When they are assembled, speak
Originally, Ql9run and Qbatala, his lieutenant, were the 011 ty ones to them from heaven. Tell them you will rain wisdom and knowledge
who had ~y real power. QI9run, feeling 11e should treat each ori!ii down to earth. Each Ori,ii should catch as catch can.'
equall.y, did not allocate powers to any of them. If a man want~d Ol6run said 'Very good.' He sent his messengers forth to each
anythyth~ng he had to seek the help of the or·i~s, and if an ori.ii wanted Ori.srl and when they were gathered, Q\Qrun rained wisdom,
an mg done, he had to go to Ql9run or Qbatala. · kn~wledge, powers and influence from heaven. The Ori,iis ran helter-
~~er some time, the major ori~s became restless. They resented skelter, collecting Q\Qrun's bounty. Some gathered a great deal, others,

EsU was 'one of those who received a large share. He was ~~ong
their impotence, especially since they felt that they were superi t only a little but none lacked for some.
humans . o da · or o
and ·nimble on his feet. Among his many ' gifts' were the. ~~1hty to
. ne, y, at a soc1a1 gathering of the Ori,iis, an Ori.ii posed
the q~estJon, Why d~ we not have any powers? If we, as O~l,iis, are
destroy anyone who offended him, the gift of tongues, vmltty, and
supenor to human beings, why do we have nothing to show for 1't?'
, Most of the
EsU
d~Saspicked
d S' ' ·
up the line of thought. Ori.ii-0 ko 6 ,'
· ' gun,
I great se){Uality. He became an enigma Orl,ii. He had the power to
create chaos out of order, and order out of chaos. He also had a fine
. , a~ . anp9nn9 were among the most vocal. They felt that
something must be done and done quickly. It was resolved that a 233
232
 .15 tening to goss1p like women. They a\so ta\k, looking
an d · tak 1ng
k.110,,,lcdge ofl1erbs. For t11cse reasons, bot11 01·i:it.r; a11d 11umans res h6tter1n . dl' about men who d o not seem 1ntereste
· g · d 1n
&u
>- and seek ~ • 1ds Iup.
• fiic1
l11s · Peet ct me pointe. ~'g a family.' Ifa would tell his mother not to worry,
•
~rives and rahtsin y the way he was, and that he did not care what bis
43. The \Voman at the Crossroads '~· h was app
hat e 'd
Long, loilg ago, there was Ifa. He was 11ot a well-to-do man. l lis
t
dctrac t 0 rs sat . . d. r~
h ndled the matter in a 1 1erent way. re apprent1ce '{ . d
parents found this very strange because before his birth, they had Jfa's father :fa took the apprent1ceship to please his father, but he
recei\'ed portents that Ifa would be an t1nusual person. Altl1ough th Jfa to ad.d carver. ke of work while he \Vas there. Instead, he would sit
1 a stro . .
were not told specifically in what \\lays Tfa would be distinguislle~ 0ever rner wt'th his unused lathe 1n hts hand and talk to everyone
.
tJ1eir dreams had intimated tJ1at Ifa .would becon1e very well knoWn. iJl a co h' under the sun. The other apprentices spent more
He "vould do much good for l1un1an1 ~ a11d tl1e fate of mankind would about ev~ryt tnlgf:' that1 in doing any work, and eventually the master
rest i.t1 his hands. Ifa 's parents took tJ11s to n1ean tl1at Tfa would be rich tirne ta lk1 . 11g to
d ato save his trade decided to dispense · 'th If:''
\Vl as
and famous. Tl1ey ~lought l1e \\1ould ~wn large fanns, l1ave n1any 111 or er ' h If:'
carver, f:', f: ther then took him to a fishing colony so t at a
'''l\'es and n1any cl11Jdren, and \VOt1ld dispense st1cl1 largesse that he . es I a s a . l' . h
se~ic ~arn the fishing trade. As usual, Ifa did more soc1a ~ng t an
\vould become famous. So Ifa ·s parents waited to see wl1etl1er the rnigh~ He would frequently lose the bait or the catch \Vhtle he \V~s
1
dreams and the predictio11s about ]fa \VOt1ld come true. 1earning.. d ften he would absentmindedly thro\v a tom net m
The first shock came \vhen lfa, as a you11g boy, did 11ot seem to be ° ·
busy.talkingh'. 1anhe talked with his friends. Ifa again lost his JO · b
.
