E. E. Gdoutos (Auth.), Emmanuel E. Gdoutos, Chris A. Rodopoulos, John R. Yates (Eds.) - Problems of Fracture Mechanics and Fatigue - A Solution Guide-Springer Netherlands (2003) PDF

Problems of Fracture Mechanics and Fatigue
Problems of Fracture Mechanics

and Fatigue
A Solution Guide
Edited by
E.E. GDOUTOS
Democritus University ofThrace,
Xanthi, Greece
C.A. RODOPOULOS
Materials Research Institute,
Sheffield Hallam University,
Sheffield, United Kingdom
J.R. YATES
University of Sheffield,
Sheffield, United Kingdom
SPRINGER-SCIENCE+BUSINESS MEDIA, B.V.

A C.I.P. Catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress.
ISBN 978-90-481-6491-2 ISBN 978-94-017-2774-7 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-2774-7
Printed on acid-free paper
Ali Rights Reserved

© 2003 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht
Originally published by Kluwer Academic Publishers in 2003
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 2003
No part of this work rnay be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transrnitted
in any form or by any means, electronic, rnechanical, photocopying, rnicrofilrning,
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and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work.
A book dedicated to
those who can think,
observe and imagine
Table of Contents
Editor's Preface on Fracture Mechanics xix
Editors Preface on Fatigue xxiii
List of Contributors XXV
PART A: FRACTURE MECHANICS
1. Linear Elastic Stress Field
Problem 1: Airy Stress Function Method 3

E.E. Gdoutos
Problem 2: Westergaard Method for a Crack Under Concentrated Forces 11

E.E. Gdoutos
Problem 3: Westergaard Method for a Periodic Array of Cracks Under

Concentrated Forces 17
E.E. Gdoutos
Problem 4: Westergaard Method for a Periodic Array of Cracks Under

Uniform Stress 21
E.E. Gdoutos
Problem 5: Calculation of Stress Intensity Factors by the Westergaard Method 25

E.E. Gdoutos
Problem 6: Westergaard Method for a Crack Under Distributed Forces 31

E.E. Gdoutos
Problem 7: Westergaard Method for a Crack Under Concentrated Forces 33

E.E. Gdoutos
Problem 8: Westergaard Method for a Crack Problem 39

E.E. Gdoutos
Problem 9: Westergaard Method for a Crack Subjected to Shear Forces 41

E.E. Gdoutos
Vlll Table of Contents
Problem 10: Calculation of Stress Intensity Factors by Superposition 45

M.S. Konsta-Gdoutos
Problem 11: Calculation of Stress Intensity Factors by Integration 49

E.E. Gdoutos
Problem 12: Stress Intensity Factors for a Linear Stress Distribution 53

E.E. Gdoutos
Problem 13: Mixed-Mode Stress Intensity Factors in Cylindrical Shells 57

E.E. Gdoutos
Problem 14: Photoelastic Determination of Stress Intensity Factor K1 63

E.E. Gdoutos
Problem 15: Photoelastic Determination of Mixed-Mode Stress Intensity

Factors K1 and Kn 65
M.S. Konsta-Gdoutos
Problem 16: Application of the Method of Weight Function for the

Determination of Stress Intensity Factors 69
L. Banks-Sills
2. Elastic-Plastic Stress Field
Problem 17: Approximate Determination of the Crack Tip Plastic Zone

for Mode-l and Mode-ll Loading 75
E.E. Gdoutos

for Mixed-Mode Loading 81
E.E. Gdoutos
According to the Tresca Yield Criterion 83
M.S. Konsta-Gdoutos

According to a Pressure Modified Mises Yield Criterion 91
E.E. Gdoutos
Problem 21: Crack Tip Plastic Zone According to Irwin's Model 95

E.E. Gdoutos
Problem 22: Effective Stress Intensity factor According to Irwin's Model 99

E.E. Gdoutos
Table of Contents ix
Problem 23: Plastic Zone at the Tip of a Semi-Infinite Crack According

to the Dugdale Model 103
E.E. Gdoutos
Problem 24: Mode-III Crack Tip Plastic Zone According to the Dugdale Model 107
E.E. Gdoutos
Problem 25: Plastic Zone at the Tip of a Penny-Shaped Crack According

to the Dugdale Model 113
E.E. Gdoutos
3. Strain Energy Release Rate
Problem 26: Calculation of Strain Energy Release Rate from Load - Displacement -
Crack Area Equation 117
M.S. Konsta-Gdoutos
Problem 27: Calculation of Strain Energy Release Rate

for Deformation Modes I, II and III 121
E.E. Gdoutos
Problem 28: Compliance of a Plate with a Central Crack 127

E.E. Gdoutos
Problem 29: Strain Energy Release Rate for a Semi-Infinite Plate with a Crack 131
E.E. Gdoutos
Problem 30: Strain Energy Release Rate for the Short Rod Specimen 135
E.E. Gdoutos
Problem 31: Strain Energy Release Rate for the Blister Test 139
E.E. Gdoutos
Problem 32: Calculation of Stress Intensity Factors Based on Strain Energy

Release Rate 143
E.E. Gdoutos
Problem 33: Critical Strain Energy Release Rate 147

E.E. Gdoutos
4. Critical Stress Intensity Factor Fracture Criterion
Problem 34: Experimental Determination of Critical Stress Intensity Factor K1c 155
E.E. Gdoutos
X Table of Contents
Problem 35: Experimental Determination of K1c 161

E.E. Gdoutos
Problem 36: Crack Stability 163

E.E. Gdoutos
Problem 37: Stable Crack Growth Based on the Resistance Curve Method 169
M.S. Konsta-Gdoutos
Problem 38: Three-Point Bending Test in Brittle Materials 173

A. Carpinteri, B. Chiaia and P. Cometti
Problem 39: Three-Point Bending Test in Quasi Brittle Materials 177

Problem 40: Double-Cantilever Beam Test in Brittle Materials 183

Problem 41: Design of a Pressure Vessel 189

E.E. Gdoutos
Problem 42: Thermal Loads in a Pipe 193

E.E. Gdoutos
5. J-integral and Crack Opening Displacement Fracture Criteria
Problem 43: J-integral for an Elastic Beam Partly Bonded to a Half-Plane 197
E.E. Gdoutos
Problem 44: J-integral for a Strip with a Semi-Infinite Crack 201

E.E. Gdoutos
Problem 45: J-integral for Two Partly Bonded Layers 207

E.E. Gdoutos
Problem 46: J-integral for Mode-l 211

E.E. Gdoutos
Problem 47: J-integral for Mode III 219

L. Banks-Sills
Problem 48: Path Independent Integrals 223
E.E. Gdoutos
Problem 49: Stresses Around Notches 229

E.E. Gdoutos
Problem 50: Experimental Determination of J1c from J - Crack Growth Curves 233
Table of Contents Xl
E.E. Gdoutos
Problem 51: Experimental Determination of J from Potential Energy - Crack
Length Curves 239
E.E. Gdoutos
Problem 52: Experimental Determination of J from Load-Displacement Records 243

E.E. Gdoutos
Problem 53: Experimental Determination of J from a Compact Tension Specimen 247

E.E. Gdoutos
Problem 54: Validity of J1c and K1c Tests 251

E.E. Gdoutos
Problem 55: Critical Crack Opening Displacement 253
E.E. Gdoutos
Problem 56: Crack Opening Displacement Design Methodology 257
E.E. Gdoutos
6. Strain Energy Density Fracture Criterion and Mixed-Mode Crack Growth
Problem 57: Critical Fracture Stress of a Plate with an Inclined Crack 263
M.S. Konsta-Gdoutos
Problem 58: Critical Crack Length of a Plate with an Inclined Crack 269
E.E. Gdoutos
Problem 59: Failure of a Plate with an Inclined Crack 273
E.E. Gdoutos
Problem 60: Growth of a Plate with an Inclined Crack Under Biaxial Stresses 277
E.E. Gdoutos
Problem 61: Crack Growth Under Mode-ll Loading 283
E.E. Gdoutos
Problem 62: Growth of a Circular Crack Loaded Perpendicularly to its Cord
by Tensile Stress 287
E.E. Gdoutos
Problem 63: Growth of a Circular Crack Loaded Perpendicular to its

Cord by Compressive Stress 291
E.E. Gdoutos
xu Table of Contents
Problem 64: Growth of a Circular Crack Loaded Parallel to its Cord 293
E.E. Gdoutos
Problem 65: Growth of Radial Cracks Emanating from a Hole 297

E.E. Gdoutos
Problem 66: Strain Energy Density in Cuspidal Points of Rigid Inclusions 301
E.E. Gdoutos
Problem 67: Failure from Cuspidal Points of Rigid Inclusions 305

E.E. Gdoutos
Problem 68: Failure of a Plate with a Hypocycloidal Inclusion 309

E.E. Gdoutos
Problem 69: Crack Growth From Rigid Rectilinear Inclusions 315

E.E. Gdoutos
Problem 70: Crack Growth Under Pure Shear 319

E.E. Gdoutos
Problem 71: Critical Stress in Mixed Mode Fracture 327

L Banks-Sills
Problem 72: Critical Stress for an Interface Crack 333

L Banks-Sills
Problem 73: Failure of a Pressure Vessel with an Inclined Crack 339

E.E. Gdoutos
Problem 74: Failure of a Cylindrical bar with a Circular Crack 343

E.E. Gdoutos
Problem 75: Failure of a Pressure Vessel Containing a Crack with Inclined Edges 347
E.E. Gdoutos
Problem 76: Failure of a Cylindrical Bar with a Ring-Shaped Edge Crack 351
G.C. Sih
Problem 77: Stable and Unstable Crack Growth 355

E.E. Gdoutos
7. Dynamic Fracture
Problem 78: Dynamic Stress Intensity Factor 359

E.E. Gdoutos
Problem 79: Crack Speed During Dynamic Crack Propagation 365

Table of Contents xiii
E.E. Gdoutos
Problem 80: Rayleigh Wave Speed 369
E.E. Gdoutos
Problem 81: Dilatational, Shear and Rayleigh Wave Speeds 373
E.E. Gdoutos
Problem 82: Speed and Acceleration of Crack Propagation 377

E.E. Gdoutos
8. Environment-Assisted Fracture
Problem 83: Stress Enhanced Concentration of Hydrogen around Crack Tips 385
D.J. Unger
Problem 84: Subcritical Crack Growth due to the Presence of a Deleterious Species 397
D.J. Unger
PARTB: FATIGUE
1. Life Estimates
Problem 1: Estimating the Lifetime of Aircraft Wing Stringers 405

J.R. Yates
Problem 2: Estimating Long Life Fatigue of Components 409
J.R. Yates
Problem 3: Strain Life Fatigue Estimation of Automotive Component 413
J.R. Yates
Problem 4: Lifetime Estimates Using LEFM 419
J.R. Yates
Problem 5: Lifetime of a Gas Pipe 423
A. Afagh and Y.-W. Mai
Problem 6: Pipe Failure and Lifetime Using LEFM 427

M.N.James
Problem 7: Strain Life Fatigue Analysis of Automotive Suspension Component 431
J. R. Yates
XIV Table of Contents
2. Fatigue Crack Growth
Problem 8: Fatigue Crack Growth in a Center-Cracked Thin Aluminium Plate 439

Sp. Pantelakis and P. Papanikos
Problem 9: Effect of Crack Size on Fatigue Life 441

A. Afaghi and Y.-W. Mai
Problem 10: Effect of Fatigue Crack Length on Failure Mode of a Center-Cracked

Thin Aluminium Plate 445
Problem 11: Crack Propagation Under Combined Tension and Bending 449
J. R. Yates
Problem 12: Influence of Mean Stress on Fatigue Crack Growth for Thin and Thick
Plates 453
Problem 13: Critical Fatigue Crack Growth in a Rotor Disk 455

Problem 14: Applicability ofLEFM to Fatigue Crack Growth 457

C.A. Rodopoulos
Problem 15: Fatigue Crack Growth in the Presence of Residual Stress Field 461
3. Effect of Notches on Fatigue
Problem 16: Fatigue Crack Growth in a Plate Containing an Open Hole 467
Problem 17: Infinite Life for a Plate with a Semi-Circular Notch 469
C.A. Rodopoulos
Problem 18: Infinite Life for a Plate with a Central Hole 473
C.A. Rodopoulos
Problem 19: Crack Initiation in a Sheet Containing a Central Hole 477

C.A. Rodopoulos
Table of Contents XV
4. Fatigue and Safety Factors
Problem 20: Inspection Scheduling 483

C.A. Rodopoulos
Problem 21: Safety Factor of aU-Notched Plate 487

C.A. Rodopoulos
Problem 22: Safety Factor and Fatigue Life Estimates 491

C.A. Rodopoulos
Problem 23: Design of a Circular Bar for Safe Life 495

Problem 24: Threshold and LEFM 497

C.A. Rodopoulos
Problem 25: Safety Factor and Residual Strength 501

C.A. Rodopoulos
Problem 26: Design of a Rotating Circular Shaft for Safe Life 505
Problem 27: Safety Factor of a Notched Member Containing a Central Crack 509
C.A. Rodopoulos
Problem 28: Safety Factor of a Disk Sander 519

C.A. Rodopoulos
S. Short Cracks
Problem 29: Short Cracks and LEFM Error 529

C.A. Rodopoulos
Problem 30: Stress Ratio effect on the Kitagawa-Takahashi diagram 533

C.A. Rodopoulos
Problem 31: Susceptibility of Materials to Short Cracks 539

C.A. Rodopoulos
Problem 32: The effect of the Stress Ratio on the Propagation of Short
Fatigue Cracks in 2024-T3 543
C.A. Rodopoulos
xvi Table of Contents
6. Variable Amplitude Loading
Problem 33: Crack Growth Rate During Irregular Loading 551

Problem 34: Fatigue Life Under two-stage Block Loading 553

Problem 35: The Application of Wheeler's Model 555

C.A. Rodopoulos
Problem 36: Fatigue Life Under Multiple-Stage Block Loading 559

Problem 37: Fatigue Life Under two-stage Block Loading Using Non-Linear
Damage Accumulation 563
Problem 38: Fatigue Crack Retardation Following a Single Overload 565

Problem 39: Fatigue Life of a Pipe Under Variable Internal Pressure 569
Problem 40: Fatigue Crack Growth Following a Single Overload Based

on Crack Closure 573
Problem 41: Fatigue Crack Growth Following a Single Overload Based on

Crack-Tip Plasticity 575
Problem 42: Fatigue Crack Growth and Residual Strength of a Double Edge
Cracked Panel Under Irregular Fatigue Loading 579
Problem 43: Fatigue Crack Growth Rate Under Irregular Fatigue Loading 583
Problem 44: Fatigue Life of a Pressure Vessel Under Variable Internal Pressure 585
Table of Contents XVll
7. Complex Cases
Problem 45: Equibiaxial Low Cycle Fatigue 589

J.R. Yates
Problem 46: Mixed Mode Fatigue Crack Growth in a Center-Cracked Panel 593
Problem 47: Collapse Stress and the Dugdale's Model 597

C.A. Rodopoulos
Problem 48: Torsional Low Cycle Fatigue 601

J.R. Yates and M. W Brown
Problem 49: Fatigue Life Assessment of a Plate Containing Multiple Cracks 607
Problem 50: Fatigue Crack Growth and Residual Strength in a Simple MSD
Problem 611
INDEX 615
Editor's Preface
On Fracture Mechanics
A major objective of engineering design is the determination of the geometry and

dimensions of machine or structural elements and the selection of material in such a
way that the elements perform their operating function in an efficient, safe and
economic manner. For this reason the results of stress analysis are coupled with an
appropriate failure criterion. Traditional failure criteria based on maximum stress, strain
or energy density cannot adequately explain many structural failures that occurred at
stress levels considerably lower than the ultimate strength of the material. On the other
hand, experiments performed by Griffith in 1921 on glass fibers led to the conclusion
that the strength of real materials is much smaller, typically by two orders of magnitude,
than the theoretical strength.
The discipline of fracture mechanics has been created in an effort to explain these
phenomena. It is based on the realistic assumption that all materials contain crack-like
defects from which failure initiates. Defects can exist in a material due to its
composition, as second-phase particles, debonds in composites, etc., they can be
introduced into a structure during fabrication, as welds, or can be created during the
service life of a component like fatigue, environment-assisted or creep cracks. Fracture
mechanics studies the loading-bearing capacity of structures in the presence of initial
defects. A dominant crack is usually assumed to exist. The safe design of structures
proceeds along two lines: either the safe operating load is determined when a crack of a
prescribed size exists in the structure, or given the operating load, the size of the crack
that is created in the structure is determined.
Design by fracture mechanics necessitates knowledge of a parameter that characterizes
the propensity of a crack to extend. Such a parameter should be able to relate laboratory
test results to structural performance, so that the response of a structure with cracks can
be predicted from laboratory test data. This is determined as function of material
behavior, crack size, structural geometry and loading conditions. On the other l}.and, the
critical value of this parameter, known as fracture toughness, is a property of the
material and is determined from laboratory tests. Fracture toughness is the ability of the
material to resist fracture in the presence of cracks. By equating this parameter to its
critical value we obtain a relation between applied load, crack size and structure
geometry, which gives the necessary information for structural design. Fracture
mechanics is used to rank the ability of a material to resist fracture within the
framework of fracture mechanics, in the same way that yield or ultimate strength is used
to rank the resistance of the material to yield or fracture in the conventional design
criteria. In selecting materials for structural applications we must choose between
materials with high yield strength, but comparatively low fracture toughness, or those
with a lower yield strength but higher fracture toughness.
XX Editor's Preface
The theory of fracture mechanics has been presented in many excellent books, like
those written by the editor of the first part of the book devoted to fracture mechanics
entitled: "Problems of Mixed Mode Crack Propagation," "Fracture Mechanics Criteria
and Applications," and "Fracture Mechanics-An Introduction." However, students,
scholars and practicing engineers are still reluctant to implement and exploit the
potential of fracture mechanics in their work. This is because fracture is characterized
by complexity, empiricism and conflicting viewpoints. It is the objective of this book to
build and increase engineering confidence through worked exercises. The first part of
the book referred to fracture mechanics contains 84 solved problems. They cover the
following areas:
• The Westergaard method for crack problems
• Stress intensity factors
• Mixed-mode crack problems
• Elastic-plastic crack problems
• Determination of strain energy release rate
• Determination of the compliance of crack problems
• The critical strain energy release rate criterion
• The critical stress intensity factor criterion
• Experimental determination of critical stress intensity factor. The !-integral and
its experimental determination
• The crack opening displacement criterion
• Strain energy density criterion
• Dynamic fracture problems
• Environment assisted crack growth problems
• Photoelastic determination of stress intensity factors
• Crack growth from rigid inclusions
• Design of plates, bars and pressure vessels
The problems are divided into three groups: novice (for undergraduate students),
intermediate (for graduate students and practicing engineers) and advanced (for
researchers and professional engineers). They are marked by one, two and three
asterisks, respectively. At the beginning of each problem there is a part of "useful
information," in which the basic theory for the solution of the problem is briefly
outlined. For more information on the theory the reader is referred to the books of the
editor: "Fracture Mechanics Criteria and Applications," "Fracture Mechanics-An
Introduction," "Problems of Mixed-Mode Crack Propagation." The solution of each
problem is divided into several easy to follow steps. At the end of each problem the
relevant bibliography is given.
Editor's Preface XXl
I wish to express my sincere gratitude and thanks to the leading experts in fracture
mechanics and good friends and colleagues who accepted my proposal and contributed
to this part of the book referred to fracture mechanics: Professor L. Banks-Sills of the
Tel Aviv University, Professor A. Carpinteri, Professor B. Chiaia and Professor P.
Cometti of the Politecnico di Torino, Dr. M. S. Konsta-Gdoutos of the Democritus
University of Thrace, Professor G. C. Sib of Lehigh University and Professor D. J.
Unger of the University of Evansville.
My deep appreciation and thanks go to Mrs Litsa Adamidou for her help in typing the
manuscript. Finally, a special word of thanks goes to Ms Nathalie Jacobs of Kluwer
Academic Publishers for her kind collaboration and support during the preparation of
the book.
April, 2003 Emmanuel E. Gdoutos

Xanthi, Greece Editor
Editor's Preface
On Fatigue
The second part of this book is devoted to fatigue. The word refers to the damage
caused by the cyclic duty imposed on an engineering component. In most cases, fatigue
will result into the development of a crack which will propagate until either the
component is retired or the component experiences catastrophic failure. Even though
fatigue research dates back to the nineteenth century (A. Wohler1860, H. Gerber 1874
and J. Goodman 1899), it is within the last five decades that has emerged as a major
area of research. This was because of major developments in materials science and
fracture mechanics which help researchers to better understand the complicated
mechanisms of crack growth. Fatigue in its current form wouldn't have happened if it
wasn't for a handful of inspired people. The gold medal should be undoubtedly given to
G. Irwin for his 1957 paper Analysis of Stresses and Strains Near the End of a Crack
Traversing a Plate. The silver medal should go to Paris, Gomez and Anderson for their
1961 paper A Rational Analytic Theory of Fatigue. There are a few candidates for the
bronze which makes the selection a bit more difficult. In our opinion the medal should
be shared by D.S. Dugdale for his 1960 paper Yielding of Steel Sheets Containing Slits,
W. Biber for the 1960 paper Fatigue Crack Closure under Cyclic Tension and K.
Kitagawa and S. Takahashi for their 1976 paper Applicability of Fracture Mechanics to
Very Small Cracks or the Cracks in the Early Stage. Unquestionably, if there was a
fourth place, we would have to put a list of hundreds of names and exceptionally good
works.
To write and editor a book about solved problems in fatigue it is more difficult than it
seems. Due to ongoing research and scientific disputes we are compelled to present
solutions which are well established and generally accepted. This is especially the case
for those problems designated for novice and intermediate level. In the advanced level,
there are some solutions based on the author's own research.
In this second part, there are 50 solved problems. They cover the following areas:
• Life estimates
• Fatigue crack growth
• Effect of Notches on Fatigue
• Fatigue and Safety factors
• Short cracks
• Variable amplitude loading
• Complex cases
As before, the problems are divided into three groups: novice (for undergraduate
students), intermediate (for graduate students and practicing engineers) and advanced
(for researchers and professional engineers).
Both the editors have been privileged to scientifically mature in an department with a
long tradition in fatigue research. Our minds have been shaped by people including
Bruce Bilby, Keith Miller, Mike Brown, Rod Smith and Eduardo de los Rios. We thank
them.
We wish to express our appreciation to the leading experts in the field of fatigue who
contributed to this second part of the book: Professor M. W. Brown from the University
of Sheffield, Professor M. N. James from the University of Plymouth, Professor Y-M.
xxiv Editor's Preface
Mai from the University of Sydney, Dr. P. Papanikos from the Institute of Structures
and Advanced Materials, Dr. A. Afaghi-Khatibi from the University of Melbourne and
Professor Sp. Pantelakis from the University of Patras. Finally, we are indebted to Ms.
Nathalie Jacobs for immense patience that she showed during the preparation of this
manuscript.
April, 2003 Chris A. Rodopoulos

Sheffield, United Kingdom John R. Yates
Editors
List of Contributors
Afaghi-Khatibi, A., Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering. The University of

Melbourne, Victoria 3010, Australia.
Banks-Sills, L., Department of Solid Mechanics, Materials and Systems, Faculty of Engineering, Tel
Aviv University, Ramat Aviv, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel.
Brown, M. W., Department of Mechanical Engineering, The University of Sheffield, Sheffield, S1 3JD,
UK.
Carpinteri, A., Department of Structural Engineering and Geotechnics, Politecnico di Torino, Corso
Duca degli Abruzzi 24, 10129 Torino, Italy.
Chiaia, B., Department of Structural Engineering and Geotechnics, Politecnico di Torino, Corso Duca
degli Abruzzi 24, 10129 Torino, Italy.
Cometti, P., Department of Structural Engineering and Geotechnics, Politecnico di Torino, Corso Duca
degli Abruzzi 24, 10129 Torino, Italy.
Gdoutos, E. E., School of Engineering, Democritus University ofThrace, GR-671 00 Xanthi, Greece.
James, M. N., Department of Mechanical and Marine Engineering, University of Plymouth, Drake
Circus, Plymouth, Devon PL4 8AA, UK.
Konsta-Gdoutos, M., School of Engineering, Democritus University of Thrace, GR-671 00 Xanthi,

Greece.
Mai, Yiu-Wing, Centre for Advanced Materials Technology, School of Aerospace, Mechanical and
Mechatronic Engineering, The University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia.
Pantelakis, Sp., Department of Mechanical Engineering and Aeronautics, University of Patras, GR

26500, Patras, Greece.
Papanikos, P., ISTRAM, Institute of Structures & Advanced Materials, Patron-Athinon 57, Patras,
26441, Greece.
Rodopoulos, C. A., Structural Integrity Research Institute of the University of Sheffield, Department of
Mechanical Engineering, The University of Sheffield, Sheffield, S1 3JD, UK.
Unger, D. J., Department of Mechanical and Civil Engineering, University of Evansville, 1800 Lincoln
Avenue, Evansville, IN 47722, USA.
Yates, J. R, Department of Mechanical Engineering, The University of Sheffield, Sheffield, S1 3JD,

UK.
PART A: FRACTURE MECHANICS
1. Linear Elastic Stress Field
Problem 1: Airy Stress Function Method ***
E.E. Gdoutos
1. Problem
In William's eigenfunction expansion method [I] the Airy stress function for a semi-
infinite crack in an infinite plate subjected to general loading is assumed in the form
(1)
where r, 9 are polar coordinates centered at the crack tip and). is real.
Using the boundary conditions along the crack faces, determine the function U and
find the expressions for the singular stress and displacement components for opening
mode and sliding mode loading.
Observe that negative values of A. are ignored since they produce infinite displacements
at the crack tip. Furthermore, use the result that the total strain energy contained in
any circular region surrounding the crack tip is bounded to show that the value ). = 0
should also be excluded from the solution.
2. Useful Information
In the Airy stress function method the solution of a plane elasticity problem in polar
coordinates is reduced to finding a function U = U(r, 9) (Airy function) which satisfies
the biharmonic equation in polar coordinates
and the appropriate boundary conditions [2]. The stress components are given by
(3)
4 E.E. Gdoutos
3. Solution
3.I GENERAL REMARKS
From Equation (I) we obtain
(4)
Thus Equation (2) becomes
(5)
The solution ofthis equation is

(6)
(7)
f 2 = C 2 sin (A. -I) e +C 4 sin (A.+ I) e
where the symmetric part f 1 corresponds to opening-mode and the anti-symmetric part
f2 corresponds to sliding-mode.
The boundary conditions are

<Jo= 1:t9= 0, fore=± 1t (8)
We consider the two cases of opening-mode and sliding-mode separately.
3.2. OPENING-MODE:
We have
(9)
Airy Stress Function Method 5
'tril =-~(.!.
Or r
au)=-lr'
aa --1 df
d9
(10)
The boundary conditions (Equation (8)) give
c 1 cos (l-1) x + C 3 cos (A.+ I) x = o (II)
c I (A. -I) sin (A. -I) 7[ + c3 (A.+ I) sin (A.+ I) 7[ = 0 (12)
or
[
cos (l-1) x
(l-1) sin (l-I) x

cos (A.+ I) x
(l + 1) sin (A.+ 1) 7[
l
[C
c3
1]
=
0
(13)
For nontrivial solution the determinant of this equation should vanish. We get
sin 2xA. = 0 (14)
or
n
l = -, n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ... (15)
2
We will show later that nonpositive values of A. lead to unacceptable singularities and,
therefore, they are omitted.
The boundary conditions (Equations (II) and (12)) give
For n = 1, 3, 5, ... we have
cos ( ~- I) x = cos (~+I) x = 0

sin ( ~ - I) x = sin ( ~ + 1) x = 1 (18)
6 E.E. Gdoutos
and Equation (16) is satisfied automatically, while Equation (17) gives
n-2
c 3n =---c
n+2 1n
(19)
For n = 2, 4, 6, ... we have
(20)
and Equation (17) is satisfied, automatically, while Equation (16) gives
(21)
The function U = U1 becomes
~ r I+n/2 C ( cos--6---cos--6
U 1 = L..J n-2 n-2 n+2 ) +
10
n = 1.3•...
2 n+2 2
~
~ r I+n/2 cln ( cos-2-6-cos-2-6
n-2 n+2 ) (22)
n -2.4 ....
For n = 1 we obtain the singular solution
U 1 =C 11 r 3/2 ( cos -+-cos-

9 1 39) (23)
2 3 2
The singular stresses corresponding to the Airy function U 1 are obtained from Equa-
tions (3) as
a =C-11- ( 5cos--cos-
6 36)
r 4rl/2 2 2
(J 9 =-----u-2
C 11 ( 3 cos -6 + cos -36) (24)
4r 2 2
1: 16 = - -ell ( SID-+SID-
. 9 . 39)
4r1/2 2 2
3.3. SLIDING-MODE
Following the same procedure we obtain Equation (I5) for A, while the Airy function
u2 becomes
U2 = ""' r 1+n/2 C2n (. n-2

SID- . n+2 )
~ 2 -9-sm-2 -9 +
n -1,3, ...
L r 1+nt2c 2 (.
n
n-2 9 - -
SID--
2
n-2
- s i. D
n+2
n+2
- - 9)
2
(25)
n = 1,3, ...
The singular stresses are
Gr = ----.!2 . -9 + 3 SID
C21 ( - 5 SID . -39)
4r 2 2
C21- ( 3 SID-+
Ge = - - . 9 3 SID-
. 39) (26)
4r 112 2 2
1: 16 C21
= - - ( cos-+3cos-
9 39)
4r112 2 2
3.4. DETERMINATION OF DISPLACEMENTS
For the determination of the displacement components Ur and u9 the strain-

displacement equations in conjunction with Hooke's law are used. We have
Our ur I 8u 8
Er=-, Ee=-+---
ar r r ae
I aur
"Y.e=--+----
Ue aee (27)
r Oraer
and
(28)
for plane stress, and

8 E.E. Gdoutos
for plane strain, where E is Young' modulus, J1 is shear modulus and v is Poisson' ra-
tio.
The singular displacement u., and u9 are obtained as
112
Ur =
C r
~ [
(2K -})COS 2
6 - COS l36]
(30)
112
r - [ - (2K+I)sin -+sin-
u 9 =C-11- 6 36]
4J1 2 2
for opening-mode, and
112
u r = C 21 r [- (2K - I) sin -6 + 3 sin -36]
4J1 2 2
(3I)
112
u 9 = C 21 r [- 6 3 cos-
(2K +I) cos-+ 36]
4J1 2 2
for sliding-mode, where K = (3-v)/(l+v) for plane stress, and K = 3-4v for plane strain.
Equation (30) and (31) suggest that the displacements Ur, u9 for A. < 0 become infinite
and, therefore, these values of A. are unacceptable. For A. = 0 the stresses cr;i and strains
e;i take the form
(32)
where g(9) and h(9) are functions of 9, and the strain energy density becomes
(33)
where ro(9) is function of9.
Then the total strain energy W contained in an circular area r < R enclosing the crack
tip is
JJ
2x R
W= cor drd6 (34)

0 r0
or
JJro~O) drdO= Jro(O)[logr]~ dO

2% R 2%
W=
0 ~ 0
2%
= (logR -logr0 ) Jro(9)d9 (35)
0
For r0 -+ 0, W--+ oc. Thus, the root A.= 0 ofEquation {14) is physically unacceptable.
4. References
[I] M.L. Williams (1975) On the Stress Distribution at the Base of a Statiomuy Crack, J. Appl. Mech. Trans
ASME, 24, 109-114.
[2] S. Timoshenko and J.N. Goodier (1951) Theory of Elasticity, Second Ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, To-
ronto, London.
Problem 2: Westergaard Method for a Crack Under
Concentrated Forces ***
E.E. Gdoutos
1. Problem
Verify that the Westergaard function for an infinite plate with a crack of length 2a sub-
jected to a pair offorces at x = b (Figure la) is
(a 2-b 2r2
P
x(z-b) z 2-a 2
ZI= (1)
y
p
b
1---0 •I•
01; X
(a)
y
p p
b b
X
a a
p p
(b)
Figure I. An infinite plate with a crack of length 2a subjected (a) to a pair offurces Pat x =band (b) to two
pair of furces at x = ± b.
12 E.E. Gdoutos
Then show that the stress intensity factor of the tip x =a is given by
K-
P (~b) l/2
(2)
I- (1ta)J/2 a-b
Use these results to show that for an additional pair offorces at x = -b (Figure 1b) the
Westergaard function is
(3)
and the stress intensity factor is
(4)
The Westergaard semi-inverse method constitutes a simple and versatile tool for solv-
ing crack problems. The Westergaard function for a crack problem is an analytic func-
tion that satisfies the boundary conditions of the problem. The stress field is obtained
from the Westergard function Z. For mode-l crack problems the stresses u,, uy, rxy are
obtained from Z1 as [ 1]
uY =ReZ 1 +ylmz; (5)
rxy =-yRez;
where Re and In denote the real and imaginary parts of a function and the prime de-
notes differentiation with respect to z.
3. Solution
3.1. WESTERGAARD FUNCTION FOR PROBLEM OF FIGURE la

To verify that the function Z1 given by Eq. (1) is the Westergaard function for an infi-
nite plate with a crack of length 2a subjected to a pair of forces at x = b (Figure 1a), we
have to show that it satisfies the boundary conditions of the problem. By differentiating
Eq. (I) we obtain
Westergaard Method for a Crack Under Concentrated Forces 13
At infinity we obtain from Eqs (1) and (6) for lzl ~ ao:
(7)
Then Eq. (5) gives for the stresses at infinity
(8)
which indicates that the stress-free boundary condition at infinity is satisfied.
For the boundary conditions along the crack length, except point x = b, we obtain from
Eqs (1) and (6) for y = 0, z = x, jxj <a that
(9a)
Re z;, lm z; are finite quantities (9b)
Under such circumstances, we obtain from the second and third Eq (5) that
(10)
which indicates that the crack lips except point x =bare stress-free.
At point x = b, y = 0 we obtain from the second Eq (5) that
(II)
which indicates the existence of a concentrated force at that point.
At point x = b, we obtain for x ~ b that
iP
ZI=---- (12)
2[ (z-b)
The magnitude of the concentrated force at point x = b, y = 0 is calculated as

14 E.E. Gdoutos
b+£ b+£ .
PY =lim JGydx =lim J- 1 tP . dx
y--+0 y--+O x (x- b)+ 1y
b-£ b-£
I. Re
=•m
b+J£ l iP(x-b-i y) d
- x
y--+0 x (x _ b)2 + y2
b-£
p . b b+£
-I X - 2P . -1 ( 8 ) 2P 1[
=--hm [ tan - -] =--hmtan - =---=-P(l3)
1[ y--+0 y b-£ 1[ y--+0 y 1[ 2
which indicates that at point x=b exists a pair of concentrated compressive forces of
magnitude P.
3.2. STRESS INTENSITY FACTOR FOR PROBLEM OF FIGURE la
The stress intensity factor can be calculated from the Westergaard function of a given
problem. For mode-l crack problems the stress intensity factor K1 is calculated by [1]
(14)
where the complex variable ~is measured from the crack tip.
We obtain
P a2-b2
K 1 = lim J2x~ - - - -
1~1--+0 x(~+a-b) ~(~+2a)
(15)
= x(a-b)
p...{2; Ja 2 -b 2
~=
P
..j;;
~+b
a-b
which shows that K1 is given by Eq. (2).

3.3. WESTERGAARD FUNCTION FOR PROBLEM OF FIGURE 1b
The Westergaard function for a pair offorces at x =- b is obtained from Eq. (1) as
Z 1(-b) = p (16)
x (z+b)
Thus, the Westergaard function Z1 for the problem of Figure 1b is obtained by adding
the Westergaard function for a pair of concentrated forces at points x =band x =-b.
We have
(17)
which shows that Z1 is given by Eq. (3).
3.4. STRESS INTENSITY FACTOR FOR PROBLEM OF FIGURE 1b
The stress intensity factor is calculated from the Westergaard function using Eq. (14).
We obtain
2P Ja
= ~a2 -b2 v-;; (18)
which shows that K1 is given by Eq. (4).

4. References
[IJ E.E. Gdoutos (1993) Fracture Mechanics- An Introduction, K.luwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht,
Boston, London.
Problem 3: Westergaard Method for a Periodic Array of
Cracks Under Concentrated Forces **
E.E. Gdoutos
1. Problem
Consider an infinite periodic array of equally spaced cracks along the x-axis with each
crack subjected to a pair of concentrated forces at the center of the crack (Figure I).
Verify that the Westergaard function is
z
1
= Psin(xa/W)
W (sin (xz/ W)) 2
[
1 _ sin(xa/W)
(sin (xz/ W))
2
l -112
(1)
Then show that the stress intensity factor is given by
p
K, = (w smW
. xa)I/2.
(2)
2
y
p
Figure /. An infinite periodic array of equally spaced cracks subjected to a pair of concentrated forces P at their
center in an infinite plate.
18 E.E. Gdoutos
See Problem 2.
3. Solution
From Equation (1) we have
(3)
For lzl ~ oo we have
Z 1 = 0, y Im Z~ = y Re Z~ = 0 (4)
Then Equation (5) of Problem 2 gives
(5)
Fory = 0, lx-nWI <a, n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ... we have
z=x
.
SID W
(xx) .
<SID W
(xa) (6)
Re Z 1 = 0, Re Z~, Im Z~ = finite
Then, Equation (5) ofProblem 2 gives
(7)
At x = 0, ay becomes infinite, indicating the existence of a concentrated force at that

point. For y = 0, a< lx-nWI < (n+112)W, n =0, 1, 2, 3, ... the quantity [sin 2
(xz/W) -sin 2 (xa/W)]" 2 is real and according to Equation (5) of Problem 2 ay is
given by Equation (1) for z = x, y = 0. The magnitude of the concentrated force at x =
Westergaard Method for a Periodic Array of Crack Under Concentrated 19
Forces
0, y = 0 is obtained by taking equilibrium equation along the x-axis of the half-plane y

> 0. As in Problem 2 we obtain that this force is equal toP.
K1 is calculated from [I]
(8)
We have
I
(9)
.
SID 2[x(a+~)J -SID
. 2 (xa)
-
w w
and
sin [ x (~+ ~) J = sin ( ~) + ~ cos ( ~) (IO)
. 2 [x(a+~)J -sm
. 2 (xa)
- x 2 ~ 2 2 (xa)
=--cos - 2x~ . (xa)
+--sm - cos (xa)
- (11)
w w2
SID
w w w w w
Thus
. Psin ( ~)
K 1 =hmJ2x~ Z1 =----''----'-
i~l-+0 w
(I2)
[ xw2~ cos 2 (xa) +-wsm
2x~ . (xa)
2
2
w w cos (xa)]
w
We have for K 1
20 E.E. Gdoutos
p
(13)
W. (2xa}
-Stn
w
-~
Note that for W/a ~ oc the above solution reduces to the case of a single crack (K1 =
PI ,J;;, Equation (2) of Problem 2 with b = 0).
4. References
[l] E.E. Gdoutos (1993) Fracture Mechanics - An Introduction, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht,
Boston, London.
Problem 4: Westergaard Method for a Periodic Array of
Cracks Under Uniform Stress**
E.E. Gdoutos
1. Problem
Consider an infinite periodic array of equally spaced cracks along the x-axis in an infi-
nite plate subjected to equal uniform stresses u along the x- and y-axes at infinity (Fig-
ure l ). VerifY that the Westergaard function is
USID
0 (n:z)
W
(l)
Then show that the stress intensity factor is given by
K 1 =u(n:a)
112 ( W n:a
- t a n -)
1/2
(2)
n:a W
r-------------1~------------,
I I
I I
Yf
-
I I
I W W I
a
...._..
I
1
X
.--...a
1
I
I ~~~ ~~~ ~~~ I
I I
I I
I I
L-------------l~------------J
Figure lo An infinite periodic array of equally spaced cracks in an infinite plate subjected to equal unifunn
stresses a at infinity
o
22 E.E. Gdoutos
See Problem 2.
3. Solution
From Equation (I) we have
(3)
For y = 0, lx- WI< awe have

z=x (4)
Thus,
sm . (1tx)
W <sm. (1ta)
W, since
w
a<-
2
(5)
ReZ 1 = 0, Rez; , Imz; =finite (6)
Then, Equation (5) ofProblem 2 gives
(7)
(8)
Then, Equation (5) of Problem 2 gives
(9)
Since Z1 satisfies all boundary conditions it is the Westergaard function of the problem.
K1 is calculated from [1]

Westergaard Method for a Periodic Array of Cracks Under Uniform Stress 23
where
~=z-a (II)
We have
(12)
Since for ~~ ~ 0, cos x~ ~I and sin x~ =x~, we obtain

w w w
(13)
and
(14)
or
(15)
Note that for W I a ~ ex> ( tan W

xa =W
xa) the above solution
. reduces to the case of a
single crack (K 1 = a/ii).
4. References
[1] E.E. Gdoutos (1993) Fracture Mechanics- An Introduction, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht,
Boston, London.
Problem 5: Calculation of Stress Intensity Factors by
the Westergaard Method**
E.E. Gdoutos
1. Problem
The Westergaard function Z for the concentrated forces P and Q applied at the point x
=b(b <a) of a crack AB oflength 2a in an infinite plate (Figure Ia) is
Q+iP
Z= --
2n:
[(K--I)
-
K +I ~z2 -a2
I + -I -
b-z
[J%
2 2 -a +I ]]
z2 -a2
(I)
Show that the complex stress intensity factor K = K1 - iKn at the tip B of the crack is
K = Q + iP ( K - 1+ ~a + b ) . (2)
2..[;; K +I b-a
Then show that for equal and opposite distributed forces ay(x,O) and r"Y(x,O) on the
upper and lower crack faces (figures lb) K1 and Kn are given by
= r - a~
1 a+x
K1 Jay(x,O) - - dx (3a)
vn:a a-x
-a
Kn = r-
I
vn:a
Jrxy(x,O) ~
a
a+x
- - dx.
a-x
(3b)
-a
Then determine the values ofK 1 for uniform (Figure 2a) and triangular (Figure 2b, c)
equal and opposite distributed forces on the upper and lower faces of a crack of length
2a in an infinite plate.
26 E.E. Gdoutos
y
p ,........~--:
,/
b
a !tor. IJf.O
A-=====~====-=-B--x
A
.___a a- ........
............... '-_
-a----a-
(a) (b)
Figure 1. A crack oflength 2a subjected (a) to concentrated furces P and Q and (b) to distributed forces ay(x,O)
and txy(x, 0) along the crack faces.
IIIII
.,.__ 2a ----t ,__ 2a - - - t ,___ 2a ---.t
(a) {b) (c)
Figure 2. A crack of length 2a in an infinite plate subjected to (a) a uniform and (b, c) triangular opposite forces
on the upper and lower crack faces.
See Problem 2.
3. Solution
3. I STRESS INTENSITY FACTOR K AT TIP B
K is calculated as [ 1]
K = K 1 - iK 11 =lim
!~l-+0
.J'2« Z (4)
or
Calculation of Stress Intensity Factors by the Westergaard Method 27
.
i~J-->o
~Y
K - IIIDv.<.1t<, (Q+iP)
- - - [(JC-1)
21t
-- I
JC+l ~ (l;+a)z -az
+ I
b-(a+ I;)
[ b 2 -a 2
(a+ Q2 -a 2
+ Ill
r .j21tf,(Q+iP)[(JC-l) 1 1 [ b 2 -a 2 1]]
=:~1~!1J 1t ~ K+l ~1;(1;+2a) + b-(a+ I;) 1;(1;+2a) +
= (Q+iP)
21t
[(~) ~+-I ~ x (b 2 -a 2 )
IC+I v-; b-a a
l
l
(5)
= (Q + iP) [(~) + r;;+b

21t IC+I V~
The mode-l and mode- II stress intensity factors K1 and Krr are given by
(6a)
(IC-1) ra+b
Ku =-
p
2~ K+I + 2~
Q
v;=t; (6b)
3.2. STRESS INTENSITY FACTOR FOR FIGURE Ib
Letting P = cry (x, 0) dx and Q = r,y (x, 0) dx integrating from x = -a to x = a the K 1 and
Kn expressions for a crack subjected to arbitrary loads on the upper crack surface are
K1= I
r-- afcry(x,O) Jg[+x
--dx+ I
r-- (IC-1)
--
3
Jrxy(x,O)dx (7a)
2-yxa a-x 2-vxa K+I
-a -a
K 11 =-
I (IC-I)
r-- --
3
Jay (x, 0) dx + 1
r-- Jrxy (x, 0) J§+x
a
- - dx (7b)
2-vxa K+l 2-vxa a-x
-a -a
For equal and opposite forces on the upper and lower crack faces using the symmetry
equations
(8a)
28 E.E. Gdoutos
(8b)
we obtain
~ a~
I a+x
KI = Jay(x, 0) - - dx (9a)
-vna a-x
-a
I
K 11 = ,...- aJtxy(x, 0) ~
a+x
- - dx (9b)
vna a-x
-a
3.3. STRESS INTENSITY FACTOR FOR FIGURE 2a
For uniform stress distribution Cfy (x, 0) = cs0 we obtain from equation (9a)
KI = ,...-
I a~ a+x
Ja 0 - - dx (10)
vna a-x
-a
Putting u = x/a we have
a~
a +x
-
I~l+u
dx =a J -
. -I
du =a [sin u- ~]
2 I
J a-x I-u -1
-a -1
(11)
and
cso ,--
KI = ,...-an= cs 0 -vna (I2)
vna
which is identical to the value of K 1 for a crack of length 2a subjected to a uniform re-
mote stress cs 0 •
3.4. STRESS INTENSITY FACTOR FOR FIGURE 2b
For the triangular stress distribution of Figure 2b, Cfy = x cs 0/a. We obtain from Equa-
tion (9a)
Calculation of Stress Intensity Factors by the Westergaard Method 29
K, =_I_ aJ<rox ~a+x dx (13)

.,j;"; a -a
a-x
Putting u = x/a, and integrating by parts we have
JP
I I
= a 2 sin- 1(1)- (-a 2 ) sin- 1(-l) -a 2 Jsin- 1 udu + a 2 du
-1 -1
=-a 2 [usin- 1 u + ~] _,1 + ~[u~+

2
sin- 1 u]
1
-1
(14)
2
and
(15)
3.5. STRESS INTENSITY FACTOR FOR FIGURE 2c:
For a triangular stress distribution with <ry (-a)= 0 and Oy (a)= o 0 we obtain by super-
position of the stress intensity factors of Figures 2a and 2b.
(16)
4. References
[I] E.E. Gdoutos (1993) Fracture Mechanics- An Introduction, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht,
Boston, London.
Distributed Forces **
E.E. Gdoutos
1. Problem
Show that the Westergaard function for the configuration of Figure 1 is
2cr z b b z 2 - a 2 1/2]]
Z1= - [
1t
2 2
(z -a )
112 arccos(-)- arccot [- (- 2--
a z a - b
2) (1)
and the stress intensity factor is
(2)
a a
X
a a
1·--
... a --·~1~-"~•...,_- a
Figure /. A crack of length 2a in an infinite plate subjected to a unifunn stress distribution a along the interval
b:<;;lxl:<;;a.
32 E.E. Gdoutos
See Problem 2.
3. Solution
According to Problem 2 the Westergaard function Z for a pair of concentrated forces a

at the points ± x is given by
(3)
The function Z1 for the problem of Figure 1 is
(4)
J%
or
2a [v,-:;----;;arccos
Z1 = -
x
z
z2 - a 2
(b)
- -arccot [b
a
-
z
2
-a-
- 2-
a - b
2
2 ]] (5)
From Problem 2 we obtain that K, for a pair of concentrated forces a at points ± x is

given by
(6)
Thus, the stress intensity factor, K" for the Problem of Figure 1 is
K 1 = aJ 2a ~ dx =-2a ~;
~[arccos(~)] a=2a ~arc sin(~) (7)
b ~a2- x2 ~; a b ~; a
4. References
[I] E.E. Gdoutos (1993) Fracture Mechanics -An Introduction, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht,
Boston, London.
Concentrated Forces **
E.E. Gdoutos
1. Problem
Consider a crack of length 2a in an infinite plate subjected to the concentrated forces P

at a distance y0 from the crack (Figure 1). Verify that the Westergaard function is
(I)
where
(a2 +y~)I/2 z
f(z, Yo· a)= 2 2 2 2 112 · (2)
z +Yo (z -a )
Determine the stress intensity factor K1•
(
T
YI Yo
.
1---0 .. ,. 0 "'" 1
t
Yo
X
.i
lp
Figure I. A crack oflength 2a in an infinite plate subjected to concentrated forces P.
34 E.E. Gdoutos
See Problem 2.
3. Solution
From Equations (1) and (2) we obtain for the Westergaard function z,
(3)
(4)
(5)
For y = 0, z = x, we have
(6)
2(1- v)~a 2 + y~
For y = 0, lxl < a, we have
(7)
(8)
For x = 0, y = y0 , z = iy0 , the stress ay calculated from Equation (5) of Problem 2 be-
comes infinite, indicating the existence of a concentrated force at that point. The
magnitude of the concentrated force is obtained by taking the equilibrium equation
along the x-axis ofthe half-plane y > 0. We have
<Xl
PY- 2 J<Jydx = 0 (9)

0
or
<Xl
Py -2J<J y dx=O (10)

a
or
p ~a 2 +y~ j d(x 2 +y~)

Jt 2 a2+y~(x2+y~)~(x2+y~)-(a2+y~)
p y~
Py~ ~a 2 +y~ j d(x 2 +y~)

+ 2x(l-v) 2 82 +y~ (x2 +y~)~(x2 +y~)-(a2 +y~)
36 E.E. Gdoutos
p
2n(l-v)
+ Py~Ja 2 +y~ (11)

4n(l-v)
Thus
(12)
which indicates that the concentrated load at point x = 0, y = y0 has magnitude P.
The stress intensity factor is calculated as [1]
(13)
or
=
p
~[ ~a2 +y~1 Yo
+ 2(1-v)(a2 +y~) 312
2 l (14)
Note that for y0 = 0 the above solution reduces to the value of stress intensity factor of
case (a) of Problem 2 (K, = PI ..r;; ).
4. References
[l] E.E. Gdoutos (1993) Fracture Mechanics- An Introduction, K.luwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht,
Boston, London.
Problem 8: Westergaard Method for a Crack Problem**
E.E. Gdoutos
1. Problem
Consider the Westergaard stress function
(1)
Find the loading that represents in an infinite plate with a crack of length 2a along the
x-axis and determine the stress intensity factor.
See Problem 2.
3. Solution
(2)
For y = 0, lxl < a we have
ReZ1 = 0, y lm Z~ = y Re Z~ = y Re Z~ =0 (3)
Then Equation (5) ofProblem 2 gives
(4)
Let put
(5)
40 E.E. Gdoutos
For lzl ~ ao, r = r 1 = r2 and 9 = 91 = 92 we obtain
(6)
(7)
Equations (5) ofProblem (2) give [1]
. a a
ax =ReZ-ylmZi =-rcos8=-x (Sa)
a a
. a a
ay =ReZ+ylmZi =-rcos 9=-x (8b)
a a
. a
't' xy =-yReZ 1 =--y (8c)
a
From Equations (3) and (8) we conclude that the Westergaard function Z; corresponds
to an infinite plate with a crack of length 2a subjected to stresses ax= ay = (a/a) x and
't'xy = - (a/a) y at infinity.
The stress intensity factor is calculated as [1]
4. References
[I) E.E. Gdoutos (1993) Fracture Mechanics -An Introduction, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht,
Boston, London.
Problem 9: Westergaard Method for a Crack Subjected to
Shear Forces **
E.E. Gdoutos
1. Problem
VerifY that the function z;

11 for an infinite plate with a crack of length 2a subjected to
a pair of shear forces Sat x = b (Figure 1) is
z;n = ___s_~(-a2_-_b_2)"2 (1)

x(z-b) z 2 -a 2
Determine the stress intensity factor.
b~s
0
X
t......_- a ----•-+t••-a ®
....
Figure 1. An infinite plate with a crack oflength 2a subjected to a pair of shear forces S at x = b.
See Problem 2.
42 E.E. Gdoutos
3. Solution
From Equation (1) we have for the stress t yz along the crack surfaces (y = 0, z = x * b,
!xl<a)[l]
tyz= Re Z~ 11 = 0 (2)
Furthermore, we have for the stresses tyz and tyz. at infinity (z --+ co)
(3)
At y = 0, x = b, the tyz stress becomes infinite, indicating the existence of a concen-

trated force at that point.
For x --+ b we have
Z~u = S ~a-2 -
-b-2
=
iS (4)
x(z-b) b 2 -a 2 x(z-b)
The magnitude of the concentrated force at x = b is calculated as
T =lim
y-+0
r+tt
-s yz
dx =lim Re
y-+O
I-
b+t
I iS
x x(x-b)+iy
dx
b-e
. b+Is I iS(x-b-iy) d
= l 1m -- x
y-+O x (x-b)2 +y2
b-s
J-..!._ (x-b)2+y2 dx = -~lim I

b+s b+£
= lim SY y dx
y-+O x (x-bi+y2
x
b-s b-s
s -
=-- hm [ tan
-I X- b b+£
- -]
2S . -I 6 - 2S 1t
= --hm 1an ( - ) = - - - =-S (5)
X y-+0 y b-s 1t y-+0 y X 2
Westergaard Method for a Crack Subjected to Shear Forces 43
Thus, the Westergaard function defined by Equation (1) satisfies the boundary condi-
tions of the problem of an infinite plate with a crack of length 2a subjected to a pair of
shear forces S at x = b.
The mode-III stress intensity factor is calculated as [I]
(6)
We have
S a2 - b2
Km =lim J2x~ - - - - 1 - - -
ICI--+D 1t (~+a- b) ~(~ + 2a)
s..fi; ~a 2 - b2 s /a+b
= x(a-b) 2a = ;;;v-;=t; (7)
4. References
Boston, London.
Superposition *
MS. Konsta-Gdoutos
1. Problem
Consider a strip specimen of width b with an edge crack of length a loaded by a trian-
gular tensile stress as shown in Figure. 1. Determine the stress intensity factor at the
crack tip. Obtain numerical results for alb= 0.4
Figure I. A strip with an edge crack subjected to a triangular stress distribution perpendicular to the crack
along its upper and lower boundaries.
The stress intensity factor expresses the strength of the singular elastic stress field in
the vicinity of the crack tip. For opening-mode problems the stresses Gx, Gy and Txynear
the crack tip are given by [1]
46 M.S. Konsta-Gdoutos
K1 8 ( 1 . 8 . 38)
ox== ~ 1tr
2 cos 2 -SID2SID 2
Oy ==
K,
r::;::::: COS-
8 ( 1 +SID
. -SID
8 . -38) (1)
v21tr 2 2 2
K, 8 . 8 38
T - - - COS - SID - COS -
xy - ~21tr 2 2 2
where K 1 is the stress intensity factor, and r, e are the polar coordinates at the point
considered centered at the crack tip.
Equation (1) applies to all crack-tip stress fields independently of crack/body geometry
and loading conditions. The stress intensity factor depends linearly on the applied load
and is a function of the crack length and the geometrical configuration of the cracked
body. Results for stress intensity factors for a host of crack problems of practical impor-
tance are presented in relevant handbooks [2, 3].
3. Solution
3.1. SUPERPOSITION
The problem of Figure 1 can be considered as a superposition of the two problems

shown in Figure 2 for which the stress intensity factor is obtained from existing solu-
tions [2, 3].
3.2. STRESS INTENSITY FACTOR FOR UNIFORM AND BENDING LOADS
n
The stress intensity factor K: for a single-edge cracked plate under uniform tension o
r-
is given by [2, 3]
KJ ~n,J,;"; [112- 023 [ ~l+ 1055 [ ~ ~

21.72 [ )' + 3039 [ ~ (2)
a
-< 0.6.
b
Calculation of Stress Intensity Factors by Superposition 47
a~, 0/2 C/2 ~M
I 0/2
~
14--------
I
b b
+
o/2
a 0/2
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 2. Superposition of the triangular load as sum of a uniform tensile and a bending load.
The stress intensity factor K ~ for a finite width strip with an edge crack under bend-
ing is given by (2, 3]
3.3. STRESS INTENSITY FACTOR FOR TRIANGULAR LOAD
The stress intensity factor K1 for the triangular load of Figure l is obtained by adding
the stress intensity factors for the uniform and bending loads. We have
(4)
In our case we have
cr
cro = - (5a)
2
(5b)
3.4. NUMERICAL RESULTS FOR alb= 0.4
For alb = 0.4 we obtain for K: and K ~ :
Kl = aJ;'; [1.12 -0.23x(0.4) + 10.55x(0.4) 2 - 21.72x(0.4) 3 + 30.39x(0.4) 4 ]

2
=l.052aJ;'; (6a)
Gb-
K 1b = 6
2 J;;[
- - 1.12-1.40x(0.4)+7.33x(0.4) 2 -13.08x(0.4) 3 + 14.0x(0.4) 4]
12 b 2
aJ;';
=--xl.254 =0.627a.yxa
c- (6b)
2
Thus, the stress intensity factor for the triangular load is obtained as
K 1 =K; +K~ = 1.052 aJ;'; + 0.627 aJ;'; = 1.679 aJ;'; (7)
4. References
Boston, London.
[2] G.C. Sib (1973) Handbook ofStress Intensity Factors, Institute of Fracture and Solid Mechanics, Lehigh
University.
[3] Y. Murakami (ed.) (1987) Stress Intensity Factors Handbook, Pergamon Press.
Integration *
E.E. Gdoutos
1. Problem
Use Problem 5 to determine the stress intensity factor for a crack of length 2a in an
infinite plate subjected to uniform normal stress a and shear stress t along the upper
crack surface from x = b to x = c. Then determine the stress intensity factor when the
same stresses apply to the lower crack surface. Finally use Problem 2 to determine the
stress intensity factor when additional normal and shear stresses a and t apply along
the upper and lower crack surface from x = - c to x = - b (Figure I).
c •I
f--b-i
a a
7" T
a a
._1·-- a ----t·l~-·- - a ---~·I
Figure I. A crack of length 2a in an infinite plate subjected to a unifurm normal stress a and shear stress T from x
=±btox=±a.
See Problems 5 and I 0.
3. Solution
3.1 STRESS APPLIED ALONG THE UPPER CRACK SURFACE FROM x =b TO

x=c
50 E.E. Gdoutos
Using Problem 5 we obtain the values of stress intensity factors K1 and Kn for a uni-
form normal stress a and shear stress t along the upper crack surface
K1 = -
(J
- cJg+X
2~
t - (K-1)
--dx+-
b a-x
- - C dx
K +1 2~ I (1)
or
oa- [.
_ -
K1-
2~
sm _1 -- xgx lc
a
--
a2
2
b
t{c-b) (-K-1)
+_...:...-=,:..
2~ K+1
(2)
or
KI - a.Ja [ . _ -c - sm. _ -b - g-c

_ - - sm 1 1
-+H-b
-
2 2
]
+ t (c-b) (K
--1)
- (3)
2.{; a a a2 a2 2~ K+ 1
and
- (K-1)CJ
- - d x +t- - CI§+X
K 11 = - -
2~ --dx
2~ J (4)
(J
K+1 a-x
b b
or
K 11 =- o(c-b)(K-1)
- - + - - sm
2~ K+ 1 2 .{;
t.Ja [. _1 --sm
c . _1 -
b-
a a
g 2
1--+ 1 - -
a2 a2
~2 ] (5)
3.2 STRESSES APPLIED ALONG THE LOWER CRACK SURF ACES FROM x = b
TOx=c
From symmetry considerations we obtain the values ofK1 and Kn for a uniform normal
stress a and shear stress t along the lower crack surface
I= a.Ja [ . -I c . -1 b /.7
1 c
2 [b22
1 b ]
- (c-b) (~)
2.{; Sin ;-Sin ;-vI-~
K t
(6)
+ f-~
2~ K+1
K 11 = o(c-b) (K-1)
-- + --
2& K + 1 2.{;
t.Ja [. _1 c
SID --SID
a
. _1 -
a
g
b - 1 - - 2 + H1 - - 2
a2 a2
]
(7)
Calculation of Stress Intensity Factors by Integration 51
By superposing the above solutions we obtain the values ofK1 and Kn when normal and
shear stresses a and t apply along the upper and lower crack surface from x = b to x =
c
3.3 STRESSES APPLIED ALONG THE UPPER AND LOWER CRACK SURFACE
FROM x = b TO x = c
K o.Ja[. _c . _b ~c2 + gb
1 = --
.;;
SID
1
-- -
a
- SID
1
--
a
--
a2
2
a2
] (8)
K II=--
.;;
r:.Ja[. _
SID
1 c . _1 -
--SID
a
b - g-c
a
-
2
a2
+ gb
-2-]
a2
(9)
3.4 STRESSES APPLIED ALONG THE UPPER AND LOWER CRACK SURFACES
FROM x=b TO x=c AND FROM x = -c TO x = -b
Using Problem 2 we obtain the value of K, when an additional normal stress a applies
along the upper and lower crack surfaces from x = -c to x = -b
(10)
or
K 2o..fiJa (. c . b)
1 =--SID
-1
--SID
a
-1
-
a
(11)
4. References
Boston, London.
Problem 12: Stress Intensity Factors for a Linear Stress
Distribution *
E.E. Gdoutos
1. Problem
The stress intensity factor for an edge crack of length a in a semi-infinite plate sub-
jected to a pair of equal and opposite concentrated forces at a distance b from the plate
edge (Figure 1) is given by [I]
(1)
where
F(bl a)== [I- (b I a) 2 ] [0.2945- 0.3912(b I a) 2 + 0.7685(bl a) 4
-0.9942(bla)6 +0.5094(bla) 8 ]. (2)
Using this result show that the stress intensity factor for this crack subjected to a self-
balanced linear tensile stress distribution acting along the crack faces (Figure I b) is
K1 == 0.683a.J;;.. (3)
54 E.E. Gdoutos
------------, ------------,
p a
p a
____________ .J ____________ .J
(a) (b)
Figure 1. An edge crack in an infinite plate subjected to (a) a pair of concentrated furces at a distance b from the
plate edge and (b) a self-balanced linear tensile stress distribution acting along the crack taces.
See Problem l 0
3. Solution
The stress intensity factor K1 for the case of Figure l b is calculated by integration of
the stress intensity factor of Figure I a with P =a (b/a)
K, =_3__ aJ l+F(b/a) ..Ja(a~)db = 2afa JI l+F(x) xdx (4)

..[; o ~a2-b2 a ..[; o ~
or
K 1 = 2a../a Jl.2945x -0.6857x 3 +1.1597x 5 -1.7627x 7 +1.5036x 9 -0.5094x II dx (S)

..[; o J1-x 2
where x = b/a
We have
Stress Intensity Factors for a Linear Stress Distribution 55
(6)
so that
Jo .JI-xdxx
1
-1 (7)
2 -
(8)
We have
1 x3dx
fp=0.6667
o 1-x
f x dx
1
~
5
= -5
4
X 0.6667 = 0.5334
o -yt-x
f x dx
1 7
~ = -7 X
6
0.5334 = 0.4572 (9)
o-yt-x
fo '\/1-
1
x dx
9
~
x-
8
= -9 X 0.4572 = 0.4063
JJ0!
x dx 10
1 11
= -11 X 0.4063 = 0.3694
0 1-x
The stress intensity factor K1 is calculated as:

56 E.E. Gdoutos
2
K 1 =- cr.J;; (1.2945 x 1- 0.6857 x 0.6667 + 1.1597 x 0.5334
1t
- 1. 7627 X 0.4572 + 1.5036 X 0.4063 - 0.5094 X 0.3694)
= 3_ x 1.0729 cr.J;; = 0.683 cr.J;; (10)

1t
4. Referentes
[1] G.C. Sib (1973) Handbook of Stress-Intensity Factors, Institute of Fracture and Solid Mechanics, Lehigh
University.
Problem 13: Mixed-Mode Stress Intensity Factors in
Cylindrical Shells **
E.E. Gdoutos
1. Problem
A cylindrical pressure vessel of radius R and thickness t contains a through crack of

length 2a oriented at an angle P with the circumferential direction (Figure I). When
the vessel is subjected to an internal pressure p, determine the stress field in the vicin-
ity of the crack tip.
I
I
I
....--11~-, , I
I
I
I Ll......
a:4-t
z I "V
0
I Uz
I ./ I
I I
I I
L---l---~
aa
(a) (b)
Figure I. (a) A cylindrical pressure vessel with an inclined though the thickness crack and (b) stresses acting
in a local element containing the crack.
Because the crack is oriented at an angle with the circumferential direction the stress
field in the vicinity of the crack tip is of mixed-mode, that is, a combination of open-
58 E.E. Gdoutos
ing-mode (mode-l) and sliding-mode (mode-11). The stress components crx, cry, txy for
opening-mode loading are given by [I]
CJ = -K-I c o s a
- (1-sm-
. a sm-
. Je )
x .J21tr 2 2 2
Gy
KI
= r;;-:- COS -
a (1+SID
. -SID
a . -3a) (1)
.y27tr 2 2 2
t
KI
= - - cos - sm - cos -
a . a 3a
xy .J21tr 2 2 2
where KI is the opening-mode stress intensity factor and r and a are the polar coordi-
nates of the point considered centred at the crack tip.
For sliding-mode we have [1]
. a ( 2+cos-
Kn- sm-
CJ = - - a cos-
3a )
x .J21tr 2 2 2
K11 • a
CJ = - - sm - cos - cos -
a 3a (2)
Y .J21tr 2 2 2
t =-K-11 c o s a- (1-sm
. -as.m3a-)
xy .J21tr 2 2 2
where K11 is the sliding-mode stress intensity factor.
When the cracked plate is subjected to uniform stresses a and kCJ perpendicular and
along the crack axis, respectively, the CJx stress along the crack axis is given by
KI a (1-sm-
CJx =--cos- . a sm-
. 3a ) - (I - k) CJ (3)
.J2u 2 2 2
3. Solution
We consider a local element containing the crack and calculate the stresses acting on
the element. Then we determine the stress field in the vicinity of the crack tip using
Equations (1) to (3).
Mixed-Mode Stress Intensity Factors in Cylindrical Shells 59
3.1. STRESSES IN THE VESSEL
The longitudinal a. and hoop a 9 stresses in the cylindrical vessel are obtained from
equilibrium along the longitudinal and hoop directions, respectively.
Equilibrium along the longitudinal axis of the vessel (Figure 2b) gives
(a) (b)
Figure 2. Stress equilibrium along (a) the longitudinal and (b) hoop directions of the cylindrical vessel of
Figure I
(4)
or
pR
0' =- (5)
z 2t
Equilibrium along the hoop direction (Figure 2b) gives
2ta9 =2Rp (6)

or
pR
0' =- (7)
z t
60 E.E. Gdoutos
3.2. STRESS TRANSFORMATION
Consider a local element containing a crack of length 2a that makes an angle ~ with
the y direction and subjected to stresses CJ and ko along the y and x directions, respec-
, .
tively (Figure 3). By stress transformation we obtain the following stresses
T~y in the system x'y' (Figure 3b).
Figure 3. An inclined crack (a) in a biaxial stress field and (b) stress transformation along and perpendicular
to the crack plane.
. k+l k-1
CJ
X
=-2
- CJ - - - CJ
2
cos 2f.l.
I'
(8a)
. k+l k-1
CJY = --CJ +--ocos2~ (8b)
2 2
. k-1
T = ---osin 2~ (8c)
xy 2
The crack is subjected: (a) to a biaxial stress CJY, (b) to a normal stress
(o~ -o~)along the x-axis and (c) to a shear stress T~. Thus, the stress field at the
crack tip is obtained by superposing an opening-mode loading caused by the stress CJ~
and a sliding-mode loading caused by the stress t~ . The stress (CJ~ - o~) does not
Mixed-Mode Stress Intensity Factors in Cylindrical Shells 61
create singular stress but should be subtracted from the cr~ stress along the x -axis.
From Equations (6), (1 ), (2) and (3) we obtain for the stresses cr ~, cr~, r~
. KI 9 (• . 9 . 39)
crx = ~ 21tr cos 2 -sm 2 sm T -
-Kn . 9 ( 2+cos-
- sm- 9 cos-
39 ) -(k-1) cos 29 (9a)
~ 2 2 2
. KI 9 ( . 9 . 39 ) Ku . 9 9
J 39
cry= ~ 21tr cos 2 l+sm 2 sm 2 + 2nr sm 2 cos 2 cosT (9b)
. KI 9 sm
. -9 cos -
39+ -Ku
t - -- cos- - cos -9 ( 1- sm
. -9 sm
. -39 ) (9c)
xy-~ 2 2 2 ~ 2 2 2
where
KI = .!_[k +I+ (k -1) cos 2~] crm (lOa)

2
k-1 c-
Kn = ---sm 2~ crvna. (lOb)
0
3.3. STRESS FIELD AROUND THE CRACK TIP
For the case of the cylindrical vessel the stress field around the crack tip is given by
Equations (7) where the stress intensity factors K1 and Krr are given by
(lla)
(lib)
4. References
Boston, London.
Problem 14: Photoelastic Determination of Stress Intensity
Factor K1 *
E.E. Gdoutos
1. Problem
The Westergaard function for the stress field near the tip of an opening-mode crack is
put in the form
(1)
where the parameter p models the effect of near field boundaries and boundary loading.
Determine the singular stresses o., oy and txy from Z1• According to photoelastic law,
the isochromatic fringe order N is related to the maximum shear stress tm by [1]
Nf
2t = - (2)
m t
where f is the stress-optical constant and t is the plate thickness.
Show that this equation can be used to determine K1 from the isochromatic fringe pat-
tern in the neighborhood of the crack tip.
See Problem 2.
3. Solution
Introducing the value of the Westergaard function Z1 given by Equation (1) into Equa-
tions (5) of Problem 2 we obtain for the stress components
o• = ~[cos ~(1-sin ~sin 39 ) + cos ~(1 +sin 2 ~) p (rIa)+ a ..rrf;.]

v2xr 2 2 2 2 2
64 E.E. Gdoutos
cry= ~[cos ~(I+sin ~sin 3e)+cos ~(I-sin 2 ~) ~(r/a)] (3)

v2nr 2 2 2 2 2
r =-K-
1 • e
sm 3e- ~ (rIa) cos -e]
- cos -e [ cos -
xr .J2n 2 2 2 2
The maximum shear stress tm is given by
(4)
We have
-2a Msin e [sin 3; - ~<rta)sin ~]+ a\rta>] <s>
Introducing this value of tm into the photoelastic law expressed by Equation (2) we
obtain for the distance of a point on the isochromatic fringe of order N from the crack
tip
(6)
where
(7)
This equation can be solved in a computer to give the polar distance r as a function of
the polar angle e withy, a, a and~ as parameters. Physically accepted solutions of this
equation should give real values of r, such that r/a < I. The four parameters y, a, a and
~ can be adjusted so that the analytical isochromatics match the experimental ones.
When a close fit is achieved the stress intensity factor K 1 is determined. This analysis
permits the fringe loops to tilt, stretch and become unsymmetrical, so that they can be
used to determine K1 for a wide variety of specimen geometries and loading conditions
[I].
4. References
(I] J.W. Dally and W.F. Riley (1991) Experimental Stress Analysis, Third Ed., McGraw-Hill, New York.
Problem 15: Photoelastic Determination of Mixed-Mode
Stress Intensity Factors K1 and K11 **
MS. Konsta-Gdoutos
1. Problem
Consider a crack in a mixed-mode stress field governed by the values of the opening-
mode K1 and sliding-mode Krr stress intensity factors. Obtain the singular stress com-
ponents and subtract the constant term O"ox from the stress O"x to account for distant field
stresses. Determine the isochromatic fringe order N from equation [I]
Nf
2T = - (l)
m t
where Tm is the maximum in-plane shear stress, f is the stress-optical constant and t is
the plate thickness. Obtain an expression for N. Consider the opening-mode. Ifrm and
9m are the polar coordinates of the point on an isochromatic loop, furthest from the
crack tip (Figure I), show that [2]
K 1 -_ Nf~[ I + ( 2 )
2 112
] ( 2tan(39m /2)
1 + ---'---"::._- (2)
tsin9m 3tan9m 3tan9m
(3)
For the problem of a mixed-mode stress field if only the singular stresses are consid-
ered, show that the maximum in-plane shear stress Tm is given by
Tm = I r. 2 2 • • 2 2
,;;--!_SID 9K 1 + 2sm 29K 1Kn + (4-3sm 9)Kn
f' .2
(4)
2v2xr
Then show that the polar angle 9m of the point furthest from the crack tip on the curve
Tmax = constant (Figure I) satisfies the following equation
(5)
Ta•Constant
Figure 1. A crack-tip isochromatic fringe loop.
See Problem 13.
3. Solution
The stress field in the vicinity of the crack tip for mixed-mode conditions is given by
crx = 1 [ K 1 cos-
r;:;-- 6 (I -SID-
. 6 sm-
. 36} - K II sm-
. 6 ( 2 +cos-
6 cos-
36 }] - crox
-v2xr 2 2 2 2 2 2
cry= ~1 [K 1 cos-
6 ( 1+sm
. -sm-
6 . 36} + K IIsm-
. 6 cos -cos-
9 39] (6)
-v2u 2 2 2 2 2 2
t xy = I [K 1 sm
r;:;-- . -6 cos -6 cos -36 + K II cos -6 ( 1 - sm
. -6 . -36 }]
SID
-v2xr 2 2 2 2 2 2
Photoelastic Determination of Mixed-Mode Stress Intensity Factors K1 and Kn 67
where K1 and Kn are the mode-l and mode-II stress intensity factors and r, 9 the polar
coordinates referred to the crack tip.
The maximum in-plane shear stress 'tm is given by
(7)
We obtain from Equations (6) and (7)
(2•mY = - 1-[(K 1 sinO+ 2Ku cos of +(Ku sin of]

21tr
+ ~sin! [K 1sin0 (1 + 2cos0 )+ Ku( 1 + 2cos 2 0 +coso)]+ cr~x (8)

v21tr 2
For opening-mode (Kn = 0) we obtain
(9)
The position of the farthest point on a given loop is dictated by
(IO)
which gives
-K 1 sin9m cos Om
cro = (II)
X~(
V £. JL lm COS e .39
Slfl + -3.
__tJI_ Slfl 0 COS _39)
__IJI_
m 2 2 m 2
From Equation (9) and (II) using the photoelastic law of Equation (I) we obtain for K1
and O"ox
Nf ~21trm
K 1 =-
t sin9m
[
1+
2
(3tanem)
l
2 -1/2 [
1+
2 tan 2
3tan9m
30m ]
(I2)
Nf cosem
O"ox =- ----------=------ (13)
t cos (36 m ) ( cos 2 6m+ 9 sin 2 em )112
2 4
From Equation (8) we obtain for Oox = 0
•m=
1 r. 2 2 •
r.:;--I_Sm 6K1 +2sm26K1Ku+(4-3sm 6)Ku
• 2 2 ] 112
(14)
2v2 n:r
From Equations (5) and (14) we obtain
(15)
4. References
[1) J.W. Dally and W.F. Riley(l99l)Experimental Stress Analysis, Third Ed., McGraw-Hill, New York.
[2) G.R. Irwin ( 1958) Discussion of paper ''The Dynamic Stress Distribution Surrounding a Running Crack-A
Photoelastic Analysis", by A. Wells and D. Post, Proc. SESA, Vol. XVI, pp. 69-92, Proc. SESA, Vol. XVI,
pp. 93-96.
Problem 16: Application of the Method of Weight Function
for the Determination of Stress Intensity Factors **
L. Banks-Sills
1. Problem
(a) By means of the weight function, determine an integral expression for the stress
intensity factor of the geometry and loading shown in Fig. I. Assume plane strain
conditions.
(b) Carry out the integration to obtain an explicit expression for K 1 •
-2a-
Figure. I A crack in an infinite plate subjected to a triangular stress distribution along the crack surfaces
The stress intensity factor K 1 may be written as
(l)
70 L. Banks-Sills
where Ti is the traction vector on the boundary Sr along which the tractions are
applied, ds is differential arc length, and m; is the Bueckner-Rice weight function
given by [1, 2)
n)- H au~(x,y,l)
mi ( x,y,<e - • (2)
2K 1 at
where £ is crack length, H = E /(1- v 2 ) or H = E for plane strain or generalized plane
stress conditions, respectively, K; and u; are the stress intensity factor and
displacement vector on Sr for another loading applied to the same geometry in Fig. 1,
respectively.
3. Solution
3.1 STRESS INTENSITY FACTOR AND DISPLACEMENT FIELDS FOR THE

AUXILIARY PROBLEM
The auxiliary or starred problem is chosen as illustrated in Fig. 2.
Figure 2 Auxiliary problem

Application ofthe Method ofWeight Function for the Determination ofSIFs 71
This is a Griffith crack of length l with remote applied tensile stress u..,. The stress
intensity factor is
(3)
The displacement vector required to solve the problem in Fig. 1 (along Sr) is along the
crack faces. Thus, for plane strain conditions
•(
U1 X, 0, t:n)= (l+v)(l-2v) (
CJ.., X
_!:_) (4a)
E 2
<o ~x ~n. (4b)
3.2 CRACK FACE TRACTIONS
In Fig. I, the traction T; on the upper crack face is given as

T1 =0 (5a)
- 2; (x -l/2) O<x<l/2
T2 = { (5b)
2cr (x-l/2) ll2<x<f
l
and on the lower crack face by

6a)
O<x<l/2
(6b)
f.l2<x<f
3.3 THE WEIGHT FUNCTION
The weight function is a universal function which depends only upon geometry. In
•
order to obtain m; along the crack faces, only the derivative of u 2 is required. It is
found to be
72 L. Banks-Sills
(7)
The weight function m2 is found by substituting (3) and (7) into (2) as
(8)
3.4 DETERMINATION OF THE STRESS INTENSITY FACTOR
Substituting (8) and the expressions for the tractions T2 in (Sb) and (6b) into (1) leads
to
K1 /2{
=-~e1J;i Joret 2 (x-!:._)
2 v~
/x dx - re
Jm
(x-!:._)
2
/x dx}
v~
(9)
To carry out the integration in (9), use is made of the transformation X = f sin 2 0 to
obtain
(lO)
which agrees with the value ofK 1 found in [3].
4. References
[I] H.F. Bueckner (1970) A Novel Principle fur the Computation of Stress Intensity Factors. Zenschrift for
Angewandte Mathematic und Mechanik, 50, 529-546.
[2] J.R. Rice ( 1972) Some Remarks on Elastic Crack Tip Stress Fields. International Journal of Solids and
Structures, 8, 751-758.
[3] H. Tada, P. Paris and G. Irwin (1987) The Stress Analysis of Cracks Handbook, Del Research
Corporation, Missouri.
2. Elastic-Plastic Stress Field
Problem 17: Approximate Determination of the Crack Tip
Plastic Zone for Mode-l and Mode-ll Loading*
E.E. Gdoutos
1. Problem
Determine the crack tip plastic zone for mode-l and mode-11 loading according to the
Mises yield criterion.
A first estimate of the extent of the plastic zone attending the crack tip can be obtained
by determining the locus of points where the elastic stress field satisfies the yield crite-
rion. This calculation is very approximate, since yielding leads to stress redistribution
and modifies the size and shape of the plastic zone. Strictly speaking the plastic zone
should be determined from an elastic-plastic analysis of the stress field around the
crack tip. However, we can obtain some useful results regarding the shape of the plas-
tic zone from the approximate calculation.The most frequently used criteria for yield-
ing are the Tresca and von Mises criteria.
The Tresca criterion states that a material element under a multiaxial stress state enters
a state of yielding when the maximum shear stress becomes equal to the critical shear
stress in a pure shear test at the point of yielding. The latter is a material parameter.
Mathematically speaking, this criterion is expressed by [I]
(l)
where cr~o cr 2, cr 3 are the principal stresses and k is the yield stress in a pure shear test.
The von Mises criterion is based on the distortional energy, and states that a material
element initially yields when it absorbs a critical amount of distortional strain energy
which is equal to the distortional energy in uniaxial tension at the point of yield. The
yield condition is written in the form [I]
(2)
76 E.E. Gdoutos
where cry is the yield stress in uniaxial tension.
3. Solution
3.1 MODE-I:
The principal singular stresses are given by (2]
cr 1 = ~cos ~(1+
..;21fT 2
sin~)
2
(3)
0"2 K1
= r;;:::::
...;27tr
COS - e2 ( . e)
1- Stn-
2
Introducing these values of cr 1 and cr2 into the von Mises yield criterion expressed by
Equation (2), we obtain the following expression for the radius of the plastic zone
rp(e) = _..!.__
47t O"y
(.!S_)2 (~sin
2
2 e +I+ cos e) (4)
(5)
for plane strain.
The extent of the plastic zone along the crack axis (e = 0) is given by
2
1 KI )
r (0)=- ( - (6)
p 27t O"y
2
1 KI
r ( 0 ) =( - -) (7)
p 187t O"y
for plane strain, with v = l/3.

Crack Tip Plastic Zone for Mode-l and Mode-ll Loading 77
Figure 1 shows the shapes of the plastic zones for plane stress and plane strain with v =
1/3. Observe that the plane stress zone is much larger than the plane strain zone be-
cause of the higher constraint for plane strain. Equations (6) and (7) show that the ex-
tent of the plastic zone along the crack axis for plane strain is 1/9 that of plane stress.
)
K
}. 0.7 plane stress
Figure I. Approximate estimation of the crack-tip plastic zones for mode-l loading under plane stress and
plane strain. v ~ 1/3.
3.2 MODE-II:
For mode-11 we have [2]
2Krr . 9
X y Fr
cr +cr = - - - s m -
2
r;;!!-: sm-
cr,- cry=- 2K . 9 ( I+ cos- 39)
9 cos- (8)
v27tr 2 2 2
t,Y Fr cos 29 (I - sm. 29 sm. T39)

= Krr
Thus, we obtain
78 E.E. Gdoutos
(cr -cr ) 2 +4-r 2 =4K

x Y xy 21tr
2
- -1-1 ( I-3sm
• 2
-cos 2 -
2 2
e e) (9)
The principal stresses cr~> cr 2 are given by
(10)
or
Kn . e Kn . ze 2 e
cr1 2 =- r;;::: sm- ± r;;::: l-3sm -cos - (II)
· ...;2Jtr 2 ...;2Jtr 2 2
For conditions of generalized plane stress (cr3 = 0) the Mises yield criterion becomes
(I2)
or
2
Kn (6 + 2sin 2 ~- 2.sin 2 e)= 2crt (13)
21tr 2 2
0.4
r/(K,/a;r
0.6
Figure 2. Approximate estimation of the crack-tip plastic zones for mode- II loading under plane stress and
plane strain. v= I /3.
The radius of the plastic zone is given by

Crack Tip Plastic Zone for Mode-l and Mode-ll Loading 79
= r = -1-(~)
2
rp(9) (14- 2cos9- 9sin 2 9) (14)
87t Oy
For conditions of plane strain (aJ = v(a 1 + a 2 )) the Mises yield criterion yields
rP (9) =r =-1-(~) 2 [12 + 2(1 - 2v) 2 (1-cos 9)- 9sin 2 9] (15)

87t Oy
Figure 2 shows the shapes of the plastic zones for plane stress and plane strain with v =
1/3.
4. References
[I] A. Nadai ( 1950) Theory of Flow and Fracture ofSolids, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Boston, London.
Plastic Zone for Mixed-Mode Loading *
E.E. Gdoutos
1. Problem
Determine the radius of the plastic zone accompanying the crack tip for mixed-mode
(opening-mode and sliding-mode) loading under plane strain conditions according to
the Mises Yield criterion. Plot the resulting elastic-plastic boundary for a crack of
length 2a in an infinite plate subtending an angle p = 30° with the direction of applied
uniaxial stress at infinity. v = 0.3.
See Problem 17
3. Solution
By superimposing the stresses for opening-mode and sliding-mode loading and omit-
ting the constant term we obtain, after some algebra, for plane strain conditions (cr.= v
(crx+ cry), see Equations (7) of Problem 13) for the radius r of the plastic zone
r = - 1- 2-[Kf cos 2
2xcry
~ [<1- 2v) 2 + 3 sin 2 ~]
2 2
+ K1K11 sin 9 [3 cos9
(I)
Equation (1) for mode-l (Kn= 0) coincides with Equation (5) ofProblem 17, while for
mode-11 (K1= 0) coincides with Equation (15) of Problem 17.
82 Approximate Determination of the Crack Tip Plastic Zone for Mixed-Mode
Loading
For a crack of length 2a in an infinite plate subtending an angle p = 30° with the direc-
tion of applied uniaxial stress at infinity the stress intensity factors KJ. Ku are given by
[I]
(2)
Introducing these values into Equation (1) we obtain the radius of the plastic zone. For
p = 30° and v = 0.3 it is shown in Figure I.
r-----------1=----------1
r(2a.1)
?0
I
I
I
I
I
I
L-----------l~----------~
Figure I. Elastic-plastic boundaly surrounding the tip of an inclined crack in an infinite plate.
4. References
[I] E. E. Gdoutos (1993) Fracture Mechanics· An Introduction, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht,
Boston, London.
Plastic Zone According to the Tresca Yield Criterion * *
MS. Konsta-Gdoutos
1. Problem
Find the equation of the plastic zone ahead of a crack for mode-l and mode-II loading
under conditions of plane stress and plane strain for a material obeying the Tresca
yield criterion. Compare the plastic zones with those obtained with the Mises yield
criterion.
See Problem 17.
3. Solution
3.1 MODE-I
3.1. 1. Plane stress (u3 = 0): We have [I]
a1 = ~
..;'brr 2
e( . e)
K 1 cos - I + Sin -
2
(I)
a2 = ~
..;'brr 2
e( . e)
K1 cos- I - sm -
2
Thus
a1 - a 2 KI sm
= ,;;--- . e (2)
.y2ltr
The Tresca yield criterion for plane stress is expressed by [2]

(3)
For our case we have
(4)
Thus, the Tresca criterion gives
(5)
or
h::: 9( . 9)
KI cos - I + Stn - = cry (6)
v2nr 2 2
The radius of the plastic zone is given by
-e (I + sin -9 )]
2 2
r (9) = r 1 - [ cos
= -K- (7)
P 2ncr~ 2 2
3.1.2. Plane strain (cr 3 = v (cr 1 + cr2 )):

We have
KI . e
crl - cr2 = ,.-;:;----- Stn
-v2nr
CJ 1 -
.y2nr 2
e(
K1 cos - I - 2v + sm -
cr 3 = ,.-;:;-----
2
. e) (8)
cr 2 - cr 3 = .J2KInr cos 29(1- 2v -sm. 29)

The radius of plastic zone is the larger of
(9)
and
Crack Tip Plastic Zone According to the Tresca Yield Criterion 85
r (9)
P
K12 -
=r2 =--
21ta~ 2
9(
cos 2 - I - 2v + sin -
2
9) 2
(10)
For v = 113, it can be shown that r 1 > r2 for 9 < 38.94°. Thus, for 9 < 38.94° the elastic-
plastic boundary is represented by Equation (8), while for 9 > 38.94° the elastic-plastic
boundary is represented by Equation (9).
The elastic-plastic boundary for v = 113 according to the Tresca yield criterion for con-
ditions of plane stress and plane strain is plotted in Figure I. Comparing Figure I with
Figure I of Problem 17 we observe that the elastic-plastic boundaries according to Tre-
sca yield criterion are slightly different than the elastic-plastic boundaries according to
Mises yield criterion .
..0.4
Figure 1. Plastic zones around the crack tip for mode-l under plane stress and plane strain conditions accord-
ing to the Tresca yield criterion.
3.2 MODE II
3.2.1. Plane stress_(a 3 = 0):

We have
(11)
The Tresca yield criterion is expressed by
(12)
Since
(13)
we have for the Trasca criterion
(14)
and the elastic-plastic boundary is determined by
2 Kn
r:;::: W
1- · 29 = Oy
-SID (15)
-v27rr 4
or
Kn
r;;=: ( sm-+
-v2nr
. e2 ~ 1 3 · 2
- -sm
4
e) =cry (16)
(17)
and
Note that r 2 > r 1 for 1e1 > 76. 7°. Thus the elastic-plastic boundary is represented by
equation (17) for 1e1 < 76.7° and by equation (18) for lei > 76.7°.
3.2.2. Plane strain: (cr3 = v (cri + crz)):

We have
cr1 -cr3 = -~[ (1- 2v) sin!!__~ I- ~sin 2 e] (19)

~r 2 4
The Tresca yield criterion is expressed by
(20)
Since
(21)
we have for the Tresca criterion
(22)
and the elastic-plastic boundary is determined by
r;;::::: ~1- -Sin

2Ku 3 . 29= Oy (23)
v21tr 4
or
(24)
(25)
and
[(1- sin!+~ 1- ~sin 2 e]

2 2
rp(9) = r3 =- 1-(Ku ) 2v) (26)
2n oy 2 4
Since r 1 > r 3 the elastic-plastic boundary is represented by Equation (25) and coincides
with the elastic-plastic boundary for conditions of plane stress for 1e1 < 76.7".
The elastic-plastic boundary for v = 1/3 according to Tresca yield criterion for condi-
tions of plane stress and plane strain is plotted in Figure 2. Comparing Figure 2 with
Figure 2 of Problem 17 we observe that the elastic-plastic boundaries according to Tre-
sca yield criterion are slightly different than the elastic-plastic boundaries according to
Mises yield criterion.
Figure 2. Plastic zones around the crack tip for mode-11 under plane stress and plane strain conditions ac-
cording to the Tresca yield criterion.
4. References
Boston, London.
[2] A. Nadai ( 1950) Theory of Flow and Fracture of Solids, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Plastic Zone According to a Pressure Modified Mises Yield
Criterion**
E.E. Gdoutos
1. Problem
Determine the crack tip plastic zone for opening-mode loading for a pressure modified
von Mises yield criterion expressed by
where R = crcfcr, and cr, and crc are the yield stress of the material in tension and com-
pression, respectively. Plot the resulting elastic-plastic boundaries for plane stress and
plane strain conditions when R = 1.2 and 1.5. Compare the results with those obtained
by the von Mises criterion [I].
See Problem I7.
3. Solution
3.1. PLASTIC ZONE ACCORDING TO EQUATION (I)
Introducing the values of crh cr 2 (Problem 17) into the modified von Mises yield crite-
rion expressed by Equation (I) we obtain for the radius r of the elastic-plastic boundary
(3)
92 E.E. Gdoutos
{ 2 ;~~ )=(~; 1 J[~[[2(l-2v) 2 +3(1-cos e)](l+cos e)]112

2
R-t e] (4)
+ 2 (l+v)(--) cos-
R+l 2
for plane strain.
The elastic-plastic boundaries for conditions of plane stress (v = 0) and plane strain for
v = 0.3 and v = 0.5 when R = l (von Mises yield criterion), R = 1.2 and R = 1.5 are
shown by the upper halves of Figures l, 2 and 3.
= 0) and plane strain for v = 0, R = I, 1.2 and 1.5

Figure 1. Plastic zones for conditions of plane stress (v
according to the modified Mises yield criteria expressed by Equations I (upper half curves) and
Equation 2 (lower half curves).
Crack Tip Plastic Zone According to a Pressure Modified Mises Yield Criterion 93
Figure 2. As in Figure I for v = 0.3
Figure 3. As in Figure I for v = 0. 5

94 E.E. Gdoutos
3.2. PLASTIC ZONE ACCORDING TO EQUATION (2)
Working as in the previous case we obtain:
for plane stress and
r ( 2 1t~~)
K
= ~[2(1 +v)(R -1)cos ~+[4(1 +v)
4R 2
2 (R -1) 2 cos 2 ~2
1
+R(1+cos9) [2(1- 2v) 2 + 3(1-cos 9)]] 112 ] 2 (6)
for plane strain.
The elastic-plastic boundaries for conditions of plane stress (v = 0) and plane strain for
v = 0.3 and v = 0.5 when R = 1 (von Mises yield criterion), R = 1.2 and R = 1.5 are
shown by the lower halves of Figures 1, 2 and 3.
4. References
[I] A. Nadai ( 1950) Theory of Flow and Fracture of Solids, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Problem 21: Crack Tip Plastic Zone According to
Irwin's Model *
E.E. Gdoutos
1. Problem
Consider a central crack of length 2a in an infinite plate subjected to uniaxial stress a

at infinity perpendicular to the crack plane. According to the Irwin model, the effective
crack is larger than the actual crack by the length of plastic zone. Show that the stress
intensity factor corresponding to the effective crack, called effective stress intensity
factor Keffi for conditions of plane stress, is given by
(1)
Then, consider a large plate of steel that contains a crack of length 20 mm and is sub-
jected to a stress a = 500 MPa normal to the crack plane. Plot the ay stress distribution
directly ahead of the crack according to the Irwin model. The yield stress of the mate-
rial is 2000 MPa.
Irwin [I, 2] presented a simplified model for the determination of the plastic zone at-
tending the crack tip under small-scale yielding. He focused attention only on the ex-
tent along the crack axis and not on the shape of the plastic zone, for an elastic-
perfectly plastic material.
The model is based on the notion that as a result of crack tip plasticity the stiffness of
the plate is lower than in the elastic case. The length of the plastic zone c in front of
the crack is given by
c= _!_(.!S..)2 (2)
1t ay

96 E.E. Gdoutos
c =_I (.!S_)2 (3)

31t CJy
for plane strain, where K1 is the stress intensity factor and CJyis the yield stress.
3. Solution
The effective crack has a length 2(a+c/2) where for plane stress c/2 is (Equation (2))
~=-1 (KerrJ
2 21t CJy
2
(4)
The stress intensity factor Ketr for a crack of length 2(a+c/2) in an infinite plate sub-
jected to the stress cr is
(5)
or
(6)
This Equation leads to Equation (I).
Since the plate is large the effective stress intensity factor Keff is computed from Equa-
tion (1). We have
] 1 /2
l
K
err
=
[
cr 1t (O.Ol) =90MPa-vm
r (7)
[~- 0.5 ( ;ooooo y

1/2
The length of the plastic zone cis
c = _!_ (__2Q_)
1t 2000
2
= 0.64mm (8)
Crack Tip Plastic Zone According to Irwin's Model 97
The cry stress is constant along the length of plastic zone, while in the elastic region it
varies according to
Keff
cr = - - - - (9)
y (21tx)I/2
where xis measured from the tip of the effective crack (x > 0.32 mm).
The cry stress distribution is shown in Figure 1.
original crock
fictitious crock
} - - o=20 mm - - - - . i
(2-nx) •l'l
T
2000UPo
1--x
Figure 1. Original and fictitious crack and cr, stress distribution according to the Irwin modeL
4. References
(I] G.R. Irwin (1960) Plastic Zone Near a Crack Tip and Fracture Toughness. Sagamore Ordnance Mate-
rial Conference. pp. IV63-N78.
(2] G.R. Irwin (1968) Linear Fracture Mechanics, Fracture Transition, and Fracture Control, Engineering.
Fracture Mechanics., 1, 241-257.
Problem 22: Effective Stress intensity Factor According to
Irwin' Model **
E.E. Gdoutos
1. Problem
Consider a crack in a finite width plate subjected to opening-mode loading. Establish

an iterative process for determining the effective stress intensity factor Keffaccording to
the Irwin model.
Then consider a thin steel plate of width 2b = 40 mm with a central crack of length 2a
= 20 mm that is subjected to a stress a = 500 MPa normal to the crack plane. Plot the
ay stress distribution directly ahead of the crack according to the Irwin model. The
yield stress of the material is 2000 MPa.
See Problem 21and references I and 2.
3. Solution
The effective crack has a length 2(a + c/2), where for conditions of plane stress c/2 is
(Equation (2) of Problem 21)
~=-1 (~)2 (I)

2 2n ay
and for conditions of plane strain c/2 is (Equation (3) of Problem 21)
~=-1 (~)2 (2)

2 6n ay
Kefffor a crack oflength 2(a + c/2) in a finite width plate is

1/2
KelT =f((a+c/2)/b)a [ n(a+i)] (3)
100 E.E. Gdoutos
where the function t((a + c/2)/b) depends on the ratio (a+ c/2)/b, where b is the plate
thickness.
A flow chart of a computer program for the solution of equations (I) and (3) or (2) and
(3) is shown below:
START
I
Aaoume SlJIISs
Intensity factor K.
F1
Calculate length of Plane srrain
I
ptasUc zone c
c -~[~f ·- ~r~r
I I
K, • roJn(a • i> K,•foJn(a•il
T ff (ABS(K.-KJJ < •
T
NO I YES
I I
K.•K, K,,=K.
-T I
Print K,,
I
END
From the computer program based on the above flow chart it is found
Kerr = 109.48 MParrn (4)
The length of plastic zone calculated from Equation (I) is
c= 0.954 mm (5)
The cry stress distribution directly ahead of the crack is calculated from
Kerf
0 =--- (6)
y .J21tX
Effective Stress intensity Factor According to the Irwin Model 101
where xis measured from the tip of the fictitious crack. It is shown in Figure 1.
4000
I
I
I
a _ 109.48
~·-72RX
2 4 6 8 10
x(mm)
Figure/. Stress distribution ahead of the cmck tip
4. References
[I] G.R. Irwin (1960) Plastic Zone Near a Cmck Tip and Fmcture Toughness, Sagamore Ordnance Mate-
rial Conference, pp. IV63-IV78.
[2] G.R. Irwin (1968) Linear Fmcture Mechanics, Fmcture Transition, and Fracture Control, Engineering
Fracture. Mech., l, 241-257.
Problem 23: Plastic Zone at the Tip of a Semi-Infinite
Crack According to the Dugdale Model *
E.E. Gdoutos
1. Problem
The stress intensity factor for an infinite plate with a semi-infinite crack subjected to
concentrated loads Pat distance L from the crack tip (Figure I) is given by [I)
K _ 2P
(I)
I - (2nL)l/2
For this situation determine the length of the plastic zone according to the Dugdale
model.
p
p
t-- L--t
(a)
t
r p
1-- L
llllll ::
. ,..
-x--1
C----1
Figure 1. (a) A semi-infinite crack subjected to concentrated loads P and (b) calculation of the length of
plastic zone according to the Dugdale model.
104 E.E. Gdoutos
Calculation of the plastic state of stress around the crack tip and the extent of the plas-
tic zone is a difficult task. A simplified model for plane stress yielding which avoids
the complexities of the true elastic-plastic solution was introduced by Dugdale [2]. The
model applies to very thin plates in which plane stress conditions dominate, and to
materials with elastic-perfectly plastic behavior which obey the Tresca yield criterion.
According to the Dugdale model there is a fictitious crack equal to the real crack plus
the length of plastic zone (Figure 1b). This crack is loaded by the applied loads P and
an additional uniform compressive stress equal to the yield stress of the material, av.
along the plastic zone.
The length of plastic zone c is determined from the condition that the stresses should
remain bounded at the tip of the fictitious crack. This condition is expressed by zeroing
the stress intensity factor.
3. Solution
The stress intensity factor at the tip of the fictitious crack is obtained by adding the
stress intensity factors due to the applied loads P and the uniform compression stress
av along the plastic zone.
3.1. STRESS INTENSITY FACTOR DUE TO APPLIED LOADS P
The stress intensity factor K ~P) at the tip of the fictitious crack due to applied loads P
is according to Eq. (I)
(2)
3 2. STRESS INTENSITY FACTOR DUE TO THE STRESS ov
The stress intensity factor K \ov l at the tip of the fictitious crack due to the uniform
compressive stress av along the length of plastic zone is calculated by integrating the
expression for the stress intensity factor due to a pair of concentrated loads along the
length of the plastic zone (Eq. (1)). We have
(3)
or
Plastic Zone at the Tip of a Semi-Infinite Crack According to the Dugdale 105
Model
K (Gy)-
I - (4)
3.3. SUPERPOSITION OF STRESS INTENSITY FACTORS
The stress intensity factor at the tip of the fictitious crack is obtained from Equations
(2) and (4) as
(5)
2P 40"yC 112
[21t (c+L)] 112 (21t) 112
3.4. CONDITION OF ZEROING THE STRESS INTENSITY FACTOR
The condition that the stress intensity factor be zero at the tip of the fictitious crack
expressed as
(6)
leads to
(7)
Equation (7) expresses the length of plastic zone ahead of the crack tip according to
the Dugdale model.
4. References
[I] G.C. Sih (1973) Handbook of Stress Intensity Factors, Institute of Fracture and Solid Mechanics,
Lehigh University.
[2] D.S. Dugdale ( 1960) Yielding of Steel Sheets Containing Slits, Journal. of the Mechanics and Physics
of. Solids, 8, 100-104.
Problem 24: Mode-III Crack Tip Plastic Zone According to
the Dugdale Model • •
E.E. Gdoutos
1. Problem
The stress intensity factor for an edge crack of length a in a semi-infinite solid sub-
jected to a pair of concentrated shear forces S applied to the crack at a distance b from
the solid edge (Figure I) is [I]
(I)
Determine the length of plastic zone according to the Dugdale model [2], and plot the
variation of cia versus SlaTy for different values of b/a, where Tv is the yield stress in
shear.
-------------..,
-------------~
Figure I. A crack of length a in a semi-infinite solid subjected to a pair of shear forces S.
Look in Problem 23.