interested in doi11g anything. He \Vas restless a11d played a lot, but th e nver wh 1 e tr. d If:a' at trading sellmg · cloth , paLm 01·1, or farm
\vhereas boys his age '''ere al\\1ays in tl1e co111pany of tl1eir peers, Ifa If:' 's fat er te ' ·
a ut each endeavour was a disaster. No trade or prof~ton
kept his o\vn company and aJ\\rays played alone. His favourite pastime products,? t d very often he either lost his \Vares or failed to
\\'as to sit and \Vatch people go by. People fasci11ated him and everyone held Ifa's 1nteres an
kne\\' him. for 11e l1ad a cheery \\'Ord for everyo11e. He would chat on what he sold.
collect moneY h ds If:a' met a beautiful woman. She \Vas
\.\rith fanners as t11ey \\'ent to '''Ork on their fa1ms and tease women as 0 ne day at t e crossroa ,
th \voman he bad met. She \Vas mystenous as
.
they returned from the marketplace. Soon Ifa beca1ne a pennanent different from any o er d to know who she was. No one
fixture and everyone looked fornrard to chatti11g with him 011 their b t.ful No one seeme
well as eau t • h .., ·1 d background She seemed to have
'''ay to and from their \\'Ork or visits with friends. People started ythi g about er iam1 Yan ·
knew an n onl seen at the crossroads. The
bringing their problems to Ifa. They would ask for l1is opinion on appeared out of no,vhere. Sh~~~om~ in a different way than the
e\'erything the ne\\r wife somebody wanted to take, the drougl1t menfolk reacted to the beauh . d . triguing and they \vould
that seemed to be threatening. tl1e local gossip a11d politics. Ifa did womenfolk. Men found her attra~ttve an h~was with lfa. The \Vomen
not always gl\'e the best advice, nor was his opinion always sound, find every excuse to talk to her \V ~~;~::roads because the men liked
but he al\vays listened. He became so popular in the community tl1at of the town hated the woman at th . d pleasant They feared that
people began to ply llim with gifts of food and clothing. h s so attract1ve an · .
her and because s e \Vad h .._ he \vou\d have no more tt.me to
Ifa lived on tl1ese donations. He was far from rich, but he did not , . ht arry her an t ere1ore d th
Ifa nug m fi 1 th t lfa belonged to everyone an ey
stan'e and he had many friends and seemed content. But Ifa's parents
\\'ere ashamed. True, their son was well known and well liked, but he
spend with ~em. They be tan: let an unknown \Voman depri' e them
were not going to s.tand y So they took to harassing the \Voman.
\.\'as not employed in any trade. So they tried to persuade him to take of the pleasure of his company. h unknown background and said
up a profession. His 1nother in particular would weep to Ifa, 'I am the They sang derisive songs about er On f the sonos they sang goes
laughing stock of my friends. They are always making snide remarks provocative things about her person. e o o

about able-bodied men who do nothing, but wou ld rather sit all day like this:
235
234
 ~Runs an Errand for the People
Stra11ge woman,
\Von1an wit11 fake beauty, 44. C rlander 1975, 189-194)
Wl1at 111igl1t your pare11tage be? ci ou .
( . iata had just returned from creating Earth and was feasting and
Are you hu111a11 or are you not? c)babrating in heaven. Ascending on a long chain from the sky. he
Are you born of bird or beast? cele d sand and a hen to tum the watery waste that was then earth
Woman-who-looks-beautiful-only-at-dusk, bad ~se dscape complete with greenery, hills and valleys, deserts and
What might your designs be? to ~ anLater on, human beings were created. They built roads and
Everyone has a family tree, P~~·n:·and the earth became vibrant and alive.