108 E.E. Gdoutos
3. Solution
The stress intensity factor at the tip of the fictitious crack is obtained by adding the
stress intensity factors due to the applied shear forces Sand the uniform shear stress tv
along the plastic zone (2].
3.1. STRESS INTENSITY FACTOR DUE TO APPLIED SHEAR FORCES S
The mode-III stress intensity factor K~> at the tip of the fictitious crack of length
(a+c), where cis the length of the plastic zone, due to applied shear forces S, is accord-
ing to Equation (I)
K (S) _ 2S~7t(a+c)
III- (2)
1t~ (a+c) 2 -b 2
3.2. STRESS INTENSITY FACTOR DUE TO THE STRESS tv
The stress intensity factor K j;t > at the tip of the fictitious crack due to the uniform
shear stress tv along the length of plastic zone is calculated by integrating the expres-
sion for the stress intensity factor due to the concentrated shear forces along the length
ofthe plastic zone. We have:
<~ ) a+Jc 2ty .J 1t (a +c) 2ty ~ 1t (a +c) a-Jc dx

Kmv =- dx = __c:.....:____ -;===== (3)
a 'It~ (a+c) 2 -x 2 1t ~ (a+c) 2 -x 2
To calculate this integral we make the substitution
x = A sin t, A =a+ c (4)
We have
I dx
~A2 -x2
= JAcost dt = t =sin_1 ~
Acost A
(5)
Thus, we obtain
Mode-III Crack Tip Plastic Zone According to the Dugdale Model 109
K (<y)-
III -
2ty~7t(a+c) [sm • -1
--
X
J
a+c
1t a+c 1
(6)
2ty ~ 1t (a+ c)
(x . -J a )
1t
2- sm a+c
The stress intensity factor at the tip of the fictitious crack is obtained from Eqs (2) and
(6) as
2S~ 1t (a +c) 2ty ~ 1t (a+ c) 7t . -1 -a-)

( --sm (7)
- 7t~(a+c) 2 -b 2 1t 2 a+c
The condition that the stress intensity factor is zero at the tip of the fictitious crack
expressed as
Km= 0 (8)
leads to
(9)
or
(10)
or
s
aty
( I+ ~)
a
2
- (.!:)a 2
COS-I (-l)l+c/a
( 11)
Equation (II) expresses the length of plastic zone ahead of the crack tip according to
the Dugdale model.
110 E.E. Gdoutos
3.5. NUMERICAL RESULTS
Values of Slaty for various values of c/a for b/a = 0.1, 0.4, 0. 7 and 1.0 are shown in the
following table:
c/a S/{_atv)
b/a=0.1 b/a=0.4 b/a=0.7 b/a=I.O
.01 0.141 0.131 0.102 0.020
.03 0.248 0.230 0.183 0.060
.05 0.324 0.300 0.242 0.099
.10 0.471 0.440 0.365 0.197
.15 0.592 0.557 0.471 0.293
.20 0.700 0.663 0.571 0.388
.25 0.802 0.762 0.666 0.483
.30 0.898 0.857 0.759 0.576
.35 0.992 0.950 0.850 0.668
.40 1.082 1.040 0.940 0.759
.45 - - 1.028 0.850
.50 - - - 0.940
.55 - - - 1.029
The variation of c/a versus S/(atv) for (b/a) = 0.1, 0.4, 0. 7 and 1.0 is shown in Figure
2.
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

S{(aTv)
Figure 2. Plot of c/a versus S/(aw) for various values ofb/a.

Mode-III Crack Tip Plastic Zone According to the Dugdale Model Ill
4. References
[I] G.C. Sib (1973) Handbook of Stress Intensity Factors, Institute of Fracture and Solid Mechanics,
Lehigh University, Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, USA
Boston, London.
Problem 25: Plastic Zone at the Tip of a Penny-Shaped
Crack According to the Dugdale Model *
E.E. Gdoutos
1. Problem
The stress intensity factor for a penny-shaped crack of radius a in an infinite solid sub-
jected to a uniform stress a over a concentric circular area of radius b (b <a) (Figure l)
is given by
(l)
Determine the length of the plastic zone according to the Dugdale model [l].
Figure I. A penny-shaped crack in an infinite plate subjected to a unifonn stress a over a concentric circular
area of radius b.
114 E.E. Gdoutos
See Problem 23.
J. Solution
The stress intensity factor at the tip of the fictitious penny-shaped crack of radius (a+
c) is obtained by adding the stress intensity factors due to the applied uniform stress cr
over a concentric circular area of radius b and due to the uniform compression stress
crv along the plastic zone, where cry represents the yield stress of the material.
3.1. STRESS INTENSITY FACTOR KIA DUE TO APPLIED STRESS cr
K 1A = 2 cr [a+c-~ (a+c) 2 -b 2 J (2)

J1f(a+c)
3.2. STRESS INTENSITY FACTOR Km DUE TO UNIFORM STRESS crv IN THE

YIELD ZONE ENCLOSED BY TWO CIRCLES OF RADII A AND (a+ c)
Km is obtained by superimposing a uniform stress crv over a circular area of radius (a+
c) and a negative uniform stress crv over a circular area of radius a. We obtain
(3)
+ 2cry [a+c-~(a+c) 2 -a 2 J
Jn(a+c)
The stress intensity factor along the circumference of the fictitious crack is obtained as
(4)
The condition that the stress intensity factor be zero along the circumference of the
fictitious crack expressed as
Plastic Zone at Tip of a Penny-Shaped Crack According to the Dugdale Model 115
(5)
leads to equation
(6)
or
(7)
Equation (7) allows determination of the length c of the plastic zone as a function of
the ratio alav ofthe applied stress a to the yield stress CJy.
4. References
[I] D.S. Dugdale (1960) Yielding of Steel Sheets Containing Slits, Journal of the Mechanics and Physics
of Solids, 8, I 00-104.
3. Strain Energy Release Rate
Problem 26: Calculation of Strain Energy Release Rate
from Load - Displacement- Crack Area Equation **
MS. Konsta-Gdoutos
1. Problem
For a certain experiment, Gurney and Ngan (Proc. Roy Soc. Lond., Vol. A325, p. 207,
1971) expressed the load-displacement-crack area relation in the form
(1)
where Cm (m = 1, 2, 3, ... ) are constants.

Use this expression to calculate U and then G. Show that
G=~ (2)
2A
For a specific test the load-displacement-crack area relation of the previous problem
takes the form
u u u
2 3
p = 350--1890-- + 5250- (3)
A 312 A 2 A
where Pis in Kgf (1 Kgf= 9.807 N), u is in em and A in cm 2 • In the test a crack of
area A == 50 cm 2 starts to grow when u = 0.5 em. Determine R == Ge without resorting
to Equation (2). Then compare the value ofR with that obtained from Equation (2).
The strain energy release rate G represents the energy available for crack growth. It is
given the symbol G in honor of Griffith. G for an ideally brittle material where the
energy dissipated in plastic deformation is negligible is calculated as [1]
(4)
where W is the work performed by the applied loads, U is the elastic strain energy and
A is the crack area.
For fixed-grips loading the surface of the body on which the loads are applied remains
stationary during crack growth and, therefore, the work performed by the applied loads
vanishes. Equation (4) takes the form
(5)
Equation (5) indicates that the energy rate for crack growth is supplied by the existing
elastic strain energy of the solid. Because of this property, the symbol G is usually re-
ferred to as the "elastic strain energy release rate."
For the dead-load situation the applied loads on the surface of the solid are kept con-
stant during crack growth. Clapeyron's theorem of linear elastostatics states that the
work performed by the constant applied loads is twice the increase of elastic strain en-
ergy (oW loA= 20U I oA} Thus Equation (4) takes the form
G=-
au (6)
oA
Contrary to the case of fixed-grips, the energy required for crack growth is not supplied
by the existing elastic strain energy of the solid, but by the work performed by the ex-
ternal loads; the elastic strain energy of the solid is increased. Thus, the term "strain
energy release rate" for G in this case is physically inappropriate.
Equations (5) and (6) show that the magnitude of the elastic strain energy release rate
necessary for crack growth is the same for either fixed-grips or dead-load loading.
However, the elastic strain energy of the system decreases for fixed-grips and increases
for dead-load conditions.
3. Solution
3.1 PROOF OF EQUATION (2)
The elastic strain energy is given by

Strain Energy Release Rate from Load - Displacement - Crack Area Equation 119
U = JPdu (7)
0
where P is the load and u is the displacement.
Introducing the value ofload P given by Equation (1) we obtain
u m
U- JP~ Cmu du
- LJ A (m+l)/2
0 m
=P L
m
Cmum+l
(m + 1) A (m+l)/2
(8)
The strain energy release rate G is calculated from Equation (5) or (6) as
G = p ~ _1_ Cmum+l m+1 _!__= Pu

(9)
LJ m+1 A(m+t)/ 2 2 A 2A
m
which is Equation (2).
3.2 EXAMPLE
For the specific test for which the loafP is given by equation (3) we obtain for the elas-
tic strain energy U from Equation (7)
O.r U U2 U3
U = l350-=--1890 ~ + 5250-
2 ) du
o A A A
u2 u3
= (175 - - 630~ + 1312.5-2)
u4 Io.s
A A A o
= 43.75 A-t- 78.75 A - 312 + 82.03 A - 2 (10)
Thus, we obtain for the critical strain energy release rate Gc
or
G c = 0.01213 (kgf.cm I em 2 ) (12)
or
G = 0.01213 x 9.807 x 10-2 = 11. 9 J lm2 (13)
c (10-2)2
Equation (13) gives the value ofthe critical strain energy release rate.
The value of Gc can also be calculated from Equation (2). We obtain for the load P at
crack growth
0.5 0.5 2 0.5 3 gf

P = 350 X- -1890 X -m+ 5250 X - 2-= 2.43 K (14)
50 50 50
Equation (2) gives
2.43 X 0.5 2 2
G0 = =0.01213(kgf.cmlcm )=11.9Jim (15)
2 X 50
Note that the values ofGc given by Equations (13) and (15) are equal.
4. References
Boston, London.
Problem 27: Calculation of Strain Energy Release Rate for
Deformation Modes I, II and III**
E.E. Gdoutos
1. Problem
Show that the strain energy release rate for the deformation modes I, II and III of a
crack is given by
(I)
G 11 =2 ( - +I)
K - r W
2K + 3
0 11 (2)
(3)
Here W~o Wu, W10 are the strain energies contained in a small circle of radius r0 sur-
rounding the crack tip, K = 3 - 4v for plane strain and K = (3 - v)/( I + v) for plane
stress and vis Poisson's ratio.
See Problem 26.
3. Solution
3.I MODE-I DEFORMATION MODE
The strain energy density (strain energy per unit volume), dW/dV, for mode-l or mode-
II problems is calculated as [I]
dW
- [K
= -I- - (+a
1 +a) -2(aa-t) 2 2] (4)
dV 4~ 4 x y X y xy
122 E.E. Gdoutos
where ll is shear modulus and vis Poisson's ratio.
For crack deformation mode-l we have [I]
2KI 9
CJ X + CJ y = ,-;;:::: COS 2 (5)
-y27tr
4K 2 9
(cr + cr ) 2 = - -
1 cos 2 - (6)
x Y 27tr 2
(7)
K2 9 . 29 39
t2 =-I cos 2 - sm -cos 2 - (8)
xy 27tr 2 2 2
Thus,
K;
cr cr-t 2 =-cos 2 -9 ( I-sm
. 2 -9 sm
. 2 --sm
39 . 2 -cos
9 2 39)
-
x Y xy 27tr 2 2 2 2 2
(9)
From Equations (4), (6) and (9) we obtain
dW =...!_(K+l 4K?
dV 4Jl 4 27tr
cos 2 ~_ 2
2
K? cos 4
27tr 2
!)
KK 2 (K-l)K 2 K2
= - -1-+ I COS 9 ___ I- COS 9 (10)
16jl7tr 16jl7tr 16jl7tr
The strain energy W1 contained in a small circle of radius r0 centered at the crack tip is
given by
W1 =
_, 0
JJ
" r dW
dV r dr d9
Calculation of Strain Energy Release Rate for Deformation Mode I, II and III 123
xfr0 [KK
--
2 2
1 + (K - l)K 1
2
cos 9- -K-1 -cos 2 9] d9
I6J.11t I6J.11t I6J.11t
-X
(II)
The strain energy release rate for mode-l crack problems is [I]
G ,--K -+I K2
-I (12)
8J.1
From Equations (II) and (I2) we obtain Equation (I).
3.2 MODE-II DEFORMATION MODE
For crack deformation mode- II we have [I]
2Kn . 9
a + cr =---sin- (13)
• Y ~2n r 2
2 4K~ . 2 9
(a +a ) =--sin - (14)
x Y 21tr 2
C1 CS
K~- ( - 2 Sin
=- . 2 -9 COS -
9 COS -
39 .
- Sin
2 9
- COS
2 9 39)
-COS - (15)
x Y 2nr 2 2 2 2 2 2
Tx
2 Ki
=--COS -
2 9 ( J - 2 Stn
. -9 Sin
. -39 + Sin
. 2 -9 Stn
. 2 -39)
Y 2nr 2 2 2 2 2
Ki ( 9
=--cos 2 --2cos 2 9 . 9 . 39 9 . 2 -s1n-
-s1n-s1n-+cos 2 -s1n 9 . 2 39) (16)
21tr 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Thus
a a - t
2 Ki [ 9 .9 ( 4cos 3 -
= - - - 2s1n 2 -cos- 9 - 3cos-
9) - s1n
. 2 -cos
9 2 9
-
X y Xf 21tf 2 2 2 2 2 2
124 E.E. Gdoutos
-cos z -e + 2 cos 2 -sm-

e . e (3 sm--
. e 4 sm
. 3 -e)]
2 2 2 2 2
Kf1 ( . e e
= - - 3sm 2 -cos 2 --cos 2 - e) (17)
2nr 2 2 2
From Equations (4), (II) and (13) we obtain:
(18)
The strain energy Wu contained in a small circle of radius r0 centered at the crack tip is
given by
Wn = "J 'Jo [__ 2

KK II_- (K - I)K II2 cos9 + __ 2
3K II_cos 2 e] rdrd9
I6Jlnr 16Jlm 16Jl1tr
-lt 0
(19)
The strain energy release rate for mode-II crack problems is [I]
K +I 2
Gn =--Ku (20)
8Jl
From Equations (19) and (20) we obtain Equation (2).
3.3 MODE-III DEFORMATIOM MODE
For crack deformation mode-III we have [I]
(21)
where [I]
Calculation of Strain Energy Release Rate for Deformation Mode I, II and III 125
Km 9
T =--cos- (22)
yz ·hnr 2
Thus
dW = K~ (23)
dV 4J.lnr
The strain energy contained in a small circle of radius r0 centered at the crack tip is
given by
x ro 2
Wm = J J Km r dr d9
4J.l7tf
-lt 0
z
= J ro Km
2 2
d9 = ro Km (24)
_, 4J.l7t 2J.1
The strain energy release rate for mode-III crack problems is [I]
(25)
From Equations (24) and (25) we obtain Equation (3).
4. References
[I) E.E. Gdoutos (1993) Fracture Mechanics- An Introduction, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht,
Boston, London.
Problem 28: Compliance of a Plate with a Central Crack *
E.E. Gdoutos
l. Problem
Determine the compliance of a thin plate of thickness B, height 2h and width 2b with a
center crack of length 2a subjected to uniform tension cr normal to the crack plane
(Figure 1). Use the following expressions for the stress intensity factor
112
- t a nxa)
K 1 = cr(xa) 112(2b - (I)
xa 2b
or
(2)
Compare the results.

CT
t--2a--t
CT
t---- 2b
Figure 1. A center-cracked plate under uniform tension.

128 E.E. Gdoutos
The compliance C of a cracked plate is related to the opening-mode stress intensity

factor by [I]
Kf = EP 2 (dC) (3)
2 dA P
for generalized plane stress, and
(4)
for plane strain, where P is the load, E is the modulus of elasticity, v is Poisson's ratio
and A is crack area (A = 2aB).
J. Solution
For a thin plate it can be assumed that conditions of generalized plane stress dominate
near the crack tip. The compliance of the cracked plate is obtained by integrating
Equation (3) for both expressions of the stress intensity factor given by Equations ( l)
and (2).
3.1. COMPLIANCE FOR K1 GIVEN BY EQUATION (1)
(5)
Putting
P=2bBa, A=2aB (6)
we obtain
ac 2 (xa)
8a = EBb tan 2b (7)
and integrating with respect to a we have
C- C 0 = - 2- Jtan
EBb
3
(~)
2b
da (8)
0
where C0 is the compliance ofthe plate without a crack. C0 is given by
Compliance of a Plate with a Central Crack 129
h
Co=--. (9)
EBb
The compliance of the plate is obtained as
4
C =---log
1tEB
cos -
2b EBb
(Jta)
+ -h- . (10)
3.2. COMPLIANCE FOR K1 GIVEN BY EQUATION (2)
Integrating Equation (II) we obtain
and using the value ofC 0 from Equation (9) we have
3.3. COMPARISON OF THE TWO VALUES OF THE COMPLIANCES
We express the compliance C given by Equation ( 10) in a series form of alb using the
expansion
130 E.E. Gdoutos
x2 x4 x6 17x 8
log cos x = - - - - - - - - - (14)
e 2 12 45 2520
We obtain
or
A comparison of the values of the compliance C for various values of alb, as deter-
mined by Equations (13) and (15), is shown in the following table:
alb Eauation (13) Eauation (15)
1/2 -EB1-(~b +0.46944) -EB1-(~b +0.44094)
1/3 -EB1-(~b +0.18646) -EB1-(~b +0.18314)
l/4 -EB1-(~b +0.10107) -EB1-(~b +0.10080)
l/5 - 1-( ~ + 0.06367) -EB1-(~b +0.06389)

EB b
Note that the results for the compliance obtained by using Equations (I) and (3) of the
stress intensity factor are close to each other.
The problem suggests an easy way to determine the compliance of a cracked plate
when the stress intensity factor is known.
4. References
Boston, London.
Problem 29: Strain Energy Release Rate for a
Semi-Infinite Plate with a Crack**
E.E. Gdoutos
1. Problem
A crack of length 2a is parallel to the edge of a thin semi-infinite plate subjected to a

concentrated load P (Figure I.). Use elementary beam theory to determine the stress
intensity factor at the crack tip and comment on the stability of crack growth.
I
I
I
I
I I-- 0 --1•1...· - 0 ---t
I
I
I
I I
L--------------------~
Figure/. A ctack parallel to the edge ofa semi-infinite plate subjected to a concentrated load P.
See Problem 28.
3. Solution
Let h be the distance between the crack and the free boundary of the semi-infinite
plate. The compliance of the plate is obtained by considering the part of the plate be-
tween the crack and the free boundary as a beam of length 2a and height h. The beam
is built-in at its ends, while for very small h it can be considered as having free sup-
ports.
We will consider these two cases separately.

132 E.E. Gdoutos
3.1 BEAM WITH BUILT-IN ENDS
The deflection of a beam of length 2a with built-in ends subjected to a concentrated

load P at the middle is given by
P(2a) 3 Bh 3
U=--- 1=- (1)
192EI' 12
or
Pa 3
U=--- (2)
2EBh3
The compliance of the plate is
u a3
C=-=-- (3)
p 2EBh 3
The strain energy release rate G1 is calculated by [I]
G
I
=-• p2(ac)
2B Oa p
(4)
Introducing the value ofC from Equation (2) we obtain
G
I
=-•- p2
2B
3a2
2E Bh 3
(5)
The stress intensity factor K1 is calculated from the strain energy release rate G1 by
(6)
for conditions of plane stress, and by
(7)
for conditions of plane strain, where E is the modulus of elasticity.
From Equations (5) to (7) we obtain

Strain Energy Release Rate for a Semi-Infinite Plate with a Crack 133
K _ J3Pa
Plane stress:
I - 2Bh3/2
(8)
Plane strain:
3.2 BEAM WITH FREE ENDS
The deflection of a beam of length 2a with free ends subjected to a concentrated load P
at the middle is given by
P(2a) 3 2Pa 3
U=---=-- (9)
48EJ EBh 3
The compliance ofthe plate is
(10)
The strain energy release rate G1 is calculated from Equation (3) as
(II)
The stress intensity factor K1 is obtained from equations (5) and (6) as
K _ J3Pa
Plane stress:
I - Bhl/2
(12)
Plane strain:
Note that the stress intensity factor for the beam with free ends is twice the stress in-
tensity factor for the beam with butt-in ends.
The stability condition of crack growth is expressed by

134 E.E. Gdoutos
dK 1
dA
l > 0 : unstablefracture
< 0 : stablefracture
=
...
0 : neutraleqmhbnum
(13)
For our case we have
dKr >0 (14)

dA
which indicates that crack growth is unstable.
4. References
Boston, London.
Problem 30: Strain Energy Release Rate for the
Short Rod Specimen **
E.E. Gdoutos
1. Problem
The configuration of the "short rod" specimen for determining fracture toughness is
shown in Figure I. Use elementary beam theory to determine the strain energy release
rate G.
Figure I. Configuration of the "shon rod" specimen
See Problem 28.

136 E.E. Gdoutos
3. Solution
The two arms of the specimen may be considered to a first approximation as cantile-
vers of length a with a semi-circular cross section of diameter D and built-in ends. The
deflection of the cantilever at its end is equal to the deflection due to bending and the
deflection due to shear loading. We have for the two deflections:
3.1 DEFLECTION DUE TO BENDING
The deflection of the cantilever at the end due to bending is
. Pa 3
uB- --
- 3EI
(I)
where I is the moment of inertia of a semi-circular cross-section about an axis passing

from its centroid and parallel to its diameter. Using the parallel axes theorem of mo-
ment of inertia we have
l=~(B)
8 2
4
-~(B)
2 2
2
(~ B)
3n 2
2
= 0.006862 B 4 (2)
Thus, we obtain
(3)
3.2. DEFLECTION DUE TO SHEAR
The deflection ofthe cantilever at the end due to shear is
' 4 Q
duQ =--dx
3 j.tA '
Q=P, A=~(B)2
2 2 •
j.l
E
=--=---- (4)
2(l+v)
For v = 0.3, we have
u' =4P2(l+v) 8Q = 8.83 p_a_ (5)

Q 3 E nB 2 EB 2
The total deflection at the end of the cantilever is

Strain Energy Release Rate for the Short Rod Specimen 137
or
. _ 48.58 Pa 3 8.83 Pa _ 48.58 Pa 3 2
u- + - -2- - (•
+ 0 18 -8 2 ) (6)
E8 4 E8 E8 4 • a
The relative displacement u ofthe points of application of the loads P is
u = 2u' = 97.16 PaJ (• + 0.18 ~) (7)

E8 4 a2
3.3 CALCULATION OF COMPLIANCE
The compliance of the specimen is
C= ~= 97.164a 3 (• + 0. 18 ~) (8)
P E8 2 a
The strain energy release rate is calculated as [1]
G=-•_p2
28
(ac)
Oa p
(9)
We have
( aiJac) p = 291.48 a 2
(• + o.o6 ~J (10)
E8 4 a2
Thus we obtain
(II)
Equation ( 11) gives the strain energy release rate for the "short rod" specimen of Fig-
ure I.
4. References
[I) E.E. Gdoutos (1993) Fracture Mechanics. An Introduction, Kluwer Academic Publisher.;, Dordrecht,
Boston, London.
Problem 31: Strain Energy Release Rate
for the Blister Test**
E.E. Gdoutos
1. Problem
The configuration of the so-called "blister test" used in adhesion testing is shown in
Figure l. The adhered layer ofthickness h may be considered as a circular plate of ra-
dius a built-in at its periphery. Use elementary plate theory to show that the strain en-
ergy release rate G for a constant pressure p or a central load P is given by
(1)
2a------t
Figure 1. Configuration of the "blister test" specimen.
See Problem 28.
3. Solution
Under the applied constant pressure p or the concentrated load P the adhered layer is
detached from the base and forms a circular crack of radius a. The strain energy re-
lease rate G is calculated by (1]
140 E.E. Gdoutos
G=-
au (2)
aA
where U is the elastic strain energy and A is the crack area.
We calculate G for the two cases of applied loading.
3.1 CONSTANT PRESSURE
From plate theory we obtain for the deflection w of a circular plate of radius a sub-
jected to a uniform pressure [2]:
(3)
or
(4)
where v is Poisson's ratio.
The strain energy U stored in the plate is
a 2 2
U -- Jl-pw (2 nr )dr-
_3n(l-v )p (5)
0
2 16EB 3
Since
·s(a 2 2 2
-r) 1 2 -r)
rdr=-(a 2 3,.
6
=a- (6)
6 0 6
0
We obtain:
(7)
Introducing the value of strain energy U from Equation (7) into Equation (2) we obtain
for the strain energy release rate G, with A = na2 :
Strain Energy Release Rate for the Blister Test 141
(8)
3.2. CON CENTRA TED LOAD P
From plate theory we obtain for the deflection w of a circular plate of radius a sub-
jected to a concentrated load Pat its center [2]:
(9)
or
(10)
The deflection of the plate at its center is
2 2
w c = w (r = 0) = 3 (I - v ) Pa (II)
4x Eh 3
The strain energy U stored in the plate is equal to the work performed by the applied
concentrated load P. We have
(12)
Introducing the value of strain energy U from Equation (12) into Equation (2) we ob-
tain for the strain energy release rate
G=~=3(1-v2)p2
(13)
o(xa 2 ) 8x 2 Eh 3
4. References
Boston, London.
[2] S. Timoshenko ( 1969) Theory of Plates and Shells, McGraw-Hill College.
Problem 32: Calculation of Stress Intensity Factors Based
on Strain Energy Release Rate**
E.E. Gdoutos
1. Problem
Consider a long strip of height 2h and thickness B with a crack of length 2a subjected
to a uniform stress a along its upper and lower faces (Figure 1). For a» h use elemen-
tary analysis to determine the stress intensity factor at the crack tip.
1 t t t t t t , , t 1a
iI ....--- 20 -----~
iI l h
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~al
(a)
2a
t t
----eo~
DI
--fBI--
Figure I. (a) A long strip with a crack and (b) its idealization as two beams AB built-in at their ends.
For mode-l loading the strain energy release rate G1 is related to the stress intensity
factor by (I]
- K+l K2
G ~--- (1)
I
8!1
144 E.E. Gdoutos
where 1.1 is the shear modulus and K = 3-4v for plane strain and K = (3-v)/(l+v) for gen-
eralized plane stress.
From Equation (I) we obtain for generalized plane stress
2
GI _.!S_ (2)
-
E
and for plane strain
(3)
The strain energy release rate G1 is obtained from the elastic strain energy by [I]
0 =+au (4)
1 - aA
where the minus sign applies for constant displacement and the plus sign for constant
load during crack growth.
3. Solution
The elastic strain energy U can be calculated using elementary bending analysis of the
strip. The energy release rate G1 is then calculated from Equation (4) and the stress
intensity factor from Equation (2) or Equation (3) under plane stress or plane strain
conditions, respectively.
3.1. ELASTIC STRAIN ENERGY
Since a » h, the parts of the strip above and below the crack may be considered as two
beams AB of length 2a built-in at their ends (Figure Ib). According to elementary
beam theory the bending moment at the built-in end of the beam is
(5)
and the bending moment M for halflength of the beam is
(6)
The elastic strain energy U contained in the two beams is

Calculation of Stress Intensity Factors Based on Strain Energy Release Rate 145
(7)
with
Bh 3
1=-- (8)
12
Substituting the value of M from Equation (6) into Equation (7) and performing the
integration we obtain
(9)
3.2. STRAIN ENERGY RELEASE RATE
The strain energy release rate G1 is calculated from Equation (4) by putting
A=2aB (10)
We obtain
G =-t_au (II)
1 2B &
or
4q2a4
GI=3Eh3. (12)
3.3. STRESS INTENSITY FACTOR
The mode-l stress intensity factor is computed from Equation (2) or Equation (3) for
generalized plane stress or plane strain. We obtain
(13)
for generalized plane stress, and
(14)
for generalized plane strain.

146 E.E. Gdoutos
3.4. REMARK
The strain energy release rate approach constitutes a versatile tool for the approximate
calculation of stress intensity factors in crack problems.
4. References
[I] E.E. Gdoutos (1993) Fracture Mechanics. An Introduction, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht,
Boston, London.
Problem 33: Critical Strain Energy Release Rate **
E.E. Gdoutos
1. Problem
The following data were obtained from a series of tests conducted on precracked speci-
mens of thickness I mm.
Crack length Critical load Critical displacement

a(mm) P(kN) u(mm)
30.0 4.00 0.40
40.0 3.50 0.50
50.5 3.12 0.63
61.6 2.80 0.78
71.7 2.62 0.94
79.0 2.56 1.09
where P and u are critical load and displacement at crack growth. The load-
displacement record for all crack lengths is linearly elastic up to the critical point.
Determine the critical value of the strain energy release rate G.= R from: (a) the load-
displacement records, and (b) the compliance-crack length curve.
The strain energy release rate represents the energy available for crack growth. Two
limiting cases, the "fixed-grips" and "dead load" loading, are usually encountered in
practice. In the fixed-grips loading the surface of the continuum on which the loads are
applied is assumed to remain stationary during crack growth. In such case, the energy
rate for crack growth is supplied by the existing elastic strain energy of the solid. In the
dead-load situation the applied loads on the surface of the solid are kept constant dur-
ing crack growth. In that case, the energy required for crack growth is not supplied by
the existing elastic strain energy of the solid, but by the work performed by the external
loads; and the elastic strain energy of the solid is increased.
The load-displacement response of a body of unit thickness with an initial crack of

length a 1 that propagates to a new length a2 = a 1 + ~a under fixed-grips or dead-load
148 E.E. Gdoutos
conditions is shown in Figures 1 and 2. The elastic strain energy release rate for both
cases is given by (1]
G= (OA8)
(l)
.1.a
where (OAB) represents the area of the triangle OAB.
Eq. (l) is used for the graphical evaluation of the strain energy release rate. This equa-
tion can also be used in the case where both load and displacement change during
crack growth. In that case G is given by (Figure 3) [1]
(OAA)
G= I J , i, j =l, 2, 3, 4, 5 (2)
ai -ai
The strain energy release rate G can also be calculated by the compliance (reciprocal of
stifthess) C of a cracked plate. For a constant displacement u during crack growth G is
calculated by [I]
2
G- 1 u (dC) (3)
28 C 2 da u
where 8 is the plate thickness.
For constant load P during crack growth G is calculated by (I]
0=-1 (de)
28
p2
da P
(4)
3. Solution
The load-displacement (P-u) records up to the point of crack growth for the crack
lengths of the problem are shown in Figure 4. Note that the P-u curves are linear and
revert to the origin when the load is removed.
3.1. CALCULATION OF Gc FROM LOAD-DISPLACEMENT RECORDS
The critical value of the strain energy release rate Gc = R is calculated from Equation
(2) for the various segmental areas. When the points (Pi, ui) are joined by straight lines
we have (Figure 5)
Critical Strain Energy Release Rate 149
l I I
(OA·A·) =- P·U· +- (P·1 +P·) (u · -U·) - - P-u ·
IJ 11 2 2 J J I 2JJ
c.
u
Figure I. Load-displacement response of a crack plate for propagation of a crack ftom length a, to a2 under
"fixed grips" conditions along AB.
a..
0 c
u
Figure 2. Load displacement response of a cracked plate for propagation of a crack from length a, to a2 under
150 E.E. Gdoutos
constant load along AB
a,
I
I
I
u
Figure 3. Load-displacement response of a crack plate for propagation of a crack from an initial length a 1 to
a final length as under general load-displacement conditions along A1A2 A3A.,A5•
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2

u(mm)
Figure 4. Load-displacement (P-u) records up to the point of crack growth for different crack lengths.
a..
Figure .5. Calculation of the critical strain energy release rate G, = R from the segmental area OA; A,.
or
(5)
Equation (2) thus becomes
Gc =R = P-u--P·U·
J IJ I (6)
2B(aj-ai)
By applying Equation (6) we obtain the following values of Gc = R from the corre-
sponding segmental areas of Figure 4.
Observe that the values of Gc = R obtained from the various segmental areas are close
to each other.
3.2. CALCULATION OF Gc FROM THE COMPLIANCE-CRACK LENGTH

CURVE
For the determination of Gc from the compliance - crack length curve we first deter-
mine the following values of compliance C = uiP for the various crack lengths
152 E.E. Gdoutos
a(mm) 30.0 40.0 50.5 61.6 71.7 79.0

C(xto· 7~1N) 1.00 1.43 2.02 2.79 3.59 4.26
The variation of C versus a is shown in Figure 6. Gc = R is then determined by applica-

tion of Equation 4. We have for the crack oflength a 1 = 30 mm
P=4k
dC (1.43 -1.00) x 10-7 m IN

da 10x10-3 m
and
Gc = R = (4 x I0 3 ) 2 N 2 x (4.3 x 10---{iN-1 ) = 34 _4 kJ /m 2 •
2 x 10-3 m
For the crack lengths a2, a3, a4 and a 5, dC/da can be determined as the mean value of
the left and right derivatives of C. For example, for the crack length a = 50.5 mm, we
have
P = 3.12 kN
(2.02- 1.43) x 10-7 m IN

10.5 X IQ-3 m
(de)-
da r
=
(2.77-2.02)
11.1 X
X 10-7 m/N
I0-3 m
= 6.8 X 10
-6
N
-1
(
dC)= (5.6+6.8)) X 10---{i 6 _2 x 10 _6 N_ 1
da 2
and
Using this procedure we obtain the following values ofGc= Rat various crack lengths
79.0
.··-0·- _. ___ ------
30.0
Ae
~
E
'io 2
..-
)(
60 80
a(mrn)
Figure 6. Variation ofthe compliance C versus crack length a.
3.3. COMPARISON OF THE RESULTS
From the results of the calculation of the values of critical strain energy release rate for
different crack lengths from the load-displacement records and the compliance-crack
length curve we observe that both groups of results are close to each other.
3.4. FRACTURE CRITERION
Unstable crack growth occurs when the strain energy release rate G, which represents
the energy pumped into the fracture zone from the elastic bulk of the solid, becomes
equal to the energy required for the creation of a unit area of new material R = G 0 • The
fracture condition is
4. References
Boston, London.
4. Critical Stress Intensity Factor Fracture
Criterion
Problem 34: Experimental Determination of Critical Stress
Intensity Factor K1 **
E.E. Gdoutos
1. Problem
A three-point bend specimen (Figure 1) was tested according to the ASTME399 proce-
dure. The 0.2 per cent offset yield stress of the materials is crv =1200 MPa and the
modulus of elasticity is E = 210 GPa. The specimen was tested at a loading rate of 100
kN/min and the load-displacement record was obtained. A chevron starter notch was
machined and the specimen was subjected to 30,000 cycles at P max = 45 kN and Pmin=
0. The final stage of fatigue crack growth was conducted for 50,000 cycles at Pmax = 30
kN and Pmin = 0. The specimen dimensions were measured as
S = 30 em, W = 8 em, B = 4 em
a1 = 3.996 em
a2 =4.007 em
a3 = 3.997 em
a (surface)= 3.915 em
a (surface)= 3.952 em.
where Sis the distance between the points of support ofthe beam of Figure 1, ah a3 are
the crack lengths measured at the midway between the center and the end of the crack
front, a2 is the crack length measured at the center of the crack front and a( surface) is
the crack length measured on each surface of the specimen (Figure 2).
Figure 1. Three-point bend specimen according to ASTM standards.

156 E.E. Gdoutos
The maximum load and the secant load of the test record were measures as Pmax = 86
kN and PQ = 80 kN.
Determine Kic·
1
)1:
1
Ia I (b)
Figure 2. Chevron notch.
The critical value of stress intensity factor K1c under plane strain conditions is a mate-
rial property independent of the specimen thickness. The larger the value of K~c, the
larger the resistance of the material to crack propagation. For the experimental deter-
mination of K1c special requirements must be fulfilled to obtain reproducible values of
K1c under conditions of maximum constraint around the crack tip. Furthermore, the
size of plastic zone accompanying the crack tip must be very small relative to the
specimen thickness and the Krdominant region. The procedure for measuring K1c has
been standardized by the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) [1] to
meet these requirements in small specimens that can easily be tested in the laboratory.
r
The salient points of the ASTM standard are:
i. B, a, w ~ 2.5 ( ~~ (1)
where B is the specimen thickness, a is the crack length, W is the specimen width and
crv is the yield stress.
Experimental Determination of Critical Stress Intensity Factor Kk 157
ii. The surface crack length should not differ from the average length by more than 10
per cent.
iii. The maximum stress intensity factor to which the specimen is subjected during the
process of fatigue crack growth must not exceed 60 per cent ofK1c, and the last 2.5
per cent of the crack length should be loaded at a maximum K1 such that
K 1 IE <.0.002Fn (0.32xl 0-3 rm).
iv. For a valid test
(2)
where Pmax is the maximum load the specimen sustains and PQ is a load determined
by a geometrical construction on the test record.
v. To specimen should be loaded at a rate such that the rate of increase of stress inten-
sity factor K1 is within the range 0.55-2.75 MPa m~/S.
3. Solution
A conditional value KQ of Kk is first determined and then it is checked if KQ satisfies

the above conditions.
3.1. CALCULATION OF A CONDITIONAL VALUE KQ
We have:
3.996+4.007+3.997 = 4 _0 em (3)
3
KQ is determined as [I]
To facilitate calculation of Ko. values of f(a/W) are tabulated in Table lfor specific
values ofa/W, according to ASTM.
!58 E.E. Gdoutos
Table I. Values of Qa/W) for various values of a/W
aJW f{aJW) aJW f{aJW)

0.450 2.29 0.500 2.66
0.455 2.32 0.505 2.70
0.460 2.35 0.510 2.75
0.465 2.39 0.515 2.79
0.470 2.43 0.520 2.84
0.475 2.46 0.525 2.89
0.480 2.50 0.530 2.94
0.485 2.54 0.535 2.99
0.490 2.58 0.540 3.04
0.495 2.62 0.545 3.09
0.550 3.14
For our case (a/W) = 4/8 = 0.5. Thus, f(a/W) = 2.66.

We have from Equation (4)
K - (80kN) x (0. 3m) x 2.66 = 70.5 MParrn. (6)

0 - (0.04m) x (0.08m) 312
This is a conditional value ofK10.
3.2. SATISFACTION OF TESTS REQUIREMENTS
For a valid test and in order the conditional value KQ is the critical stress intensity fac-
tor K1c we have to make sure that the above conditions are satisfied. We have:
a-a (surface) 4.0-3.915

0.02 < 0.1 (7)
a 4.0
a- a (surface) 4.0-3.915
0.012 < 0.1 (8)
a 4.0
and, therefore, condition ii above is satisfied.
From the values ofPQ and Pmax, we obtain

Experimental Determination of Critical Stress Intensity Factor K~c; 159
p max = 86 kN = 1.075 < 1.10 (9)

Po 80kN
and, therefore, condition iv above is satisfied.
The specimen loading rate AK11At is calculated as
(10)
or
AK 1 = (100 kN 160 s) x (0.3 m) x 2.66 = 1. 47 MPa,lm" 1s. (1 1)

At (0.04 m) x (0.08 m) 312
Thus we have
AK 1 1
0.55 < - - < 2.75 MPavm Is. (12)
At
and, therefore, the condition v above is satisfied.
From the calculated value of Ko we obtain
B, a, W > 2.5(Ko )
2
=2.5( 70·5 MPa,lm") 2 =0.86x 10-2 m. (13)
Gy 1200MPa
and, therefore, the condition i above is satisfied.
The maximum stress intensity factor during the first stage of fatigue growth of pre-
crack is
(45 kN) x (0.3 m) 1
Kr(max) = 312 x 2.66 =39.6 MPavm (14)
(0.04 m) x (0.08 m)
so that
Kf(max) < 0.6 Ko. ( 15)
During the final stage of fatigue growth of precrack K 1 is

160 E.E. Gdoutos
K = (30 kN) x (0. 3 m) x 2.66 = 26.4 MPa.Jrr; (16)

1 (0.04 m) x (0.08 m) 312
and
!S_ = 26 .4 MPa..{r;;- 0.13 x 10-3 .Jrr; < 0.32 X 10-3 rrn. (17)
E 210 GPa
Thus, the condition iii above is satisfied.
3.3. CALCULATION OF K1c
Since all the conditions according to the ASTM standard for a valid K1c test are satis-
fied the conditional value KQ is equal to KJc. We have
K1c = KQ =70.5MParrn. (18)
4. References
[I] Standard Test Method for Plane-Strain Fracture Toughness of Metallic Materials, Annual Book of ASTM
Standards, Part 10, E399-81, American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, pp. 592-621
(1981).
Problem 35: Experimental Determination of Kh: **
E.E. Gdoutos
1. Problem
What is the maximum Kk value that may be determined on a 20 mm thick plate with:
cry= 500 MPa, E = 210 GPa and v = 0.3 (a) according to ASTM standard E399 for
estimating K1c directly and (b) according to ASTM standard E813-87 for estimating Jic
and then calculating K~c.
According to ASTM standard E399 [I) for the experimental determination of the criti-
cal stress intensity factor K1., the minimum characteristic specimen dimensions, in-
cluding the specimen thickness B, the crack length a and the specimen width W, must
be fifty times greater than the radius of the plane strain plastic zone at fracture. This
conditions implies that
2
( Klc )
B, a, W ~ 2.5 cry (I)
where cry is the yield stress of the material.
According to ASTM standard E813 [2) for J-integral dominance conditions for a bend
specimen the following condition should be satisfied
Bcr
_Y_>25 (2)
J
3. Solution
3.1 ACCORDING TO ASTM E399
From Equation (I) we have for the maximum value (Kk)max ofK1c
(K 1c)max= cry &= 500MPa

20xl0-3 m
2.5
r
= 44.7 MPa-vm (3)
162 E.E. Gdoutos
3.2 ACCORDING TO ASTM E813
From Equation (2) we have for the maximum value (K,.}max ofK1c
B = 25J IC = 25 (1- v 2 )(K 10 )~ax (4)

ay ayE
or
( ) BEay (20 x 10-3 m) x (210 x 10 3 MPa) x (500 MPa)

Klcmax= 25 (l-v2) 25 (1- 0.3 2 )
= 303.8 MPa (5)
From Equations (3) and (5) we observe that the maximum value of K"' determined ac-
cording to ASTM E813-87 is more than six times higher than that determined accord-
ing to ASTM E 399.
4. References
[I] Standard Test Method for Plane Strain Fracture Toughness of Metallic Materials, Annual book of ASTM
Standards, Part 10, E 399-81, American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, pp. 592-621
(1981).
[2] Standard Test Method for Jk, A Measure of Fracture Toughness, Annual book ofASTM Standards, Part 10,
E 813-87, American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, pp. 968-990 ( 1987).
Problem 36: Crack Stability**
E.E. Gdoutos
1. Problem
Determine the stability condition for
a. A double cantilever beam (DCB) subjected to an end load (Figure 1), and
b. A center cracked plate (Figure 2)
in a soft (load-controlled) or a hard (displacement-controlled) testing machine
p
a b
Figure 1. A double cantilever beam subjected to an end load P.
Study of crack stability usually takes place when the specimen is loaded in hard (dis-
placement-controlled) or soft (load-controlled) testing machines. We have [1]
(1)
164 E.E.Gdoutos
(j
1-2a-1
1---- 2b
Figure 2. A center,;racked plate under uniform tension.
where P is the load, u is the load-point displacement, A is the crack area and R is the
crack growth resistance.
For stability in soft testing machines (dP/P > 0) Equation (I) gives,
d
..!_ dR > dA 2
2
(u)P (2)
R dA- __<l_ (-~)
dA P
or
d 2C
..!_ dR >
dA 2 (3)
R dA- dC
dA
while for stability in hard testing machines (du/u > 0) Equation (I) gives
d2 (p)
..!_ dR > dA 2 u
(4)
R dA - _!_(_!'_) .
dA u
or
Crack Stability 165
d l)
2
_!_ dR > dA C
(
(5)
R dA- ~(_!_)
dA C
where C = u/P is the compliance ofthe cracked plate.
Equations (2), (3) and (4), (5) define the stability conditions in soft and hard testing
machines. The right-hand size of Equations (2), (3) and (4), (5) depends on the geome-
try ofthe specimen and is called the geometry stability factor of the specimen.
3. Solution
To determine the stability condition for the two cases under consideration, we first cal-
culate the compliance of the system and then apply Equation (3) for load-controlled or
Equation (5) for displacement-controlled conditions. We study the two cases sepa-
rately.
3.1. CANTILEVER BEAM (DCB)
3.1.1. Compliance
The two arms of the DCB may be considered to a first approximation as cantilevers
with zero rotation at their ends. According to elementary beam theory the deflection of
each cantilever at its end is.
Bh 3
1=- (6)
12
where 11 = l or 11 = 1 - v2 for generalized plane stress or plane strain, respectively.
The relative displacement u of the points of application ofthe loads Pis
u = 2u' = 211Pal. (7)

3EI
The compliance of the DCB is
C=~=211aJ (8)
P 3EI
From Equation (8) we obtain

166 E.E.Gdoutos
dC 3Tta 2 d 2C 3Tta
(9)
dA = 8EB 2 h 3 ' dA 2 = 4EB 3 h 3 •
3.1.2 ii. Soft machine (Load-Controlled)

For stability in a soft (load-controlled) testing machine Equation (3) becomes
1 dR 2
--<?:-. (10)
R dA A
3.1.3. Hard machine (Displacement-controlled)

From Equation ( 1) we obtain
(ll)
For stability in a hard (displacement-controlled) testing machine Equation (5) becomes
1 dR 4
--~--. (12)
R dA A
3.1.4 Remark
Equations (10) and (12) express the stability conditions in a soft or a hard testing ma-
chine. Note that Equation (2) is always satisfied for constant R. Equations (10) and
( 12) show that stability is achieved more easily with a hard than with a soft testing
machine.
3.2. CENTER-CRACKED PLATE
3.2.1. Compliance
The compliance of the cracked plate is given by (Problem 28)
4
C=---logcos
xEB
-
2b
(1ta) +EBb
-h - (13)
3.2.2 ii. Soft machine (load-controlled)

dC 2
dA = EB 2 b tan
(1ta)
2b (14)
and
Crack Stability 167
(15)
Thus, we obtain
(16)
From Equation (3) we obtain for the stability condition:
J_ dR ~~esc(~) (17)
R dA Bb b
3.2.3. Hard machine (displacement-controlled)

From Equation ( 13) we have
(18)
and
( 19)
Thus we obtain
d 2 C- 1 IdA 2 =~esc(~)
lo cos
g
(lt
2b
a)+ 2 sin 2 (xa)
2b (20)
dC 1 IdA Bb b Iogcos (xa)
-
2b
From Equation (5) we obtain for the stability condition
log cos (xa)+2sin2(xa)

I dR 1t ( 1t a ) 2b 2b
--~-esc- (21)
R dA Bb b Iogcos (xa)
-
2b
168 E.E.Gdoutos
4. References
[I] E.E. Gdoutos (1993) Fracture Mechanics - An Introduction, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht,
Boston, London.
Problem 37: Stable Crack Growth Based on the
Resistance Curve Method**
MS. Konsta-Gdoutos
1. Problem
The crack growth resistance curve of a certain material at a thickness 2 mm is ex-

pressed by
Consider a center cracked plate of width 10 em and thickness 2 mm with a crack of

length 4 em. Calculate the length of stable crack growth, the critical crack length, and
the critical stress at instability.
l. Useful Information
The crack growth resistance curve, orR-curve, method is a one-parameter method for
the study of fracture in situations where small, slow, stable crack growth -usually ac-
companied by inelastic deformation - is observed before global instability. Under such
circumstances, fracture resistance of thin specimens is represented by a resistance
curve, rather than a single resistance parameter.
During stable crack growth the following conditions are satisfied
G~R (2)
OG <oR (3)
oA- aA
The equal sign in Relations (2) and (3) corresponds to the critical conditions at the
beginning of instability.
3. Solution
The stable crack growth, the critical crack length and the critical stress at instability
are calculated by solving the system of two equations defined by the equal sign of Rela-
tions (2) and (3 ).
3.1. CRACK GROWTH RESISTANCE
The crack growth resistance curve given by Equation (I) can be put in the form
K fc I r::--;:--
R=-+--ya-a0 (4)
E 2
where a is half the current crack length and a 0 is half the initial crack length
Equation (4) becomes
95 2 I
R= + -.Ja- 0.02
2IOxl0 3 2
or
R = 0.043 + o.5.Ja- 0.02 (5)
3.2 STRAIN ENERGY RELEASE RATE
The thickness of the plate is small with respect to its other dimensions, and, therefore,
it can be assumed that conditions of generalized plane stress dominate. Under plane
stress conditions the strain energy release rate G is given by [I]
G= Kf (6)
E
The stress intensity factor K1 for a center cracked plate with crack length 2a and width
2b subjected to a uniform tension perpendicular to the crack is given by [I]
Stable Crack Growth Based on the Resistance Curve Method 171
which for b = 0.05 m becomes

K 1 = o.J;; 6.o + 2.56 a-115.2 a 2 + 12184 a 3 ) (8)
Thus, G is given by
cr 2 xa/. \2
G = - - ~.0 + 2.56a-115.2 a 2 + 12184a 3 1 (9)
E
3.3 CONDITIONS AT CRACK INSTABILITY
The critical conditions at crack instability are given by the equal sign of Relations (2)
and (3).
cr 2 xa/. \2
--\1.0 + 2.56a-115.2 a 2 + 12184a 3 1 = 0.043 + O.S~a- 0.02 (10)
E
ao aR ( 11)
aa aa
(12)
or
oG 2a...{;;. [
-=---Ll.0+2.56a-115.2a +12184a
2 1] x
aa E
(13)
x cr.[; [.!..2 a -o.s + I2 x 2.56 a o.s - ~2 x 115.2 a 1.s + '!2.... x 12184 a 2·5 ]
OR= 0.25 (a- 0.02)-o.s (14)

aa
From Equations (II), (13) and (14) we have
cr2 7t
0.25 (a- 0.02)-0·5 =- - (1.0 + 2.56 a -ll5.2 a 2 + 12184 a 3 ) x
E
(15)
x (1.0 + 7.68 a- 576 a2 + 85288 a3 )
By eliminating~ from Equations (10) and (15) we obtain
2 3
O.l7Z(a- 0.02)o.s + 2 (a- 0.0 2) = a(l.0+2.56a-115.2a +12184a) (1 6 )
1.0 + 7.68 a-576 a 2 + 85288 a 3
Equation (16) is solved numerically to obtain
a= ac = 0.02256 m (17)
Then, from Equation ( 10) we obtain
2
cr 7t 0.02256 x l.l4 2 = 0.068 (18)
E
or
cr = <J 0 =394.83 MPa (19)
Equation (19) gives the critical stress at termination of stable crack growth and initia-
tion of instability. At this point the critical crack length is
2ac = 4.512 em (20)
The length of stable crack growth is
2 (ac -a 0 ) = 4.512-4 = 0.512 em (21)
4. References
[I) E.E. Gdoutos ( 1993) Fracture Mechanics - An Introduction, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordtecht,
Boston, London.
Problem 38: Three-Point Bending Test in Brittle
Materials **
A. Carpinteri, B. Chiaia and P. Cornetti
1. Problem
Consider a standard Three-Point Bending (TPB) test carried out on a pre-notched

specimen of brittle polymeric material (PMMA). The test geometry is shown in Figure
I, (with dimensions in mm):
r = 23
8 ~------------/ = 1 6
t
Figure I. Test geometry.
The test is carried out under displacement-control, with a sufficiently stiff loading
machine. The maximum deflection oat midspan is measured to be equal to 0.49 mm .
At that point, the specimen is unloaded. After complete unloading, the final crack length
(averaged along the width 1) results to be equal to a1 = 32.8mm. The experimental load
displacement diagram (P-o ) is shown in Figure 2:
Parallel to the TPB test, uniaxial tensile tests have been carried out on prismatic
specimens. They provided the following characteristic material parameters: uniaxial
tensile strength:
uniaxial tensile strength: ~=57 MPa;

longitudinal elastic modulus: E =2822 MPa;
Poisson's ratio: v = 0.4.
174 A. Carpinteri, et al
12
p k I I
10
• ...
2
0
0 0.2 ().A) o.a 1.0
mm)
Figure 2. Load-displacement diagram.
a. Describe the TPB test under consideration, taking into account the stability aspects
and the linearity of the fracture process. Is Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics
(LEFM) valid in this case?
b. Evaluate, from the P..() diagram, the total work of fracture consumed during the
process, the recovered elastic strain energy after unloading, and the fracture energy
GF ofthe material.
c. Calculate the material fracture toughness, K1c , in the case of plane stress and plane
strain. Evaluate the static and energy brittleness numbers by assuming, as the
characteristic size, the depth h of the beam. Give an estimate of the ultimate strain,
Eu
d. Compare the maximum load, Pmax• measured in the experiment with the maximum
load as predicted by LEFM. Suggestion: use the following expression for the stress-
intensity factor K1 (1] :
K1 =~f(
th3 12
00 )=cr~ f(~)
h h ,
(the normal stress cr can be evaluated according to the classical beam bending theory).
Three-Point Bending Test in Brittle Materials 175
e. Estimate the characteristic size ofthe plastic zone at the tip of the crack, and give a
comment on its role in the process.
f. Compare the maximum load Pmax measured in the experiment with the maximum
load as predicted by the Theory of Plasticity. Assume a perfectly-plastic hinge
behaviour, by considering the initial ligament (h- aO).
2. Solution
a. The behaviour of the specimen is brittle, as can be deduced from the load
displacement diagram. The span/depth ratio of the specimen is equal to 4, and the
notch depth is h/2. Therefore, crack propagation is certainly driven by the stress
intensity factor at the crack tip. Almost no residual deformation is present after
unloading, and LEFM predictions should be reliable.
b.
Work of fracture WF: Area P-o (numerical integration): 68.7Nmm;
Recovered elastic strain energy: 44.1 Nmm;
Extension of the broken area M = (ar -a0)t: 271.4 mm2
Fracture energy Qr;=WF/M= 253 N/m.
c.
K 1c (plane stress)= ~GFE = 27N I mm 312 = 0.845x l0 6 N /m 312 =0.845MPa.J;',
K 1c {plane stress)=~ (1-v

GF ~ = 30 N I mm 312 = 0.92 x 106 N I m312 =0.92 MPa.J;',
)
f.-
static brittleness numbers s = K 1 = 0.0723
f,-vh
energy brittleness numbers s E = ~ = 1.06 x 1o- 4 ,

f,h
ultimate strain &0 = S~ = 2.02 X 10-2 ,

s
d.
S.I.F.:a 0 /h=0.5; f(0.5)=1.41; K 1 =1.41G~xa 0 ,
ultimate stress:K 1 = K 1c ~aLEFM = K~ =2.32 N/mm 2 ,

1.41 na 0
. • K;c
ultimate stress: K 1 = K 1c ~ aLEFM = r=.- = 2.53 N /mm 2 ,
1.41 "/1ta 0
2 th 2
max load: Pmax =-au-= 374 N (plane stress) or 408 N (plane strain).
3 l
Comparing these values with the measured maximum load Pmax ':" 420N, we can
conclude that the plane strain condition is a better assumption than the plane stress
one.
e. An estimate of the plastic zone size ape at incipient propagation can be made
through the following expression:
The extension ofthe plastic zone is considerably smaller than the size of the notch.
This further confirms that LEFM assumptions are correct.
f. The maximum load predicted by the Theory of Plasticity can be calculated as:
3.44kN.
This value is eight times larger than the experimental one (Pmax ""· 420N), further
confirming the inherent brittleness of the considered specimen.
3. References
[I] G. C. Sib (1973) Handbook ofStress Intensity Factors, Institute of Fracture and Solid Mechanics,
Problem 39: Three-Point Bending Test in Quasi Brittle
Materials * *
1. Problem
Consider a Three-Point Bending (TPB) test carried out on a pre-notched specimen of

plain concrete, with standard granulometry (dmax = 16mm). The test geometry is shown
in Figure I (with dimensions in mm):
t = 100
' E - - - - - - ( = 150
Figure /. Test geometry.
The test, carried out by displacement-control with a sufficiently stiff loading machine,
has been performed up to the complete fracture of the specimen. The experimental load
displacement diagram (P-o) is shown in Figure 2:
Parallel to the TPB test, splitting tests have been carried out according to ASTM C496
standards. They provided the following characteristic material parameters:
indirect tensile strength: f, = 3.0 MPa;
longitudinal elastic modulus: E= 27 GPa.

p (k )
:11.RIB I
I
Figure 2. Load-displacement diagram.
a. Describe the TPB test under consideration, taking into account the stability aspects
and the nonlinearity of the fracture process. Is Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics
(LEFM) valid in this case?
b. Evaluate the maximum load Pmax as predicted by the Theory of Plasticity. Assume
a perfectly-plastic hinge behaviour, by considering the initial ligament (h-ao).
Consider the case of limit yield stress in compression equal to fc = fb and the case
offc= lOt;.
c. Evaluate the maximum load Pmax as predicted by LEFM.
i. evaluate, from the P-& diagram, the total work of fracture consumed during the
process and the fracture energy GF ofthe material (suggestion: approximate the
area in the diagram by means of triangles);
ii. calculate the material facture toughness K1c, by assuming plane stress
conditions;
iii. Evaluate the maximum load Pmax as predicted by LEFM, by using the
following expression for the stress-intensity factor K1 (N/mm 312):
p
K 1 =3.984-
h/h
d. Compare the maximum load Pmax measured in the experiment with the maximum
loads as predicted by LEFM and Theory of Plasticity. Give a comment on this
comparison.
Three-Point Bending Test in Quasi Brittle Materials 179
e. Give an estimate of the critical crack opening displacement we, e.g. according to a
linear cohesive law. Compare this value with the size ape ofthe plastic zone.
f. Calculate Hillerborg's characteristic length and compare it with the maximum
aggregate size. Evaluate the static and energy brittleness numbers, by assuming the
beam depth has the characteristic size. Give an estimate of the ultimate strain, &u.
2. Solution
a. The behaviour of the specimen is quasi-brittle, as can be deduced from the load
displacement diagram. After the initial elastic stage, nonlinearities are evidenced,
originated by microcracking. After the peak load, strain localization occurs, and the
so-called softening regime comes into play. A considerable quantity of energy is
dissipated, during this stage, in the developing macrocracks. This gives the material
a certain amount of ductility, as compared with perfectly brittle materials. For these
reasons, LEFM predictions should be unreliable in this case.
b. If fc = J,, the maximum load predicted by the Theory of Plasticity can be simply
calculated as:
p = f t(h -a 0 ) 2
max t e 16 kN.
If fc = lOt;, the distance x of the plastic neutral axis from the upper edge can be
found from the condition N = 0:
10f1x=(200-x}f1 -+x=l8.1 mm
Therefore, the maximum load becomes:
p = 4f1(200- x)t(IOO) 29 kN.

max e
c.
i. WorkoffractureWF: AreaP-6:=1620Nmm;
Extension ofthe broken area~ = (ar ao) t = 20 000 mm 2;
Fracture energy GF= WF/M =81 N/m.
ii.
K 1c =~GFE =47 N/mm 312 =1.48xi06 N/m 312 = 1.48 NPa.J;;.
iii. The ultimate load can be obtained as:

Kict..fh
Pmax = 20.4 kN.
3.984
d. The values provided by the Theory of Plasticity are both evidently larger than the
experimental one (Pmax ltl llkN). This means that the phenomenon is not governed
by yielding. Also the value obtained by applying LEFM is considerably larger than
the measured one. This is due to the peculiar fracture process occurring ahead of
the crack tip, controlled by cohesive stresses which are much smaller than the
singular stresses predicted by linear elasticity.
e. If the cohesive law were linear, the value ofthe critical crack opening displacement
could be simply calculated as:
2GF
W0 =--=0.054mm.
f•
An estimate of the plastic zone size ape at incipient propagation can be made
through the following expression:
The extension of the plastic zone in this case is comparable with the size of the
notch. This implies that a wide process zone comes into play ahead of the crack tip,
and that LEFM assumptions are not valid.
f. Hillerborg's characteristic length is equal to:
This value represents a threshold size to a perfectly brittle behaviour. It is one order
of magnitude larger than the maximum aggregate size, therefore, we conclude that
perfectly brittle behaviour occurs only for very large beams, i.e., concrete exhibits
relevant ductility in the small sizes range. Another confirmation comes from the
non-dimensional brittleness numbers, which can be calculated according to:
Static brittleness number s = K 1~ =0.901,

f 1 -vh
Energy brittleness number &E =~ =9.01 x 10-s,

fth
Three-Point Bending Test in Quasi Brittle Materials 181
Ultimate strain Eu = s~ =1.11x10- 4 .

s
3. References
[I] G.C. Sib (1973) Handbook of Stress Intensity Factors, Institute of Fracture and Solid Mechanics,
Problem 40: Double-Cantilever Beam Test in Brittle
Materials * *
1. Problem
Consider a Double-Cantilever Beam (DCB) specimen, made of a brittle polymeric

material (PMMA) (Figure 1). Under the hypothesis of sufficient slenderness of the beam
(ao » h), the classical theory of cantilever beams in bending can be adopted (u = 2Pa3/
3EI, I= th 3/12).
u t ______ _ 2h=JO
':' '''
: :
'
'' ''
' ''
illiE
a=IOO : / 0 =100 ~
Figure 1. Test geometry.
Parallel to the DCB test, uniaxial tensile tests have been carried out. They provided the
following characteristic material parameters:
uniaxial tensile strength: t;= 57 MPa;

longitudinal elastic modulus: E=2800 MPa.
fracture energy Gr= 280N/m
a. Calculate the strain energy release rate G1 for the double-cantilever beam specimen
of Fig. I. Evaluate the stress-intensity factor K1 by means of Irwin's relation, by
assuming plane stress conditions. Then, calculate the ultimate load Pmax according to
Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics.
b. Give an estimate of the size ape of the plastic zone at incipient propagation and
evaluate the static and energy brittleness numbers, by assuming the beam depth 2h
as the characteristic size. Give then an estimate ofthe ultimate strain, Eu.
c. Calculate the maximum compliance ([L][Fr') of the loading machine in order to
obtain stable crack propagation in a displacement-controlled test. Assume plane
stress conditions and simple Griffith-like behaviour.
2. Solution
a. The strain energy release rate (or crack driving force) G1 can be determined by
means of the compliance method. We can write:
G _(d'l') _ ( dq>)
I- dA P=constant - - dA u=cosntant
where dA = t da is the new crack surface, q> is the elastic strain energy and ljl is the
complementary strain energy. In the case of linear elasticity:
where C = u/P is the compliance. By using the classical beam theory, we obtain:
2a 3
C=-
2EI
Therefore, the crack driving force can be computed as:
G-(d"')
I- dA P=constant
By applying Irwin's relation, the stress-intensity factor can be calculated as:
K _ ~G E -~- 2..f3Pa
1- ...;urr.- .Jit- thJh .
From the experimentally determined fracture energy, the (plane-stress) material

toughness is obtained:
Double-Cantilever Beam Test in Brittle Materials 185
K 1c =JGFE =27.6N/mm 312 =0.885xl0 6 N/m 312 =0.885MPa.J;;:;-.
By using the above expression of the stress-intensity factor, we obtain Pmax as:
hft;t
Pmax =~K 1c =93.9N.
2v3 a
b. An estimate of the plastic zone size ape can be made through the following
expression:
ape
I Kic
= - -2-=0.0768mm.
1t ft
The extension of the plastic zone is considerably smaller than the size of the notch.
This confirms that LEFM assumptions are correct. The brittleness numbers can be
determined as:
Static brittleness numbers s = K~ = 0.089

f 1 v2h
Energy brittleness numbers SE = Gp = 1.63 X I o- 4

ft2h
Finally, an estimate of the ultimate strain can be made by:
Ultimate strain Eu = s~ = 2.04 X I o- 2

s
c. The maximum compliance of the loading machine can be calculated according

to the scheme in Figure 2, where C is the compliance of the specimen and Cm is
the compliance of the testing machine. Notice that the two contributions are in
series.
Assuming the global displacement u,., as the controlling parameter, the DCB test is
stable, by definition, if:
( ~~ )"~ <0, i.e., ( dGI) < 0

da "~
u.,il j
u r·------
C11,..-2~
tP
~ u
Figure 2. Scheme for the global compliance of the system.
We can set the problem as if it were load-controlled. Then we impose that P is a

function of the crack extension a, such that u., is constant. Therefore:
u~ = u + CmP = u(a, P(a)) + Cm P(a)

If u,., is kept constant, we have:
du., =O-->(du) +(du) dP +Cm dP =O,

da da p dP a da da
which provides:
(
dP) = (~)P
da u~ (du) +C
dP a m
Further, since G1 = G1 (a, P(a)), we obtain:

Double-Cantilever Beam Test in Brittle Materials 187
Finally, recalling the expression of the crack driving force which has been obtained
in the first point, the condition for stable crack propagation reads as:
( dGI) =r2aP
dA u tEl
2
_
2
2Pa 2a P[
tEl EI
2
l
2a 3
l1<0,
~ c m +3EI
-
which yields:
In conclusion, the maximum compliance of the testing machine is equal to:
(Cm)max = 84.66 mm/kN
This value is very large, which means that the double-cantilever beam can be
considered a very stable testing geometry under displacement control.
3. References
[I) G. C. Sih ( 1973) Handbook of Stress Intensity Factors, Institute of Fracture and Solid Mechanics, Lehigh
University, Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, USA
Problem 41: Design of a Pressure Vessel*
E.E. Gdoutos
1. Problem
A cylindrical pressure vessel with closed ends has a radius R = 1 m and thickness t =
40 mm and is subjected to internal pressure p. The vessel must be designed safely
against failure by yielding (according to the von Mises yield criterion) and fracture.
Three steels with the following values of yield stress cry and fracture toughness K,c are
available for constructing the vessel.
Steel cry (MPa)

A: 4340 860 100
B: 4335 1300 70
C: 350 Maraging 1550 55
Fracture of the vessel is caused by a long axial surface crack of depth a. The vessel
should be designed with a factor of safety S = 2 against yielding and fracture. For each
steel we have:
(a) Plot the maximum permissible pressure Pc versus crack depth ac;
(b) Calculate the maximum permissible crack depth ac for an operating pressure
p= 12 MPa;
(c) Calculate the failure pressure Pc for a minimum detectable crack depth
a= I mm.
2. Solution
Design of the pressure vessel necessitates analysis of the stress field coupled with a
failure criterion. As such, the von Mises yield criterion will be used for design against
failure by yielding and the critical stress intensity factor criterion will be used for de-
sign against unstable crack growth.
2.1 STRESS FIELD

A material element of the vessel is subjected to a hoop cr6 and a longitudinal cr. stress
given by (see Problem 13)
190 E.E. Gdoutos
pR pR
cra = - cr z =2t-. (I)
t
2.2 FAILURE BY YIELDING
The von Mises yield criterion for a two-dimensional stress field with principal stresses
cr6 and crz takes the form
(2)
From Equations (I) and (2) we obtain
(3)
or
(4)
Equation (4) gives the maximum pressure the vessel can withstand without failure by
yielding. For the three steels available we obtain
__________ pc_JM Pa) ------- .. _

A B C
19.9 30.0 35.8
2.3 FAILURE BY UNSTABLE CRACK GROWTH
Consider a long axial surface crack of depth a in the vessel (Figure 1). The stress in-
tensity factor at the crack tip is [I]
(5)
The fracture condition is expressed by
(6)
From Equations (I), (5) and (6) we obtain

tKic
p = -2.-24-J;r=n~R-J;r=a (7)
or
Design of a Pressure Vessel 191
(8)
Figure I. A material element for the determination of stress intensity factor for a long axial surface crack of
depth a
a(mm)
Figure 2. Maximum pressure p,,. versus crack depth a for the tlm:e steels
192 E.E. Gdoutos
3. Results
a. From Equation (8) and the values of the critical stress intensity factor K1c for
the three types of steel we obtain a relation between the critical pressure the ves-
sel can withstand and the crack depth . This relation coupled with the values of
the critical pressure given in the previous table for failure by yielding gives the
failure envelopes of the vessel. They are presented in Figure 2 for the three
steels.
b. For p = 12 MPa the maximum permissible crack depths are calculated by Equa-
tion (8) for the three steel as
ac(mm )
A 8 c
7.04 3.64 2. 12
Note that at p = 12 MPa material A has failed by yielding.
c. The failure pressure for a minimum detectable crack depth of a= I mm is cal-

culated from Equation (8) for the three steels as
p~(MPa)
A B c
19.90(31 . 90) 22.96 17.60
Note that material A although withstands a pressure Per= 31.90 MPa for a= I mm it
fails at Pc= 19.90 MPa by yielding.
4. References
Boston, London.
Problem 42: Thermal Loads in a Pipe *
E.E. Gdoutos
1. Problem
A cylindrical pipe with inner radius b = I 0 em and outer radius c = 20 em is thermally

stressed due to a temperature difference AT across the wall. Positive AT indicates that
the outside wall temperature is higher than the inside. The pipe contains an initial
crack of length a= lmm emanating from its inner radius. The material of the pipe has
yield stress av= 1000 MPa, Poisson's ratio v = 0.3, modulus of elasticity E = 210 GPa,
coefficient of thermal expansion a = 6.6xl0'6 "F and fracture toughness K 1c = 100
MPav'm. Determine the maximum temperature difference (AT)c the pipe can withstand
without failure, with a factor of safety S = 2 against yielding and S = 3 against fracture.
2. Solution
The maximum temperature difference the pipe can withstand without failure is calcu-
lated from an analysis of the stress field coupled with a failure criterion. As such, the
maximum stress and the critical stress intensity factor criteria will be used.
2.1 STRESS FIELD
The maximum stress at the rim of the inner radius of the pipe is given by [I]
aEAT [ 2 (I)
amax= 2(1-v) l-(b/c) 2
2.2 FAILURE BY YIELDING
The condition of failure by yielding is expressed by
amax=ay/S, S=2 (2)
From Equations (I) and (2) we obtain

1000=(6.6xl0-6)x210xi0 3 (AT)c [ 2 I ]
(3)
2 2(1-0.3) 1-0.5 2 log2 ·
194 E.E. Gdoutos
Thus,
(4)
Equation (4) gives the maximum temperature the pipe can withstand without failure by
yielding.
2.3 FAILURE BY UNSTABLE CRACK GROWTH
The stress intensity factor K 1 at the crack tip is [2]
(5)
or
or
(6)
The condition of failure by fracture is expressed by
(7)
(~T). = 438"F (8)
Equation (8) gives the maximum temperature the pipe can withstand without failure by
fracture.
2.4 FAILURE OF THE PIPE
From Equations (4) and (8) we conclude that the maximum temperature the pipe can
withstand without failure is the minimum of the above two critical values that is, (~T) 0
= 413°F. The pipe fails at that temperature by exceeding the stress at the rim of the
inner radius and not by unstable growth of the initial crack.
Thermal Loads in a Pipe 195
3. Remark
Comparing the values of (LiT)c from Equations (4) and (8) we see that there is little
difference between the prediction of the maximum temperature difference based on the
maximum stress criterion and that obtained by fracture mechanics.
4. References
[I] S.P., Timoshenk:o and JN., Goodier (1951) Theory of Elasticity Second Ed., McGraw-HiU, New York,
Toronto, London.
(2] E.E. Gdoutos (1993) Fracture Mechanics- An Introduction, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht,
Boston, London.
5. J-integral and Crack Opening Displacement
Fracture Criteria
Problem 43: J-integral for an Elastic Beam
Partly Bonded to a Half-Plane**
E.E. Gdoutos
1. Problem
An elastic beam of length (l+L), height h, and large thickness has modulus of elasticity
E 1 and Poisson's ratio v 1• It is bonded along the length L to an elastic half-plane with
modulus of elasticity E2 and Poisson's ratio v2 (Figure I). The beam is subjected at its
left end to a rigid stamp that exerts a force P. Take the integration path r shown in
Figure I, where the circle in the half-plane has a large radius. Calculate the J-integral.
f-- t ~--+----- L
T
E1 ,v1 h
Figure J. A beam with an end force bonded to a half-plane and integration path for the determination of
J·integral.
The J-integral is defined by (I]

198 E.E. Gdoutos
(I)
where oo denotes the strain energy density, Tk the traction vector, uk the displacement
vector and ds the arc length along the integration path r. It is zero for any closed path
of integration r.
In notch problem J-integral is calculated along a contour r starting from an arbitrary

point on the flat part of the lower notch surface and ending at an arbitrary point on the
flat part of the upper surface of the notch. Under such conditions, J-integral is path
independent. Path independence of the J-integral is based on the assumption that the
notch surfaces are traction free and parallel to the x-axis.
3. Solution
The J-integral defined along the closed path AfBCDEFGHA of Figure 1 is zero. We
have:
(2)
We calculate the values ofthe integrals of Equation (2).
3.1 INTEGRALS Jcn. JEr, JHA
We have along the paths CD, EF and HA:
dy=O, (3)
Thus:
(4)
3.2 INTEGRALS JAfB, Jac
For L >> 1 and for large radius of the circle AfB the boundaries BC and AfB are
stress free. We have along BC and AfB.
oo=O,
Thus
J-integral for an Elastic Beam Partly Bonded to a Half-Plane 199
J BC =JAfB = 0 (5)
3.3 J-INTEGRAL
The J-integral for the notch problem of Figure 1 is defined as
(6)
From Equations (2), (4), (5) we obtain
(7)
We have for the boundary DE

(8)
where B is the thickness of the beam. For B=l we obtain
p
a,=-- (9)
h
The & 1 strain along DE for conditions of plane strain is obtained as
(10)
For the a 2 stress along DE we have
Thus we have along DE
(ll)
Furthermore we have along DE
T auk _ T au, _ (1-vf) P 2 (12)

k Ox - I Ox - E,h 2
From Equations (7), (II) and (12) we obtain for the J-integral
200 E.E. Gdoutos
_ (1-vf)P 2 (1 _ ) 0 _ (1-vf)P 2
- E h2 2y y - 2E h (13)
I h I
Thus
(14)
Equation (14) expresses the value of the J-integral for the Problem of Figure I.
4. References
[1] E.E. Gdoutos (1993) Fracture Mechanics - An Introduction, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht,
Boston, London.
Problem 44: J-integral for a Strip with
a Semi-Infinite Crack**
E.E. Gdoutos
1. Problem
An infinite strip of height 2h with a semi-infinite crack is rigidly clamped along its
upper and lower faces at y = ± h (Figure 1). Determine the value of the J-integral and
the stress intensity factor, when the upper and lower faces are moved over distances u0
for the following cases:
a. In the positive and negative y-direction.
b. In the positive and negative x-direction
c. In the positive and negative z-direction
T
h
th
l.
.,___ _ a ----If------ b
Figure 1. An infinite strip with a semi-infinite crack clamped along its upper and lower filces. The J-integral is
calculated along the dashed-line path shown
See Problem 43.

202 E.E. Gdoutos
3. Solution
To determine the value of the J-integral we consider the path A' ABCDD' extended
along the upper and lower surfaces of the strip up to infinity and traversing the strip
perpendicularly to the crack. J is calculated from
(l)
We have: for path AB, CD: dy = 0, aul,2 I aX = 0, implying that
JAB= leo= 0 (2)
for path DD', A' A: the stresses vanish, ou~2 I OX =0, implying that
(3)
Equations (I) to (3) are valid for all three cases of movement of the upper and lower
faces of the strip. Thus, we obtain
J =lac (4)
The values lac for the above three cases are calculated as:
3.1. MOVEMENT ALONG THEy-DIRECTION (MODE I)
We have
0Ut,2
--=0 (5)
ay
implying that
h
lsc = Jooix,._...,dy. (6)

-h
For linear elastic material
(7)
Putting
J-integral for a Strip with a Semi-Infinite Crack 203
& =~ CJ =REs = J3Euo (8)

y h' yl' y h
where
(9)
1-v
13=---- (10)
(1 + v)(l- 2v)
for plane strain, we obtain
J3Eu~
J=-- (II)
h
K 1 is calculated as [I]
KI = ( J: )1/2 = ( TJh13 )1/2 Euo (12)
where TJ = I for plane stress and TJ = I - v2 for plane strain.
3.2 MOVEMENT ALONG THE x-DIRECTION (MODE-II)
We have
aul2
- - · =0 (13)
ax
which implies that
h h h
J 8 c = Jrol._....,dy= H·TxyYxydy=~ JllY!rdy (14)

-h -h -h
We have
204 E.E. Gdoutos
u0 E
1 - J1=--- (15)
•Y - h' 2 (1 + v)
h 2 2
J_ J _ E Ju 0 d _ Eu 0
- BC - 4 (1 + v) h2
y- 2 (1 + v) h
-h
(16)
Kn is calculated as [1)
(17)
Thus
K _ Eu 0
II - (18)
[2 (1 + v) TJ h] 112
3.3 MOVEMENT ALONG THE z-DIRECTION (MODE-III)
We have
aul.2
--=0 (19)
ax
which implies that
H·t.. r .. dy =~ Jr;.dy
h h h
JBC = JroiHoody = (20)

-h ~ ~
ro 0 E
y - J1=--- (21)
··-T· 2(1 + v)
E 2
J- J - Olo (22)
- BC - 2 ( 1 + v) h
Kn is calculated as
K _ Ero 0
m- (23)
(1+v).J2h
J-integral for a Strip with a Semi-Infinite Crack 205
4. References
Boston, London.
Problem 45: J-integral for Two Partly Bonded Layers**
E.E. Gdoutos
1. Problem
Two infinite layers of heights h 1 and h2 and large thicknesses are made of different
materials with moduli of elasticity and Poisson's ratios E., v1 and E2, v2, respectively
(Figure 1). The layers are joined across their interface forming a semi-infinite crack,
and are subjected to bending moments m at x -+ - oc. Determine the value of J-
integral.
Figure I. A semi-infinite crack along the interface of two difrerent infinite layers.
See Problem 43.
3. Solution
Using the path A'ABCDD' of Problem 44 we have:
(1)
We have [I]
Path AB, CD: dy = 0, Tk= 0

208 E.E. Gdoutos
JAB= Jco = 0 (2)
Path BC: crii= 0, Tk = 0

Thus
(3)
Path DO': auk I Ox.= 0

Thus
J
h, h,
J DD' = roix->oo dy = J~ crxexdY (4)

0 0
We have
(Sa)
I - v~
e =--a (5b)
X El X
Thus
I -v 2 h,
J DD' -__- -
2E
J 0
2
X
d _ 72 (I-v 12 ) m 2
Y-
Eh 6
J
b(
h )2 d
Y--1
2
Y (6)
0 I 0
We have
(7)
Thus,
(8)
J-integral for Two Partly Bonded Layers 209
Path A' A: In a similar way, as for path DD', we obtain for path A'A
(9)
Thus
(10)
Equation (10) gives the value ofthe J-integral.
4. References
Boston, London.
Problem 46: J-integral for Mode-l***
E.E. Gdoutos
1. Problem
Calculate the J-integral for mode-l loading.
See Problem 43.
3. Solution
l
The polar stresses and displacements for mode-l loading are given by [I]
a, cos
[ a 9 = ~cos! I+ cos 9
[3 - 9] (I)
2v2ltr 2 . 9
tre sm
and
9 39
(2K -I) cos-- cos-
[J~:u.r
2 2
(2)
. 9 . 39
- (2K+ I) sm-+sm-
2 2
We have
=--
au,
&
r ar
u, I
&e=-+--
aue (3)
r r 89
&re = _!_ (.!.

aur + aue - ~)
2 r a9 ar r
212 E.E. Gdoutos
From equations (2) and (3) we obtain
K 1 -1- [ (2K -1) cos--

e,=- 9 cos-
39]
8!! ~ 2 2
~: 9 = K 1 1
~ [ (2K - 3) cos -9+ cos -39] (4)
8!! "2 1r. r 2 2
ere = K1 1 [. 9 . 39]
~ sin - + sin -
8!! "2 1r. r 2 2
We have [1]
(5)
J, = Joody, J 2 =- JTk aau: ds (6)

r r
Consider a circler of radius r centered at the crack tip. We have
y = r sin 9, dy = r cos 9 d9 (7)
and
(8)
Thus, we obtain
J,= K~ 1 1 xJCOS-
9 [ (3 -COS 9) [ (2K -f) COS--
9 COS- 39]
32J.11tf2
-· 2 2 2
+ (I +COS [
9) (2K- 3) COS
e 23e]
Z+ COS
J-integral for Mode-l 213
+ 2 sin e (sin t + sin 3;)] r cos e de
e
K 12 - "J(41C-3) COS --COS- 3e
e COS9 -COS -+COS9CO 3e
S-
= --
32lt 11 2 2 2 2
-K
. -39] cos -9 cos 9 d9

. 9 sm
. 9 + sm
. -e sm (9)
+ sm
2 2 2
We have
2 e 41C- 3
(41C- 3) cos -cos 9 =--(I+ cos 9) cos 9
2 2
9 39 l (10)
-cos- cos- cos 9 =-- (cos 2 9 + 2 cos 3 9- cos 9)
2 2 2
cos~ cos e sin~ sine=_!._ (cos e- cos 3 9)

2 2 2
Using the formula
" (II)
Jcos"9=0, n=l,3,5, ...
-l[
we obtain
214 E.E. Gdoutos
(12)
We have for J2
(13)
au! au! ar au! 89

-=--+-- (14)
ax ar ax a9 ax
X = r COS 9, y = r sine, r = ~X 2 + y 2 , e = tan -I_[

X
or
- = cos9,
89 sine
ax ax r
(15)
aui = cose aui -sin 9 aui
ax or r ae
(16)
where and are the unit vectors along the rand 9 directions.
-
&, &a
-
We have
a&a
---=-& (17)
ae _r
o&r sine a~a sine

---=---&a, --=--&.
ax r - ax r -
oue sine (vue

+tre [cos9----- --+u, )] (18)
or r ae
We have
ou, K1
--=- ( -
I )
1/2
9 39
[(21C -I) cos-- cos-]
or 8f.l 2lt r 2 2
au, KI ( I
--=- - J
l/2
e . 39
[-(2K-l)cos-+3sm-]
ae sll 2x 2 2
(19)
1/2
OUe KI
--= -
(
-
I ) . e . 39
[- (2JC +I) sm - + sm - ]
ar 8f.l 2lt r 2 2
oue K 1 ( I
--=- - J
l/2
e
[- (2K +I) cos -+3 cos-]
39
ae sll 2x 2 2
Thus
ae
au, COS 9-
(au,
ae- Ue
) sine
-r- =
~~ 1
8f.l 2x r
[(2K-l)cos!cose-cos 39
2 2
cos9+(2K-l)sin~sin9
2
- 3 sin 39 sine - 2 (2K +I) sin ~sine + 2 sin 39 sine]

2
(20)
2 2
216 E.E. Gdoutos
and
aua
--cos 9 - (aua
--+u J-sin-9=
ar a9 r r
~~ 1 [-(2K+1)sin~cos9+sin 39 cos9+(2K+1)cos~sin9
8Jl 21tr 2 2 2
- 3 COS 39 sin 9 - 2 (2K - 1) COS ~sin 9 + 2 COS 39 sin 9] (21)

2 2 2
We have
au = -K 12- [L(2K-1) cos2 -cos9(3-cos9)-

TK _ _
k
9 39 9
cos- cos9 cos- (3 -cos9)
ax 32xr 2 2 2
-
+ (2K -1) sin~ sin 9 cos~(3- cos9)- 3 sin 39 sin 9 cos~ (3 -cos 9)
2 2 2 2
- 2(2K + 1) sin~ COS~ sin 9 (3- COS9) + 2 sin 39 COS~ sin 9 (3- cos9)
2 2 2 2
(22)
. 9 . 9 . 39 . 9
- (2K+ 1) sm-cos 9 sm 9 cos-+sm-cos 9 sm 9 cos-
2 2 2 2
+ (2K + 1) cos 2 ~ sin 2 9-3 cos 39 sin 2 9 cos~

2 2 2
Furthermore, we have
e 3
3(2K- l)cos8cos 2 - =-(2K-l)(cos8+cos 2 8)
2 2
2 29 2K- 1 2 3
- (2K- I) cos 9 cos - = ---(cos 9 +cos 9)
2 2
39
- 3 cos -cos 9 cos-= e e)
9 - 3 ( 4 cos 4 - - 3 cos 2 - cos 9 = -3 cos 9 - -cos
3 2
9- 3 cos 3 9
2 2 2 2 2 2
39 9 1 1
cos -cos 2 9 cos-=- -cos 2 9 + -cos 3 9 +cos e
4
2 2 2 2
-3 (2K + 3)sin !sin 9 COS !=-3K- ~+ 3 IC COs 2 9 + ~cos 2 9

2 2 2 2
(23)
39 9 3 3 2 1
- 3 sm - sm 9 cos - = - - - 3 cos 9 + - cos 9 + 3 cos 9
0 0
2 2 2 2
39 9 I I 3 I
-cos-sm 9cos-=---cos9--cos 9+-cos 9+cos e
2 o 2 1 4
2 2 2 2 2 2
Considering that
Jcos 9 d9 = 0,
K
0 n = 1, 3, 5, ooo (24)
_,.
we obtain
n 2 "
J2 = JT" c3ux =-
ax ~
32J.11t
J[2(3K+I)cos 2 0-4(1+K))d0
-x _,
K2
=- - 1-[(31C +I)( I+ cos 20)- 4 (I+ K)O)~,.
32J.llt
218 E.E. Gdoutos
K2
=- _r_[(3K+l)2x-8(1+K)x)
32J1X
=- K; [- 2 (1C+J)x]=(K+3)K; (25)
32J.U l6J.1
(26)
TJ = 1 (plane stress), lJ = 1 - v2 (plane strain)
Equation (26) gives the value of the J-integral for mode-l loading.
4. Reference
[I) E.E. Gdoutos ( 1993) Fracture Mechanics - An Introduction, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht,
Boston, London.
Problem 47: J-integral for Mode-III **
L. Banks-Sills
1. Problem
Write the general expression for the J-integral for anti-plane shear, i.e. mode III. Using
the dominant elastic singularity, shrink the J-contour down to the crack tip and prove,
by direct calculation, that
2
J= Km (l)
2f.l
Figure 1. Path for the calculation of J-integral
The J-integral [l] given by
J= J(wn, -T, : } (2)

220 L. Banks-Sills
where r is the path along which the J-integral is calculated, W =aij&ij I 2 is the
strain energy density for linear elastic material, n 1 is the component of the outward unit
normal n in the x 1 -direction, T; = 0'ijn j and U; are, respectively, the traction and
displacement vectors along r and ds is differential arc length.
3. Solution
3.1 STRESS AND DISPLACEMENT FIELDS NEAR THE CRACK TIP
For a crack under conditions of mode III deformation, the non-zero stresses and
displacements in the neighborhood of the crack tip are given by
(3)
and
(4)
where ~ is the shear modulus.
3.2 STRAIN ENERGY DENSITY
The path r is taken to be a small circle r, of radius r beginning on the lower crack
face and ending on the upper crack face. Each term of the integrand in (2) is evaluated
along r, in the vicinity of the crack tip. For mode III deformation, the strain energy
density is given by
(5)
By Hooke's law,
(6)
Substitution of Equation (6) into Equation (5) leads to
(7)
J-integral for Mode-III 221
The strain energy density on rc is obtained by introducing the stress components given
by Equation (3) into Equation (7), so that
(8)
3.3 TRACTION
For mode III deformation, the traction vector is given by T1 = T2 =0 and
(9)
The components of the unit normal along rc are

n 1 =cos9, (10)
Substituting the expressions for the stress components in the neighborhood of the crack
tip in Equation (3) and those for the unit normal in Equation (10), we obtain for T3
Km . 9
T3 =--sm- (I 1)
& 2
3.4 DISPLACEMENT DERN A TIVE
Since the displacement u3 is a function of the polar coordinates r and 0, we have
au3 au3 ar au3 ae

--=----+---- (12)
axl ar axl aa axl
We have
(13)
Differentiating the displacement in Equation (4) with respect to r and {) we obtain
(14a)
222 L. Banks-Sills
au3 = Km lr cos~ (14b)

oe J.l 'Jl; 2
Substitution of Equations ( 13), (14a) and (14b) into Equation (12) yields
oo 3 Krn
--=----sm-
. e
(15)
Bx1 wfi;; 2
3.5 J-INTEGRAL
The J-integra1 is obtained by substituting Equations (8), (11) and (15) into Equation (2);
this leads to
2
J = -K 11-1
2ltJ.1f
RI
-n
e)
-cos9+sin 2 - rde
2 2
(16)
Note that arc length ds = rde on r,. Taking the limit of Equation (16) as r ~ 0 and
integrating, yields the desired relation in Equation (I).
4. References
[I) E.E. Gdoutos (1993) Fracture Mechanics -An Introduction, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht,
Boston, London.
[2) J.R. Rice (1968) A Path Independent Integral and the Approximate Analysis of Strain Concentration by
Notches and Cracks, ASME Journal of Applied Mechanics, JS, 379-386.
Problem 48: Path Independent Integrals***
E.E. Gdoutos
1. Problem
Consider a crack in a mixed-mode stress field governed by the values of stress intensity
factors K1 and Kn. Calculate the path-independent line integral
J 2 =Q 2 = J<ron 2 -Tkuu)ds (I)

&
where r is a path described counterclockwise starting from a point on the lower crack
face and terminating at a point on the upper crack face.
Besides the J-integral there are several integrals that are path independent. A class of
such integrals is defined by [I]
Qj= J<roTJj-Tkuk,)di:, j, k=l,2,3 (2)

I:
where I: is a closed surface bounding a region R which is assumed to be free of singu-

larities, ro is the strain energy density, Tk is the traction vector on surfaceS, lli is the
normal vector to the surface and J denotes differentiation with respect to xi.
For plane problems Eq. (2) for j = I gives the J-integral [2]. For j = 2 we obtain the
integral defined from Eq. (1).
3. Solution
For the calculation of the integral ofEq. (I) for a crack in a mixed-mode stress field we
consider the path F'A'B'C'D'E' defined in Figure I.
224 E.E. Gdoutos
Y n
0' c
E'
2R
f' X
n n
]'
l-2b
s'
n I
Figure I. Path surrounding the crack tip
We have
(3)
Since
n1 = 0 for A'B', C'D'

(4)
n2 =0 for B'C', D'A'
we obtain
For
o/R ~o. J ~o. J~o
A'B' C'D'
Path Independent Integrals 225
At A'B', C'D': n.l =0
Then
J2 =- J au av (_-;
d
(a.-+ txy - ) n.t) s
ay ay
c,
61R-+0
=- J au
(a. - + t
av
- ) dy-
J(a.-+
au t
av
- ) dy
ay xy ay ay xy ay
BC DA
au av
=i f (a - + t
• ay xy
-)dz
ay
(6)
c,
R-+0.6/R-+0
since: atB'C" -(n.i)ds=-dy
at o·A· - (n.i)ds =- dy
We have
. au . av au
(a +tt )(--1-) =(a - + t - ) +t (-a - + t - )
av . av au
X xy Y Y a a
X Y xy Y X Y xy Ya a a a (7)
so that
a, -au+ t , yav
ay
-=
ay
1m[' .\ax +tt,Y )(au
--1
ay
. av)
- 1
oy
·]
(8)
According to the complex potential theory we have [2]
(9)
2J.1 (u + iu) = K<p- zcp' -W

226 E.E. Gdoutos
= q>', 'I'= 1(, JC = 3- 4v (plane strain), JC = (3- v)/(1 + v) (plane stress)
From Equations (9) we obtain
crY - iT xy = + + z' + 'I'

a,+ it,y= <l> + -z<l>'- 'I' (10)
and
. )' = 2ll
2ll (u+tv . a-
(a-v- 1 ..., :;;:-
u) = Kw- :;;:-, m
.... -z...,- r (II)
By By
From Equations (I 0) and (II) we obtain
(12)
(13)
Therefore, we have
[ . . au av ]
1m (a, +tT,Y)(t-+-) = cr, - + Txy- =
au av
ay ay ay ay
I+JC -] I+JC - -2 - - --2

= 1m [ - - (cr X + iT xy) <l> = - - Im ( + - z ' -'I' <l> ) (14)
21! 21!
We have
1m = 0 (15)

and
Path Independent Integrals 227
z= &+ iy
-2
 (16)
-2 1 1 L 2 2 )
Im<l> =--2--2jfKrKn& +y(Kr -Ku) (17)
87t&+y
-'¥= (K 1 +iKu)(K 1 -3iKu) _ Ki +3K~- 2iK 1Krr (& +iy)

(20)
l61tz 167t (& 2 + y 2 )
(21)
From Equations ( 15), ( 17), ( 19) and (21) we obtain
- -2 - -- ' 1 r 2 2
1m [<l>cll + -z<l><l>'-<1>'¥) = - --
2 -2 L4K 1Ku& + 2y (K 1 -Ku)
161t&+y
228 E.E. Gdoutos
2 2 62 - 3y 2 2 2 (36 2 - y 2)]
+2K 1 Ku8-y(K 1 +3Ku)+zK 1 Ku6 2 2 +y(K 1 -Ku) 2 2
8 +y 8 +y
=-l6:n:8
1-~[6K1 Ku6+2K 1 Ku8( 2462 2 -3)]
+y 6 +y
8K 1Kn8 3 K 1Kn 63
(22)
= l6:n: (62 + y2)2 = ~ (82 + y2)2'
We have
6
2
r. R
dy
y2 + 82
= R6 +.!..[arctg
R 2 + 82 2 6
~-arctg(-~)]=~
8 2
(23)
R :n:
since for 6/R -4 0, arctg--4- arctg ( --R) :n:
8- -4 - 2
8 2'
.( - -2
] 1m ((J> + (J> -
-- --
z' (J>- o/ (J>) dy = T
K K
(24)
c,
Thus we obtain from Equations (6), (14) and (24)
(25)
Equation (25) gives the path independent integral J2 defined by Equation (l ).
4. Reference
[I] J.D. Eshelby (1970) Energy Relations and the Energy-Momentum Tensor in Continuum Mechanics, in
Inelastic Behavior of Solids (eds MF. Kanninen, W.F. Adler, A.R. Rosenfield and J./. Jaffee) McGraw
Hill, New York, Toronto, London, pp. 77-115.
[2] J.R. Rice (1968) A Path Independent Integral and the Approximate Analysis of Strain Concentration by
Notches and Cmcks, Journal ofApplied Mechanics, Trans. ASME, 379-386.
Problem 49: Stresses Around Notches**
E.E. Gdoutos
I. Problem
Consider a narrow notch whose lower and upper surfaces are flat and parallel up to the
points A and A', so that the arc A'A forms the curved tip of the notch (Figure l ). The
opening 2h of the notch is small compared to its length. Assume that the surface stress
may be approximated as
(1)
where 9 is the tangent angle and <Jmax is the maximum stress. For a semicircular tip,
show that
(2)
where p is the radius of curvature at the semicircular notch tip and K, is the stress in-
tensity factor for a similarly loaded body with a crack of the same length as the notch.
B
'• L:-..L2h--<A...--r
x,
Figure I. A narrow notch and coordinates used to describe its surface