But you have no11e. ciU~ 16kun, the goddess of the sea and marshes, was ~ngry and jealous.
Maybe you are an evil spirit thought to herself, 'When the earth was nothing but a mass of
Or an animal tun1ed l1uman. She 1 ruled supreme here. Now Qbatala has created vegetation,
The womenfolk would sing tl1is song wl1e11ever tl1ey passed by th water,
d human beings with · the1r
· roads, agncu · lture, and i·1vestock , no
crossroads, or they would huddle i11to groups a11d giggle derisively e an r look to me I will show the world who is the master here.'
tl1e sight of her. But sl1e never seemed to 111i11d. 111 fact, sl1e didn~~ tonge · ·
With that, Ol6kun strrred up the seas and oceans so that they swe e
Ud
even seem to be aware of t11e jeers. TJ1e wo111e11folk were at first d verflowed, causing floods. 016kun brought down ram for many
furious that they were not successful at etnbarrassing tl1e woman ~n and nights. The deluge from the sky and the seas inundated the
°
Then, seeing that the strange ~roman was n1ucl1 tougl1er tl1an the; ayss growing in the farmlands and the lush hillsides. Fannlands \Vere
were, their jealousy twned to fear. Tl1ey decided to work on Ifa instead. crop . l
d .nto marshes. Many human lives were lost. Peop e were
1
So they began ignoring Ifa on their way to and from daily chores. turne · Ob' '\ ·
tern'fi1ed . They called to Obatala
. for help and succour, but
. smce . ghatatha
Tl1ey also discouraged tl1eir husbands from talking to Ifa. The gifts lived far away in the sky, he could not hear their cnes t~ou e
of food and clothing stopped. noise and clamour of grief and terror. So the people decided to call
Ifa was ostracized. Besides, he 110 longer had tl1e wherewithal to Esu because he lived on earth at the crossroads.
live. Ifa reported all of this to the woman at the crossroads. She listened on A d;legation went to ~'s house at the cros~roads. ~\Vas si~g
patiently to his woes. She told him not to worry and asked lliin to outside eating yam drenched with palm oil. Af~er ex~han~1n,g
follow her into the forest where she would sl1ow him something. Ifa respectful salutations, the spokesman of the delegation srud to~
and the \voman at the crossroads remained in the forest for a long, 'Ol6kun is bent on destroying us. She has opene~ ~e dam of th. the
long time. During their sojourn, the woman taught Ifa the names of and the rains will not stop. The riv~rs surge, killing our ~ro~s,
important trees and herbs, and revealed their medicinal and curative . Save us EsU before we all pensh.
oceans rage, drownmg us. ' · t' t do9 And where is the
values. She also taught Ifa how to tell fortunes by casting palm nuts. Esu said to them, 'What do you wan me o .
In return, Ifa promised to carry a portrait of tl1e woman on his . ft ?'
divination board; every client who sacrificed would always sacrifice sacrifice for my ee.. ' t oo to Obatala for us and te\\
Th okesman said We want you o o • .
to her first. Ifa went back to town where he became distinguished e sp i· h 1-.c. ' n him of the catastrophe befalling us. Here lS
him of our p 1g t. 1uo11 . , . .,
and famous as a diviner and healer. He unravelled people's destiny W brought it as a sacnfice to Qbatala. .
and solved every conceivable problem. But always he demanded that a g?a,t. e . d He did not move or speak. After a \vhil~ ~he
Esu stood his groun .. . They said 'Why are you S\tttng
sacrifices be first offered to the woman at the crossroads. · .c. 1 h t methmo was amiss. ' .
' people,1e t t a sythino
. o 9 Is our p\ioht not urgent enough'? Or \S
£.?u, of course, was the woman at the crossroads. there, ~u? Is an g \vrong. , , ~ 9'
it the sacrifice? ls it unworthy of Qbatala.