230 E.E. Gdoutos
The path independent nature of the J-integral provides a means for correlating stress
data near and far away from cracks and notches. J-integral is defined as [I]
J =I rody-Tk auk
ax ds (3)
6
where r is a path described in a counterclockwise sense starting from an arbitrary

point on the flat part of the lower notch surface and ending at an arbitrary point on the
flat part of the upper surface ofthe notch, Tk(k =I, 2, 3) denotes the traction vector on
r, w is the elastic strain energy and uk(k = I, 2, 3) is the displacement component.
For two arbitrary paths f 1 and f2 we have
Jl = I[. .]= = Jt . J
r,
]2
r,
(4)
3. Solution
We compute the J-integral along the path MABA'M' and along a path far from the
notch and equate the two values.
3. I J-INTEGRAL FOR THE PATH MABA'M'
We compute the J-integral along the path MABA'M' that coincides with the notch
surface. We have
J = J MA + J ABA' + J A'M' (5)
The notch is traction-free. Since dy = 0 along the flat surfaces MA and A'M'of the
notch, we have
J MA =J A'M' = 0 (6)
so that
J =J ABA' = I
ABA'
rody (7)
For conditions of plane strain we have
l-v2 2
w=--a (8)
2E
and Equation (5) becomes
Stresses Around Notches 231
(9)
or
1-v-
J=-
2E
Ja (G) p (G) cos e de
2 x/2
2 (10)
-7(/2
For a semicircular notch tip p(G) = p, and Equation (I) gives
2 2 x/2 2 2
J=(l-v )omaxp JcossGdG=8(1-v )OmaxP (II)
E 15E
-x/2
3.2 J-INTEGRAL FOR A PATH FARAWAY FROM THE NOTCH
For a path far away from the notch we have for the J-integral [2]
2
J-1-v K2 (12)
--E- I
where K 1 is the stress intensity factor for a similarly loaded body with a crack of the
same length as the notch.
3.3 PATH-INDEPENDENCE OF J-INTEGRAL
Equating the values of the J-integral for the path MABA'M' and a path for away from
the notch we obtain
(13)
or
4. References
[I] J.R. Rice (1968) A Path Independent Integral and the Approximate Analysis of Strain Concentration by
Notches and Cracks, Journal ofApplied Mechanics, Trans ASME, lS, 379-386.
Boston, London.
Problem 50: Experimental Determination of J1c from
J- Crack Growth Curves***
E.E. Gdoutos
I. Problem
The following data were obtained from a series of tests on three-point bend specimens
with thickness B = 30 mm and crack ligament b = 30 mm made of a steel with 0.2 off-
set yield stress crv = 450 MPa and ultimate stress a.= 550 MPa.
. _ J_(kJ~2) ___~i!!l_!!!.L_
120 0.2
150 0.3
180 0.5
220 0.7
260 1.0
280 1.2
310 1.5
340 1.8
360 2.0
Estimate the provisional value J0 according to ASTM standard E813-87 and check
whether Jk = J0 .
ASTM [1] issued a standard test method for determining Jk, the plane strain value of J
at initiation of crack growth for metallic materials. The recommended specimens are
the three-point bend specimen and the compact specimen that contain deep initial
cracks. The specimens are loaded to special fixtures, and applied loads and load-point
displacements are simultaneously recorded during the test. For a valid J1c value, the
crack ligament b and the specimen thickness B must be greater than 25 J1cfcrv. The
initial crack length for the three-point bend specimen must be at least 0.5W, but not
greater than 0.75 W, where W is the specimen width. The overall specimen length is
4.5W, and the specimen thickness is 0.5 W.
234 E.E. Gdoutos
BOO
700
-----------------------,
J..,..
I
e POINlS usm rOR REGIII:SSIOII ANAL'ISIS I
600 I
- 500 I
I
E I
-...,
g
a.. 400 I
.X I
I
300 2ay 1
I
I
200 I
1.5mm EXCLUSION UNE
I
100 ~tw-
1
0
0.0 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.0 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.0 2.25 2.5
CRACK EXTENSION (mm)
Figure I. Detennination of J. according to ASTM standards [I]
To determine the value of Jk that corresponds to the onset of slow stable crack propa-
gation we use the following procedure. We determine the J-integral for the bend
specimen from Equation
(I)
where M is the applied moment per unit thickness, 9 is the angle of relative rotation of
the end sections of the specimen and b is the ligament length, and for the compact
specimen from Equation
(2)
where p is given by
Experimental Determination of J1c from J -Crack Growth Curves 235
(3)
For a/W > 0.5 it has been found that one can use the total displacement oinstead of lip.
Furthermore, ~ = 0 for deeply cracked specimens and Equation (2) becomes
(4)
which is similar to Equation (I).
For the deeply cracked three-point bend specimen J is again given by Equation (4)
where ~ is given from Equation (3). J is plotted against physical crack growth length,
using at least four data points within specified limits of crack growth (Figure I). We fit
a power law expression of the form
(5)
to the experimental points and find the point at which it intersects the line originating
at tla = 0.2 mm with slope 2crv (parallel to the blunting line J = 2 crv tla). The value of
J which corresponds to the point of intersection ish:·
The blunting line approximates the apparent crack advance due to crack tip blunting
when there is no slow stable crack tearing. We choose this line because we assume
that, before tearing, the crack advance is equal to one half of the crack-tip opening
displacement (tla = 0.5 o).
We draw two additional offset lines parallel to the blunting line and starting from the
points tla = 0.15 and 1.5 mm. For a valid test all data should be placed inside the area
enclosed by the two parallel offset lines and the line J = Jmax = b0crv/15. Data outside
these limits are not valid. The valid data points are used to determine the final regres-
sion curve of Equation (5).
The value of J1c can also be used to obtain an estimate of K1c from Equation [2] which,
for opening-mode, takes the form
(6)
Equation (6) is used in situations where large specimen dimensions are required for a
valid K~c test according to the ASTM specifications.
236 E.E. Gdoutos
3. Solution
We have
J = b0 ay = (30x10-3 m)x(450x10 3 kPa) 540kJ/m2 (7)

max 15 25
The J versus .1-a curve is plotted in Figure 2.
SOD 1..... ElfCWIIICIO LN£
\I
I
4011 ei'OINJ8 USED 1'011 RBillfaiiiON ANALYSIS I
I
I CJyb
.., I 25
I
200 I
I
I
100
I
I 60,..
D.5 to 2.0
6a (mm)
Figure 2. Experimental detennination of J.
The constant C 1 and C2 in Equation (5) take the values
C 1 = 7338, C 2 = 0.48541 (Correlation R = 0.99867) (8)
The 0.2 mm offset line is
J = 2ay(.1.a-0.2x 10-3 ) = 2x(450x 103 kPa)(.1.a-0.2 xl0-3 )

(9)
= 900(.1-a xl03 - 0.2)kJ /m 2
Experimental Determination of J1c from J- Crack Growth Curves 237
The point of intersection of the 0.2 mm offset line and the curve J = C 1 (Aa)c, (Figure
2) is determined from the solution of equations
1 = 7338 (.!\a)o.4S54I (10)

and
J = 900(.!\a x 10 3 - 0.2) (ll)
Eliminating .!\a we obtain the following equation:
0.48541
J = 7338 [ ( 9~0 + 0.2 ) x w-3 ] (12)
Solving the above equation we obtain
J = ] = 160kJ /m 2
0 (13)
We have
25 _:g_ = 25 x 160 kJ 1 m 2 =8.89 mm (14)

CJy 450x 10 3 kPa
JQ
B = b =30 mm > 25 - = 8.89 mm (15)
CJy
Thus according to ASTM standard the value of J is given by
2
J 10 =JQ = 160kJ/m (16)
4. References
[II Standard test method for Jk, a measure of fiacture toughness, ASTM AnnUQ/ Book ofStandards, Part I 0,
E8I3-87, American Society fur Testing and Materials, Philadelphia. pp. 986-990 ( 1987)
[2] E.E. Gdoutos ( 1993) Fracture Mechanics- An Introduction, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht,
Boston, London.
Problem 51: Experimental Determination of J from
Potential Energy -Crack Length Curves **
E.E. Gdoutos
1. Problem
A number of compact tension specimens of thickness B = 2mm with different crack

lengths were tested, and the load-displacement records were obtained. From these re-
cords the absorbed potential energy n at different selected displacements was calcu-
lated and is plotted in Figure I versus crack length. Plot the variation of J-integral ver-
sus displacement.
80
-...,
........... 60
c
40
0 o~---2~0----~~--~6o----~~~~-1oo
a(mm)
Figure I. Potential energy versus crack length at different displacements of a number of compact tension speci-
mens.
240 E.E. Gdoutos
See Problems 43 and 50.
3. Solution
We have (1]
(I)
where n is the potential energy, A is the crack area, B is the specimen thickness and a
is the crack length.
500
400
300
~
z
..,~
200
100
0
0 10 20 30 40
u(mm)
Figure 2. Variation of J versus displacement.
We have for the J-integral at different displacements
1. u=lOmm: J=- 1 x (- 20J) =lOOkN/m (2)

(2 x 10-3 m) (IOOx 10-3 m)
Experimental Determination of J from Potential Energy- Crack Length Curves 241
1 (-40J)
2. u=l8mm: J=- X =200kN/m (3)
(2xl0-3 m) (lOOx 10-3 m)
I (-60J)
3. u =25mm: J=- X = 300kN /m (4)
(2xl0- 3 m) (lOOx 10- 3 m)
I (-80J)
4. u = 3lmm: J=- X = 400kN /m (5)
(2 x 10- 3 m) (100 x 10- 3 m)
I (-IOOJ)
5. u = 35mm: J=- X = 500kN /m (6)
(2 x 10- 3 m) (l00xl0- 3 m)
A plot of J versus displacement u is shown in Figure 2.
4. References
[I] E.E. Gdoutos ( 1993) Fracture Mechanics -An Introduction, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht,
Boston, London.
Problem 52: Experimental Determination of J from Load -
Displacement Records *
E.E. Gdoutos
1. Problem
The load-displacement records of a three-point bend specimen of width W = 100 mm

and thickness B = 50 mm containing three cracks of length a = 49, 50 and 51 mm are
shown in Figure!. The specimen with a = 50 mm fails at a displacement u = 4 mm.
Determine the value of J.
T
w-somm
1
Ph
54
25mm
50
-
z.ll:
.........
a..
46
26mm
0
1 u(mm)
..
Figure I. Load-displacement (P-u) records ofa three-point bend specimen with three different crack lengths.
244 E.E. Gdoutos
J-integral under dead-load is calculated as [I]
J=-(an)
aa p
(1)
where n is the potential energy, a is the crack length and P is the load.
For a deeply cracked specimen J is given by
(2)
where b is the ligament length and ois the displacement.

3. Solution
Calculation of J-integral will take place according to Equation (1) or Equation (2).
3.1 CALCULATION OF J ACCORDING TO EQUATION (1):
Equation (I) takes the form
J = _ _.!._AU (3)
8 Aa
where U is the area of the load-displacement record of the specimen.
From Figure 1 we have for Aa = I mm
AU= (9.6 -10) kN x(4mm)

= (10 -10.4) kN x (4mm) (4)
=- 1.6 x I0- 3 kN m
Equation (3) gives
J = 1.6 x 10-3 kN m = 32 kN /m. (5)

(50 x 10-3 m) x (1 x 10-3 m)
Experimental Determination of J from Load - Displacement Records 245
3.2 CALCULATION OF J ACCORDING TO EQUATION (2):
Equation (2) takes the form
J = 2U (6)
Bb
where U is the area of the load-displacement record of the specimen with a = 50 mm

up to displacement u = 4 mm. We have
U = (lOkN) x (4x 10-3 m)= 40x 10-3 kN m (7)
and Equation (6) becomes
2x(40x10-3 )kNm
J= = 32 kN /m. (8)
(50 X 10-3 m) X (50 X 10-3 m)
Note that the values of J-integral obtained by the two methods are the same.
4. References
(I] E.E. Gdoutos (1993) Fracture Mechanics- An Introduction, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht,
Boston, London.
Problem 53: Experimental Determination of J from a
Compact Tension Specimen **
E.E. Gdoutos
I. Problem
The load-displacement (P-o) diagram of a compact tension specimen of dimensions W

= 40 mm, a= 25 mm, B = 20 mm can be approximated as
6 = 10 -22 ps (I)
where o is measures in meters and P in Newtons. Initiation of crack growth occurred at

o= 10 mm. Determine J.
For a compact specimen (Figure I) J-integral is calculated by [I]
(2)
where Op is the plastic contribution to the load-point displacement and ~ is given by
(3)
3. Solution
For a= 25 mm and b = W- a= 40- 25 = 15 mm we obtain from Equation (3)
~ = 0.114 (4)
248 E.E. Gdoutos
We have for the two integrals in Equation (2) for o = 0.0 I m, P = (0.0 1 x 1022 ) 115 = 104
N we obtain
I (I0
op 0.01
IPdop= 22 o) 115 do = 102215 %o 615 j~·01 = 83.33 Joule (5)

0 0
I I0-
P IO'
IopdP = 22 P5 dP = 10- 22 ~P 6 ,~04 = 16.67 Joule (6)
0 0
w -----~
I
0.6W
!----a---+-
-ay
1
H'l•rJt ~ (1-P)c
I
I
T
tip
II
I
I
I
I
Figure I. A deeply cracked compact specimen at plastic collapse.

Experimental Determination of J from a Compact Tension Specimen 249
Thus, J is calculated as
J= 2 [1+0.114 X 8133 + 0.114(1-2x0.114-0.11~) X 16.67]

(20x 10-3 m) x (15x10-3 m) 1+0.11~ (I +0.l142 ) 2
= 6667x (91.64 + 1.41) = 620x tal N/m (7)
If the second term in Equation (2) neglected we obtain for the J-integral
J = 6667 X 91.64 =611 X 103 N/m (8)
Note that the difference between the values of J given by Equations (7) and (8) is 1.5%.
4. References
Boston, London.
Problem 54: Validity of J1e and K1e Tests*
E.E. Gdoutos
l. Problem
Determine the minimum thickness Bmin and/or crack ligament bmin of a three-point
bend specimen required for a valid J~c test according to the ASTM standards for a ma-
terial with Krc = 100 MPa ..{r;, av = 400 MPa, E = 210 GPa and v = 0.3. Compare the
results with those for a valid K10 test.
3. Solution
J1c is calculated as [I]
(I)
The minimum thickness Bmin and/or crack ligament bmin required for a valid J~c test
according to ASTM standards for the three-point bend specimen is calculated as (I]
8 . b . = 25J 1c = 25x(0.0433MPllll) = 2.7 mm (2)

nun• nun C1y 400MPa
The minimum thickness Bmin required for a valid K1c test is calculated as [I]
K 1c
Bmin = 2.5 ( - ) = 2.5
2 [
IOOMPa-vm r-J2 = 156.2 mm. (3)
ay 400MPa
Observe that the minimum thickness required for a valid J1c test is nearly two orders of
magnitude smaller than that required for a valid K1c test. This indicates that J1c testing
252 E.E. Gdoutos
may be used to estimate K1c in situations where large specimen dimensions are required
for a valid K1c test.
4. References
Boston, London.
Problem 55: Critical Crack Opening Displacement *
E.E. Gdoutos
1. Problem
A three-point bend specimen with S = 25 em, W = 6 em, a = 3 em, and B = 3 em is

used to determine the critical crack opening displacement ~c of a steel plate according
to the British Standard BS 5762. The load versus crack mouth displacement (P - V)
record of the test is shown in Figure I. Determine ~c when E = 210 GPa, v = 0.3 and
ay = 800 MPa for steel.
40
30
-~
a:' 20
10
QOL-~~~------4~----~6~---
v(mm)
Figure I. Load-crack mouth displacement (P-V) record of a three-poim bend specimen.

254 E. E. Gdoutos
Determination of the critical crack opening displacement is the subject of the British
Standard BS 5762 [1]. We use the edge-notched three-point bend specimen which was
described in Problem 34 to determine the fracture toughness K~c. The specimen thick-
ness B is taken about equal to the application thickness, and the beam width W is twice
the thickness (W = 28). The specimen is fatigue precracked as in the K 1c standard test,
with the exception that a straight starter notch is recommended rather than a chevron
notch.
The load versus crack mouth displacement is recorded from the experiment. Clip gages
are usually installed at a distance z from the specimen surface. The load-displacement
records fall into the five cases shown in Figure 2. Four categories of crack-tip opening
displacement are defined in relation to Figure 2: Be at the onset of unstable crack
growth (case I) or pop-in (case II), when no stable crack growth is observed; Bu at the
onset of unstable crack growth (case III) or pop-in (case IV) when stable crack growth
takes place before instability; Bi at the commencement of stable crack growth (cases III,
IV and V); lim at the maximum load Pm (case V) when it is preceded by stable crack
growth.
The critical crack-tip opening displacement B (Bi. Be. Bu or Bm) is determined from the
test record by
(I)
where
B = Vp rb (2)
P rb+a+z
Here VP is the plastic component of the measured displacement V (Figure 2) and the
quantities r, b, a and z are shown in Figure 3.
In Equation (1) the crack opening displacement B is equal to elastic B. plus the plastic
lip contribution. The elastic part Be is calculated according to from the Dugdale model
[2] which is modified for plane strain and by a plastic constraint factor equal to 2. The
plastic part Bp is obtained by assuming that the crack ligament b = W - a acts as a plas-
tic hinge, with a rotation point at a distance rb from the crack tip. Experiments show
that the value of the rotation factor r lies between 0.33 and 0.48. A nominal value of
0.4 is used for the standard test. Thus, lip from Equation (2) with z = 0 becomes
Critical Crack Opening Displacement 255
0 = _0._4_(W_-_a_)_V::___P. (3)
P 0.4W + 0.6a
I '
I
/v.
a. /
I
I
lly
I
I
I
I
I
/ ''
,/
v
Figure 2. Different types of load-clip gauge displacement records according to British standards [ 1].
--.....--.-...--...-.::-::.::-=-==-~ J- rb-t
-=~-R!:.:~
a--~.. 1-b
w
Figure 3. Definition of o, and its relation to V.

256 E.E. Gdoutos
3. Solution
The critical crack opening displacement lie is calculated from Equations (I) to (3) (for
z = 0 and r = 0.4).
For the three-point bend specimen, K1 is calculated from Equations (3) and (4) of Prob-
lem. Table of Problem gives for a/W = 0.5, fta!W) = 2.66. K1 is computed as
K - (Jl. 6 kN) x (0. 25 m) x 2.66 = 47.7 MPa.J;;. (4)

1 - (0.03 m) x (0.06 m) 312
We have from the first Eq. (2)
r 2 2
o.= (47.7MPavm) X (1-0.3) =0.006mm. (5)
2 x (800 MPa) x (210 x 103 MPa)
The plastic component of the crack mouth displacement Vp is determined from the test
record P-V (Figure 1) by drawing a line from the maximum load parallel to the linear
portion of the curve. We have Vp = 1 mm. lip is determined from the second Eq. (2) as
11 = 0.4 (00.6- 0.03) m x 1 mm = 0. 286 mm. (6)

P (0.4x0.06+0.6x0.03)mm
The critical crack opening displacement is
00 = 0.006 + 0.286 =0.292 mm (7)
4. References
[I] British Standard B.S. 5762 (1979) Methods for Crack Opening Displacement Testing, British Standards
Institution, London.
[2] E.E. Gdoutos ( 1993) Fracture. Mechanics - An Introduction, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht,
Boston, London.
Problem 56: Crack Opening Displacement Design
Methodology *
E.E. Gdoutos
1. Problem
A steel structural member with a stress-concentration factor of 3 is subjected to a

nomimal design stress av/2 where avis the yield stress of the material in tension. Us-
ing the crack opening displacement design method determine the maximum crack
length the member can withstand without failure. The modulus of elasticity of steel is
E = 210 GPa, the yield stress is av = I GPa and the critical opening displacement is ~c
=0.5mm.
The objective of the crack opening displacement (COD) design methodology is to es-
tablish a relationship between the crack opening displacement and the applied load and
crack length. Knowing the critical crack opening displacement we can determine the
maximum permissible stress, or the maximum allowable crack length, in a structure.
For determining the COD design curve we should select an analytical model. Burdekin
and Stone [I] used the Dugdale model to obtain the following equation which ex-
presses the overall strain e(e = u/2y) of two equidistant points P from the crack (Figure
I)
lly
2[
-&= - 2ncoth
2t
_[1 ~2
1 -
n
- +n
-2-
1- k
2
]
(I)
with
258 E.E. Gdoutos
n=-,
y
a k =cos ( lt(J),
2<ry
Ey=-.
CSy
E
(2)
In this equation a is half the crack length, y is the distance of point P from the crack,
<ry is the yield stress of the material in tension and <r is the applied stress.
p
T
y
0 ----11--+-- a -----1
p 1
Figure 1. Points P at equal distances y from a crack oflength 2a.
Define the dimensionless crack opening displacement 1p by
(3)
where 1) is calculated from the Dugdale model. Eliminating stress <r from Equations
(I), (2} and (3}, we obtain the design curves shown in Figure 2. This figure enables us
to determine the maximum allowable overall strain in a cracked structure at position
a/y, when we know the critical crack opening displacement l)c and the crack length a.
Experimental data relating l)c and the maximum strain at fracture, fall into a single
scatter band of Figure 2 for a wide range of a/y values. It is thus shown that the design
curve based on the Dugdale model is far from reality. An empirical equation was ob-
tained [2] to describe the experimental data of Figure 2. This equation has the form
Crack Opening Displacement Design Methodology 259
~ = (4)
6~ - 0.25, (66v) > 0.5
w
~
t:: 3
N
'
I()
&
II
2
0 2.5 3.0 4.0
Figure 2. Design curves according to crack opening displacement criterion.
Dawes (3) argued that for small cracks (a/W < 0.1, W being the plate width) and ap-
plied stresses below the yield value,
- = -- (5)
Equations (4) and (5) show that the maximum allowable crack length amax is
260 E.E. Gdoutos
~y < 0.5
a max= (6)
-------·
2n(a -0.25av)
3. Solution
For a stress concentration factor of 3 and an applied stress of ov/2 we have
& & 1
-=3--=1.5. (7)
&y &y &y
For this case we obtain from the second Equation (4)
<p =1.5- 0.25 = 1.25 (8)
The yield strain &vis
oy 1 GPa
= 0.0048. (9)
&
v -E-
- -
2IOGPa
The critical half crack length ac is calculated from Equation (3) as
- (0.5xi0-Jm) -1326 (10)

ac- - . mm.
2lt X (0.0048) X 1.25
The critical crack length is
2ac = 26.5 mm. ( 11)
4. References
[I) F.M. Burdekin and D .E. W. Stone ( 1966) The Crack Opening Displacement Approach to Fracture Mechanics
in Yielding Materials, Journal ofStrain Analysis., 1, 145-153.
[2) M.G. Dawes (1974) Fracture Control in High Yield Strength Weldments, Welding Journal Research Sup-
plement, 53, 369S-379S.
[3] M.G. Dawes ( 1980) The COD Design Curve, in Advances in Elastic-Plastic Fracture Mechanics (ed. L.H.
Larsson), Applied Science Publishers, 279-300.
6. Strain Energy Density Fracture Criterion and
Mixed-Mode Crack Growth
Problem 57: Critical Fracture Stress of a Plate
with an Inclined Crack * *
MS. Konsta-Gdoutos
1. Problem
A large thick plate of steel contains a crack of length 5 mm oriented at an angle p =

30° with respect to the direction of applied uniaxial stress G. Calculate the angle of
initial crack extension and the value of the critical stress G0 for crack growth according
to the strain energy density criterion when the stress a is (a) tensile and (b) compres-
sive. K1c= 60 MPav'm, E = 210 GPa, v = 0.3.
The angle 90 of initial crack extension of a crack in a two-dimensional stress field is

calculated according to the strain energy density criterion by the relations [1, 2]
as= 0 (1)
ae '
where S is the strain energy density factor and r and e are the polar coordinates meas-
ured from the crack tip.
Sis given by [1, 2]
(2)
where the coefficients a;i (i, j = 1, 2) are
16!ta 11 = (1 +cos 9)(JC -cos 9)
1611 a 12 =sin 9[2 cos 9- (1C -1)] (3)
16!ta 22 = (1C+1)(1-cos9)+(1+cos9)(3cose -1)

In these equations 11 is the shear modulus, ki = K/ .,{; U = I, II), where K1 and Kn are
the mode-l and mode-11 stress intensity factors and K = 3 - 4v, or K = (3 - v)/(1 + v) for
plane strain and plane stress conditions, respectively.
Substituting S from Equation (2) into relations (I) we obtain
[2 cos 8 - (K- I)) sin 8 k~ + 2 [2 cos 28- (K- I) cos 8) k 1k 11 +

(4a)
+ [K- I- 6cos8)sin8) k~1 = 0
[2 cos 28- (K -I)] cos 8] k~ + 2[(K -!)sin 8- 4sin 28] k 1k 11 +

(4b)
+ [(K- I) cos 8- 6cos 28) k~1 > 0
Relations (4a) and (4b) represent the general formulas of the strain energy density cri-
terion for a crack in a two-dimensional stress field under mixed-mode loading condi-
tions. Suppose kh k11 stress intensity factors are known for a particular problem. Intro-
ducing these values into Equation (4a) we obtain the values of the crack extension an-
gle 8c as the roots of the equation which satisfY the Inequality (4b). Substituting these
roots, 80 , into Equation (2) we obtain the minimum values Smin of the strain energy
density factor. Then, we obtain the critical values of the applied loads corresponding to
the onset of rapid crack propagation by equating Smin to the material constant critical
strain energy density factor S0 •
Crack initiation occurs when
(5)
where Sc is the critical value of the strain energy density factor which is a material con-
stant. Sc represents the fracture toughness of the material, and is given by
(I+ v)(l- 2v) K fc

s = ------'----'=-- (6)
c 21t E
where K1c is the critical plane strain stress intensity factor and E is Young's modulus.
Consider a central crack of length 2a in an infinite plate subjected to a uniform uniax-

ial stress cr at infinity; suppose the axis of the crack makes an angle p with the direc-
tion of stress cr. Mixed-mode conditions predominate near the crack tip, and the values
of the kb k 0 stress intensity factors are given by [3]
(7)
Critical Fracture Stress of a Plate with an Inclined Crack 265
Substituting these values into Equation (2) we obtain the following equation for the
strain energy density factorS:
(8)
where the coefficients aij are given by Equation (3).
Equation (4a) for the calculation of the angle 9c of initial crack extension takes the
form:
(tc -I) sin (9 0 - 2P)- 2sin [2(9c- p)] -sin29c= 0, P -:F. 0 (9)
3. Solution
3.1 TENSILE APPLIED STRESS
Equation (9) with p = 30° and tc = 3 -4 v = 3 - 4 x 0.3 = 1.8 (since the plate is thick
conditions of plane strain dominate) becomes
(10)
The first root of this equation corresponding to tensile applied stress a which satisfies
inequality (4b) is
(II)
Indeed, for this root we have
1 a2 s
--=(tc-l)cos(6 -2P)-4cos2(6 -P)-2cos 26
a2a aa2 c c c
= 0.8cos (- 62.135°- 60°)- 4cos 2x (- 62.135°- 30°) (12)

- 2cos (2 x 62.135°) = 4.69 > 0
The critical value of strain energy density factor Sc is calculated as
S = (l+v)(l-2v)Kfc (l + 0.3)x (1- 2 x 0.3) x (60MPa..{r;;) 2

c 2xE 2xx (210x 103 MPa)
(13)
= 1.42 X 10-3 MPa m
We have
11 = E = 210 GPa = 80.77 GPa (14)

2 (1 + v) 2 (J + 0.3)
1
a 11 = - (1+cose.) (K-cose.)
1611
1
-------:3:---- [1 +cos (- 62.135° )][1.8 -cos (- 62.135°)]
16 X (80.77 X 10 MPa)
= 1.51314 X 10-6 MPa-1
al2 = - 1-sin e. [2 cos e. -(1C -1))

16!1
1 sin (- 62.13 5° )[2 cos (- 62.135°) - (1.8 -1.0)] (15)
3
16 x (80.77 x 10 MPa)
=- 0.0922 X 10-6 MPa- 1
1
a22 = -[(1C + 1)(1- cos e.)+ (I +cos e.)(3cos e. -1)]
1611
1
-------:3:---- ((1.8+ 1)(1- cos(- 62.135°)) +
16x(80.77x10 MPa)
(1 +cos(- 62.135°))x [3cos (- 62.135°) -1]) =
= 1.61063 X 10-6 MPa - 1
S(8 0 )=a~x(2.5x I0-3 m)[I.51314x 10~ sin23(/' +2x(-0.0922x 10~)sin3!fcos3(f

(16)
Equation (S) becomes

0.9415 X I0-9cr~ MPa- 1 m = 1.42 X w-3 MPam (17)
or
cr 0 = 1228 MPa (18)

Critical Fracture Stress of a Plate with an Inclined Crack 267
Equation ( 17) gives the critical value of the applied tensile stress for crack extension.
The initial crack extension angle is given by Equation (II).
3.2 COMPRESSIVE APPLIED STRESS
The second root of Equation (10) corresponding to compressive stress cr which satisfies
Inequality (4b) is
e.= 104.346° (19)
1 a2s
2 =
- 2- - - (K-I)cos(e. -2f3)-4cos2(9 0 -P)-2cos29 0
(J a ae
= 0.8cos(I04.346"- 600) -4cos2x(I04346" -30")-2cos(2 x104.346") (20)
=5.744>0
We have
16jla11 =(I +cose.)(JC-cose.)

= (I +cos I 04.346°) (1.8- cos I 04.346°) = 1.5404
16 J.l a12 =sin e.[2cos e.- (1C -I)]

(21)
= sin I 04.346°[2 cos I 04.346° - ( 1.8- 1.0)] = -1.255
= ( 1.8 + I) (1- cos I 04.346°) +(I+ cos I 04.346°) (3 cos I 04.346° -I)
= 2.1824
o~x(2.5xl0-3 m) . 2 0 • o o
S(9 c) = [1.5404 sm 30 + 2 (- 1.255) sm 30 cos 30
16 X (80.77 X 10 3 MPa)
(22)
or
0.4522 x 10-9 cr~ MPa-•m = 1.42 x 10-3 MPam
or
(23)
Equation (23) gives the critical value of the applied compressive stress for crack initia-
tion. The initial crack extension angle is given by Equation ( 19).
4. References
[I) G.C. Sib (1973) Some Basic Problems in Fracture Mechanics and New Concepts, Engineering Fracture
Mechanics, 5, 365-377.
[2) G.C. Sib (1974) Strain-Energy-Density Factor Applied to Mixed Mode Crack Problems, International
Journal ofFracture, I 0, 305-321.
(3) E. E. Gdoutos ( 1993) Fracture Mechanics - An Introduction, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht,
Boston, London.
Problem 58: Critical Crack Length of a Plate
with an Inclined Crack**
E.E. Gdoutos
1. Problem
A large thick plate of steel is subjected to a stress a = 800 MPa oriented at an angle 50°
with respect to the direction of a through crack. Calculate the maximum permissible
crack length the plate can withstand without fracture when the stress a is (a) tensile
and (b) compressive. Sc= 1500 N/m, E = 210 GPa, v = 0.3.
See Problem 57.
3. Solution
For a thick plate conditions of plane strain dominate in the vicinity of the crack tip.
The parameter K takes the value
K =3 - 4v = 3- 4 x 0.3 = 1.8 (I)
Equation (9) of Problem 57 becomes
(2)
The first root of this equation corresponding to tensile applied stress which satisfies
inequality (4b) of Problem 57 is
ec = - 48.3275° (3)

270 E.E. Gdoutos
1
- 2- - -
a2s
2 = (K-I}cos(e.-2P)- 4cos2(e. -P) -2cosec
C1 a ae
= (1.8-1) cos(- 48.3275°-2 x 50°)- 4cos 2(- 48.3275°-50°}
- 2 COS(- 2 X 48.3275°) = 3.383 > Q (4)
The value of the strain energy density factor S(ec) for the critical angle ec is calculated
from Equation (8) of Problem 57. We have
with
16!1 au = (1 +COS e 0 }(K- COSec)

= [1 +cos(- 48.3275°) [1.8 -cos(- 48.3275°)] = 1.8900
16!1 a12 =sin e 0 (2cosec- (K -I))

(6)
=sin (- 48.3275°) [2 cos (- 48.3275°) - (1.8 - I)] =- 0.3957
16!1 a22 = (K + 1}(1- COSec)+ (I+ COSe 0 }(3COS ec -1)

= (1.8 + 1)[1-cos (- 48.3275°)] +[I +cos(- 48.3275°))
x [3 cos(- 48°3275) -1] = 2.5943
11 = E = 210 GPa = 80.77 GPa (7)

2(1+v) 2(1+0.3)
Thus, we obtain
2
s (e.) = <800 MPa) a. (1.8900 sin 2 50° - 2 x 0.3957 sin50° cos 50°
16 x (80.77 x 10 3 MPa)
+ 2.594 x cos 2 50°) = 0.5206 a. (8)
From Equation (5) ofProblem 57 we have
(9)
or
Critical Crack Length of a Plate with an Inclined Crack 271
0.5206ac = 1500 X 10-6 (10)

or
2ac=5.76mm (11)
Equation (11) gives the maximum permissible crack length the plate can withstand
without fracture for a tensile applied stress cr = 800 MPa.
The second root of Equation (2) corresponding to compressive applied stress which
satisfies inequality (4b) of Problem 57 is
(12)
1 a2 s
- - = (K-I)cos(9- 2A)- 4cos2(9 _A)- 2cos29
cr2 a a9 2 c t' c t' c
= (1.8- 1) COS (121.7295°- 2 X 50°)- 4 COS 2 (121.7295°- 50°) (13)

-2 COS (2 X 121.7295°) = 4.85 > 0
The value of the strain energy density factor S(9c) for the critical angle 9c is calculated
from Equation (5). We have
16Jla 11 = (1 +COS 9c)(K- COS 9c)

= (1 +cos 121.7295°) (1.8- cos 121.7295°) = 1.1027
1611a 12 =sin9c [2cos9c-(K-1))

( 14)
= sin 121. 7295°[2 cos 121.7295°- (1.8 - I)] = - 1.575
l6J.ta 22 = (K+1)(1-cos9c) + (l+cos9c) (3cos9c-1)

= (1.8 + 1) (I-eos 121.7295°) + (1 +cos 121.7295°)
X (3 COS 121.7295°-l) = 3.0505
Equation (5) becomes

272 E.E. Gdoutos
(-8aaMPa) 2 a . .
Sc = c (1.1 a27 Sin 2 Sa 0 - 2 X l.S7S Sin Sa° COS Sao
16 x (8a.77 X 1a 3 MPa)
(IS)
From Equations (9) and (1S) we obtain
a.Ja36ac = ISOa x Ia-<> (16)
or
2ac = 28.96mm (I 7)
Equation ( 17) gives the maximum permissible crack length the plate can withstand
without fracture for a compressive applied stress cr = 8aO MPa.
From Equation (II) and ( 17) we observe that the critical crack length for a compres-
sive stress is almost five times greater than for a tensile stress.
4. References
[I] E.E. Gdoutos ( 1993) Fracture Mechanics - An Introduction, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht,
Boston, London.
Problem 59: Failure of a Plate with an Inclined Crack **
E.E. Gdoutos
l. Problem
A large thick plate contains a crack of length 2a oriented at an angle ~ with respect to
the direction of applied uniaxial stress cr. Plot the variation of the quantity cr 0 Fc
versus ~ for Sc = 1500 N/m, where CJc and ac are the critical values of cr and a at crack
growth when the applied stress cr is (a) tensile and (b) compressive.
See Problem 57.
3. Solution
The crack extension angle Sc is calculated from the roots Equation (9) which satisfY
Inequality (4b) of Problem 57 for JC = 3 - 4v = 1.8. The quantity S/cr 2a is then calcu-
lated from Equation (8) of Problem 57. Equation (5) of Problem 57 is then used to
Fc. Values of Sc. (S/cr a)I0" and cr Fc
calculate the quantity cr 0 2 13
0 are given in
Table I. The variation of CJ Fc versus angle~ is plotted in Figure I.

0
113 0 10" 20' 30' 40' 50' 60' 70' 80' 90'
e, ·82.3" -75.51' -68.81' -62.14' -55.38' -48.33' -40.58' -31.25° -18.35' 0
(S/cr2 a)
x10·13 0 0.44 1.77 3.77 6.02 8.13 9.86 11.15 12.03 12.38
cr,..J~
(MPa) oc 184.6 92.1 63.11 49.9 43.0 39.0 36.7 35.3 34.9
274 E.E. Gdoutos
200
160
I
1.( 100
r1
50
0~--~---L----L---~--~~~
v ~ ~ - w ~ ~
Figure I. Variation of o 0
' Pfor tensile applied stress
,r;:; versus angle
Working as in the case of tensile stress, we obtain the values of the quantities 90 ,
(S/a 2a)l0"13 and a0 ~. They appear in Table 2. The variation of a. ,{a:; versus an-
gle p is plotted in Figure 2.
p 0 10" 20" 30" 40" so• 60" 70" 80" 90"
6, 82.3" 89.36" 96.65" I 04.35" 112.6" 121.73" 132.20" 144.85" 160.78" 180"
(S/o2 a) 0 0.36 1.13 1.81 2.00 1.62 0.91 0.29 O.Q25 0

xlo·"
o.-.Jao oc: 205.3 115.3 91.1 86.1 96.3 128.6 228.7 771.8 oc:
(MPa)
Failure of a Plate with an Inclined Crack 275
800
600
....
a..
!.
1.( 400
r1
200
Figure 2. Variation of o 0 F: versus angle p for compressive applied stress.

4. References
Boston, London.
Problem 60: Growth of a Plate with an Inclined Crack
Under Biaxial Stresses***
E.E. Gdoutos
1. Problem
Consider a crack of length 2a that makes an angle ~ with the y direction in an infinite
plate subjected to stresses a and ka along the y and x directions, respectively, at infin-
ity (Figure I). Plot the variation of crack extension angle 9c and the critical stress a. for
crack growth versus the crack inclination angle ~ for k = 0.2, 0.6, -0.2 and -1.0 and JC
= 1.0, 1.4, 1.8, 2.2., 2.6 and 3.0 when the stress a is (a) tensile, and (b) compressive.
Figure 1. An inclined crack in an infinite plate subjected to biaxial stress.

278 E.E. Gdoutos
See Problem 57.
3. Solution
The stress intensity factors K1 and Kn at the crack tip are given by [I]
(I)
Kn = (1-k) sin Pcos PK 0 (2)
where
(3)
Working as Problem 57, we obtain the crack extension angle 90 and the critical stress
a0 for crack growth. The variation of the quantities -9c and 16 J!S.! cr~ac versus crack
inclination angle p for various values of k is shown in Figures 2 and 3 for tensile ap-
plied stress and in Figures 4 and 5 for compressive applied stress.
4. References
Boston, London.
Growth of a Plate with an Inclined Crack Under Biaxial Stresses 279
90'.-------- -
so' k = 0.2
P-
(a)
!b) P-
r-----------------------~·mo•
I
k = -1.0
['~'
. ocf "'"U
~
0
-6d ~
II
(c)
Figure 2. Crack extension angle- (J, versus crack inclination angle tJ for tensile applied stress and k ~ 0.2 (a). 0.6
(b) and- 0.2 and- 1.0 (c).
280 E.E. Gdoutos
k =0.6
3
t 0
~
2
~
CJ)
::I.
<0
0
0" 20° 40° so• eo• 90"
(a) P-
41
I
k = -0 .2
31
tu2 !
~ I
~
CJ)
~ 1-
0
o• 40° so" 90°
(b) P-
4
3
k = -1.0
t u 2
~
st 0
1:
CJ)
::::1.
<0
0
o· 40° so" go•
(c) ll -
Figure 3. Normalized inverse square of critical stress 16 I!S, I o~ac versus crack inclination angle~ for tensile
applied stress and k = 0.6, - 0.2 and -1 .0.
Growth of a Plate with an Inclined Crack Under Biaxial Stresses 281
18 ~·----------------------------------~.
k = 0.20
t()
CD
100~<,"-----2-
0;;-----4-0-:":-----6-0"G_ _ _ _ ad QO"
,so•
''20.. l
e
~
90'
q
~
'
60" .:.<
3d'
. C! sif BO' 'l(l

~-
Figure 4. Crack extension angle 6, versus crack inclination angle (} for compressive applied stress and k = 0.2
(a). 0.6 (b), and- 0.2 and- 1.0 (c).
282 E.E. Gdoutos
k = 0.6
oooc.
I
~
~
(f)
"' noo:;
<D
2 0°
(a) p-
0 .6
k = -0.2
0 .4
t
20° 40° 60" ao• go•

(b)
4
I
K: 3.0
k =-1 .0
3 12.6
t 2
)!'
~
<J)
::J..
10
0 0
0
(c)
Figure 5. Normalized inverse square of critical stress 16 11 S, I o~ ac versus crack inclination angle ~ for com-
pressive applied stress and k = 0.6 (a).- 0.2 (b) and - 1.0 (c).
Problem 61: Crack Growth Under Mode-ll Loading**
E.E. Gdoutos
I. Problem
For a mode-II crack, plot the variation of the circumferential stress cr9 and the strain
energy density factorS versus polar angle e forK= 2.0. Indicate the values of the angle
e for which the former has a local maximum and the latter a local minimum. These
values give the crack growth directions according to the maximum stress and the strain
energy density (SED) criteria.
See Problem 57.
3. Solution
The circumferential stress cr9 in the vicinity of the crack tip under mode-II loading is
given by [I]
(I)
From Equations (2) and (3) of Problem 57 we obtain for the strain energy density fac-
tor S for K = 2.0
16 Jl S = [3 (1- cos 9)+(1 +cos9)(3 cose -1)]ki1

(2)
where k n =K 11 I J; and Kn is the mode-II stress intensity factor.

284 E.E. Gdoutos
u:- 0
-1
8,=-70.5"
-1a0 -1s0 -120 -90 .00 -30 0 3ci sO 90 120 1s0 1s0
e
Figure 1. Variation ofF, versusangle6.
2
I
I
I
I
I 8,•-eoA"
-180 -11iCi -12ci .eci -eli -30 d -30 eO sci 1z0 1s0 1e0
Figure 2. Variation ofF, versus angle 6.

Crack Growth Under Mode-ll Loading 285
k:
Numerical values of the quantities F1 = ./2 xro 8 I K 11 and F2 = 16 J.IS/ 1 for various
values of e (-180° S:: e S:: ISO") are shown in the following tables I and 2.
Table I. Values ofF 1= ./2xro 8 /K 11 for various values ofe (-180° s; e s; 180°).
e - 180° - 165° - 150° - 135° - 120° - 105° -90°

F1 0 0.051 0.194 0.406 0.650 0.882 1.061
e - 75° -60° -45° -30° - 15° 0
F1 1.149 1.125 0.980 0.724 0.385 0
e 15° 30° 45° 60° 75° 90° 105°
F1 -0.385 -0.724 -0.980 - 1.125 - 1.145 - 1.061 -0.882
e 120° 135° 150° 165° 180°
F1 -0.650 -0.406 -0.194 - 0.051 0
Table 2. Values ofF 2= 16 11 /K i 1 for various values of e ( -180° S:: e s; 180° ).
e - 180° - 165° - 150° - 135° - 120° - 105° -90°

F2 6.000 5.765 5.116 4.207 3.250 2.460 2.000
e - 75° -60° -45° -30° - 15° 0
F2 1.942 2.250 2.793 3.384 3.833 4.000
e 15° 30° 45° 60° 75° 90° 105°
F2 3.833 3.384 2.793 2.250 1.942 2.000 2.460
e 120° 135° 150° 165° 180°
F2 3.250 4.207 5.116 5.765 6.000
A plot of the quantities F I and F2 versus e ( -180° s; e s; 180°) is shown in Figure 1

and Figure 2.
From Figure I we observe that the circumferential stress o 8 becomes maximum at ec =

-70.5°. This value ore represents the crack extension angle according to the maximum
stress criterion. From Figure 2 we observe that the strain energy density factor S be-
comes minimum at ec = - 80.42°. This value of e represents the crack extension angle
according to the strain energy density criterion. Note that the predictions of the crack
extension angle by the two criteria differ by about 10°.
4. References
[I) E.E. Gdoutos (1993) Fracture Mechanics- An Introduction, Kluwer Academic Publisher.;, Dordrecht,
Boston, London.
Problem 62: Growth of a Circular Crack Loaded
Perpendicularly to its Cord by Tensile Stress***
E.E. Gdoutos
1. Problem
l
An infinite plate contains a circular crack of radius R and angle 2p and is subjected to
a uniform uniaxial tensile stress a at infinity perpendicular to the chord of the crack.
The stress intensity factors k1 and k 0 at the crack tip are given by [I]
1-sin 2 ~cos 2 ~)cos~

. R)l/2 [(
k 1 = -(J (R Sinp 2 2 2 + COS -3P
l
(Ia)
2 -2P-
1 +sm 2
2
k 11 =~(RsinP) 112
[(I .-sm 2 -cos
P
2
2 -P) sm-
:
. P
2 +sin Jp . (1 b)
2 . 2-
I +sm 2
2
Plot the variation of the angle of crack extension 9c, and the critical stress crc for crack
growth, versus the angle of the crack 2p, for various values of K (K = 3 - 4v for plane
strain and K = (3 - v) I (I + v) for plane stress).
See Problem 57.
3. Solution
Substituting the values of stress intensity factors k 1 and kn from Equation (I) into
Equation ( 4a) of Problem 57 of the strain energy density criterion we obtain an equa-
tion containing the quantities p, K and e. The roots of this equation which satisfY ine-
quality ( 4b) of Problem 57 give the values of the crack extension angle 9c The critical
288 E.E. Gdoutos
stress CJc for initiation of crack extension is then determined from equations (2), (3) and
(5) of Problem 57, where Sc is a material parameter.
Figure I presents the variation of- 9c versus the half angle of the circular crack ~ for
the extreme values ofK equal to 1.0 and 3.0. The figure also shows the straight line- 9 1
= ~ corresponding to extension of the crack at a right angle to the direction of the ap-
plied load. We see that the angle - 9 1 increases monotonically with ~. and that, in the
interval 0°< ~ < 137.5°, the angles- 9 1 forK= 1.0 are always greater than those forK=
3.0. This rule is reversed in the interval 137.5°< ~ < 180°. Furthermore, Figure I illus-
trates that initial crack extension takes place in a direction almost normal to the ap-
plied load for all values of~ in the interval 0 < ~ < 120°. When the angle ~ is greater
than 120° the direction of crack extension deviates from that normal to the load, be-
coming parallel to the applied load for~= 180°.
The values of the quantity CJc (R/I61JSc)Y' for K = 1.0, 1.4 and 3.0 are presented in Fig-
ure 2. It can be seen that all curves for the values of the angle ~ equal to ~ = 0°, 180°
and 137.5° tend to infinity. We conclude that a plate weakened by a circular crack re-
quires an infinitely large stress for crack extension, not only for the trivial case of zero
angle circular crack, but also for the values of2~ = 275° and 360°. The infinite value of
stress for crack extension is given by the linear theory of fracture. Its physical meaning
is that failure of the cracked plate takes place at the same critical load as failure of the
uncracked plate. We further observe that the critical stress for crack extension de-
creases as K increases, or as the Poisson's ratio v decreases. We also see that, for each
value of K, there is a specific value of the angle of crack 2~ at which the required stress
for crack extension reaches a minimum. This critical value of the angle 2~ is equal to
85°, 115° and 140° forK= 3.0, 1.4 and 1.0 respectively.
"!JXf
1~1:
m·
zorl
~ 150"
too'
50'
eo•
,
g()" 120" 150' 180'
Figure 1. Crack extension angle ~' versus half angle Pof a circular crack whose chord is perpendicular to the
applied tensile stress forK= 1.0 and 3.0. The straight dotted line corresponds to the extension ofthe
crack at right angle to the direction of the applied stress.
Growth of a Circular Crack Loaded Perpendicularly to its Cord by Tensile Stress 289
12
10
s_u 8
~
-
6
~
ll:
IN
2
()o"
Figure 2 Normalized critical stress for crack extension versus half angle II of a circular crack whose chord is
perpendicular to the applied tensile stress for 1C = 1.0, 1.4 and 3.0.
4. References
[I) G.C. Sih (1973) Handbook of Stress Intensity Factors, Institute of Fracture and Solid Mechanics, Lehigh
University, USA.
Problem 63: Growth of a Circular Crack Loaded
Perpendicularly to its Cord by Compressive Stress***
E.E. Gdoutos
I. Problem
Solve Problem 62 when the applied stress is compressive.
3. Solution
Working as in Problem 62 for compressive applied stress we obtain the angle of initial
crack extension 90 and the critical stress 110 • Results for -90 and the normalized critical
stress are shown in Figures I and 2.
Figure I. Crack extension angle -6, versus angle~ for"= I and 3.0. The straight dotted line - 6c =P corres-ponds
to the extension of the crack at right angle to the direction of the applied stress.
292 E.E. Gdoutos
~..J.j_JJ
I
,,;~v I
i
I
6 <..__..>
I '
r I
~~-
I
~
;::;......
4
en
0
::::1..
-
~
.....
<0
0::: 2
0
b
0 ~------~------~~------.-------~-------n~-----
00 30• so· go• 120• :so• 1ao•
Figure 2. Normalized critical stress versus angle p forK = I, 1.4 and 3.0
4. References
[I) E.E. Gdoutos ( 1993) Fracture Mechanics - An Introduction, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, Bos-
ton, London.
Problem 64: Growth of a Circular Crack Loaded Parallel
to its Cord ***
E.E. Gdoutos
1. Problem
An infinite plate contains a circular crack of radius R and angle 2p and is subjected to
l
a uniform uniaxial stress cr at infinity parallel to the chord of the crack (Figure 1). The
stress intensity factors k1 and ku at the crack tip are given by [I]
k 1 = -cr (R SID
. R)I/2
p
r( l + sin 2 ~2 cos ~)cos
2
2
~2 3P
- COS - (Ia)
2 l+sin 2 ~ 2
2
k I I =cr- (R SIDp
. R)I/2 r( 2
~
l + sin 2 cos 2
2
~)cos~2 . 3P
-SID-
1 (I b)
2 l+sin 2 ~ 2
2
Plot the variation of the angle of crack extension 90 and the critical stress crc for crack
growth versus the angle of the crack 2P for various values of 1C (K = 3 - 4v for plane
strain and 1C = (3-v)/(l+v) for plane stress) when the stress cr is (a) tensile, and (b) com-
pressive.
See Problem 57, 62 and 63.

294 E.E. Gdoutos
Figure I. An infinite plate containing a circular crack with its chord parallel to the direction of applied uniaxial
stress.
3. Solution
Working as in Problem 57 we obtain the angle of initial crack extension 9c and the
critical stress CJ0 for crack growth. The variation of the quantities 90 and CJ0(R/64J.LSc)~'~
versus the angle f3 for tensile and compressive applied stress a for various values ofK is
shown in Figures 2 and 3.
Growth of a Circular Crack Loaded Parallely to its Cord 295
30° , I
~-,.1a
CD
0 o·
-30°
-so·
-90°
30o"
~.·~:~:Ja
250° ~--u-~-
: ~-·
:_ ( 2P
; >,
!
'
I_
:
I .
0
200° I - j
CD ~r:a
I
150°
mo•
so·
o· 120° 150° 180°
Figure 2. Variation of the crack extension angle e, with the half angle of the circular crack whose cord is parallel
to the applied stress for tensile (a) and compressive (h) applied stress for tc ~ I and 3. The straight dot-
ted line ~c ~ ~corresponds to the extension of the crack at right angle to the direction ofthe applied
stress.
296 E.E. Gdoutos
12
FJ
'I!' •• Iff
9
,//
, • l a
s,-.._ 6
u
C/l
(J
:::1.
'<:!"
\.0 ~10
C2
3
---!_
1.4
'-" I
u
30
t:l I
0
8
6
["~!"
~-"\ I
,,~ )
_,'-, .__,J
i
!
~
,-.._ l 1 •••. ,.~ 0
u
C/l
:::1. 4
'<:!"
~
'-"
u
2
t:l t
3.0
0
o" 30" 60° 90" 120° 150° 180°
II
Figure 3. Variation of the normalized critical stress o,(R/64J1S,)''• for crack extension versus p for tensile (a) and
compressive (b) applied stress o forK~ 1.0, 1.4,and 3.0 ..
4. References
[I] G.C. Sih, P.C. Paris and F. Erdogan (1962) Crack Tip Stress·lntensity Factors for Plane Extension and
Plate Bending Problems, Journal ofApplied Mechanics, Trans. ASME. 29, 306·312.
Problem 65: Growth of Radial Cracks Emanating from a
Hole***
E.E. Gdoutos
1. Problem
An infinite elastic plate is perforated by a circular hole of radius R and a system of n

symmetrically located small radial cracks of length I (Figure 1). The plate is subjected
to a uniform uniaxial tensile stress CI at infinity forming an angle a with the x-axis.
The stress intensity factors k~D and kH> at the tip ofthej crack are given by [I]
(Ia)
k(j) = cr../R ~I-A 20 [l/2(l+A")]( 21 ")-t[2sin2(9·-a)+

" .J2 nA J
(I b)
+ 2E cr sin (9j - 2a) + (A 0 - EC~) sin 2a)
where
(2)
(3)
298 E.E. Gdoutos
~:c? = 0,
2
( I1-~ 2J2 (4)
EC2 = +~2
EC~ = EC~ = 0 (n ~ 3) (5)
Determine the critical fracture stress crc of the plate that triggers unstable growth of one
of the radial cracks.
/77777777/!C1
Figure 1. An infinite plate perforated by a circular hole with an array of n small radial cracks subjected to an
inclined tension o.
See Problem 57
Growth of Radial Cracks Emanating from a Hole 299
3. Solution
The critical value a~il of the applied stress a for extension of the j-crack is obtained by
using Equations (4) and (2) of Problem 57 of the strain energy density criterion for the
j-crack, with the values of the stress intensity factors k~j) and k~fl given by Equations
(1) to (5). It is evident that brittle failure of the plate will take place from the extension
of the crack which requires the lowest critical stress, a~i>. Therefore, the critical value
ac of the applied stress for failure of the plate is given by
(6)
Figure 2 presents the variation of the dimensionless critical stress Oc (R I 32 ~ Scf11'

versus the angle a of inclination of the applied stress with respect to the Ox-axis for a
plate containing five (n = 5) radial cracks. The ratio oof crack length f to hole radius
R takes the values o = 0.01 and 0.1. The material constant K is equal to K = 1.4, 1.8,
2.2 and 3.0. The dashed lines in the figure separate the regions in which fracture of the
plate starts from unstable growth of the more vulnerable crack j = 0, 2 and 4. Values of
the quantity Oc (R/32 ~ Scfy, for a= 60°, 0 = 0.01, 0.04 and 0.1, K = 1.4, 2.2 and 3.0
and various radial cracks (n = 1, 2, ... , 20) are presented in Table I.
Table I. Values of Oc (R/32 ~ scr~'~ for a= 60°.
0 = 0.01 0 = 0.04 0 = 0.1

n K= 1.4 K= 2.2 K = 3.0 K = 1.4 K = 2.2 K= 3.0 K=1.4 K=2.2 K= 3.0
1 4.0029 2.3111 1.7902 2.0735 1.1972 0.9273 1.3991 0.8079 0.6258
2 4.0021 2.3106 1.7898 2.0731 1.1969 0.9271 1.3974 0.8069 0.6250
3 1.5433 1.1135 0.9305 0.7802 0.5650 0.4728 0.5036 0.3671 0.3080
4 1.9645 l. 7359 1.6026 0.9895 0.8744 0.8072 0.6351 0.5612 0.5181
5 1.5800 1.0163 0.8004 0.8524 0.5189 0.4091 0.5172 0.3413 0.2696
6 1.5434 1.1136 0.9305 0.7810 0.5655 0.4732 0.5066 0.3689 0.3094
7 1.5618 1.0454 0.8480 0.7920 0.5323 0.4334 0.5163 0.3494 0.2851
8 1.5947 1.0172 0.8138 0.8105 0.5191 0.4158 0.5314 0.3425 0.2750
9 1.5436 1.0107 0.8008 0.7827 0.5166 0.4098 0.5127 0.3427 0.2723
10 1.5853 1.0165 0.8005 0.8037 0.5205 0.4103 0.5279 0.3469 0.2739
20 1.5551 1.0175 0.8013 0.8018 0.5282 0.4164 0.5621 0.3730 0.2943
300 E.E. Gdoutos
n-5
3
4=0.01
-
s 2
-~
a:
t¥
1 j-4
2.2 3.0
oo• 15° 30. 45- 6o"" 7'/S' go•
(a) «
1.0
4=0.1
.r.:.
-::.-
tJl
~0.5
-
~ j-4
a:
t¥ 3.0
2.2
o.o 0 • 15° 30° 45. 6o"" 7~ 90'"
Figure 2. Nonnalized critical stress for crack extension versus angle u of inclination of the applied stress with
respect to the x-axis of Figure 1 with n = 5 and (a)() = 0.01 and (b)()= 0.1, forK= 1.4, 1.8, 2.2 and
3.0.
4. References
[I] A.A. Kaminskii and N.S. Sailov (1973) Failure of a Brittle Body Close to a Hole as a Result of Development
of a System of Surface Cracks, Problems Prochnosti, 10,71-76.
Problem 66: Strain Energy Density in Cuspidal Points of
Rigid Inclusions **
E.E. Gdoutos
J. Problem
A rigid inclusion with a cuspidal corner 0 is perfectly bonded to an infinite plate

which is subjected to general in-plane loading at infinity (Figure 1). The stress field
near the point 0 is given by [1]
crr= 4~ [k{5cos~+(2K+l)cos 3;]-ku[5sin~+(2K-I)sin 3;]]
where the coefficients k1 and ku are independent of the coordinates r,e and depend on
loading conditions, the plate material and the geometrical shape of the inclusion at the
cuspidal point.
Show that the strain energy density factor S is given by [2]
(2)
where
16~ al2 = -((K -1)+ 2 K COS 9)sin 9 (3)

302 E.E. Gdoutos
r--------- -'----- ------,

I
• ....
;
I
I y
I
I
I
I
I
I
f: I
I
I
X
I
I
I JJ., ll
I
I
I I
L--------;1 ---------~
Figure 1. A rigid inclusion with a cuspidal point embedded in a matrix.
See Problem 57.
3. Solution
The strain energy density factor S is given by [2]

Strain Energy Density in Cuspidal Points of Rigid Inclusions 303
dW
S=r- (4)
dV
where the strain energy density dW/dV is [2]
(5)
From Equation (I) we have
crr+ cr 9 = ~ (k, cos~-k

v2r 2
11 sin~)
2
(6)
32 r (crrcre- t~) = k~[8 cos 9 + 7-2 (2 K +I) cos 29- (2 K + 1) 2 ]
+ k~ [- 8 COS 9 + 7 + 2 (21<:- I) COS 9- (2K- 1) 2 ) (7)
Substituting equations (6) and (7) into equations (4) and (5) we obtain Equations (2)
and (3).
4. References
[I] V.V Panasyuk, L.T. Barenblatt and 1.1. Trush (1972) Stress Distribution About Defects Such as Rigid
Sharp-Angled Inclusions, Problemy Prochnosti, 7, 3-9.
[2] G.C. Sih ( 1973) Some Basic Problems in Fracture Mechanics and New Concepts, Engineering Fracture
Problem 67: Failure from Cuspidal Points of Rigid
Inclusions**
E.E. Gdoutos
1. Problem
Show that the angle formed by the fracture path with the tangent of the inclusion at the
cuspidal point is given according to the strain energy density criterion by
[(K-1)+2(2K+l)cos9]sin9kf +2[(K-l)cos9+2Kcos29]k 1k 2 +
(I)
+[-(K-1)-2(2K-l)cos9]sin9 k~ = 0
[-(K-l)cos9-2(2K+l)cos29]k; +2[(K-1)+8K cos9]sin9 k 1k 2 +

(Ia)
+[(K-l)cos9+2(2K-I)cos29]k~ >0
and according to the maximum circumferential stress criterion by

3 9 2 9 K
(I+ K) k 1 tan -+ (3K- 1) k 0 tan --(I+ 3K) k 1 tan-- (K-l)k 0 = 0 (2)
2 2 2
subject to the conditions that a 2 u 9 /a9 2 < 0 and u 9 > 0.
See Problem 57.
3. Solution
3.1 STRAIN ENERGY DENSITY CRITERION
The fracture angle 9c according to the strain energy density criterion is determined by
[l]
306 E.E. Gdoutos
as (3)
-=0
ae '
From Problem 66 we obtain
a(l6~tall)
- [(K -1)+ 2(2K +I) cos e]sin e
ae
(4)
=- [(K- I) cose + 2K cos 2 e]
a(l 6 1l a 22 ) = (K -1) sin9 + 2 (2K -1) sin 9 COS 9

ae
and
a 2 (16~ta12) . .
. 29 = [( K-1)+8KCOS9 ] sm9
----:---""----=(K-1)sm9+4KSID (5)
ae2
a 2 (16~ta
==
)
22-'-=
--'-...:::--' (K -I) cos e + 2 (2K- I) cos 2 e
ae 2
From Equations (4) and (5) we obtain relations (I) and (Ia).
3.2 MAXIMUM CIRCUMFERENTIAL STRESS CRITERION
The fracture angle ec according to the maximum circumferential stress criterion is de-
termined by
aa a
-=0 (6)
ae
From Equation (I) of Problem 66 we obtain
k{sin %- (2K +I) sin 3; ]+kn[cos %- (2K- I) cos 3; J= 0 (7)

Failure from Cuspidal Points of Rigid Inclusions 307
or
k 1 + [sin~-3(2JC + 1) sin~+ 4(2JC + 1) sin 3 ~] +
2 2 2
(8)
k 11 0
[cos--4(2JC-1)cos 0 3 OJ =0
-+3(2JC-1)cos-
2 2 2
or
k 1 [1- 6K- 3 + 4(2JC + 1) sin 2 ~] sin~+ ku[1 + 6JC- 3- 4(2JC -1) cos 2 ~]cos~= 0
2 2 2 2
or
(9)
or
(10)
or
or
4. References
[I) G.C. Sih (1973) Some Basic Problems in Fracture Mechanics and New Concepts, Engineering Fracture
Mechanics. 5, 365-377.
Problem 68: Failure of a Plate with a Hypocycloidal
Inclusion **
E.E. Gdoutos
I. Problem
A rigid hypocycloidal inclusion is embedded in an infinite plate which is subjected to a

uniaxial uniform stress cr at infinity (Figure I). The equation of the inclusion with re-
spect to the frame Oxy is of the form
z_-2a
-
3
(r..,+-..,r2)
I
2
(I)
with
(Ia)
and the stress cr subtends an angle ~ with the x-axis. For this problem the coefficients
k1 and ku are given by (I]
k1(j)_ 5
---cr
3K
[K-12
(4n:j
-+cos - - - 2..,
3
f.l)] (2a)
k(j)
n -5
---O'Stn • (4n:j
-- 2A)
p (2b)
3K 3
with j = 0, I, 2 for the three cuspidal points ofthe inclusions.
a. Plot the variation of the dimensionless quantities 12(r/a)~ (cr8/cr) and (7211S/cr2 a)
versus angle e for j = 0 and ~ = 250°, K = 1.8. Find the angle (9 0 ) 1 for which the
former quantity becomes maximum, and the angle (Bch for which the latter has a
local minimum. These angles are the fracture angles according to the maximum
stress and the strain energy density (SED) criteria.
b. Plot the variation of the critical stress and the fracture angle of the composite plate
for a tensile applied stress 0' according to the maximum stress and strain energy
310 E.E.Gdoutos
density failure criteria. Indicate the regions in which fracture starts from the more
vulnerable corners of the inclusion.
r--------Jl~-------,
~--------ll:-------~
Figure I. A rigid hypocycloidal inclusion embedded in an infinite plate.
See Problem 57.
3. Solution
a. Introducing the values of kjD and k\P from Equations (2) into Equations (1) to (3)
of Problem 66 we obtain the quantities 12(r/a) 112 (<Je/<J) and (72!1SI<J 2a). The varia-
tion of the above quantities with the polar angle e is plotted in Figure 2. From this
figure we obtain that <Je becomes maximum at an angle (9c)I = 130.4°, while Stakes
the maximum of the two minimum values (9c= 123.9° and 225.5°) at an angle 9c=
123.9°.
Failure of a Plate with a Hypocycloidal Inclusion 311
b. The variation of the normalized critical stress (1/12) (alrt'(cr.,/cr) and fracture angle
Be versus angle p according to the maximum stress and strain energy density crite-
ria for tensile applied stress are plotted in Figures 3 and 4. Regions where fracture
initiation starts from either of the corners j = 0 or j = 2 are indicated in the figures.
(a)
·-
- t
-
NCG
0
e::1.
n
-
N
.......
(b) ·-
Figure 2. Variation of the normalized circumferential stress and strain energy density factor versus polar angle.
312 E.E.Gdoutos
(a)
-- - - - stress model
- strain energy model
50'
110'
Figure 3. Variation of the normalized critical stress according to the maximum stress and fracture angle accord-
ing to maximum stress and strain energy density criteria versus angle p.
Failure of a Plate with a Hypocycloidal Inclusion 313
I
O.St
I
I
!
OAd 1d 4d sri
Figure 4. Variation of the normalized critical stress according to the strain energy density criterion versus
angle!}.
4. References
[I) V.V Panasyuk, L.T. Barenblatt and IJ. Trush (1972) Stress Distribution About Defects Such as Rigid
[2) G.C. Sih ( 1973) Some Basic Problems in Fracture Mechanics and New Concepts, Engineering Fracture
Problem 69: Crack Growth From Rigid Rectilinear Inclu-
sions**
E.E. Gdoutos
1. Problem
The stress field at the end points of a rigid rectilinear inclusion embedded in an infinite
plate is given by equations of Problem 66. For an inclusion of length 21 that subtends
an angle ~ with the direction of applied uniaxial stress cr at infinity the coefficients k1
and kn are given by (I, 2]
ali (K
k 1 = - - --1
- + COS 2 ~ ) (Ia)
2K 2
krr =-ali sin 2~ (I b)

2K
Plot the variation of fracture angle and critical stress for fracture of the composite plate
versus angle~. for various values ofK ( l ~ K ~ 3) according to the strain energy density
criterion when the applied stress cr is (a) tensile and (b) compressive.
See Problem 68.
3. Solution
Working as in Problem 68 we obtain the critical fracture angle Sc and the critical frac-
ture stress CJ0 • The variation of the quantities Sc and crc( 1164J.LISc)"' versus the inclina-
tion angle of the rectilinear inclusion is shown in Figures l and 2 for tensile and com-
pressive applied stress cr.
316 E.E. Gdoutos
L: :J ~~:._:a
24o"· i'
21d'
i 180'
a>o
1scf
- - straW. energy model

- - - stress model
75' 90'
lWl..' 'o
,~
4 i ' .
II IIi .io
l
2.2 2·.6 3.0
0
r:f 15' 3d' 45' 6o' 75' 90'
p
(b)
Figure I. Critical fracture angle and normalized critical fracture stress versus inclination angle p for tensile
applied stress.
Crack Growth From Rigid Rectilinear Inclusions 317
90'
l.IJ.,o
orf
i ,.
3<f
o'
_,
••
(a)
30 •
II-
(b)
Figure 2. Critical fracture angle and nonnalized critical fracture stress versus inclination angle p for compres-
sive applied stress.
4. References
[I) V.V Panasyuk, LT. Barenblatt and LL Trush (1972) Stress Distribution About Defects Such as Rigid
[2) G.C. Sib (1965) Plane Extension of Rigidly Embedded Line Inclusions, Proc. of the Ninth Midwestern
Mechanics Conforence, Madison, Wisconsin, August I6-I8, 1965,61-79.
Problem 70: Crack Growth Under Pure Shear **
E.E. Gdoutos
1. Problem
A large plate subjected to pure shear stress t contains a crack of length 2a (Figure I).
Calculate the angle of crack extension 90 and the critical shear stress t 0 for crack
growth according to the maximum stress criterion for p = 45°, 60°, 75° and 90°.
Figure I. An inclined crack in a pure shear stress field.
The maximum circumferential stress criterion for crack growth in a mixed-mode stress
field was proposed by Erdogan and Sih [I]. The basic assumptions are:
(i) The crack extension starts from the crack tip along the radial direction 9 = 90 on
which o-9 becomes maximum.
320 E.E. Gdoutos
(ii) Fracture starts when that maximum of o-6 reaches a critical stress O"c equal to the
fracture stress in uniaxial tension.
The hypotheses can be expressed mathematically by the relations
ao- 9
-=0· (I a)
ae ·
(I b)
Observe that the circumferential stress o-6 in the direction of crack extension is a prin-
cipal stress, and the shear stress tre for that direction vanishes. The circumferential
stress o- 6 is expressed by [2]
(2)
where K 1 and K 0 are mode-l and mode-11 stress intensity factors and r,e are polar coor-
dinates referred to the crack tip.
The crack extension angle is calculated from Equations (I a) and (2) as
K I (sin ~ + sin 3;) + K 11 (cos ~ + 3 cos 3;) = 0 (3)
or
K I sine+ Ku (3 cos e -1) = 0. (4)
For the calculation of the stress o-9 from Equation (2) we must introduce a critical dis-
tance r0 measured from the crack tip. To circumvent the determination of the core re-
gion radius r0, the second hypothesis of the stress criterion is often referred to as fol-
lows:
Fracture starts when o-9 has the same value as in an equivalent opening-mode (Figure
2), that is
(5)
The fracture condition following from Equations (5) and (I b) takes the form
Crack Growth Under Pure Shear 321
2- - 3Krr sm T + sm - 2- = 4K 10 •
e. cos -3e.)
K 1 ( 3 cosT+ ( . e. . 3e.) (6)
For opening-mode loading (KI'll= 0, Ku= 0), Equations (4) and (6) yield e.= 0, KI= K;c,
while for sliding-mode loading they give
(7)
Eliminating 90 in Equations (4) and (6) gives the fracture locus in K1 - Ku coordinates
shown in Figure 3. Figure 4 shows the variation of the crack extension angle -e. ver-
sus the crack inclination angle for an inclined crack in a plate subjected to a uniaxial
stress field. The figure also shows results based on the strain energy density (SED)
criterion. Note that the results of both criteria agree for large values of p, while for
small values of p the stress criterion predicts smaller angles than the SED criterion .
•
'
---------~
.... r-
I
~
I
aa~ctJ
----1 ~
K~c
aa -- J2nr
I aa I
___,
~
r
r---
___, r--
I
1---
----, I I
r----
•
.. l-----
I
II
,,,,
~
I II I
I ---tt---- •
I l - equivalent crack
jj
Figure 2. Equivalent opening-mode crack model according to the maximum circumferential stress criterion.
3. Solution
By stress transformation we obtain that the crack is subjected to stresses Oy and ax

along the vertical and horizontal axes (Figure I) given by
322 E.E. Gdoutos
oy = 't sin 29 = 't sin90° = -r

crx=- -rsin 29 =- -rsin 90° =- t (8)
The stress intensity factors for a crack of length 2a in a biaxial stress field with cry= crx
=t is given according to Problem 13 by
(9)
The crack extension angle 9c is calculated from Equation (4) which for Kulf: 0 gives
(10)
We obtain
e.
tan-=-
-cos2P±~cos 2 2P+Ssin 2 2P 1(
=- -cot 2P ±
~cot 2 2P + 8 ) (II)
2 4sin 2p 4
From Equation (11) we obtain the following values of the crack extension angle for p =
45°, 60°, 75° and 90°:
e
13 = 45° tan_.£..=- 0.7071 e. =- 70.53°, 70.53°
2
e
13 = 60° tan_.£..=- 0.5774 e.=- 60.0°, 81.79°
2
(12)
e
tan__£_=- 0.3961 e. =- 43.2°, 103.22°
2
e
tan _.£.. -4 CXl e.= 0,
2
The crack extension angle e. should satisfy the inequality of Equation ( Ia). It takes the
form
a2-cr=
- 9
K (• e 3 3e) -Ku
-cos-+-cos- (• . e 9 . 39) <0
-sm-+-sm- (13)
ae 2 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
1.0
0.8
0.6
u
~
........
~ 0.4
0.2
0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
KI / Krc
Figure 3. Fracture locus for mixed-mode conditions according to the maximum circumferential stress criterion.
a
Figure 4. Variation of the crack extension angle- 6, versus the crack inclination angle~ under plane strain condi-
tions for tensile applied loads.
We obtain for the values of9c of Equation (12)

324 E.E. Gdoutos
(14)
13 = 60°, K 1 = 0.5 't..{;;., K n = 0.866 't..{;;.
13=75°, K 1 =0.866T.[;;., K 11 =0.5T.,J;;.
Thus, the values of the critical angle Sc which satisfy inequality (13) for the corre-
sponding values of the crack inclination angle are
13 = 450, 75°,
The critical shear stress 'tc is determined from equation (lb). We have for the corre-
sponding values of J3
4. References
[I) F. Erdogan and G.C. Sib (1963) On the Crack Extension in Plates under Plane Loading and Transverse
Shear, Journal ofBasic Engineering. Trans. ASME, 850, 519-527.
[2) E.E. Gdoutos {1993) Fracture Mechanics- An Introduction, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht,
Boston, London.
Problem 71: Critical Stress in Mixed Mode Fracture**
L. Banks-Sills
1. Problem
(a) For the geometry in Figure. I, determine the direction of crack propagation
according to the maximum tangential stress criterion ofErdogan and Sih [I].
(b) Sketch this direction on a figure.
(c) Determine the critical stress at fracture, cr crit •
(d) Estimate the plastic zone size at fracture adjacent to the crack tip. Explain if the
stress intensity factor may be employed to predict crack propagation.
R =1 em
r
W=4 em
h =8 em
f=6 mm
I
K 1c = 28 MPa.Jffi
·~------2w------~•
Uy = 500 MPa
Figure /.Geometry of a tension specimen containing a hole and two cracks emanating from the hole
The maximum tangential stress criterion [1] states that a crack will propagate radially
from the crack tip in the direction of maximum tangential stress. This will occur when
the stress in this direction reaches a critical value. This leads to two conditions. First,
the crack will propagate in the direction 9 0 which satisfies the equation
328 L. Banks-Sills
K 1 sin9 0 +K 0 (3cos9 0 -l)=O. (l)
Secondly, the condition of crack propagation is given by
9o ( K 1 cos 2 -
cos- 9o- - 3K 0 sm9
. 0) = K 10 (2)
2 2 2
where K lc is the fracture toughness.
3. Solution
3.1 STRESS INTENSITY FACTORS FOR THIS GEOMETRY
In order to determine the crack propagation direction and the critical stress, the stress
intensity factors for the geometry and loading in Figure I must be obtained. These may
be found in [2] where the geometric quantities are different from those defined in this
problem. The definition of their geometric quantities are given in Fig. 2.
r
h
Figure 2. Geometrical quantities for the problem of Figure I
The stress intensity factors are defined as
(3a)
Critical Stress in Mixed Mode Fracture 329
(3b)
Note that a= f + R .
3.2 CRACK PROPAGATION DIRECTION
Substitution of the stress intensity factors from Eqs (3a) and (3b) into Eq. (I) leads to
F1 sin9 0 + Fu(3cos9 0 - I)= 0 . (4)
The values of F 1 and FJI may be found in tables on pages 57 and 58 of [2]. In this
case, a= 30° and a I b = 0.3; hence, F1 = 0.872 and Fn = 0.336. Introduction of these
values into Eq. (4) yields
0.872 sin 90 + 1.008 cos9 0 = 0.336. (5)
This is a transcendental equation which may be solved by trial and error, for example,
or by software, such as MAPLE. The roots that satisfy Eq.(5) are 9 0 = -34.5° and
9 0 =116.3°.
The direction in which cr88 is a maximum may be determined by differentiating it

twice. The tangential stress is given by
a 99 = I { K 1 cos 393
r;;;-:- 9.}
---K 11 cos-sm9 (6)
v2m 2 2 2
Differentiating Eq. (6) once leads to
oo-00= -
- 3 9
r,:;-:-cos- {K 1 sm9+K
. }
11 (3cos9-l) . (7)
ae 4v21tT 2
Setting Eq. (7) equal to zero leads to the expression for the direction of crack growth
00 in Eq. (I). Differentiation a second time yields
8 2 aoo-
-- =- 3 { K cos-(3
r,:;-:- 9 cos9 -1) + 2K sm. -(2-
9 9 } .
9cos 2 -) (8)
2 1 11
ae 8v21tr 2 2 2
330 L. Banks-Sills
Evaluation ofEq. (8) for e0 = -34.5°

a2 a
leads to ~ < 0; whereas, for e0 = 116.3°,
ae
a20002 > 0. Hence, the crack propagates in the direction e0 = -34.5°.
ae
3.3 SKETCH OF CRACK PROPAGATION
The crack propagation direction is shown in Fig. 3. As a result of the problem

symmetry, the crack propagates from both crack tips.
v---- --
~34.5
0
Figure 3 Di=tion of crack propagation
3.4 CRITICAL STRESS
The critical stress acrit is found from Eq. (2). Substituting Eqs (3a) and (3b) into Eq.
(2), one obtains
(9)
With the values of F1 and F0 given above, e0 = -34.5°, K 1• = 28 MPaJ;; and

a=f+R=0.016 m leads to
acrit = 121.0 MPa . (I 0)
3.5 PLASTIC ZONE SIZE

Under plane strain conditions, the plastic zone size may be estimated as
2
r =_!_(Kr.J (II)
P 3lt Oy
Critical Stress in Mixed Mode Fracture 331
where cry is the yield stress of the material. Substituting the appropriate values into
(II), one obtains rP =0.33 mm. Hence, the plastic zone size is sufficiently smaller than
all lengths scales in this body and LEFM may be applied to this problem.
4. References
I. F. Erdogan, and G.C. Sib (1963) On the Cmck Extension in Plates under Plane Loading and Tmnsverse
Shear, Journal ofBasic Engineering, 85, 519-527.
2. Y. Murakami (ed.) ( 1992), Stress Intensity Factors Handbook, Vol. 3, Pergamon Press, Oxford, 56-58.
Problem 72: Critical Stress for an Interface Crack***
L. Banks-Sills
l. Problem
(a) For the geometry in Figure. 1, determine an explicit expression for the stress
intensity factors K 1 and K 2 •
(b) From the displacement field, determine the largest value of r = r0 for which
~ v = 0. In the calculations, consider that the material in the upper half-plane is
glass with Young's modulus E 1 = 73.0 GPa and Poisson's ratio v 1 = 0.22; the
material in the lower half-plane is epoxy with E 2 = 2.94GPa and v 2 = 0.29.
(c) ForcracktipsAandBinFig.l,determine rc for a=lOmm.
(d) Using the fracture criterion which fits the experimental data in Fig. 2, determine the
critical stress, acrit, for t = 3a and a= lOmm.
r-----~B A.~------l
-2a-
--
j ----\--•
I
11--r-r--r
Figure I. A hi material Plate with a crack along the interface
For the geometry and loading in Figure. I, the complex stress intensity is given by
334 L. Banks-Sills
(I)
where i = r-1 , the oscillatory parameter
(2)
ll;, i = l, 2, are the shear moduli of the upper and lower material, respectively, and
K; =3-4v; for plane strain and (3-v; )/(l+v;) for generalized plane stress. The
displacement jump in the vicinity of the crack tip is given by
A • A
uV+tuU= 16 coshx& (K 1 +1"K 2 ) ~
- r i• (3)
H(l + 2ie) 2x
where
1 1
~+=---
El Ez
(4)
H 2cosh 2 x&
and
for plane strain

(5)
for plane stress
The interface energy release rate is given by
(6)
the phase angle (or mode mixity) is given by
(7)
and L is a length parameter. Further details on interface fracture mechanics may be

found in [ l ].
Critical Stress for an Interface Crack 335
Experimental data was presented in [2] for glass/epoxy specimens; it is exhibited in

Figure. 2. In addition, the experimental data may be fit to the curve
(8)
where L is taken to be 600 )JfD, G 1 = Re(KLie) I H and in this case has the value 5.12
N/m.
50 r--,----------------------------------~---,
i=600J..Lm
40
- 30
" ' 20
10
lC
0 ~~--~--~~~~--~--~~--~--~--L--J
-1.~ -1.0 -O.:i 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5
'If (rad)
Figure 2. Experimental data for glass epoxy specimens
3. Solution
3.1 STRESS INTENSITY FACTORS FOR THIS GEOMETRY
The explicit expressions for each of the stress intensity factors may be obtained by
means of complex variables as
336 L. Banks-Sills
3.2 THE CRACK OPENING DISPLACEMENT
To determine the crack opening displacement !lv in the vicinity of the crack tip, the
real part of the expression in (3) is determined. This may be written as
uv=
A 16 cosh
~ ~
lt£ I K I - Re{ exp[·1 ( IJI-tan -I 2 e+e In-
r )]} (10)
Hvl + 4e 2 2lt L
or
uV
A
= 16 coshlte
~
IK I ~
-cos( IJI-tan -1 2 e+e 1n-
r) (11)
H'V'l+~2 h L
The largest value of r, the distance from the crack tip along the crack faces, for which
the crack is open, occurs when £\ v = 0 , so that
(12)
To evaluate Equation (12), the oscillatory parameter E must first be calculated. For
plane strain conditions: e =- 0.088 (from Equation (2)). Since e < 0,
('I'- tan -I 2e + e In ~) =% (13)
So that,
(14)
3.3 INTERPENETRATION REGION AT CRACK TIPS
The solution predicts interpenetration at the crack tips. The size of this region can be
estimated from the expression in Equation (14). The phase angle
_1 t -I 2a
IJI=tan -+tan 2e-e 1n - (15)
CJ L
Critical Stress for an Interface Crack 337
For any value of L, the same value of r c is obtained. Here, L is chosen as 600 11m .
So that for crack tip A with t = 3cr ,
"'= tan- 3 +tan-1 2&-&ln~

1
0.6
(16)
or "'= 1.38 rad = 79.3°. Substituting into Equation (14) yields rc = 0.52 mm.
Interpenetration of the crack faces is not physically possible. But since this region is
estimated to be small with respect to length parameters of the problem, the solution
which has been found is applicable. The actual contact region will be smaller; it must be
found by other methods.
For crack tip B, t =-3cr. Substitution into Equation (IS) yields v =-1.11 rad =- 63.9°
which leads to rc = 2.4 xI o-13 mm. At crack tip B, the interpenetration zone is, indeed,
negligible
3.4 CRITICAL STRESS
The critical stress crcrit is found from the critical interface energy release rate in
Equation (8). At crack tip A, 'I'= 1.38 rad. Substituting into the fracture criterion
Eq.(8) leads to G ic = 147.5 N/m. At crack tip B, 'I' =-1.11 rad ; so that,
G ic = 26.4 N/m. The crack will propagate from crack tip B. To determine the critical
stress, Equations (9a) and (9b) are substituted into Equation (6) to produce
2 HGic
(17)
crcrit = 10(1 +4& 2 )1ta
For the material parameters here and plane strain conditions, H in (4) is found to be 6.65
GPa. Thus,
crcrit = 1.7 MPa (18)
4. References
I. J.R. Rice (1988) Elastic Fmcture Mechanics Concepts for Interfacial Cracks, Journal of Applied
Mechanics, Trans ASME, 55, 98-103.
2. L. Banks-Sills, N. Tmvitzky, D. Ashkenazi and R. Eliasi (I999) A Methodology for Measuring Interface
Fmcture Toughness of Composite Materials. International Journal ofFracture. 99 143-161.
Problem 73: Failure of a Pressure Vessel with an Inclined
Crack**
E.E. Gdoutos
1. Problem
A cylindrical pressure vessel with closed ends has a radius R = lm and thickness t = 40
mm and it is subjected to internal pressure p. The vessel contains a through crack of
length 4 mm oriented at an angle 40° with respect to the circumferential direction. Cal-
culate the maximum pressure Pc the vessel can withstand without failure. K 1c = 60
MPa..{r;, E = 210 GPa, v =0.3.
3. Solution
From Problem l3 we have for the mode-l and mode-11 stress intensity factors at the
crack tip
K n = pR .J;asin p cos p = p X (lm) ~'It X (2 X I o-J m) sin 40° cos 40° = 0.488 p
2t 2x(40x10- 3 m)
Thus,
k 11 = Ku
.J; = 0.275 p (2)
Equation (4a) of Problem 57 with x: = 3- 4v = 3- 4 x 0.3 = 1.8 (plane strain) becomes

(2 cos 9c -1.8) sin 90 X (0.790p) 2 + 2 (2 cos 2 9c- 0.8 cos 9,) X (0.790 p) X (0.275 p)
340 E.E. Gdoutos
+ (0.8- 6 cos a.) sin a. x (0.275 p) 2 = o (3)
The solution of this equation which satisfies inequality (4b) of Problem 57 and corre-
sponds to the critical pressure Pc the vessel can withstand is
9.=-30.37° (4)
[2 cos(- 2 x 30.37°)- 0.8 cos(- 30.37° )] x (0.790 p) 2 + 2 [0.8 sin(- 30.37°)
-4sin (- 2 x 30.37°)]x (0.790p) x (0.275 p) +[0.8cos (-30.37°) (5)
-6 COS (-2 X 30.37° )] X (0.275 p) 2= 1.35 p 2 > 0
We have
(1 + v)(l- 2v) K:c (1 + 0.3)(1- 2 x 0.3) x (60 MPa,,m") 2

Sc =------=-
2xE 2nx(210xi0 3 MPa)
(6)
= 1.42 X 10-3 MPam
E 210GPa
J.L = = = 80.77GPa (7)
2(l+v) 2(1+0.3)
We obtain
=[I+ cos(- 30.37°)] [1.8- cos ( -30.37°)] = 1.7458
l6J.L al2 =sin 90 [2COS ac- (K -J)]

(8)
=sin(- 30.37°)] [2 x cos(- 30.37°)- (1.8 -1)] =- 0.4679
Failure of a Pressure Vessel with an Inclined Crack 341
= (1.8 + 1)[1-cos(- 30.37°)] +[I +cos(- 30.3r )] x
x [3 cos(- 30.37°) -I]= 3.3429
The value ofS(9c) is calculated as [I]
2
= 16 X (80. 77Pc 1 3 MP [1.7458x0.79 2 +2x(-0.4679)x (9)
X 0 a)
X 0.79 X 0.275 + 3.3429 X 0.275 2 ] = 0.8814 X 10-6 p~
Crack growth occurs when [I]
(10)
or
o.8814 x 1o-6 P~ = 1.42 x 1o-J (II)
or
Pc =40.14 MPa (12)
Equation ( 12) gives the maximum pressure Pc the vessel can withstand without failure.
4. References
[I) G.C. Sih ( 1973) Some Basic Problems in Fracture Mechanics and New Concepts, Engineering Fracture
[2) G.C. Sih (1974) Strain-Energy-Density Factor Applied to Mixed Mode Crack Problems, International
Journal of Fracture, 10,305-321
Problem 7 4: Failure of a Cylindrical Bar with a Circular
Crack**
E.E. Gdoutos
l. Problem
A cylindrical bar or radius b contains a circular crack of radius a, and is subjected to a

force P along the axis of the bar and a torque T (Figure 1). The opening-mode and
tearing-mode stress intensity factors k1 and km along the crack front created by the
force P and torque T, respectively, are given by
k = r;i f (~)
I
G
1- (a/b) 2 Vb I b •
(Ia)
k = r;i f (~)
III
't
1- (a/b) 4 Vb 3 b •
(I b)
where
2 3
2 ( I +I-a- -5-a -) + 0.268-
f 1 ( -a) =- a (2a)
b lt 2b 8 b2 b3
(2b)
For a bar with ao = 0.016 em, b = 2.0 em and v = 1/3 subjected to the force P only, the
critical stress for fracture is Gu. Determine the fracture loci when the bar is subjected to
both force P and torque T for alb= 0.008, 0.012 and 0.018.
The stress components 'tu and 'tyz for mode-Ill loading are given by
344 E.E. Gdoutos
Krn . e Krn e
=---sm- =--cos-
t
xz & 2'
t
yz & 2'
(3)
3. Solution
The strain energy density function dW/dV for tearing-mode deformation is obtained by
substituting the values of stresses Txz and Tyz from Equation (3) into Equations (2) and
(3) of Problem 57. We obtain
dW = K~ (4)
dV 41tJ.lr
The strain energy density factorS is computed from Equations (4) as
2
S=Km krn (5)
41t '
The strain energy density factor S for a combination of opening-mode and tearing-
mode is therefore given by
(6)
where the coefficient a 11 is given by Equation (3) of Problem 57 with K = 3 - 4v.
The angle of crack growth Sc is determined from Equation (4a) of Problem 57 as Sc =

0, that is the crack grows in its own plane.
Equation (5) of Problem 57 of the strain energy density criterion gives
(7)
K1c is calculated from the fracture stress <>u of a bar of radius b = 2.0 em with a crack of
radius ao = 0.016 em as
(8)
and Sc is computed from Equation (6) of Problem 57 as

Failure of a Cylindrical Bar with a Circular Crack 345
S = (1+v)(l-2v) cr~a 0 c 0 f12 (a 0 /b)

(9)
c 2E b[l-(a 0 /b) 2 ]
When the value ofSc is introduced into Equation (7) we obtain
Equation (10) presents the required relation between cr and T for fracture of the bar
(fracture locus). Figure I shows the fracture loci for alb= 0.008, 0.012 and 0.018 when
a0 = 0.016 em, b = 2.0 em, v = 1/3. For all combinations of cr and T that lie outside the
curves, fracture of the bar takes place by unstable growth of the circular crack, while
for the remaining values of cr and T the crack does not propagate.
1.0
0.8
0.6
b=::J
...........
k-
0.4
0.2
0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
a/au
Figure /. Fracture loci of a cylindrical bar witb an internal crack subjected to tension and torsion.
346 E.E. Gdoutos
4. References
[I] G .C. Sib (1973) Some Basic Problems in Fracture Mechanics and New Concepts, Engineering Fracture
Mechanics, S, 365-377.
Problem 75: Failure of a Pressure Vessel Containing a
Crack with Inclined Edges**
E.E. Gdoutos
1. Problem
A cylindrical vessel of radius R and thickness t contains a through crack of length 2a

parallel to its axis (Figure I). The edges ofthe crack are inclined at an angle y with the
surfaces of the vessel wall. The vessel is subjected to a torque T. Determine the crack
growth direction and the critical moment Tc for initiation of crack growth. Plot the
variation ofTc versus angle y for various values of Poisson's ratio v.
Figure I. A cylindrical vessel with a through crack parallel to its axis wh011e edges are inclined with respect to the
surface of the vessel waiL
See Problem 57.
3. Solution
The shear stress t in the vessel due to the applied torque t is calculated as
348 E.E. Gdoutos
T
t=--- (I)
2:n: R t
The crack is subjected to mode-Il and mode-III loading with stress intensity factor
(2)
The strain energy density factor is given by [I]
(3)
where
I61J. a 22 = (K + 1)(1-cos 9) +(I +cos 9)(3 cos 9 -I)

41J. a 33 = I, K = 3- 4v (plane strain) (4)
or
(5)
The crack extension angle a. is calculated from the condition [I]
-=0
as (6)
aa
which gives
e =cos _1(1-2v)
-- (7)
• 3
The critical shear stress tc for crack growth is calculated from the condition [I]
(8)
From Equations (5), (7) and (8) we obtain for the critical shear stress for initiation of
crack growth
t.-
-
F f2[2(1-v
2..j6;S;
2 )+v(v-2)]cos 2 y+6siny r
The variation of tc versus angle y for v = 0, 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4 and 0.5 is shown in Figure
2.
Failure of a Pressure Vessel Containing a Crack with Inclined Edges 349
1'
Figure 2. Variation of the nonnalized critical stress versus angle of crack inclination.
4. References
[I) G.C. Sib (1973) Some Basic Problems in Fracture Mechanics and New Concepts, Engineering Fracture
[2) G. C. Sib ( 1974) Strain-Energy-Density Factor Applied to Mixed Mode Crack Problems, Jnrernational Jour-
nal ofFracture, I 0, 305-321.
Problem 76: Failure of a Cylindrical Bar with a Ring-
Shaped Edge Crack***
E.E. Gdoutos
1. Problem
A cylindrical bar or radius b contains a ring-shaped edge crack of depth a in a plane

normal to its axis (Figure I). The bar is subjected to a force P along its axis and to a
torque T. The opening-mode and tearing-mode stress intensity factors k1 and km along
the crack front created by the force P and torque T, respectively, are given by
a(~r ffg{~).
p
k, = a=-- (Ia)
*
n:b2
=t(~r g{~). t=--

2Ta
(1b)
km n:b4
where
2 3 4
g, ( -c) =-
1[1+--+---0.363-+0.731-
1c 3c c c ] (2a)
b 2 2 b 8 b2 b3 b4
(2b)
For a bar with ao = 0.0052 em, b = 2.0 em and v = 1/3 subjected to the force P only, the
critical stress for fracture is au. Determine the fracture loci when the bar is subjected to
both force P and torque T for alb= 0.003, 0.003 and 0.011.
See Problem 57.