237
236 '-~-----
 '
~u said, 'You ask 1ne to take yow· pligl1t to Qbatala in he
. . looked on at the proceedings with great satisfaction Wh . l
~u
. , M k
be Man s tum, an was as ed where he would lik t 1. · en 1t
You l1avc tJ1crefore asked me to make a lo11g journey as well aven. roe to , .d h , , e o 1ve
swered, Ins1 e ouses, 0. runmlla granted it. ·
your spokesman. You bring a goat to Qbata la. Does your repres:~tto. be
c3
.. ian an . .' 6 , l\~ .
not merit sometl1ing?' ative lYJ 'fhen !t was ~u s tum. . runm1 (1 asked .him where he would like
'
So tl1e people brougJ1t ~u sacrifice, in return for which h . e Esii being of a contrary nature, said thoughtlessly Outs'd
tO l1V • • ' h h' ' 1 e,
tl1eir plight to Qbatala. He told a very anxious Qbatala wll:t took U rse. Then he thoug ~to tmself and said, 'No. 1 mean inst·d ,
ofutcoit was too late. s·tnce Es'
happening to the people on eartl1. At first, Qbatala did not know ;as .u h'imself had suggested that everyone's
J3 t statement be taken as the only answer, he was not allowed t0
e.
to resolve the situation. But then l1e consulted Qrunmlla w110 ~w
his knowledge of 11erbs and magical medicine, caln1ed the wav WJth
firs
tal<e back hts · 1n1t1a
· · · l rep ly. And th at ts
· why ~u ' ' lives
· outdoors today.
stopped the rains. es and
. }low G r eed, Jealousy, and Confusion Came to the World
46
4 5. ~'s House in the Open '
Informant: B<)la ~ubiyii
(Cf. Courlander 1973): 29-31) (Cf. courlander 1973, 43-46)
In those days, when earth and the creatures on it were newly crcat d In the beginning, when Ql<)run created the world and human beings,
t11ere were many problems. As \vit11 any place being newly settled th~ ' everyone was happy. The world was beautiful. The earth was
\V~ a great deal of confusion. Tl1e 01·i{ils, l1wna11 bei11gs, and the '1argre bountiful; crops were planted and gre\v effortlessly. The rivers were
arumal~ ask.ed Qrunmila a million questions: 'W11at sl1all I do? Ho~ full of fish, wild game abounded, as did domestic livestock. The
Ion~ will I live? Where shall I li\1e? What is my lot on this ea1tl1?' valleys were luxuriantly green, the rains fell in their season, and the
~u, a great stickler for order, stepped u1 a11d decided to help briiig sun ripened the fruits. There was neither famine nor drought.
calm. He s.u~gest~d that Qrunmila interview eacl1 01·i(ii, eacJ1 person, People were happy. Everyone was equal. No one had more than
and each ~vmg tl11ng, and ask them what tl1ey would like. Qnl.nmila anyone else. Everyone looked like everyone else, with the same colour
accepted~~ 's sugges~on. The interviews produced quite interesting of skin. People spoke the same language and did the same things.
results. For instance, Qrunmila proceeded to ask Guinea-fowl if it There was no anger or jealousy, or unhappiness. The deities did not
\Vould .like to v.r~ar ~ rope ~round. it.s neck. Guinea-fowl said, firmly need to be propitiated. They roamed the earth freely and consorted,
but politely, that 1t did not like the idea. Other animals were asked the happily with human beings.
same question and they too, in tum, declined. But Goat considered Life went on merrily until gradually man started complaining. One
the entire proceedings hilarious and said facetiously tl1at he did not man said, ' I wish I looked different from everyone else.' Another
really care whether l1e wore a rope around his neck or not. No sooner said, '1 wish I were shorter.' Others grumbled about bemg the same
had he said that than he found a rope around his neck and, as I1ard as size as everyone else. These initial complaints reached the ears of
he tried, he could not remove it. That is why goats even today suffer ~u, messenger to Ql9run. ~ decided to giv~ Q19run ~ rel)ort on ~e
the indignity of being dragged to the market on a rope. new developments on earth. ~u went to Ql9run ~nd mfonned ~
Similarly, Horse proved injudicious when it came his tum. 6runmila 'Men are complaining about the sameness of the1~ looks and ~1~e ..
asked Horse if he would want to be useful to man. Hors~ replied, Ol6run asked ~u, 'Are these fonnal complaints or JUSt hearsay? ~u
'Who can make me do that?' For his belligerence, Qrunmila maae · :d 'No they are not for1nal complaints. There are only a fe\v
sa1 , , ld infi b t
blings here and there, but I thou&ht I shou ~rm you a ou
Horse the beast of burden it is today. Qrunmila decreed tl1at I-Iorse's
acrimonious mouth must forever wear a bit, and that Horse be forever rm vertheless., Ol6run thanked ~u and told him to keep ms
em, nde ars open· h~ thought that the grumblings would probably
saddled, with spurs driven into his sides by man. eyes an e ,

238 239
 quiet do,v11 soon.
'
~u returned to earth to find t11e situation much worse. Th
grun1blings l1ad grown into more diversified dissatisfacti e sporadic
\\'ere no longer just grumbling about the sameness of tlon: People
. . 1e1r lo 0 ks
They had begun to complain about equality on other lev 1 .
· ll igence,
rnte ' money, 1·&-.
11espan everything. Soon great ue s. status,
dissension broke out. nrest and
'
~ decided to look into tl1e 1natter and called the dissenters to am .
at the marketplace. He had hoped for a rational ' peaceful d'iscuss1 ee~ng
0 b oded together and considered everyone who did not speak their
Instead, he got a barrage of angry complaints. One man said 'L"fc . n.
. ' 1 e IS SO
b onng. Why should everyone have the same degree of intellige
~sdo~?' Another said, 'Why should we speak the same langua;~; ~d
d1scuss1on . turned to arguments and rhetorical questions. No 0 ne wase
Ii sterung to anyone else. 'Why should we l1ave the sa1ne numb
children?' 'Why should we be healthy and happy all the time?' ,~f
sb~uld everyone work?' The meeting had truly deteriorated. y
~u took thes.e c?mpla~ts ~ack to Ql9run. 'The world is on the
verge of confusion, he said. Men want to be different from
another. They claim life is boring.' one
QI<?run asked Esu, 'What do men want?'
' .
. ~u said, 'Some want larger 11ouses than tl1eir friends. Some want
bigger farms. Some want more money than anybody else; others
gold. Some want more children; others, no children. Some want slave~
and servants; others, horses to ride about.'
QI<?run was extremely distressed. He sent ~u back to earth. 'Tell
them that what they are asking for will cause disorder and dishannony
Ask them to think and be reasonable.'
' Yoruba states.
~u again called a meeting at the market place. But by now men were
mo~ belligerent, refusing to listen to reason. They would not pay attention
to ~u. 's message from Ql<?run, so involved were fuey wifu asking for
one thmg or another to distinguish them from their fellow man.
, Ql<?run, overwrought by man's querulous behaviour, gave in. He asked
£.?u to give 1nan what he wanted. Wealth was redistributed so that some
were rich, so1ne were poor, and some were in-between. Land was
partitioned. Some had fertile lands and became farmers who owned acres
and acres of land; others received the grasslands and became cattle-men·
others were given desert lands and suffered drought.
Some people had slaves, servants, and sharecroppers. Others traded
240
rwo rk ed crafts. Some people shot up to become taller Oth,....