352 E.E. Gdoutos
Surface
Crock
Figure /. A cylindrical bar with an el<1emal crack subjected to tension and torsion.
3. Solution
The strain energy density factor S is first determined, and it is then minimized with
respect to the polar angle 9, as in Problem 57. We obtain the following equation
(I - 2v) g1 2(c) a 2+ (b)

- -
2g2(c) r 2-__2E,_ac_3S-"-c
3 - (3)
b c b b 3 (l+v)
K1c is calculated from the fracture stress of a bar of radius b = 2.0 em with a ring-
shaped edge crack of depth ao = 0.0052 em as
(4)
and Sc is computed from Equation (6) of Problem 57 as

Failure of a Cylindrical Bar with a Ring-Shaped Edge Crack 353
S = (1 + v)(1- 2v) a~ 1t a 0 c 0 ~) 4 2 (~) ( 5)

c 2E b c 0 g, b
When the value ofSc is introduced into Equation (3) we obtain
(6)
Equation (5) presents the required relation between a and 't for fracture of the bar
(fracture locus). Figure I displays the fracture loci for alb = 0.003, 0.005 and 0.011
when ao = 0.0052 em, b = 2.0 em, v = 113. For all combinations of a and 't that lie out-
side the curves, fracture of the bar takes place by unstable growth of the ring-shaped
crack, while for the remaining values of a and 't the crack does not propagate
trltl'u
Figure I. Fracture loci of a cylindrical bar with a ring-shaped edge crack subjected to tension and tension.
4. References
[I) G .C. Sib ( 1973) Some Basic Problems in Fracture Mechanics and New Concepts, Engineering Fracture
[2) G.C. Sib (1974) Strain-Energy-Density Factor Applied to Mixed Mode Crack Problems, International
Journal ofFracture, 10,305-321.
354 E.E. Gdoutos
[3) E.E. Gdoutos (1993) Fracture Mechanics- An Introduction, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht,
Boston, London.
Problem 77: Stable and Unstable Crack Growth **
E.E. Gdoutos
I. Problem
(a) A crack of length 2a in a large plate grows in a stable manner under a constant
uniform uniaxial stress a 0 normal to the crack plane (Figure Ia). Determine the
crack growth increment riG= I, 2, ... , n) during stable crack growth.
(b) As in the previous case for a crack of length 2a in an infinite plate subjected to
wedge forces Pat the middle of the crack (Figure I b).
r------------,
'-------------.J
(a) (b)
Figure /. Cracked specimens for (a) unstable crack growth and (b) stable crack growth.
According to the strain energy density criterion the crack growth increments rh r 2, ••• ,
ri, ... , r c during stable crack growth satisfY the equation [1]
356 E.E. Gdoutos
(I}
There is unstable fracture or yielding when the critical ligament size r c is reached.
3. Solution
(a) The stress intensity factor K 1 is given by
(2)
The strain energy density factor S is calculated as
(K -l)Ki (K-l)a~a
S=---.:..... (3)
82tJ.1 8J.1
Equation (I) becomes
(K-I)a~ a= (K-I}a~
(4)
8J.1 r1 8J.1
or
(5)
If crack initiation starts when r 1 = r 0 the following recursion relations for incremental
crack growth is obtained
(6)
Equation (6) indicates that each consecutive step of crack growth increases. Unstable
crack growth occurs when ri reaches the critical length r c·
(b) For this case the stress intensity factor K 1 is given by
(7)
Stable and Unstable Crack Growth 357
The strain energy density factorS is computed as
JC-1 n 2
S=-- (8)
8J! na
When stable growth of the crack occurs under constant force P, Equation (I) becomes
So
- - - - - = ... = - (9)
which for r 1 = r0 gives
n;:: I (10)
Equation (I 0) indicates that each consecutive step of crack growth decreases. Crack
arrest occurs when ri reaches the critical ligament length rc.
4. References
[I) G.C. Sib (1991) Mechanics of Fracture Initiation and Propagation, Kluwer Academic Publishers,
Dordrecht, Boston, London.
7. Dynamic Fracture
Problem 78: Dynamic Stress Intensity Factor **
E.E. Gdoutos
1. Problem
An infinite strip of height 2h with a semi-infinite crack is rigidly clamped along its
upper and lower faces at y = ± h (Figure 1). The upper and lower faces are moved in
the positive and negative y-direction over distances u0, respectively. Determine the
dynamic stress intensity factor K(t) during steady state crack propagation.
T
h
th
.i
1-l·-- a - - - - 1 - - - - - b - - - - - t
Figure I. An infinite strip with a semi-infinite crack clamped along its upper and lower faces. The J-integral is
calculated along the dashed-line path shown.
The dynamic stress intensity factor K(t) governs the singular stress field around a rap-
idly propagating crack. We have for the stresses [I]
(Ia)
(I b)
360 E.E. Gdoutos
= K(t)BI31 [~sin~- ~sin~]

cr 12
~ v~ 2 v-;:; 2
(I c)
where
v= a = crack speed
(2)
y2 2 y2
13~ = 1 - - · 13z = 1 - - (3)
cf C~
(4)
C 1 and C 2 are the dilatational and shear wave speeds given by
c~ =~. (5)
p
J.1 is the shear modulus, p is the mass density and K = 3-4v for plane strain or (3-
v)/(l+v) for generalized plane stress, where vis Poisson's ratio.
The stress intensity factor K(t) is defined as in the static case by
K(t) = lim
r~O
[v'27t r cr 22 (r, 0, t)] (6)
Equations (I) for V ~ 0 give the stress field for a static crack.
The particle velocity field in the vicinity of the crack tip is given by
= _ K(t)BV ~cos~- 213113 2 ~cos~]

v-;:;
UI (7a)
~ J.1 v~ 2 1+13~ 2
(7b)
Dynamic Stress Intensity Factor 361
3. Solution
The dynamic stress intensity factor is related to the strain energy release rate which is
path independent and can be calculated by properly choosing the integration path sur-
rounding the crack tip.
3.1 RELATION BETWEEN K(t) AND G(t)
The dynamic stress intensity factor K(t) is related to the strain energy release rate G(t)
by [2]
[
K(t)= EG 4f3tf3 2 -(I+J3 2
2)
2]1/2
(8)
I+ v f3t (1- J3i)
3.2 COMPUTATION OF STRAIN ENERGY RELEASE RATE
The strain energy release rate is computed as [2]
G= J(
c
1 2au. au.) au.
ro+-pV - - ' - - ' dx 2 -T; - - ' ds.
2 ax. ax. ax.
(9)
where C is an arbitrary contour which encompasses the crack tip and travels at the
same speed as the crack.
As C we take the path A'ABCDD' extended along the upper and lower surfaces of the
strip up to infinity and traversing the strip perpendicular to the crack. G is calculated
as
(10)
We have for paths AB, CD
dy=O,
aul2
- - · =0
ax
implying that
(ll)
For paths DO', A'A the stresses vanish and

362 E.E. Gdoutos
aul2
_ _. =0
ax
implying that
G DO' = G A' A = 0 ( 12)
For path BC we have

aul2
- - ' =0
ax
implying that
Gsc = frojHoody (13)

-h
For linear elastic material
m!Hoo=~cry f::Y (14)
Putting
E
y =~
h , cr = 13 E e = 13 E uo
y y h ( 15)
where
13 =-1- (16)
1- v 2
1-v
13= ( 17)
(1 + v)(1- 2v)
for plane strain, we obtain
G= I3Eu~ (18)
h
Dynamic Stress Intensity Factor 363
3.3 CALCULATION OF STRESS INTENSITY FACTOR
From Equations (8) and (18) we obtain for K(t)
(19)
under conditions of plane strain, and
(20)
under conditions of generalized plane stress.
Equations (19) and (20) give the dynamic stress intensity factors during steady state
crack propagation under conditions of plane strain and generalized plane stress, re-
spectively.
4. References
[I) G.C. Sib (ed.) (1977) Mechanics of Fracture, Vol.4, Elastodynamic Crack Problems, Noordhoff. Int.
Publ., The Netherlands.
[2) E.E. Gdoutos ( 1990) Fracture Mechanics Criteria and Applications, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dor-
drecht, Boston, London.
Problem 79: Crack Speed During Dynamic Crack
Propagation**
E.E. Gdoutos
1. Problem
A crack of length 20 mm propagates in a large steel plate under a constant stress of

400 MPa. The dynamic toughness of the material K 10 can be expressed by the follow-
ing empirical equation
(I)
KID= ( V )m
1--
v,
where KIA is the arrest toughness of the material, Ve is the limiting crack speed and m
is an empirical parameter. Using Rose's approximation for the dynamic stress intensity
factor, determine the speed of crack during propagation. Take: C 1 = 5940 m/sec, C 2 =
3220 m/sec, CR = 2980 m/sec; K1A = 100 MPa.[r;;, m = 2, V, = 1600 m/sec where c.,
C 2 and CR are the dilatational, shear and Raleigh wave speeds.
Relations for the dynamic stress intensity factor have been developed by various inves-
tigators. Rose [I] gave the following equation
K(t) = k(V) K(O) (2)
where K(O) is the static stress intensity factor and k(V) is a geometry independent
function of crack speed. K(O) can be approximated as the value of stress intensity factor
for a static crack of length equal to the length of the moving crack. The quantity k(V)
decreases monotonically with crack speed and can be approximated by
k(V) =(1- ~) (1- hV)- 112 (3)

366 E.E. Gdoutos
where
(4)
and C 1 and C 2 are given by
c; = K+l ~. (5)
K-Ip
where ~ is the shear modulus, p is the mass density and K = 3 - 4v for plane strain or JC
=(3 - v)/( 1 + v) for generalized plane stress conditions.
3. Solution
The speed of crack during propagation is determined by the crack propagation condi-
tion using Rose's approximation for the dynamic stress intensity factor.
3.1 PROPAGATION CONDITION
Crack propagation is governed by the following equation
(6)
3.2 DYNAMIC STRESS INTENSITY FACTOR
The dynamic stress intensity factor is calculated according to Rose's approximation as
or
K 1 (t) = 800 MPa~1tx(lO x 10-3 )m k(V) = 141.8k(V) MParrn. (7)
k(V) is computed from Equation (3), where his given by Equation (4).
We have
h = _2_(3230)2(1- 3220)2 = 0.0824 X J0-3 s/m (8)

5940 2980 5940
and
k(V) = (• - ~) (1- 0.0824 X 10-3 V)- 112 • (9)

2980
Crack Speed During Dynamic Crack Propagation 367
Thus
K 1 (t) = 141.8 (~-~)(1- 0.0824 X I0-3 V)-I/ 2 (10)

2980
3.3 CRACK SPEED DURING PROPAGATION
Introducing the values ofK1(t) and KID into Equation (6) we obtain the following equa-
tion
14l.s(•- 2 ~ 0 )(I- o.os2• x •o-'vJ-"' = •-( 1 ~)' (II)
1600
From a numerical solution of Equation (II) we obtain for the crack speed during crack
propagation
V=571.3m/s.
4. References
[I) L.R.F. Rose (1976) An Approximate(Wiener. Hopf) Kernel for Dynamic Crack Problems in Linear Elas-
ticity and Viscoelasticity, Proceedings ofthe Royal Society ofLondon, A 349,497-521.
Problem 80: Rayleigh Wave Speed**
E.E. Gdoutos
1. Problem
The Yoffe crack model [I] considers a crack of fixed length propagating with constant
speed in an infinite plate under a uniform tensile stress normal to the crack plane. It is
assumed that the crack retains its original length during propagation by resealing itself
at the trailing end. For this problem the strain energy release rate G is given by
(I)
where G• is the strain energy release rate at zero crack speed. G• and Fare given by
(2)
(3)
(a) Plot the variation ofG/G* versus normalized crack speed V/C 2 under conditions
of plane strain for various values of Poisson's ratio v.
(b) Show that G becomes infinite at a crack speed V computed from the following
equation
(4)
This equation gives the Rayleigh wave speed CR(CR < C2 < C1).
(c) Plot the variation of normalized Rayleigh wave speed CR/C 2 versus Poisson's
ratio v under conditions of plane stress and plane strain according to Equation
(4). Also plot the variation ofC 1/C 2 versus v.
370 E.E. Gdoutos
The Rayleigh wave speed CR is a characteristic quantity in dynamic crack problems. It

is somewhat smaller than the shear wave speed.
3. Solution
(a) The variation of GIG* versus VI C2 under conditions of plane strain is plotted
in Figure I for v = 0, 1/3 and 1/2.
4.0
PtaM Strahl
• 3.0
~
~
.
.....
~
....
~
..J
i..
0:
z.
--=t--•
0 0.2 0.4 0.& 0.8 1.0
CRACK VIElDCIT'I V fOr!
Figure I. Variation ofG I G' versus nonnalized crack speed VI C2 under conditions of plane strain for the values
of Poisson's ratiov = 0, 1/3 andl12.
(b) From Figure I we observe that G increases with crack velocity. According to
Equations (I) and (3) G tends to infinity when
(5)
We have
V
Pt2 = I -V- = 1 K--I
2 2
----
c~ K+2 c~
2
p~ = 1-~ (6)
cz2
Rayleigh Wave Speed 371
Thus, Equation (5) becomes
or
4
16 (1- ~~)(·-
JC+tc~
~)
c~
= (2- ~)
c~
(7)
or
or
or
or
(II)
or
or
(13)

(c) We have
(14)
Values ofCR/ C2 and c. I C2 under conditions of plane stress and plane strain for vari-
ous values of Poisson's ratio v are calculated in the following table.
372 E.E. Gdoutos
Plane Stress Plane Strain

v cR/ c2 Ct/C2 CR/C2 Ct/C2
0 0.874032 1.414 0.874032 1.414
0.10 0.891416 1.491 0.893106 1.500
0.20 0.905184 1.581 0.910996 1.633
0.25 0.910996 1.633 0.919402 1.732
0.30 0.916214 1.690 0.927413 1.871
0.35 0.920916 1.754 0.935013 2.082
0.40 0.925165 1.826 0.942195 2.449
0.45 0.929019 1.907 0.948960 3.317
0.50 0.932526 2.000 0.955313
The variation of CR/C 2 and C 1/C 2 versus v under conditions of plane stress and plane
strain is plotted in Figure 2.
3.5
0.95 3.0
.. 2.5
.g
0
Q: 0.90 2.0
c!
CJenenllud plane lltreee

o.as
~~--~_.--~~
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
v v
(a) (b)
Figure 2 Variation ofnonnalized Rayleigh wave speed C 0 / C 2 (a) and C 1 / C 2 (b) versus Poisson's ratiov.
4. References
[I) E. H. Yoffee ( 1951) The Moving Griffith Crack, Philosophical Magazine, 42, 739-750.
Problem 81: Dilatational, Shear and Rayleigh Wave
Speeds*
E.E. Gdoutos
l. Problem
Calculate the dilatational, c~. the shear, C2, and the Rayleigh, CR, wave speeds for (a)
steel withE= 210 GPa, p = 7800 kg/m 3, v = 0.3 and (b) copper withE= 130 GPa, p =
8900 kg/m 3 , v = 0.34.
2. Solution
2.1 STEEL
E = 210 GPa, p = 7800 Kg/m 2, v = 0.3
We have [1]
E 210GPa 80 _77 GPa (I)

11 = 2(1 + v) = 2(1 +0.3)
C2= ~= 80.77xl09Pa =3218m/s (2)

VP 7800 Kg I m 3
For conditions of generalized plane stress we have [I]
3 -v 3-0.3
K=--=--=2.077 (3)
I+ v I+ 0.3
and
(4)
From the solution of Equation (4) of Problem 80 we obtain

374 E.E. Gdoutos
CR = 0.9162 x3218 = 2948m/s (5)
For condition of plane strain we have [I]
TC = 3 - 4v = 3 - 4 x 0.3 = 1.8 (6)
(7)
CR = 0.9274 x 3218 = 2984 m/s (8)
2.2 COPPER
E = 130 GPa, p = 8900 kg/m 3, v = 0.34
We have [I]
1.1 = E = l30 GPa = 48.51 GPa (9)

2(1 +v) 2(1 +0.34)
C2= ~= 48.51x109Pa=2335m/s (10)

VP 8900Kg/m 2
For conditions of generalized plane stress we have [I]
1C = 3 - v = 3 - 0.34 = 1.985
I+ v I +0.34
cl =~ICTC -+ 1I c2 = 1. 985 +I X 2335 = 4065 m/s (II)

I. 985 - I
From the solution ofEquation (4) of Problem 80 we obtain

Dilatational, Shear and Rayleigh Wave Speeds 375
or
CR = 0.92 X 2335 = 2167m /s (12)
For conditions of plane strain we have [1]
1C = 3 - 4v = 3 - 4 x 0.34 = 1.64 (13)
(14)
or
CR = 0.9335x 2335= 2180m/s (15)
3. References
[I) E.E. Gdoutos (1993) Fracture Mechanics- An Introduction, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht.
Boston, London.
Problem 82: Speed and Acceleration of Crack
Propagation***
E.E. Gdoutos
1. Problem
A double cantilever beam (COB) of height 2h with a crack of length a (Figure I of

Problem 36) is made of a nonlinear material whose stress-strain relation is described
by
(I)
where a measures the stiffness of the material and is equal to the modulus of elasticity
E for~= l (linear material). Equation (l) is shown in Figure l. The DCB is subjected
to an end load P that remains constant during rapid crack propagation. Let ao denote
the initial crack length and Pc the load at crack propagation.
Calculate the speed V and acceleration ac of the crack and plot their variation versus
ao/a for various values of~ [l].
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.04 0.08 0.12 0.16 0.20

£
Figure 1. Nonlinear stress-strain curves
378 E.E. Gdoutos
The energy balance equation during crack growth is
W=E+K+f (2)
where w is the work performed per unit time by the applied loads, E and K are the
rates of change of the internal energy and kinetic energy of the body and r is the en-
ergy per unit time spent in increasing the crack area. A dot over a letter denotes differ-
entiation with respect to time.
The internal energy E can be put in the form
(3)
where lf represents the elastic strain energy and UP the plastic work.
3. Solution
Equation (2) takes the form
(4)
The left-hand side of Equation (4) represents the work supplied to the system during
growth of the crack from its initial length ao to the length a. u0 and u represent the
load-point displacements at crack lengths ao and a, respectively. The right-hand side of
Equation (4) is composed of the term U(a)-U(ao) that represents the change of strain
energy, the term K that represents the kinetic energy and the term y( a-a0 ) that repre-
sents the change of the surface energy.
We calculate the various terms entering into Equation (4).
3.1 DEFLECTION OF EACH BEAM OF THE DCB
The deflection y(x) of each beam of the DCB at position x during crack growth is cal-
culated from beam theory as [I]
y(x) =-~-(p• )I'fl[-~-x<2fl+I)Ifl_a<fl+I)/fl+~a<2fl+I)/fl] (S)

~+I al 2~ + I 2~ + I
Speed and Acceleration of Crack Propagation 379
and the deflection of each beam at the point of application ofthe load is
(6)
3.2 STRAIN ENERGY
From beam theory we have for the stress cr and strain Eat position x of the CDB
G--
- Pxy ( y 2 )<11-1)/2 (7)
I
(
E=y-
ai )-1/P (8)
Px
where
J
h/2
I =2 yP+I dy. (9)
0
The strain energy of each beam is
(10)
Substituting the values of cr and E from Equations (7) and (8) we obtain
U(a) = ~ p<P+l)llla<21l+l)/ll(al)-llll. (II)

(~ + 1)(2~ + 1) c
Equation ( 11) can be put in the form
Pu
U(a)= -•-. (12)
~+1
3.3 KINETIC ENERGY
The kinetic energy K due to the motion of the beams along they-directions is
380 E.E. Gdoutos
(13)
Substituting the value ofy = y(x) from Equation (5) into Equation (13) we obtain
ztp
K =.!_ph ( Pc ) a<2+3PJ!Py2 (14)
6 aL
where V = da/dt is the crack velocity.
3.4 CRACK SPEED
Substituting the values ofu, uc= u (a= a0 ), U(a), U(ao) and K from Equations (6}, (II)
and (14) into the energy balance Equation (2) we obtain for the crack speed during
crack growth
r.t2 liP
y2 = 6p (al) p<HJIPa-<P+I)/p
(2P + l)(p +I) ph c
( 15)
Here
(16)
3.5 CRACK ACCELERATION
By differentiation from Equation (13) with respect to time we obtain the crack accel-
eration ac= dV/dt, as
a =
3p2 (ai)IIP p~P-IJIP a -(P+l)tp
c ( 2P + l)(p + I) ph
3P+2)(a 0 )< 2P+IJIP + -P+I[ 2T) (ao)<P+IJIP - I]] .

[ (1- TJ) ( - - - - (17)
p a p a
As the initial acceleration of the crack ac = ac (a = a0 ) must be positive we obtain from

Equation (17)
Speed and Acceleration of Crack Propagation 381
0 _ TJ) ( 3P; 2) + <211 _ 1)(p ; 1) > 0 (18)
so that
2p + 1
TJ<--. (19)
p
3.6 NUMERICAL RESULTS
Numerical results were obtained for 11 = 0.99 [(2p + I )/p] and various values of p. Fig-
ure 2 presents the variation of normalized crack speed V versus aofa for p = 0.2, 0.4,
0.6, 0.8 and 1.0. The value p = 1.0 corresponds to a linear material. Note that crack
speed increases during crack growth, from zero value at ao/a = 1 reaches a maximum,
and then decreases and becomes zero at 11o--+ 0.
Figure 3 shows the variation of normalized crack acceleration ac versus aola for various
values of p. The crack first accelerates, and then decelerates before coming to a com-
plete stop at aofa --+ 0. From Figures 2 and 3 we observe that the crack travels more
slowly as p decreases. This should be expected as the material becomes stiffer with
decreasing p.
0.40
C.a.u 0.32
~
+ 0.24
~a
Cl
0.16
~
0.08
0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0

o 0 /o
Figure 2. Normalized crack velocity versus crack length at constant force
382 E.E. Gdoutos
0.16
0.14
0
0
,..
~ 0.12
......
ra.u
~ 0.10
......
! a•
0.08
~
...
....... 0.06
...
..!.
0..
0.04
0.02
0.00
-0.02
Figure 3. Normalized crack acceleration versus crack length at constant force.
4. References
[I] G.C. Sib (1970) Dynamic Aspect of Crack Propagation, in Inelastic Behavior of Solids (eds MF. Kan-
ninen, W.F. Adler, A.R. Rosenfied and R.I. Jaffie) McGraw Hill, New York, Toronto, London, 607-639.
8. Environment-Assisted Fracture
Problem 83: Stress Enhanced Concentration of Hydrogen
Around Crack Tips ***
D.J. Unger
I. Problem
The presence of hydrogen in the lattice of high strength steels often embrittles the
material making it more susceptible to crack growth. Hydrostatic stresses and stress
gradients can significantly increase the local concentration of hydrogen around the
defect thereby increasing the degradation process. Because linear elastic hydrostatic
stresses are harmonic functions, a natural orthogonal coordinate system can developed
using lines of constant hydrostatic stress together with those of its complex conjugate
function for this class of stress fields for plane problems. Utilizing this system of natural
coordinates often simplifies the process of finding a solution of the governing stress-
assisted diffusion equation. Derive the natural orthogonal coordinate system for the
linear elastic asymptotic solution of the Mode I fracture problem, and determine similar
coordinates for the small scale yielding counterpart of the Barenenblatt-Dugdale strip
model. Plot both orthogonal curvilinear coordinate systems, and represent the steady
state stress-assisted diffusion equation derivable from Boltzman statistics in these
coordinates. For the special case where solutions are independent of complex conjugate
functions, obtain solutions of the diffusion equation by integration.
2. Useful information
Different models of diffusion in solids under the influence of stress have been proposed.
The most common has a form derivable from a Boltzmann statistical analysis [I], where
a phenomenological assumption of proportionality between hydrostatic stress and
activation energy is made. The mass flux j of the diffusing species in this case is
j=-DVp+MpVa (I)
where p is the concentration of hydrogen in the lattice of the solid, Dis the diffusivity
of the hydrogen in the solid, M is a phenomenological constant, and a is the
hydrostatic stress. Hydrostatic stress is defined as one third of the trace of the stress
tensor. When j is substituted into the conservation of mass equation, i.e.,
386 D.J. Unger
(2)
where t represents time, the result is the following stress-assisted diffusion equation
ap 2
at=DV p-MVp·Va-MpV a,
2
(3)
provided D is assumed constant. Because hydrostatic stresses are harmonic functions for
linear elastic stress fields [2], which implies that V 2 a = 0, the last term ofEquation (3)
disappears. For steady state conditions, the partial derivative with respect to time also
vanishes to yield
V 2 p- v{fJ\lu = 0, (4)
where u = MaID .
Assuming v to be the conjugate harmonic function of u [3], we have for plane problems
that the gradient operator V() is represented by [4, 5]
(5)
Conjugate harmonic functions ( u, v) are interrelated by the Cauchy-Riemann

equations [3]. In Cartesian coordinates (x,y) these equations assume the form
au av av au
(6)
ax ay' ax 8y
Accordingly, these equations imply certain relationships among operators acting on

(u,v)
(7)
Now for the Mode I asymptotic solution, the Westergaard function Z 1 assumes the
particular form [6]
za=~
I ,-;::--'
z=x+iy; (8)
v2ffz
Stress Enhanced Concentration of Hydrogen Around Crack Tips 387
whereas, for the Barenblatt-Dugdale model, the corresponding Westergaard function

z:D is [6)
(9)
In both Equations (8) and (9), K, is the Mode I stress intensity factor. In Equation
(9), 0'0 is interpreted as either the cohesive force for the Barenblatt model or the tensile
yield stress for the Dugdale model, where d is the length of the strip region for both
cases. The hydrostatic stress is given in terms of the real part of the Westergaard
function under the assumption of plane strain loading conditions by
u = 2(1 + v) Re ZI (10)
3 '
where v is Poisson's ratio. Setting Vequal to zero in Equation (10) gives the
corresponding relationship for generalized plane stress loading conditions.
3. Solution
3.1 ORTHOGONAL COORDINATES BASED ON ELASTIC HYDROSTATIC

STRESSES
The real and imaginary parts of any complex function of z are conjugate harmonic
functions. From Equations (8) and (I 0), a suitable choice of orthogonal coordinates such
that u = M 0' I D for the asymptotic solution of the Mode I problem is
.
U +IV = 2(l+v)MzaI = 2(l+v)M(Re zaI + l·1mza)
1 (II)
3 D 3 D
Using the following complex exponential relationship due to Euler,
z = rexp(i8) = rcos8 +ir sin 8, (12)
together with Equation (8), we find by equating real and imaginary parts of Equation
(II) that
v = -cr-112 sin 8
2'
388 D.J. Unger
where for plane strain loading conditions the constant c is defined by
3 v; n
c= l+v [2M K.
I
(14)
=
In the case of generalized plane stress, setting v 0 in Equation (14) gives the
appropriate relationship for c. Curves of constant u and v comprise a family of
orthogonal cardioids, as shown in Figure I. To ensure a one-to-one correspondence
between coordinates (the crack line being an exception), we restrict ( u, v)
appropriately,
0 ~ u -< oo, - 00 -< v -< 00. (15)
The semi-infinite crack of the asymptotic elastic solution lies along the negative x axis,
=
i.e., for {} ±Jr or equivalently u = 0 by Equation ( 13). The crack tip is at the origin of
the Cartesian system or equivalently as v ~ ±oo.
For the Barenblatt-Dugdale model an analogous orthogonal coordinate system

( u, v) can be defined for plane problems, where the Barenblatt-Dugdale Westergaard
function is substituted in place ofthe asymptotic Westergaard function in Equation (10).
However, as strip models are ordinarily defined only for generalized plane stress
problems, Poisson's ratio v should be understood to be zero in Equation (10}, by virtue
of the statement following the equation. Furthermore, to simplify trigonometric function
arguments, a set of ancillary coordinates ( u1 , V1 ) are also defined
(16)
which are proportional to ( u, v) as follows
. 4u0 M( ~ +iV )•
U+lV=---- (17)
1
3Jr D
Now by solving the first equation of (9) for z, we find
JrZBD)
z=x+iy=dcsc 2 ( - -1- • (18)
2u0
By introducing the auxiliary coordinates from Equations (16) into (18), we further
obtain
. d d
(19)
X+ ty = Sin 2 ( U1 + iV1 ) = (sin U1 COSh V1 + i COS U1 Sinh V1 ) 2 •
Using familiar double angle formulas for ordinary and hyperbolic trigonometric
functions, (19) becomes upon expansion of the parentheses
. 2d
X+ty= . (20)
1- cos 2u1 cosh 2v1 + i sin 2u1 sinh 2v1
In order to remove the imaginary number i from the denominator, multiply both the
numerator and denominator of Equation (20) by the complex conjugate of the
denominator to find
. 2d (1- cos 2u1 cosh 2v1 - i sin 2u1 sinh 2v1 )

x+ry = 2 (21)
(cos 2u1 -cosh 2v1 )
Equating real and imaginary parts of Equation (21 ), we infer the following coordinate
transformation between the ancillary and the Cartesian
_ 2d ( 1- cos 2u1 cosh 2v1 ) _ 2d sin 2u1 sinh 2v1

X- 2 ' y-- 2' (22)
(cos 2u1 -cosh 2v1 ) (cos 2u1 -cosh 2v1 )
with the following restrictions
(23)
Physically, the lower bound of u 1 corresponds to the crack; whereas, the upper bound
of u 1 , corresponds to the finite cohesive strip, as delimited by Equation (23). It is also
interesting to note that a circular shape is found at the intermediate value, i.e.,
u 1 = 1! 14. The crack tip itself is located in this system, where v 1 ~ ±<X:> , which
corresponds to the origin of the Cartesian system. All of these features are labeled in
Figure. 2, where for brevity the subscript one has been left off the ancillary coordinates.
This loss of subscript is equivalent to letting 4u M 137! D equal one in Equation ( 17),
thereby making the ancillary coordinates equal to the natural orthogonal coordinates.
390 D.J. Unger
The cohesive zone which lies directly ahead of the crack tip is shown in the figure as a
unit length, i.e., d = 1 .
One notes the similarity of the natural orthogonal coordinates away from the cohesive
strip in Figures. 1 and 2. This reflects the assumption of small scale yielding for both the
Mode I asymptotic solution and the Barenblatt-Dugdale model. Because of this
assumption, the two solutions converge as one recedes from the crack tip, which is
reflected in the coordinates.
The software Conform©, which accompanied the text [7], was particularly useful in
quickly generating the coordinate systems shown in the figures. Naturally they can also
be plotted conventionally using Equations (13) and (22) and any standard graphics
routine.
3.2 STRESS-ASSISTED DIFFUSION EQUATIONS AND THEIR SOLUTIONS
Using Equation (5), we may infer for all Mode I linear elastic fracture mechanics
solutions that
the Laplacian operator acting on p ( u, v) is
regardless of the specific form u and v may have for individual geometries or models.
By further applying relationships (7) to (24) the Laplacian reduces to the simple form
(25)
Similarly, the second term of Equation (4) reduces to the following
V p[J{u = op Vu[J{u + op Vu[J{v = op Vu[J{u (26)

au av au
Therefore, by Equations (24) and (25), the stress-assisted diffusion Equation (4) may be
expressed as (4, 5]
(27)
For p = p(u), a solution of Equation (27) is obtained by integration. Let

dp
p=- (28)
du ·
Then Equation (27) transforms into
(29)
assuming VuDVu -::F- 0. After separating variables, integration of Equation (29) yields
p=c1 expu, (30)
where c 1 is a constant of integration. Replacing p by its definition given in Equation

(28) and integrating once more provides the solution
(31)
where c 2 is a second constant of integration. By choosing c 1 = Po and C2 = 0, we

find a solution to a boundary value problem having a concentration Po along the crack
faces and a zero flux at the crack tip. In the case of the asymptotic linear elastic
solution, if the latter condition is not imposed, an infinite mass flux would exist at the
crack tip. However, by imposing the boundary condition of zero flux at the crack tip, the
flux vanishes throughout the entire domain. Such a solution is often described in the
literature as the equilibrium solution. Operationally, solutions of this type can often be
found through simple integration of the mass flux of the particular stress-assisted
diffusion equation. For example, for the Boltzmann equation by setting j = 0 in
Equation (I) gives
(32)
By treating the gradient operators as if they were ordinary differentials and integrating
(32), one obtains the equilibrium solution after adjusting the constant of integration so
that p = Po for u =0 , i.e.,
M
p=p0 exp-u. (33)
D
Note in Equation (33) that for the linear elastic asymptotic hydrostatic stress, the
concentration p is infinite at the crack tip as u ~ <Xl; whereas, for the Barenblatt-
Dugdale model the concentration remains bounded as u remains finite.
392 D.J. Unger
Formally one can prove the validity of the operational property by rewriting Equation
(32) as
v{Inp- ~ u}=O~lnp- ~ u=const. (34)
One might also see from Equation (34) that solution of Equation (33) does not rely on
=
the property that V' 2 0" 0 and it would be applicable to stress fields other than linear
elastic, such as might be encountered in plasticity theory [1]. Naturally the
corresponding stress-assisted diffusion equation would contain an additional term, and
the natural orthogonal coordinates could not be utilized.
3.3 DISCUSSION
We will now briefly discuss other stress-assisted diffusion equations. In the case of the
Aifantis stress-assisted diffusion equation [8], the mass flux assumes the form
j =-(D+Nu)Vp+M pVu, (35)
where N is an additional phenomenological constant, related to the stress dependent

diffusivity contained within parentheses in Equation (35). Setting j equal to zero, and
rewriting the expression, we find
Vp M
= Vu. (36)
p D+Nu
Upon integration, this expression gives the corresponding power law equilibrium
solution
(37)
Using a limit discovered by Euler, it can be shown that Equation (37) uniformly
converges to Equation (33) as N ~ 0. Solution of Equation (37) was the basis of
degradation criteria proposed and studied in [5] and [9]. The form of the steady state
stress-assisted diffusion equation of Aifantis is derived by substituting j from Equation
(35) into Equation (2)
(38)
Defining a set of natural orthogonal coordinates ( u 2 , v 2 ) in a slightly different way
N N
u2 =l+-a, v 2 =-a* (39)
D D
where a* is the conjugate harmonic function of a, determined from the Cauchy-

Riemann equations, the steady state stress-assisted diffusion Equation (38) becomes
(40)
Hill [4] was the first to recognize that steady state stress-assisted diffusion equations
with arbitrary linear elastic hydrostatic stresses, such as the Boltzmann and Aifantis,
may be expressed in terms of conjugate harmonic functions. Prior to this others have
employed such variables for particular cases arising from problems concerning edge
dislocations and Mode I cracks.
Separation of variables p(u, v) = U ( u) V ( v) can often lead to more general

solutions of stress-assisted diffusion equations than the equilibrium solutions. For
example, in the case of the Boltzmann equation, the solutions are typically of the form
of exponential and trigonometric functions (4, 5], except for certain special cases of
separation constants. In the case of the Aifantis equation, the solutions are typically of
the form of Bessel functions and trigonometric functions [4, 5], except for special cases
such as the equilibrium solution expressed by Equation (37).
However, for stress-assisted diffusion equations where nonlinear terms are present, the
equation may prove to be inseparable, as in the case of the Fermi-Dirac equation [ 1].
The Fermi-Dirac stress-assisted diffusion equation for time independent conditions,
with a phenomenological assumption of proportionality between activation energy and
hydrostatic stress, is
DV 2 p-M(l-2p)VpeN a-M p(l- p)V 2 a = 0. (41)

Note that in Equation (41) p is assumed normalized so that its limits are between zero
and one. A concentration of one denotes a lattice saturated by hydrogen. The
corresponding mass flux of Equation (41) is
394 D.J. Unger
Figure 1. Natural orthogonal coordinates for the Mode I asymptotic solution. After [5).
Figure 2. Natural orthogonal coordinates for the Barenblan-Dugdale Mode I solution.
j = - DV p + M p ( 1- p) V u. (42)
If the concentration is small so that terms of 0{ p 2) are negligible, then the mass flux
in Equation (42) reduces to the Boltzmann (1). By setting j equal to zero in Equation
(42) yields
Vp =M Va (43)
p(1-p) D
which by using the operational property, mentioned earlier, has as its equilibrium
solution
p M
ln--=-a+c1 . (44)
1-p D
Adjusting the constant of integration c1 so that a equals zero when p equals Po, we
have
_!!__ = _P2_ exp M a. (45)

1-p l-p0 D
If we use a from the asymptotic linear elastic solution, we note from Equation (45)
that as a -+ oo, the lattice becomes saturated, i.e., p -+ 1 . Physically, this is more
realistic than predicted by the Boltzmann equation as hydrostatic stress grows large.
Note also that no assumption has been made about the Laplacian of a being zero in
Equation (41 ), so that this solution could apply to problems having plastic deformations
[I] as well as elastic.
4. References
[I) M. Hashimoto and R.M. Latanision ( 1988) Theoretical Study of Hydrogen Transport During Plastic
Deformation in Iron, Acta Metal/. 36, 1837-1854.
[2) S.P. Timoshenko and J.N. Goodier (1970) Theory ofElasticity, 3'• ed., McGraw-Hill, New York.
[3) R.V. Churchill (1960) Complex Variables and Applications, 2"' ed., McGraw-Hill, New York.
[4) J.M. Hill ( 1979) Plane Steady Solutions for Stress-Assisted Diffusion, Mechanics Research
Communications, 6, 147-150.
[5) D.J. Unger and E.C. Aifantis, (1983) On the Theory of Stress-Assisted Diffusion, II, Acta Mechanica,
47, 117-151.
[6) D.J. Unger, Analytical Fracture Mechanics, Academic Press, San Diego (1995). Reprint with
addendum, Dover Publications, Mineola, NY (200 I).
[7) V.I. Ivanov and M.K. Trubetskov (1994) Handbook of Conformal Mapping with Computer-Aided
Visualization, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
[8) E.C. Aifantis (1976) Diffusion of a Perfect Fluid in a Linear Elastic Stress Field, Mechanics Research
Communications, 28, 245-250.
[9) E.E. Gdoutos and E.C. Aifantis (1986) Environmental Cracking Under Mixed-Mode Conditions,
Engineering Fracture Mechanics, 23, 431-439.
Problem 84: Subcritical Crack Growth due to the Presence
of a Deleterious Species***
D.J. Unger
l. Problem
The cohesive force Ue between atoms of a material decays exponentially in time

Ueo exp (- Pt) because of the presence of a foreign species near the crack tip. Based
on critical crack tip opening displacement OcR and the Barenblatt-Dugdale model of
cohesive force for a mode I crack problem under constant load a"", derive average
crack-tip velocity as a function of crack length a. Assume self-similar incremental
crack growth by ignoring cohesion loss from previous critical events. As an arrest
criterion, assume crack advance of one cohesive zone length based on the initial value
of the cohesive force and the previous crack length. From the form ofthe average crack
tip velocity, infer what the analogous continuous crack growth process would be by
allowing increments of crack length and increments of time to become differentials of
the same variables. By separating variables and integrating the resulting expression,
obtain the crack length as a function of time for a continuous crack growth process.
Compare graphs of crack velocity versus stress intensity factor K 1 for the incremental
and continuous crack growth models using the following data:
u"" =l.72xl08 Pa, OcR =1.6xlO~m, Ueo =l.3lxl0 9 Pa, P=O.Ols-\
Young's modulus E=2.lxl0 11 Pa, initial crack length a 0 =10-7 m.
2. Useful information
The crack tip opening displacement ofor a plane stress mode I crack [I, 2] under
small scale yielding assumptions and plane stress loading conditions for an internal
crack in an infinite plate is
(I)
398 D.J. Unger
c=d+a, (2}
where a is one half of the crack length, dis the length of a cohesive zone, E is Young's
modulus, 0'oo is the applied traction at infinity, and O'c is the cohesive force.
For a geometric progression, the nth term of the series a, is related to the initial term
a0 by the following relationship [3]
(3)
where the ratio of sequential terms r is a constant.
3. Solution
3.1 INCREMENTAL CRACK GROWTH MODEL
Based on an exponential decrease in cohesive force with time, a critical crack tip
opening displacement OcR for a particular crack length a, over a particular increment
of time !:it, is determined from Equation (I) as
2
OCR = (}'001fa, exp(PiV, ), !Y, = tn+I -t,, (4)
Euco
where P > 0 is a phenomenological constant and O'co is the initial cohesive force. As
the crack advance is equal to the length of a cohesive zone at the start of each
degradation sequence, it follows that
Since Equation (5) has the form of a geometric progression, one can identify r of
Equation (3) as
Subcritical Crack Growth due to the Presence of a Deleterious Species 399
From Equation (4}, the time increment between the two critical events is
(7)
Thus from Equations (5) and (7) average crack velocity is determined as
(8)
where K 1• is the mode I stress intensity factor at the nth increment of crack growth
(9)
The relationship (8) can be rewritten in the following form using Equations (3) and (6)
(10)
where the definition of a critical crack length acR is given below
(11)
This crack length is related to the toughness of the material under inert environmental
conditions.
3.2 CONTINUOUS CRACK GROWTH MODEL
For a continuous crack growth process rather than incremental process, an analogous
relationship between crack tip velocity and crack length can be inferred from Equation
(8), i.e.,
400 D.J. Unger
(12)
Separating variables and integrating Equation (12), one obtains
(13)
where the constant of integration has been evaluated in terms of the initial crack length
a 0 (t = 0).
An explicit expression for a is derivable from Equation (13)
(14)
3.3 COMPARISON
A plot is shown in Figure 1 of Equations (8) and (12) for the parameters given in the
problem statement. The individual markers represent specific points determined from
Equation (8); whereas, the continuous line represents Equation (12). Because of the
large number of data points n in Equation (8), one marker is plotted for every 30
increments of crack growth.
Many physical phenomena exhibit exponential decays in time. Examples include

concentrations of reactants in first-order chemical reactions and radioactivity. Loss of
cohesion occurs in metals because of contact with foreign substances such as hydrogen
or liquid metals. While exact relationships between cohesion and solute concentrations
remain unknown, the exponential decay model does provide qualitative behavior
resembling the three stages of steady-state crack growth rates (2].
Subcritical Crack Growth due to the Presence of a Deleterious Species 40 l
-4
10
1 -6
f
10
-8
1
10
-10
10
0 10 20 30 40
stress intensity factor (MPa m112)
Figure I. Incremental and continuous environmentally assisted crack growth
4. References
[I) F.M. Burdekin and D.E.W. Stone (1966) The Crack Tip Opening Displacement Approach to Fracture
Mechanics in Yielding Materials, Journal ofStrain Analysis, 1, 145-153.
[2] D.J. Unger (2001) Analytical Fracture Mechanics," Academic Press, San Diego (1995). Reprint with
addendum, Dover Publications, Mineola, New York, USA.
[3] G.A Korn and T.M. Korn (1968) Mathematical Handbook for Scientists and Engineers, 2nd Edition,
McGraw-Hill.
PART B: FATIGUE
1. Life Estimates
Problem 1: Estimating the lifetime of aircraft wing string-
ers*
J. R. Yates
1. Problem
The wings of an aircraft are made from an aluminium alloy box, see figure I. To keep
the weight of the wing down the skin of the box is made as thin as possible but this
reduces the stiffiless of the box. So stiffening sections, called stringers, are riveted to
the skin.
Figure./ Diagram of wing structure.
In the skin-stringer structure cracks tend to start at the fastener holes and can grow in
the skin or the stringer. Inspection for cracks in the stringer depends on the ability of
the inspector to get inside the wing box section and look at each stringer. Inspection of
the skin is rather easier as this can be done from outside, but inspection procedures
have to allow for a crack to go undetected because of paint, dirt, surface scratches and
anything else that might hinder observation.
As we have a structure with two load carrying components we could have a situation in
which either the skin or the stringer are cracked. Failure of the stringer means that the
skin has to carry the load and the integrity of the structure depends on the size of the
critical crack in the skin and the number of cycles taken to grow a crack from an initial
flaw to this size. When cracking occurs in the skin and the stringer is intact the life-
time depends on the growth of a detectable flaw in the skin to a critical size. Every
406 J. R. Yates
combination of flaw shape and position must be assessed in the design of the aircraft
wing.
In this problem you will work through a typical procedure to determine the safe operat-
ing life of the aircraft based on the failure of a low load transfer stringer to skin joint in
the bottom wing skin. The design lifetime of this aircraft is 40000 flights. To fulfil
this requirement you need to demonstrate a basic fatigue lifetime of 80000 flights with
a margin of safety to allow for unforeseen loads. For the material consider: Yield
strength = 290 MPa, Tensile strength = 430 MPa, Turning points in stress history: 0,
135,70, 110, 10, 100, 10, 80, 0.
140
""
120
."'
110
100
:s
"'"
~ "'
"'
"'
30
20
10
.... 10
Figure.2 Stress history.
MD r··----- -- ·-· -- -- - - -------- ---,--,--,-,.,.TT--- -- ---------------
~+---+-~+144+A~-1--r;~HH+r---r-t-r+t+H+---+-~+144+r
1~+--+-++++H*·"'~~~HH~r--r-r++~~-+-+~+H+
I'
~ lmt---+-~+144+H~-1--~~HH+r---r-t-r+++H+---t-~+144+r
.;
it~+---+-;-+;4;+H--~--r;~bH~~~-+~+++H+---+-;-+;,;+b
. ............... ....
jloo+-~~~~H+H---r-+4~~H---~~~,rr~r-~_,-+++H+
oL---L-~~~~--~--~-Lwu~---L~-L~~L---L-~~~~
1000 10000 100000 1000000 10000000

opesm illhre
Figure.3 S-N curve for represenlative wing skin to stringer riveted joint
Estimating the lifetime of aircraft wing stringers 407
2. Solution
This is an example of using a component S-N curve rather than a material S-N curve.
The difference is that all the manufacturing issues, surface finish, geometry and so on,
are incorporated into the S-N data rather than being accounted for using modification
factors. The drawback is that an experimental S-N curve needs to be determined for the
actual components or a representative detail, as in this case.
The flight stresses are found from the stress-time history, Figure 2, by cycle counting.
There are eight turning points and so there must be four cycles. One of the easier
methods of cycle counting by hand is the 'Reservoir Method'.
Having identified the cycles, the mean and range of each can be found. Unfortunately,
the cycles have different mean stresses and our component S-N curve is for a mean
stress of 90 MPa. One way of accounting for this is to use the Goodman method to es-
timate equivalent alternating stresses at a mean stress of90 MPa. The principle is that
two cycles with stress amplitudes 0'01 and 0'02 and mean stresses O'm1 and O'mlo respec-
tively, have the same fatigue life if they lie on a straight line with the point O'm = urs.
O'a = 0. This is expressed as
O"a2
(I)
The cycles identified and converted to equivalent stress amplitudes for a mean stress of
90 MPa are shown in the Table.
Flight stresses in MPa Safe life assessment

~0" Urn ~u (um=90MPa) Nf l!Nf
135 67.5 126 lxl05 Ixlo-6
90 55 82 Jx106 Ix Jo-6
70 45 62 4xl06 2.5xlo-7
40 90 40 Jxto7 lxto-7
Damage per flight l.l4x Io-5
The fatigue lifetime is found by linear summation of the damage occurring at each
stress level. The number of cycles to failure for each stress level is read from the S-N
curve for the representative low load transfer joint, Figure 3. The proportion of the
lifetime used per cycle is added for each stress level to give the proportion of life used
per flight. The number of flights is simply the reciprocal of this number.
408 J. R. Yates
The smallest stress range is beyond the S-N data. You could regard it as infinite, or
non-damaging or, as in this case, attribute it with the run-out endurance. In either case
its contribution to the lifetime is small.
So, the number of flights= l/(1.14xl0-s) = 88100. This meets the design objective of
80000 flights and the design objective itself is twice the expected lifetime of the struc-
ture.
3. Comments
This method does not take account of the order in which the stresses occur and nor
does it allow for the presence of pre-existing defects. If you are able to inspect the
structure and detect cracks small enough, you can use a defect tolerant approach to
Iifing. But in this case access to the stringers is very poor and you are unable to detect
small cracks reliably. This must be treated as a safe life structure and repaired or re-
placed at the end of its design life.
4. References
[I] J.E. Shigley and C.R. Mischke, Mechanical Engineering Design, McGraw Hill, 6'' edition.
[2] N.E. Dowling, Mechanical Behavior ofMaterials, Prentice-Hall, 2od edition, 1993.
Problem 2: Estimating long life fatigue of components *
J. R. Yates
1. Problem
A gearbox shaft is made from a high quality AISI 4340 steel, whose properties are
given below. The shaft is in the form of a solid stepped round bar with a ground sur-
face finish. The smaller diameter is 25 mm, the larger diameter 30 mm and the root
radius of the fillet is 2.5 mm. The shaft has failed in service due to misalignment in the
gearbox. Finite element analyses suggest that the shaft has been subjected to a fully
reversed bending moment of 500 Nm, occurring once per revolution of the engine.
Construct an approximate S-N curve for this component and estimate the lifetime of
the gearbox. Comment on the accuracy of your prediction. Yield strength of AISI 4340
at room temperature is 1100 MPa and the tensile strength is 1170 MPa.
( 0
Figure.} The gearbox shaft.
2. Solution
There are several methods of estimating S-N curves, but all are very approximate. In
this example we shall use Shigley's method and Juvinall's method. The principles of
both are the same and are as follows.
The fatigue limit is approximately proportional to the tensile strength, if the tensile
strength is less than about 1400 MPa. The S-N curve tends towards the tensile
strength at I cycle. The fatigue limit is scaled downwards by the fatigue strength re-
duction factor, Kfo and also factors to account for load type, stress gradient (size) and
surface finish, some of which depend on material strength. Both methods have another
410 J. R. Yates
fixed point at 1000 cycles. Juvinall includes the fatigue strength reduction factor at this
point but Shigley does not.
Both methods start by estimating the fatigue strength reduction factor of the notched
shaft.
Notch radius/smaller shaft diameter= 0.1

Ratio oflarger to smaller shaft diameters = 1.2
Stress concentration factor, K, = 1.65, from tables, such as Peterson.
We need to modified the stress concentration faCIOr to estimate the fatigue strength reduction factor using an equa-
tion like
(1)
where
(2)
and p is the notch root radius and a is a material constant. In this case, a is around
0.070, found by looking up a suitable estimate in a text book, and so q is about 0.97,
meaning that this material is quite notch sensitive. A value of q closer to zero means
that the material is more tolerant of notches. Putting all this together gives us an esti-
mate of the fatigue strength reduction factor at 1.63, which is close to the original
value ofK1•
Juvinall and Shigley now differ in the details of estimating the fatigue limit and the
effects of surface finish and loading conditions.
3.1 JUVINALL'S METHOD
Fatigue limit = 585 MPa, for steels this is half the tensile strength, up to a maximum
strength of 1400 MPa.
The factor for a ground surface, m., is found from a graph as a function of tensile
strength and is 0.88 in this example. The factor for bending loads, m, is 1.0 and the
factor for the stress gradient, mJ, depends on the diameter and is 0.9 in this example.
The factor for the stress amplitude at 1000 cycles, m ', is 0.9 and the number of cycles
for the fatigue limit is l million.
Estimating long life fatigue of components 411
We can now calculate the following points on the S-N curve:
Cycle 1, stress amplitude = 1170 MPa, the tensile strength
Cycle 1000, stress amplitude= 645 MPa = fKr

m'cru/
. m 5 m 1 mdcru/
Cycle 1000000, stress amphtude = 284 MPa = / 2 Kr
3.2 SHIGLEY'S METHOD
Fatigue limit = 592 MPa, for steels this is 0.506 of the tensile strength, up to a maxi-
mum strength of 1460 MPa.
The factor for a ground surface is m 5 = 1.58a~ 0 · 085 and is 0.87 in this example. The
factor for bending loads, m, is 1.0 and the factor for the stress gradient is
ft~ / }0.107
md = 177 .621 for diameters in mm up to 50 mm in bending or torsion. So the
stress gradient factor is 0.88 in this example. The factor for the stress amplitude at
1000 cycles, m ·, is 0.9 but the fatigue strength reduction factor is not included at this
point. The number of cycles for the fatigue limit is l million.
We can now calculate the following points on the S-N curve:
Cycle I, stress amplitude = 1170 MPa, the tensile strength
Cycle I 000, stress amplitude = 1053 MPa = m' u.
.
Cycle l 000000, stress amphtude = 275 MPa =
m·' mm
1 d ilK
u./
1
The approximate S-N curves from both methods are shown below.
412 J. R. Yates
10000r------------------------------------------------------1
1 ..bunalll
· --- - S!iqley
100~----~r------,-------,------~-------r-------r------~
10 110 1000 10000 1101101 11l!DIOO 10000000
C¥>1115 to tiiUo
Figure. 2 S-N curves for 4340 stepped round bar in bending, zero mean stress and ground finish.
Although there is a substantial difference between the two curves at about 1000 cycles,
this is not very important because the S-N method should not be used for lives less than
10000 cycles. Indeed, the strain life approach should really be adopted, if possible, for
all of these types of problems, regardless of lifetime.
3.3 ESTIMATE OF LIFETIME
In this example, the shaft is subjected to a fully reversed bending moment of 500 Nm,
which gives a nominal stress amplitude of 326 MPa at a mean stress of zero. Reading
off the graph gives a lifetime of around 350000 revolutions. This is not very precise
and we should put, at least, a factor of two uncertainty on this estimate.
The statistical variations in the fatigue properties can be incorporated into the estimate
of the S-N curve. The details can be found in good fatigue or design textbooks.
There are occasions when the modification factors, such as for surface finish, do not
represent the actual component behaviour at all well. Modern steels, for example, tend
to be much cleaner than those for which these modification factors were determined
some fifty years ago.
4. References
[I] J.E. Shigley and C.R. Mischke ( 1989) Mechanical Engineering Design, McGraw Hill, 6" edition.
[2] N.E. Dowling ( 1993) Mechanical Behavior ofMateriols, Prentice-Hall, 2"' edition.
Problem 3: Strain life fatigue estimation of automotive
component**
J. R. Yates
1. Problem
A part of a rally car transmission has been made from a steel forging, whose properties
are given in the table below. The loading of this component can be simplified to a sin-
gle stress cycle of magnitude 0 - 800 MPa occurring, on average, twice per kilometre of
rally stage. The critical location for failure is known to be at a point where the stress
concentration factor is 2.5. Calculate the maximum stress, the strain range and the
mean stress at the critical location. Hence estimate how many kilometres of rallying
can the car endure before you would replace the transmission?
Yield strength at room temperature, MPa 1000

Tensile strength at room temperature, MPa 1200
Plane strain fracture toughness at room tempera- 100
ture, MPavm
Cyclic stress strain behaviour I
e - aa +( aa )o.t
a 207000 2000
Strain life fatigue strength, a~ 1750
Strain life fatigue exponent, b -0.1
Strain life fatigue ductility, ej 2.0
Strain life fatigue exponent, c -0.8
2. Solution
The first part of the problem is one of determining the strain history at the critical loca-
tion and the second part is the estimate the lifetime, bearing in mind that there is a
mean stress in the cycle.
414 J. R. Yates
The local approach to the strain history involves estimating the elastic-plastic condi-
tions from the nominally elastic loading. This is often done using Neuber's Rule, but
there are other methods, such as that proposed by Glinka. Start by plotting out the sta-
bilised cyclic stress-strain curve.
1600
1400
1200
'i 1000
~ BOO
"'"'I!!
us 600
400
200
0
0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04
Strain
Figure./ Cyclic stress strain curve.
The first loading cycle is 0 to 800 MPa. Neuber's Rule is that the product of the local
stress and local strain is equal to the product of the nominal stress, nominal strain and
the square of the stress concentration factor. Since the nominal stress is elastic in this
case, the product of the local stress and strain is,
<re = 800x800x2.5 2 = 1932 (1)

207000
We need to find the point on the cyclic stress strain curve where the product of stress
and strain is also 19.32 MPa. One way is to plot values of stress and strain for which
the product is 19.32 MPa and look for the intersection with the stress strain curve. This
gives the local stress and strain as 1250 MPa and 0.0151, respectively.
Strain life fatigue estimation of automotive component 415
1400
1200 '-
'-
'-
'-
1000
'-
'-
'-
'-
'i '-
..
800 '-
~ '-
'-
~
a;
600 cre=l9.32 ' '-
'
400
200
0
0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04
Strain
Figure 2 Determining local stress and strain.
From here the load is reversed and we form part of the hysteresis loop. Since Masing's
Hypothesis is that this is approximately twice the size of the stress strain curve, we can
do the calculation by considering only half of the change in applied stress and strain.
The next part of the loading history takes us from 800 MPa to 0 MPa, so half the
change is 400 MPa. Since the nominal stress is elastic, the Neuber Product for this
part of the cycle is,
CJE = 400 X 400 X 2.5 2 =4 .83 (2)

207000
We can find the local stress and strain corresponding to this Neuber Product in the
same way as before:
416 J. R. Yates
1400
1200 ''
'
''
1000
''
l ''
..
~
800
''
'
! 600 """19.32 ' '
liS '
400 ._
200
0
0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04
Strain
Figure 3 Determining local slress and slrain.
The intersection between the Neuber Product and the stress strain curve gives the local
stress and strain as 940 MPa and 0.0051, respectively. Therefore the change in stress
from the turning point is 1880 MPa and the change in strain is 0.0102. Since the load-
ing has changed direction, we subtract these from the previous turning point to give
the next turning point at -630 MPa and 0.0050. Notice how the local stress is com-
pressive, yet the strain is tensile.
We continue with this procedure until we have completed all the elements of the load
history. In this case we only need to consider the next reversal, from 0 MPa to
800 MPa. The Neuber Product for the stress and strain amplitudes is 4.83 and the local
stress and strain amplitudes are 940 MPa and 0.0051, respectively. Multiplying by two
to get the ranges and adding to the previous turning point takes us to a local stress of
1250 MPa and local strain of 0.0151. This is the same point as we were at two rever-
sals ago, and is therefore a closed hysteresis loop and a completed cycle.
Strain life fatigue estimation of automotive component 417
..,_;as loops
1400
1200
1000
800
800
~a
1200
0
0 0-004 OJI16 0.018
-200
·400
·800
-800
Slr:ain
Figure. 4 Hysterisis loops.
The local stress range is 1880 MPa and the local strain range is 0.0102 and the mean
stress in the cycle is 310 MPa. We can now estimate the lifetime to the appearance of a
small crack at the critical location. We take the mean stress into account using a
method such as that proposed by Smith, Watson and Topper (SWT) or by Morrow.
Morrow's method is a development of the Goodman mean stress approach and only
modifies the elastic term in the strain life law. The SWT method uses a correlation
between fatigue lifetime and the product of strain amplitude and maximum stress in
the cycle. We will use the SWT method here. The form of the SWT curve is related to
the usual strain life curve and is,
(3)
A plot of the SWT curve for this material is shown below.