· ~'~ c~e be
shOrt and stunted; yet others were of average height· New languagcs
o
e introduced, so that everyone no longer spoke the same \angu 1
~=~pie had different shades of skin, di~erent textures of hair, diffe~~;
· shapes of n~ses, ears. and eyes, and different .skin texture.
for a wh1le, men liked the new order of th1ngs, for the differences
oerated a new interest in life. But the novelty soon wore off. Men
~~arted forming new cliqu~s. People who spoke the same languages
: guage outsiders. Tall people looked down on short people. The
10
wealthy despised and abused the poor. People became jealous, fearful,
and suspicious of each other. The peace and tranquility that fonnerly
ruled the world gave way to dissension and conflict.
Notes
1. This claim of Ogiln's paternity of~ is highly disputable. Nowhere
else in written literature of oral collections is this claim corroborated.
Esu. is generally believed to be a higher deity than Oglin.
'
2. The closest translation of Atp(~(e is 'foWlder-ancestor,' since it is
'
believed in this narrative that through the worship of~ the patriarch
in the story becomes blessed with a son to continue the familial line.
3. Ewedayepp is the name of a local Ibadan age-grade. Age-grade is
social stratification along age-groups.
4. The Inforrr1ant probably meant the Kiriji Wars, or the Sixteen Years
· War (1877-93), bet\veen Ibadan and an alliance of some other
5. The expression used here by Adeleke in Yoruba \Vas p~ gidi,
meaning 'solid children,' a pointer to the premium placed on sons
over daughters. .
6. The "$ gba ar~ another Yoruba s.ubgroup \vhose i~tet r1e~me actJ.v1nes
against the lj~bu are the subject for S. 0. Btobaku ~ ,~·atershed
work The E.ub/E and Their Neighboz1rs, 1842-72 ( 19:>7).
' • 't:J
7. The Ij~bu are a Yoruba subgroup. .
8. The rivers Qna and Ganga are outside Tuadan on the roam artery to
' Abeokuta. , , . d )
9. The literal translation of f;.ebtJ..Omzi is ·Tue lj~bu did not ( are
241
 stop a11 d drink (water from tl1e River Qna) because tile lb Bibliography
were 11otly in tl1eir pursuit.' adan
I o. It is not clear wl1y eartl1 was take11 from the East, West and Middl
as opposed to East, West, Nortl1, and South. It certainly do e, JJooks
. f . es not
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1 . d .
four comers of t11e eart 1 are me11ttone 1ater tn the story. cause
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'
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Verger, Pierre. 1957. Mots su1· le cu!te des 01·isa et vodie11. Dakar: Verger, P. 1956. 'Oral Tradition in the Cult of the Orishas and lts
IFAN-Dakar. Connection with the History of the Yoruba.' Journal History
Walker, K., and W. S. Walker, eds. 1961. Nige1·ian Folktales. Society Nigeria 1 (December): 61-63.
Piscataway, NJ: Rutgers Univ. Press. - . 1960. 'Nigeria, Brazil and Cuba.' Nigeria 1vfagazine (October):
Willet, Frank. n.d. Sculpture of Weste1·n Nige1·ia. London: Water low 113-23.
and Sons. - . 1963. 'France States in Orisha Worship.' Odi1 9 (Se'{)tember):
Articles 13-20.
Wescott, Joan A. 1957. 'Yoruba Collections tn Germany and
Allis/n, P. A. 1964. 'A Carved Stone Figure of Eshu from Igba_P.,
Switzerland.' Man 57: 161.
Western Nigeria.' Man 64: 13 I. -. 1962. 'The Sculpture and Myths of Eshu-1;.l~gba. The Yoruba
Bascom, W. R. I 941 . ' The Sanctions of Ifa Divination.' Journal of Trickster.' Africa 32: 336-53.
the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland
71: 43-54.

248 249
 Unpublished Material INDEX OF M OTIFS
Cole, Herbert M. 1964. 'Yoruba Sculpture: An Interpretation of
Style through Fo1111 and Meaning.' M.A. Thesis, Columbia Univ
KlippJe, May Augusta. 1938. 'African Tales with Foreign Analogues.; A. M ythological M otifs
A157.2 God's arrows.
Doctoral Dissertation. AO-A99 Creator A 160 Mutual relation of the
Fadipe, N. A. 1939. 'The Sociology of the Yoruba.' Ph.D Thesis Al Identity of Creator. gods.
London. ' A60 Opponent attempts to undo A 161 Hierarchy of gods.
TI1ompson, R. F. 1961. 'On the Nature of Yoruba Art.' M.A. Thesis or mar work of creation. Al61: 1 Division of control of
Yale Univ. ' Al OO-A499 Gods un1verse among gods.
A101 Supreme god. One god A 162 Conflict of the gods.
chief of all other gods. A 162.7 Single combat between
A 101.1 Supreme god as creator. gods.
A 102 Characteristics of deity. A 162.8 Rebellion of lesser gods
Al 11 Parents of the gods. against chief.
A 112 . 7 .4 God born after A163 Contest among the gods.
prematurely short pregnancy. Al64 Marriage or liaison of
Al 18 Self-created deity. gods.
Al 18.15 God establishes peace A 164.2 Adultery among gods.
among mortals. A 165 Attendants and servants
A 119 Origin of gods. of the gods.
Al20 Nature and appearance of A165.2 Messenger of the gods.
the gods. Al 65.2.0. l Deity's messenger
A 125 Deity in human form. can assume any guise he
A 13 7 .2 God with club. wishes.
Al39 Nature and appearance of Al65.7 Army of the gods.
the gods. Al67 Assembly of gods.
Al39.8.6 God in the shape of an Al68 Family of gods .
•
image. A 171.02 God ascends to heaven.
A 13 9. 9 Extraordinary physical A 171.0.3 God descends from
characteristics of gods. heaven.
A 147 Gods as fishers. A 173 .2 Gods imprisoned.
A 150 Daily life of the gods. A 176 God ordains ceremonies
A 151 Home of the gods. and regulations.
A 151.7 Deity lives in the forest. A 177 God as thief.
A 151. 7 .1 Deity resides in tree. A 177. l God as dupe or trickster.
Al53 Food of gods. A 178 God as prophet.
A 153 .3 Banquet of the gods. Al 79 Deeds of the gods:
A154 Drink of the gods. miscellaneous.

250 251
 A 179.6 God l1as power to create A454 God of healing. A1335.6 Origin of death: B29 l. l .3 Dove as messenger
n1Cll. A46 l God of wisdom. punishment for scorning deity. B316 Abused and .
A1335. l 5 God punishes man by t_I pampered
A 181 God serves as nlenial on A478 God of disease. r- orse.
eartl1. A478.2 God of smallpox. killing his child.
C. Taboo
A 182 God reveals himself to A485 God of war. A1337.0.5 Disease as punishment.
mortals. A487 God of death. Al346.2.2 First people have C57.1 .Taboo: neglect of
Al82.3.2 God rebukes mortal. A492 God of metals. everything they wish. sacnfice to deity
A 182.3.3 God blesses n1ortal. A600-A899 Cosmogony and A1420.4 Food obtained originally. C64 Taboo: failing to heed
Al82.3.5 God advises mortal. Cosmology A 1465 .1 Origin of tattooing. message of god.
A 183 Deity invoked. A6 l 0 Creation of the universe by Al 500 Origin of customs. C68 Taboo: neglect to fulfil\ vow
Al85 Deity cares for favorite creator. A 1540 .0. l Origin of religius made to god.
individuals. A 791.6 Sacrifice to appease symbols. C94.l Taboo: uncivil answer to
Al85.3 Deity teaches mortal. gods. A 1544 Origin of religious holy being.
Al 85.9 Covenant between man A8 l 2.3.5 God advises mortal. images. C99 Other taboos in connection
and mortal. A900-A999 Topographical A 1546.2 Origin of worship of with sacred beings.
A 187 .1 Philandering gods. features of the Earth particular gods. Cl 18 Taboo: violating woman.
A 188.1 Early periods \\'hen gods A99 l Origin of village. A 1567 Origin of circumcision. C24 l Taboo: eating food of gods.
and humans lived together, gods A992 Origin of sacred places. Al 599.2 Origin of erection of C270 Taboo: drinking certain
ruling humans, ordaining how A I 000-A l 099 World calamities monument to boundaries. things.
they shouJd live and originating Al 0 I 0 Deluge. A2200-A2599 Animal
• D. Magic
vanous customs. A I 015 Flood caused by god or Characteristics
Al89.14 God's enemies. other superior beings. DO-D699
A2230 Animal characteristics as D 12 Transfor1nation: man to
Al92.2 Departure of the gods Al 100-Al 199 Establishment of punishment. woman.
A 192.2. l Deity departs for natural order
A223 l. l Discourteous answer: D42 God in guise of mortal.
heaven (skies). A 1101 Golden Age. A former age
why horse is ridden and D287 Transfo1n1ation: man to
A 194.1 Divinity weeps. of perfection.
whipped. mound.
A 194.2 God's vengeance. A 1141 Ligl1tning produced by
A224 7 .2 Where Snake got his D2 81 .1 Transf01111ation: man to
A194.3 God'sjealousy. deity.
fangs. wind.
A 196 Deity's limitation. Al200-Al699 Creation and
A246 l Animal's means of D426 Transforn1ation: fish to
A 197 Deity controls elements. Ordering of Life
defense. object.
A284 God of thunder. A124 l Man made from clay
A285 God of lightning. (earth). B. Animals D658 Transformation to seduce.
A400. I Goddess of Earth. A 1241.3 Man made from clay D671 Transformation flight.
B 123 Wise reptile.
A413 . I God of crossroads. image and vivified. Fugitives transform them-
B 161 Wisdom from serpent.
A415 Gods of clans and Al331 Paradise lost. Original selves in order to escape
B2 l l. l .2 Speaking Goat.
nations. happy state forfeited because detention.
B2 l l .3 Speaking Horse.
A421 Sea god. of one sin. D67 l .0.1 Fugitive transfonns self
B2 l l .6. l Speaking Snake.
A43 l God of fertility. A1333 Confusion of tongues. to stone.
B290 Animals as messenger.

252 253
 0672 Obstacle fligl1t. Fugitives HI 0 Recog11ition by common
tlrrow objects bel1ind tl1em t11at k11owlcdge.
n1agically beco1ne obstacles. H 16 Recognition by producin
or d escr1' b'1ng object of
g
0800-01699 Magic objects
D8 l 7 Deity as helper. common knowledge.
D 1092. 7 .5 Magic arrow kills. Hl 11 Identification by garment.
D 1094 Magic cudgel (club). H200-H299 Tests of Truth
Dl3 l I Magic object used for H300-H499 Marriage tests
divination. H310 Suitor tests.
D 1355 Love producing magic H492 Test of faithfulness of
object. 11usband and wife.
DI 700-02199 Magic powers and H500-H899 Tests of cleverness
Manifestations H500 Test of cleverness or
01712 Soothsayer (diviner, ability.
oracle). H501 Test of wisdom.
DI 712. l Soothsayer at \¥Ork by H900-H 1199 Tests of prowess:
various methods. tasks
D 1720 Acquisition of magic H9 l 5. l Task assigned because of
powers. man's boastfulness.
D I 786 Magic pov.rer at crossroads. H9 l 9 Assignment of task in
DI 811 .2 Magic v.risdom received response to suggestion.
from supernatural being. H940 Assignment of task.
D1812.5.0 Divination with palm H960 Task performed through
nuts. cleverness/intelligence.
D209 5 Magic disappearance. Hl400-H1599 Other Tests

F. Marvels
FO-F 199 Otherworld journeys
F32 God visits earth.
F200-F699 Marvellous creatures
F402 . 1 Deeds of evil spirits.
F494.3 Earth spirits.
F575 Handsome man.
F872.3 Bath of blood.

H. Tests
HO-Hl 99 Identity tests:
Recognition.

254