418 J. R. Yates
Smilll, Watson, Topper Strain lito Curve
10
a: ~
' I'...
:I
-;
-g
1
Ji
...... ......
1!
s
:f
~
II
~ ...........
e. I' ..... to-
1
100 1000 10000 100000
c,.dKto tlilon
Figure. 5 The SWT strain life curve.
The major cycle that the transmission component experiences has a strain amplitude of
0.0051 and a maximum stress of 1250 MPa. The SWT parameter is therefore 6.38 and
the lifetime may be read from the curve as about 1200 cycles or 600 km. A factor of
two uncertainty would lead one to change the transmission component after 300 km.
3. References
[I] S. Suresh ( 1991) Fatigue ofMaterials, Cambridge University Press, London.

[2] J.E. Shigley and C.R. Mischke ( 1995) Mechanical Engineering Design, edited by , McGmw Hill, 6'' edition.
[3] N. E. Dowling (1993) Mechanical Behavior ofMaterials, N.E. Dowling, Prentice-Hall, 2•• edition.
Problem 4: Lifetime estimates using LEFM *
J. Yates
1. Problem
A straight steel tie-bar of circular section, 150 mm in diameter, D, contains a central,

transverse penny-shaped crack 8 mm in diameter. The axial load on the bar varies cy-
clically between 1.5 MN and 4 MN. Estimate the number of load cycles to grow the
crack to a diameter (2a) of 30 mm.
Take K 1c = 50 MPa -.Jm and estimate the value of a"" What happens to the rod if the
machine that contains it is made to run continuously?
If the tie bar were to be made from a tougher steel, K1c = 100 MPavm, how much
would the lifetime be extended?
Assume that the geometry calibration function for this crack is Y = 217r, and that the
effect of the surface of the bar is negligible even when the crack is big. Take the rate of
growth of fatigue cracks in this steel to be I0- 11 (t\Ki metres per cycle when A.K is ex-
pressed in MPa-.Jm. Assume that the geometry calibration function for this crack is Y=
2/tr, and that the effect of the surface of the bar is negligible even when the crack is
big. Take the rate of growth of fatigue cracks in this steel to be I0- 11 (A.K) 3 metres per
cycle when A.K is expressed in MPa-.Jm.
2. Solution
The load range is (4- 1.5) = 2.5 MN, and this produces a stress range of,
du = (
7r
2.5
75 X 10-J
r= 141.5 MPa
In this instance, a;= 4 mm and a1 = 15 mm. Integration ofthe Paris Law gives,
420 J. Yates
~=C(~KI)m
dN
~K 1 = Y~cr..Jim
c(v~crJ,taf
.·. ~ =
dN
(l)
Cda = .br c(v~crJ,taf dN
I
I
. Nr ~ cym,;~m,m/2 ~}-1 0 ~~~1)

[
In this case, Y is constant, so,
and the number of cycles to grow the crack from 8 mm diameter to 30 mm diameter is
376000 cycles.
The maximum stress in a cycle is,
4 4
Omax = ( \2 = - x 141.5 = 226.4 MPa
1t 75 x 1o- 3 1 2 ·5
The critical crack size ac therefore that satisfies,
K 1c =50= 'l:_x 226.4J7tac

1t
is ac = 0.038 m = 38 mm.
Lifetime estimates using LEFM 421
If the machine that contains the rod is made to run continuously, the initial crack of
8 mm diameter grows steadily until the crack approaches the critical diameter of
76 mm. A very rapid acceleration in fatigue growth is terminated at this diameter by
fast brittle fracture. The life can be calculated as above by using,
(2)
So the lifetime to fracture is 525000 cycles.
If the tie bar is made from a tougher steel of K1c = I 00 MPavm then the critical flaw
size rises to ac = 0.153 m = 153 mm, which is rather larger than the radius of the bar.
This tells us that, ignoring the effects on Y of the surface of the tie-bar, the critical
crack size is about twice the diameter of the bar itself. Fast brittle fracture is no longer
possible. Fatigue will continue until the crack is so big that the ligament between its tip
a,
and the surface of the rod fails in shear at the greatest load in the cycle. Since this will
be when the crack is almost !50 mm in diameter, we can take as 0.075 m. The crack
propagation rate of ferritic steels is fairly insensitive to microstructure and, ignoring
any changes in Y, the fatigue lifetime will be,
which is around 597500 cycles. In fact it will be less than this as Y will increase as the
crack tip approaches the surface of the bar. In this case, a tougher steel will have little
benefit on the lifetime of the component.
3. References
[I) N. E. Dowling ( 1989) Mechanical Behavior ofMaterials, Prentice-Hall. 2od edition.

Problem 5: Lifetime of a gas pipe *
1. Problem
A non destructive inspection prior to installation of a long pipe showed that it contains
a metallurgical defect at the inner surface of the pipe which is semi-circular in shape
with a depth of 1.8 mm and a surface length of 5 mm. This flaw was oriented perpen-
dicular to the hoop stress in the pipe. The outer and inner diameter of the pipe is
OD=120 mm and ID=96 mm, respectively. Estimate the life of the pipe under normal
operating conditions, i.e. no pressure surges and a daily evacuation from maximum 50
MPa to zero pressure. Assume that:
The plane strain fracture toughness of the pipe alloy is 25 MPa m 112 and the geometry
correction factor can be estimated from the graph below. Keep Y constant.
>- 2.5 , / alc=0.1

./
.Q a/c=0.02 /
0 / ,/
:. 2.0 /
~
c
0
~ 1.5 /
/
/
/
_/·
/.
,/
--
---- --
~ a/c=0.2
0 / -...,...... ---- - a/c=04

0~ -:.:-=::::::::::_-:_
.- ______
-- --- - - - -
-- --
~ 1.0 - - - - - - - - - - - ___ a/c=OB
2
(!) 0.5
-------------
+-----------------alc=1.0
0.0 +-~~~-.--~~~--,-~~~~,--..~~~....-~~~-+
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
aft
Figure./ Geometry correction factor vs alt.

424 A. AfaghiN.-W. Mai
Crack propagation in this material is given by,
~ = 6.25xl o-12 AK 4
dN
2. Solution
2.1 HOOP STRESS
Since the thin walled pressure vessel theory is not valid here (i.e.
ID < 10 x ( OD; ID) ), the hoop stress is given by,
cr=(~: ::} (l)
where
L=OD
ID
The applied load range goes from zero to 50 MPa. Substituting values in Eq.(l) yields,
cr=250MPa
2.2 CRITICAL CRACK SIZE
To integrate the crack growth law, we need to estimate the integration limits in terms
of crack size,
(2)
First we need to find Y from the graph as a/c=l.S/2.5=0. 72 and a/t=l.S/12=0.15. This
gives Y approximately as 0.75. The value of hoop stress at the inner wall is 225 MPa,
however, to get the total applied stress intensity factor we need to add in the internal
pressure. Therefore, the total applied stress at the peak will be 275 MPa. Now solving
Eq.(2) for a1 ,
Lifetime of a gas pipe 425
25 == 0.75x(225 + 50}x~xar
or ar= 4.7 mm.
2.3 FATIGUE LIFE
By integrating the crack growth law between the initial and final crack size we will be
able to evaluate the fatigue lifetime of the pipe.
Nr ar 1
fdN = J~-----,.---- (3)
0 a. c(YAcr&'r
or,
0.0047 da
Nr = f 12 4 4 (
o.oots 6.25xl0- x0.75 x225 x xa
)2
or,
N f == 6857 cycles.
The fatigue life of the pipe will be about 18 years (6857/365).
3. References
[I) S. Suresh (1991) Fatigue ofmaterials. Cambridge University Press.

[2) J. F. Knott and D. Elliot(1989) Worked examples in facture mechanics.
Problem 6: Pipe failure and lifetime using LEFM *
M N. James
1. Problem
PART 1
A long pipe has an outer diameter (OD) of 90 mm, an inner diameter (/D) of 70 mm
and works at a pressure (p) of 40 MPa. Valve failure downstream in the pipe caused a
pressure surge which burst the pipe. Examination of the fracture surface revealed a
metallurgical defect at the inner surface of the pipe which was semi-elliptical in shape
with a depth of 1.6 mm and a surface length of 4.5 mm. This flaw was orientated per-
pendicular to the hoop stress in the pipe. What pressure would have caused this fail-
ure? The formula for hoop stress from thin walled theory is p(ID)/2t, while from thick
walled theory it isp[(L 2 + l)/(L 2 -I)] where tis the wall thickness ofthe pipe and Lis
the ratio OD/ID. Which formula would you use and why? The plane strain fracture
toughness of the pipe alloy is 25 MPa my', and the geometry correction factor can be
found from the graph below.
>- 2.5 / . alc=0.1

..; /
a/c=0.02
tl / /
/
:.. 2.0
_..... --.---
/ /
c / _..alc=0.2
~~
8
1.5 ./
./
.,.,../
_ __...,.._-::::.. _ - - - - - - - - -
_,.,./
...... --- - - - - - alc=04
~E~ 1o ------------- ---
f-------- -- a/c=0.8
~ r-------------
C> 0.5
t--------------alc=1.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
all
Figure./ Geometry correction factor for a semi-elliptic surface crack in tension.

428 M. N. James
PART2
A new pipe was manufactured from the same alloy and subjected to non-destructive
inspection prior to installation. This showed that the pipe contained a similarly orien-
tated flaw, 1.5 mm deep, but with a semicircular shape. Assuming normal operating
conditions, i.e. no pressure surges and a daily evacuation to zero pressure, will the pipe
last for its desired lifetime of 30 years? Assume that the geometry correction factor has
a constant value of 0. 7 in the second part of the question and note that a fatigue crack
growth rate of 6.25x I 0' 8 mm/cycle corresponds to an applied 11K value of 10 MPa my,.
The Paris law exponent m is 4.
2. Solution
PART I
From the OD and /D we can obtain the wall thickness t as 10 mm, i.e. (90- 70)/2 mm.
The hoop stress from thin walled pressure vessel theory is
cr = p(ID) = 40 x 70 = l40MPa (I)

hoop 2t 20
This formula is strictly valid only for situations where ID > lOt. This is clearly not
true in the present case, and we should really use thick walled pressure vessel theory.
In thick walled pressure vessels, the hoop and radial stresses are not constant through
the thickness, and the greatest absolute values occur at the inner wall of the vessel.
Here
2
crhoop,thick = [ LL2 +I]
_I P (2)
where
L=OD
ID
Thin walled theory gives the average value of the hoop stress through the wall thick-
ness, and it is easy to compare the difference between maximum and average values of
hoop stress through the parameter
L2 + l
S=-- (3)
L +I
Pipe failure and lifetime using LEFM 429
The table below shows the difference for values of L from 1.01 to 2.0,
L 1.01 1.05 1.10 1.20 1.50 2.00
s 1.005 1.026 1.052 1.109 1.300 1.667
The ratio of L in the present question is 1.29, hence we should use the thick walled
theory, Eq.(2). We need to add the internal pressure to this value in calculating the
stress intensity factor, because K values will arise from the hoop stress and the internal
pressure loading of the crack faces. Now
(4)
We can find Y from the graph as ale= 1.6/2.25 = 0.71 and a/t = 1.6/10 = 0.16. This
gives Y approximately as 0. 78. Thus at fracture
K1 = Ycr..{it; = 0.78x 5.0Ip.J0.00167t = K 1c

25
:. p = 0. 277 =90.2 MPa
Thus a pressure surge of 90.2 MPa would cause fracture of the pipe. If thin walled
pressure vessel theory had been used the failure pressure would have been given as
100.5 MPa- a significant difference of 11.4%.
PART2
To integrate the Paris 'law' to obtain the fatigue life, we need to establish the integra-
tion limits in terms of crack size. We are given the initial flaw size as 1.5 mm and we
can find the final size causing fracture by substituting into the K equation, the fracture
toughness and applied stress arising from the applied load range. The applied load
range goes from zero to 40 MPa, i.e. a stress ratio R = 0, hence the peak stress will
correspond to the 40 MPa.
The equation above for hoop stress in a thick cylinder indicates that its value at the
inner wall is 4.01p, i.e. 160.4 MPa, and to get the total applied stress intensity factor
we need to add in the internal pressure (which loads the crack surfaces). This gives a
total stress of200.4 MPa at peak load, hence
K 1 = Ycr& = 0.7x 200.4~7tar = K 1c = 25 MPa.Jffi

:. ar = 10.2 mm
430 M. N. James
Note that this is, in fact, slightly larger than the wall thickness, so we should limit the
final length to lO mm. The last piece of information we need is the constant C in the
Paris law. We can this from the growth rate information given
~=C(AK 1 )m
dN
c = 6.25 x 10-8 = 6.25 x 1o-'2
10 4
We can now separate out the variables in the Paris law and integrate the equation be-
tween the crack growth limits.
:. Nr =41.86 { - -1)0.01 =41.864[-100-(-66.67)]

a o.oo1s
Hence Nr = 23723cycles
As 30 years is equivalent to 30 x 365 = 10 950 days (excluding leap years!), the pipe
should last the required lifetime.
3. Comments
As many factors can accelerate growth rates, however, it would be prudent to inspect
this component at regular intervals. These inspection intervals can be set with refer-
ence to the life integration. A curve of a versus N is generated from integration to
various lengths. This is an exponential curve, and converting N to time (which can
easily be done seeing the frequency is l cycle per day) allows inspection intervals to be
chosen such that the crack would not become critical in the interval between inspec-
tions. In the present case, there is also an initial period of time when inspection is not
required.
4. References
[I] N. Dowling ( 1989) Mechanical Behavior ofMaterials, Prentice-Hall, 2•• edition.
Problem 7: Strain life fatigue analysis of automotive sus-
pension component**
J. R. Yates
l. Problem
An automobile suspension link has been made from SAE1055 steel and the nominal
strain history when the wheel strikes a pot hole has been measured on a test track, Fig-
ure I. The critical location for fatigue crack initiation has a fatigue strength reduction
factor of 3. How many times can the test track history be repeated before a detectable
crack is formed?
700
600
400
300
1200
!! 100
f
7
-100
-200
-300
-400
-600
Tini . ..S
Figure I Nominal strain history.

432 J. R. Yates
cr'
The fatigue strain life behaviour takes the form &8 = __f_(2N r )b + &j. (2N r )c . Cor-
E
rections need to be made for non-zero mean stresses. The values of the material pa-
rameters for SAE 1055 are:
Cyclic stress strain behaviour I
& - cra + ( cra )0.1

a - 200000 800
Strain life fatigue strength, u;. 1000
Strain life fatigue ductility, &_~ 1.0
2. Solution
The fatigue lifetime to first appearance of a crack is commonly estimated using the
strain-life, or local strain method. The crack size at the predicted lifetime is of the or-
der of I to 2 mm in depth.
There several steps to doing this calculation by hand. The main one is to estimate the
local strain amplitude at the critical location by tracking the local stress strain response
to the nominal applied stress. A common way of doing this is by using Neuber's Rule,
although there are other methods, such as that developed by Glinka. We shall use
Neuber's Rule in this example. We shall also use the Smith, Watson, Topper method
for correcting the strain life curve when mean stresses are present.
2.1 STRESS STRAIN TRACKING WITH NEUBER'S RULE

Neuber proposed that the ratio of local stress to the nominal stress multiplied by the
ratio of the local strain to the nominal strain is equal to square of the stress concentra-
tion factor. In fatigue, it is common to substitute the fatigue strength reduction factor
for the stress concentration factor. So
cr & 2
-·-=Kr (I)
s e
Strain life fatigue analysis of automotive suspension component 433
where s and e are the nominal values of stress and strain respectively, and u and & are
the local values of stress and strain at the notch root respectively.
Re-arranging, and for the case when the nominal stresses and strains are elastic we
obtain
(2)
This has an infinite number of solutions, but the one we need is the one that also satis-
fies the material constitutive law, the cyclic stress strain curve. You can solve this
graphically, by plotting out both equations and finding the intersection, or numerically.
As an example, take the first part of the loading spectrum from 0 to 600 microstrain.
The Neuber Product at this point is
CJ • E = 32 • (600 X 10-6 J·200000 =0.648

This is plotted out the dotted line in Figure 2. The intersection with the cyclic stress
strain curve gives the local notch root stress and strain for this material, with this
notch, at this load. The values are u= 341 MPa and e= 0.0019.
1100
500
''
' ' .... ........
....
--------- ----- --------- -·
~
100
0 ooo2 o.oo4 oooe o.ooe 001 0012 o.014 o.o16 oo1s 002
_....,. .. de
Figure 2 Cyclic stress S1rain curve for SAE I 055.

434 J. R. Yates
From here it gets slightly more complex. Since the hysteresis loops are geometrically
twice the size of the cyclic stress strain curve, which is known as Masing's Hypothesis,
we need to introduce a factor of two into the calculations for notch root stress and
strain. We can either double up the cyclic stress strain curve and use the range of
nominal stress and strain, or we can use the amplitude of nominal stress and strain and
retain the usual stress strain equation. We shall demonstrate the latter here.
The procedure is to take the next increment of the loading history, from 600 1.16 to 0 J.1.6,
which is a range of 600 J.1.6 and hence an amplitude of 300 fJ£. We calculate Neuber's
Product using the amplitude
and again find the intercept with the cyclic stress strain curve, Figure 3.
500
I
4150 I
I
4)0 I
&!
350 'I
:3110
\ -~snssninwM
l -Ntuber -.er• 0.182
'
~
1250
j 200
150
100
50
-----
0 0.001 0.1102 0.003 0.005 OJI06 0.007 0.1108
Figure. 3 Cyclic stress strain curve for SAE I 055.
This occurs at O"a = 180 MPa and Ga= 0.0009, giving changes in stress and strain of !J.u
= 360 MPa and !J.&= 0.0018. These are the changes in stress and strain from the pre-
vious turning point of u= 341 MPa and&= 0.0019. Hence the new turning point is
u= 341-360 = -19 MPa and e= 0.0019-0.0018 = 0.0001. Continuing with this pro-
Strain life fatigue analysis of automotive suspension component 435
cedure gives us the next turning point at c:r = 101 (= -19 +120) MPa and
& = 0.0007 (= 0.0001 + 0.0006).
The next unloading portion of the nominal strain history is interesting as it goes below
the previous lowest strain level. When this occurs, the material 'remembers' that is has
been interrupted during a larger cycle. The nominal strain range is ~e = 1050 J.LE
(from 600 J.1E to -450 J.LE), so the nominal strain amplitude is 525 J.LE. The Neuber
equation is
,which gives <:ra = 308 MPa and &r,= 0.0016. These are added to the turning point at c:r
= 341 MPa and e= 0.0019 to give the new turning point at c:r = -275 MPa and
&= -0.0013.
The final part of the history, from from -450 J.1E to 600 J.LE should return us to c:r = 341
MPa and e= 0.0019, and close the loop, Figure 4.
400
~
:I
-i
I
i ·0.002
31
.0.0015 0.0025 0.003
-300
Slrain 3mplitude
Figure. 4 The hysterisis loop.
There are, therefore, two complete loops. The larger one goes from e= 0.0019, c:r= 341
MPa to&= -0.0013, u= -275 MPa. The smaller one is from & = 0.0007, c:r= 101 MPa
to&= 0.0001, u= -19 MPa.
436 J. R. Yates
2.2 ESTIMATING THE LIFETIME
We have two cycles with different mean stresses. There are two ways of dealing with
this. One is to modifY the strain life equation for each mean stress in the manner
suggested by Morrow. The other is to plot the strain life data according to Smith,
Watson and Topper, in the form
2
c:r maxa
E = (c:rf}
E
(2N f )2b + c:r'fE'f (2N f )b+c (3)
which is shown in Figure 5.
1000.00
ol: 100.00
::;
~
I"' 10.00
i. 1.00
~
tc
A
~
0.10
0.01
10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 10000000 100000000
C,Ciosto cr1ck torm1tion
Figure. 5 SWT mean stress corrected strain life curve.
The SWT approach means that we need to calculate the product of the maximum stress
in each cycle and the strain amplitude. This is then read off from the SWT curve to
give the cycles to failure. The total damage is the sum of the increments of damage for
each cycle, which is in turn the reciprocal of the cycles to failure for each cycle.
The large cycle has an SWT number= 0.5456 (= 0.0016x341) and the small cycle=
0.0303. Reading each of these off the SWT curve give a lifetime of around 33000 for
the large cycle and more than 108 for the small cycle. The damage per pot hole is,
Strain life fatigue analysis of automotive suspension component 43 7
n =_I_+ - 1- = 3.0313 x 1o-5

33000 1 X 108
The number of pot-holes is therefore liD, which is about 33000.
3. Comments
You may wish to divide this estimate of lifetime by a factor of 2 to allow for
uncertainties in the fatigue data and stress-strain tracking.
It is quite common to find that some cycles in a history are relatively harmless, and do
not contribute to the overall accuracy of the estimate. Once identified, these cycles can
be eliminated from the history and a shorter, simulated, test history can be constructed
which will have virtually the same endurance.
4. References
[I] S. Suresh ( 1991) Fatigue ofMaterials, Cambridge University Press, London.

[2] J.E. Shigley and C.R. Mischke ( 1995) Mechanical Engineering Design, edited by, McGraw Hill, 6'' edition.
[3] N. E. Dowling ( 1993) Mechanical Behavior ofMaterials, N .E. Dowling, Prentice-Hall, 2•• edition.
2. Fatigue Crack Growth
Problem 8: Fatigue crack growth in a center-cracked thin
aluminium plate *
1. Problem
In an aircraft fuselage skin a crack of length 4mm was detected. For the first evalua-
tion of the fatigue strength of the fuselage, the area of the crack can be considered as a
very wide plate. The material of the fuselage is 2024 aluminium alloy. It has been es-
timated that the specific skin area is subjected to a constant amplitude fatigue loading
from 0 to I 00 MPa. Evaluate the number of cycles for the crack to grow to a length of
IOmm. The 2024 aluminium alloy obeys the following fatigue crack growth rule:
da/dN=2.5xl0- 12 (AK) 4 ,with da/dN inm/cycleand AKin MPa.Jffi.
2. Solution
It is given that the material follows the Paris rule
daldN =C (ll.K)n (I)
with C = 2.5 x 10- 12 , n =4 and that the crack grows from an initial half length of
a; =2 mm to a final of af = 5 mm .
The stress range is ll.a = G'max - G' min = 100 MPa and for a center crack in a wide
plate, the stress intensity factor range is given by
IlK= ll.a.Ji; (2)
Substituting Eq.(2) into Eq.(l) yields

440 S. Pantelakis and P. Papanikos
(3)
Integrating Eq.(3) from the initial to the final crack length gives
N1 a,
JdN = J~ (Au)-n 7r-nt2 0 -nt2da (4)
0 a,
where N f is the number of cycles for the crack to grow to its final length. Eq.(4)
gives
N f -_ - I (A
uO"
)-n 7r -n/2 I ( 1-n/2 1-n/2)
a1 -a; (5)
C I-n/2
Substituting the values of the quantities in Eq.(5) yields
Nr = 121585cycles.
3. References
[I) H.O. Fuchs and R.I. Stephens (1980) Metal Fatigue in Engineering, John Wiley & Sons, New York.
[2] S. A. Meguid ( 1989) Engineering Fracture Mechanics, Elsevier Applied Science, London.
Problem 9: Effect of crack size on fatigue life *
1. Problem
NOT evaluation of a steel plate shows that there are cracks present of 3 mm which
grew by fatigue to a final crack length under service conditions of 8 mm, determined
by fast fracture. Calculate the percentage increase in fatigue life for the plate:
(a) if the final crack length is extended by 2 mm to 10 mm through the use of a mate-
rial of higher fracture toughness.
(b) if the initial crack size is reduced by 2 mm to 1 mm.
Assume that the crack growth law (in m/cycle) applicable to this material is given by:
da =6.25xl0- 12 M 4
dN and Y is constant.
2. Solution
Using the general form of the crack growth law, we have
da =CAK.m (1)
dN
where IlK= Y Au ..j1Ui. Substituting l!.K into Eq.(1) and separating variables yields
(2)
By integrating both sides of Eq.(2) it is possible to calculate the fatigue lifetime. The
left hand side should be integrated between the initial (a0 ) and final (a1) crack size
while the right hand side is integrated between limits zero and the number of cycles to
failure. The result of the integration for all values ofm except m=2 is
2m lal-m/2 -al-m/21 =CY!l.um ;rm/2 N (3)

(2-m) f 0 f
442 A. Afaghi and Y.-W. Mai
For m=2, the result is
(4)
Using Eq.(3) with m=4
(5)
Integrating with a0 =3 mm and a1 =8 mm yields
CYAa 4 N f =84.4
(a) Increasing the final crack length to 10 mm and using Eq.(5)
The fatigue life increment will be
N 1 (3-10mm) 94.5
_..::._~---- = - = 1.12
N 1 (3- 8 mm) 84.4
(b) For the decreasing initial crack size to I mm, the effect on fatigue life can be esti-
mated from
CY Aa 4 N f =354.6
N (1-8mm)
1 354.6
---"---,-----:- =- - =4 2
N 1 (3-8mm) 84.4 ·
3. Comments
From the above problem it can be concluded that the fatigue lifetime is very sensitive
to the value of initial crack length. Improving production process to reduce the initial
defect size can increase the service life more than four times the original lifetime.
Effect of crack size on fatigue life 443
4. References
[I) J. F. Knott and D. Elliot(J989) Worked examples in facture mechanics.

Problem 10: Effect of fatigue crack length on failure mode
of a center-cracked thin aluminium plate *
S. Pantelakis and P. Papanikos
1. Problem
The residual strength of a 1 m wide and 1.6 mm thick plate containing a centre crack
has to be estimated in order to compare with experimental findings. The plate is made
of 2024 aluminium alloy. A notch is machined and the plate is pre-fatigued to an ini-
tial crack length of 10 mm. Then the plate is subjected to a constant amplitude fatigue
loading from 0 to 100 MPa. Evaluate the residual strength ofthe plate after 10000 and
80000 cycles. The 2024 aluminium alloy obeys the following fatigue crack growth rule:
da I dN = 2.5 X I o-IZ (fl.K) 4 ' with da I dN in m/cycle and M in MPa.Jffi.
Yield stress: cry=400MPa and fracture toughness for thickness of 1.6 mm:
K,c=l30 MPa.rn;.
2. Solution
It is given that the material follows the Paris rule
da 1dN = c (fl.Kr (I)
with C = 2.5 X 1o-IZ, n =4 and that the stress range is

~cr = cr max - cr min = 100 MPa . For a centre crack in a wide plate, the stress inten-
sity factor range is given by
fl.K = fl. a .J1i; (2)
Substituting Eq.(2) into Eq.(l) yields,
(3)
446 Pan telakis/Papanikos
Integrating Eq.(3) from the initial to the final crack length gives
JdN = JC
dN l Br
(Aa)-n Jr-nl2a-nl2da (4)
0 Qi
where /).JV is the number of fatigue cycles for the crack to grow from a half length of
a; to a 1 . Substituting n = 4, Eq.(4) gives
(5)
Substituting ~N=lOOOOand ai =5mminEq.(5)gives ar =5.7mm. Wehaveto

evaluate the applied load that would yield either to fracture or to net-section yielding of
the plate. Fracture of the plate will occur when the applied stress is
cr=-K_c_ ~ _Pr =-K_c_ ~ Pr =(lmxO.OOl 6 m)l30xl0 6 Pa.Jffi

~xar A ~xar -~r=x=x==o==.o===os=:=:7:=m=-
or P1=I554.4 kN.
The net-section of a I m wide plate containing a crack of total length 11.4 mm is
An = (1- 0.0114)x 0.0016 m 2 •
Net-section yielding is assumed to happen when
or Py = 632.7 kN.
Since PY < P1 , it is concluded that after 10000 cycles the residual strength of the
plate is 632.7 kN and the failure mode will be yielding.
Substituting AN= 80000 and a; =5 mm in Eq. (5) gives a1 =66.9 mm.

Similar we estimate that P1 =453.8 kN and Py = 554.4 kN.
Effect of fatigue crack length on failure mode of a center-cracked . . . 44 7
Since P1 < PY, it is concluded that after 80000 cycles the residual strength of the
plate is 453.8 kN and the failure mode will be fracture.
3. Comments
The transition from yielding to fracture failure at longer cracks lengths or more cycles
is representative for most high quality engineering components operating at low or
medium stress levels and in non aggressive environments. Discrepancies from the
above can occur in poor quality metals; high stress levels; overloads; aggressive envi-
ronments and multiple cracking.
4. References
[I) H.O. Fuchs and R.I. Stephens, Meta/ Fatigue in Engineering, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1980.
[2) S.A. Meguid, Engineering Fracture Mechanics, Elsevier Applied Science, London, 1989.
Problem 11: Crack propagation under combined tension
and bending *
J. Yates
1. Problem
Using the principle of superposition, determine the Mode I stress intensity factor for
the cracked beam shown, under a load of 100 kN.
:~I 141 em []~.

~--~----~--------~~
p
~~
Figure./ Dimensions of cracked beam.
If the load is cycled between zero and I 00 kN, what is the expected crack growth rate
for a mild steel beam? For this mild steel, the Paris law exponent is 3.3, and tJK1 = 6.2
MPav'm for a crack growth rate of l nm/cycle. Compliance function for single edge
cracked tension
Compliance function for single edge cracked bend

450 J. Yates
3. Solution
When considering multiple loadings in linear elastic fracture mechanics one is able to
superpose, or add, the stress intensity factors. Adding stress intensity factors rather
than stresses makes sure that the correct geometry calibrations are used for each load-
ing.
Standard solutions for an edge cracked beam are
i) Single edge notched tension,

KI = y _!_.j;;_ (3)
BW
where
ii) Single edge notched bending
(5)
where
From superposition, for linear elastic loading, the applied load has two components: P
= l 00 kN along centre line of bar and M = l 00 x 40 Nm bending moment. Both loads
open the crack in Mode I.
K 1 =1.13x ~OOx 10-3 )J1tx0.006/(0.01x 0.12)

Fori)
=12.9MPav'm
For ii)
K1 = 1.01 x 6~ x w-3 )J1t x o.oo6t(o.oi x 0.12 2 )
=24.5MPav'm
Crack propagation under combined tension and bending 451
Therefore for the combined loads KJ = 37.4 MPa..Jm
The Paris law gives
(7)
where m = 3.3 and C must be found from the measured growth rate. Since the crack
growth rate is I nm/cycle when & 1 = 6.2 MPa..Jm, then
1x 1o- 9 = c(6.2 )3·3

C = 2.43 x 10- 12 m/cycle
For f1K1 = (37.4- 0) MPa..Jm, the predicted growth rate is daldN = 3.8x I o-7 m/cycle.
A check should be made on the plastic zone size to ensure that LEFM conditions have
been met. The monotonic plastic zone size, based on Kmax is
(8)
where p = 2 for plane stress, 6 for plane strain. Since a< b, (a= 0.6b) we expect the
crack tip to be predominantly plane strain, and therefore p = 6.
For mild steel, yield stress"" 280 MPa, hence
2
I (37.4)
r ""- - - m =0.95 mm
p 61t 280
For the Paris law to be valid, one must maintain small scale yielding at the crack tip,
that is rp :::_ a/20. In this case, rp = 0.16a, which exceeds the small scale yield condi-
tion. Therefore the estimated crack growth rate will be a lower bound solution, but
probably not too bad an estimate because yielding is not extensive. For the cyclic plas-
tic zone
452 J. Yates
2
I ( ~K 1 )
(9)
fpc = 61t 2u y
and
I (37.4)
fpc= 6 1t 560
2
m =0.24mm
This does fall within the small scale yielding regime.
4. References
[I] N. E. Dowling ( 1989) Mechanical Behavior ofMaterials, Prentice-Hall, 2"' edition.

Problem 12: Influence of mean stress on fatigue crack
growth for thin and thick plates**
1. Problem
Fracture toughness tests using a newly developed aluminium alloy provided the follow-
ingresults: Kc(20mm thick)= 70 MPa.fr; and Kc(2 mm thick)= 130 MPa.fr;.
Fatigue crack growth tests showed that the material behaviour obeys the following rule:
daldN=2xl0- 12 (AK) 4·2 with da I dN in m/cycle and M in

(1-R)Kc-AK
MParrn. Evaluate the fatigue crack growth rate for a 50mm crack in a centre-
cracked wide plate for the following loading cases and for both thin (2mm) and thick
(20mm) plates:
Loading case G'min (MPa) G'max (MPa)

A 0 100
B 20 200
c 50 100
D 105 150
2. Solution
Since the fatigue behaviour of the material depends on stress ratio and thickness we
formulate the following table using
R = cr min I cr max and daldN = 2x to-'2 (~K)42

(1-R)Kc -AI<
and the values of fracture toughness for thin and thick plates. The stress intensity fac-
tor range is given by
454 Sp. Pantelakis and P. Papanikos
Load- da/ dN (m/cycle)

ing O"min (MPa) crmax (MPa) R L\K
Thin Thick
case
A 0 100 0 28.02 2.4x 10-8 5.7x to- 8
B 20 200 0.1 50.44 4.3x 10-7 2.3x 10-6
c 50 100 0.5 14.01 2.6x 10-9 6.2x 10-9
D 200 400 0.5 56.05 4.9x 10-6 (-2.1 X 10-6 ]
It is clear from the table that fatigue cracks grow faster in thick specimens for the same
loading conditions. The negative value of the fatigue crack growth value for thick plate
(loading case D) indicates that AK > (1- R)Kc and that the specimen has either
failed of exceeded the range of applicability of the Paris-Forman equation.
3. References
(I] H.O. Fuchs and R.I. Stephens (1980), Metal Fatigue in Engineering, John Wiley & Sons, New York.
(2] N. E. Dowling (1993), Mechanical Behaviour ofMaterials: Engineering Methods for Deformation, Fracture
and Fatigue, Prentice Hall Int. New Jersey.
(3] S.A. Meguid (1989), Engineering Fracture Mechanics, Elsevier Applied Science, London.
Problem 13: Critical fatigue crack growth in a rotor disk**
I. Problem
A rotor disk of radius 300 mm is made of cast steel. It has been observed that fatigue
cracks initiate at specific point on the disk edge and propagate towards the centre. Due
to the change in the rotating speed from 0 to 10000 rpm, the disk is subjected to fatigue
loading. A crack of length 15 mm has been detected in one of these disks. Evaluate the
critical crack length and the approximate number of cycles for the crack to grow from
the detected size to half its critical length.
Material properties:
E =210 GPa, v = 0.2, K 1c =65 MPa.[r;, p =7000 kg/m 3 .The material obeys the
following fatigue crack growth rule: da I dN = 6.9 I o-'2 (L\K) 3 ' with da I dN in
X
m/cycle and L\K in MPa.Jffi .For an edge crack in a disk rotating at a speed w is
given by (a! R < 0.1):
ro R 3- 2v2 2
K = (0.51 + 1.29(aiR))p----J;;.
8 1-v
( ~-;"\ .i \
1 ' / I
I • .: I
1 1(1) .. ~
~---_;; Figure. 1 A cracked rotor disk

456 S. Pantelakis/ P. Papanikos
2. Solution
The critical crack length ac is evaluated from the condition
m2 R 2 3- 2v
K 1c = (0.51 +1.29(ac IR))p----~nac (I)
8 1- v
by substituting the known parameters we have
2 2
65 x 106 = (0. 51 + 1.29(ac 10.3)) 7000(1 0000 x 27t I 60) (0.3) 2.6 Fa";
8 0.8
~
0.5lvilc +4.3ac3/2 =0.13066 ~ ac =0.03776m=37.76mm.
We want to evaluate approximately the number of cycles for the crack to grow from 15
mm to ac I 2 =18.88 mm. We can assume that the crack grows at the rate for a
crack length of (18.88+ 15)/2=16.94 mm. The stress intensity range is given by
oiR 2 3-2v
M = (0.5l+l.29(16.94/300))p----.J:Trx0.01694 = 37.75 MPa.
8 1-v
The material follows the Paris rule
daldN=6.9x10- 12 (~K) 3 =3.7x10- 7 m/cycle
The number of cycles can be evaluated as
~N=~= 0.01888-0.015 =10486cycles

daldN 3.7x10" 7
3. References
[I] S.A. Meguid (1989), Engineering Fracture Mechanics, Elsevier Applied Science, London.
[2] M.H. Aliabadi (1996), Database of stress intensity factors, Software by G.F.L. Lopez Computational
Mechanics Publications, London.
Problem 14: Applicability of LEFM to Fatigue Crack
Growth**
C. A. Rodopoulos
1. Problem
Determine the limits from where the application ofLEFM life models would result into
a minimum error for 2024-T351 Aluminium alloy. The mechanical properties of the
material are: Fatigue limit at R=O.l is 220 MPa, the cyclic yield stress is 450 MPa and
the grain size is 52~m.
2. Solution
The limit from where the application of LEFM is considered truthful for the evaluation
of life, is probably one of the most important issues in damage tolerance design. This is
because, such knowledge can save a significant amount of the operational life of the
structure if the reduction factor (used to compensate for the faster propagation of the
short crack) is not applied throughout the entire stress intensity factor range.
rt was proposed in the literature that the transition from short to long crack propaga-
tion is achieved when the crack is able to develop plasticity of a size comparable to the
size of two successive microstructural features (grains, pearlite zones, etc). According
to the above the transition from short to long crack growth is given by
(I)
where cr 1--) 11 is the transition stress, <Icy is the cyclic yield stress and i is a dimen-
sionless interpretation of the crack length in terms of half grains. To express the transi-
tion in terms of stress versus crack length, knowledge of the fatigue damage ci (crack
and plastic zone) at any given stress level is required. The introduction of the parame-
ter c; is important considering the relationship between the crack and the crack tip
plastic zone. An accurate prediction of c; can be attained by employing the following
boundary conditions
458 C. A. Rodopoulos
ci =a+2D
· iD (2)
c~=-
2
where a is the crack length and D is the grain size. Substituting Equation 2 into l we
have
(3)
Solution of Equation 3 for the case of the 2024-T351 aluminium alloy is illustrated in
Figure I.
...
Long crack growth
~
Short c.-.ck growth .,
i
ill
100 '· '-,
'll ''
i<
i2024-T351 •
10
IG-' 10~ 10-4 IG-' 1G-2
Crack Length (m)
Figure./ Distinction between short and long crack growth for 2024-T351 according to Equation 3.
At this point it is necessary to make clear that the area denoted as long crack growth
(Figure 1) does not imply the indiscriminate use of LEFM. The notion that the propa-
gation rate of a crack which operates within this area of stress and size can be ap-
proximated by the empirical Paris linearity, does not justify the accurate use of LEFM.
Such notion should only be accepted in cases where the size of the crack plasticity is
predictable by LEFM. The large-crack plasticity according to LEFM can be derived
from
Applicability ofLEFM to Fatigue Crack Growth 459
2
I ( Kmax )
PLEFM =- - - (4)
p7t <J cy
where
Kmax =YuJ;;i. (5)
where PLEFM is the crack plasticity according to LEFM, Y is the crack correction factor
(describes crack and loading geometry) and ~ describes the constraint with fJ=2 for
plane stress and fJ=6 for plane strain. In order to institute the conditions for LEFM
applicability, Eq .(4) has to comply with the two grain plasticity at the transition from
short to long crack growth (pLEFM=2D). Accordingly, Eq.(4) becomes
(JLEFM I--->!1 = J2crcy fi3J5 (5)

y ~--;;-
Thus, the applicability of LEFM can be determined by examining the interception

points provided by Eq.(3) and Eq.(6) as shown in Figure 2.
•• • • Ecp~tio n 3
Equ.n6
- """.Y.'
..
~. Y• I
1000 - -- ta2. Y• 3
e-6. Y• 3
Q.
~
i
~
i ·-. · ..
i< tOO
10-' tO-l 11)-l
C riCk Leng1h (m)
Figure.2 Graphical determination oft he magnitude of error generated by the application ofLEFM to the life
prediction of long cracks.
From the above rationale (Figure 2), several useful comments can be made. In the case
of plane strain conditions and for crack shapes/geometrical conditions defining Y~l,
the use of LEFM might be totally inaccurate. On the other hand, plane stress condi-
tions are promoting the application of LEFM for a large spectrum of different crack
shapes, geometrical conditions, stress levels and crack lengths. The above comes as a
direct consequence of the large crack plasticity under plane stress. Even though, the
methodology incorporated in Figure 2 has the potential to explain differences in the
fatigue damage behaviour between bench test-pieces and real scale components, the
approach should be treated with care. This is because our knowledge on the effect of
different crack shapes on short crack growth (i.e. the effect of grain orientation on a 3-
D crack) is minimum and because the crack correction factor changes with crack
length (Y=/(a)).
3. References
[I] C. A. Rodopoulos and E. R. de los Rios (2002) Theoretical Analysis on short tlitigue cracks, inter. J. ofFa-
tigue, 24, 719-724.
[2] J. R. Rice. Mechanisms of crack tip deformation and extension by futigue, In: Fatigue crack propagation,
Special Technical Publication 415, ASTM, (1967) 247-311.
[3] R. W. Hamm and W. S. Johnson. A unification of small- and large-crack growth laws, Fatigue Fracture
Engineering Materials Structures 22 (1999) 711-722.
[4] C. H. Wang. Effect of stress ratio on short futigue crack growth, ASME Journal of Engineering Materials
and Technology 118, ( 1996) 362-366.
Problem 15: Fatigue crack growth in the presence of resid-
ual stress field***
1. Problem
Welding of aircraft structural components has recently become a candidate for replac-
ing riveting in order to reduce weight and speed up the manufacturing process. How-
ever, welding introduces tensile residual stresses in the vicinity of the welding heat
affected zone. These stresses can have a dramatic effect on the fatigue life of the struc-
tural components. Consider a crack growing inside a tensile residual stress field
( 2b = 40 mm) as shown in Fig. 1. The plate is subjected to a remotely applied fatigue
load from 10 to 100 MPa. Evaluate the fatigue crack growth rates for crack lengths 20,
30 and 40 mm with and without the presence of residual stresses. The material behav-
iour obeys the following rule:
da/dN =2xl0- 12 (M<.) 4 ·2 with da I dN in m/cycle and L\K in
(I- R)Kc- M<.
MParrn.
and K c = 13 0 MPa ..[;;;. For a crack under a stress distribution along its faces as
shown in Fig. I, the stress intensity factor is given by:
Kr = a~
f o"r(x) 2 2 dx.
-a 1t(a - x )
annax=300 MPa
DhAJ 2a
2b
a
Figure_ 1 A crack growing in a residual stn:ss field
2. Solution
The distribution of residual stress field is (Fig. 1)
(1)
therefore
Kr =}crrmax(~)
-a
~dx
b V1t(a2- x2)'
(2)
and due to symmetry
Kr =210'rmax(~)
o
~dx
b v;(~T=x2)
(3)
Setting X = a sin 9 and dx = a cos 9d9

Fatigue crack growth in the presence of residual stress field 463
_
Kr- 2 f crrmax (asin9)
1112
o
--
b
a
7t(a 2 -a 2 sin 2 9)
acos9d9
or
Kr =CJ rmax Jn( ~:).

The stress intensity factor experienced by the crack tip is the superposition of the SIF
due to the remotely applied load and the SIF due to the residual stress field
(4)
The following table shows the values of K max ( u max =I 00 MPa ) for different
crack lengths without and with residual stress field.
a (mm) u.Jiii (MPa) Kr + u.Jiii (MPa)

10 17.7 34.6
15 21.7 52.8
20 25.1 72.9
The fatigue crack growth rate can be evaluated using the equation
In the presence of residual stress field
and
It is clear that the residual stress field changes the stress ratio but not the SIF range.
The calculated values of the fatigue crack growth rate with and without residual
stresses are shown in the following table. It is shown that the residual stress field in-
creases dramatically the crack growth rate and hence decreases the fatigue strength of
the component.
a R da I dN (m/cycle)
AK(MPa..{r;;)
(mm) without with without with
10 15.9 0.1 0.54 2.2xl0-9 5.lxl0-9
15 19.5 0.1 0.63 5.4 x to-9 1.9x 10-8
20 22.6 0.1 0.69 l.Ox I o- 8 5.5xl0- 8
3. References
[I) S.A. Meguid (1989), Engineering Fracture Mechanics, Elsevier Applied Science, London.
3. Effect of Notches on Fatigue
Problem 16: Fatigue crack growth in a plate containing an
open hole*
1. Problem
A steel component can be assumed to be a wide plate and it contains an open hole of
radius 20 mm. A radial crack of length 1.5 mm was detected at the hole. Regulations
suggest that for the component to be functional, the maximum allowable crack length
is 2.5 mm. The component is subjected to a constant amplitude fatigue loading from 0
to 100 MPa. Estimate the number of fatigue cycles for the crack to reach the allowable
length. The material obeys the following fatigue crack growth rule:
da/dN = 6.9x 10- 12 (AK) 3 , with da/dN in m/cycle and AK in MPa.Jfi. For
a crack originating from a hole, the stress intensity factor is given by,
K=Qu.,J;lU (I)
where
Q = 3.36- 0.006(a!R)112 -7.5l(a!R)+ 1.6l(a!R)312 + 15.5(a!R)2 (2)
2. Solution
It is given that the material follows the Paris rule,
da/ dN = C (AK) 8 => da/ dN = C (QAcr&) 8 (3)

with
C=6.9xl0- 12 , n=3 and ACJ=O"max -O"min =lOOMPa.
The expression for Q does not allow for an analytical integration of the above equa-
tion and an approximate incremental solution will be employed. The fatigue crack
growth rate can be considered constant for a specified crack growth increment. The
required number of cycles for the crack to grow from 1.5 to 2.5 mm will be calculated
as follows,
Crack growth from 1.5 to 2 mm:
a= 1.5 mm, aIR= 0.075 and Q =2.92. Hence, using Eq. (I)
da I dN =6.9x I o- 12 (2.92xl00x .JJZ" X 0.0015) 3 =5.6 X I o-8 mlcycle

Aa 0.0005
It is assumed that AN= = 8 =8929 cycles.
daldN 5.6x10-
Crack growth from 2 to 2.5 mm:
a=2mm, a!R=0.1 and Q=2.81. UsingEq.(l)
dal dN =6.9x 1o- 12 (2.81 xlOOx .JJZ" X 0.002) 3 =7.6x 1o-8 m/cycle
Aa 0.0005
and AN= = 8 = 6579cycles.
da/dN 7.6x10-
Total number of cycles from 1.5 to 2.5 mm is 8929+6579= 15508 cycles.
3. Comments
A numerical integration will give a result of 13430 cycles. This means that the result
obtained is not conservative since it predicts a larger number of cycles. To be on the
safe side one can suggest to use the value of da I dN at 2 mm when evaluating crack
growth from 1.5-2 mm and the value at 2.5 mm when evaluating the crack growth
from 2 to 2.5mm. This will give 11681 cycles.
4. References
[I] S.A. Meguid, Engineering Fracture Mechanics, Elsevier Applied Science, London, 1989.
[2] H.O. Fuchs and R.I. Stephens, Metal Fatigue in Engineering, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1980.
[3] M.H. Aliabadi, Database of stress intensity factors, Software by G.F.L. Lopez Computational Mechanics
Publications, London, 1996.
Problem 17: Infinite life for a plate with a semi-circular
notch*
C. A. Rodopoulos
1. Problem
Figure 1 shows a rectangular plate that contains a semi-circular notch made of high-
strength steel. Determine the maximum applied stress that would allow infinite fatigue
life using the notch sensitivity theory. The fatigue limit of the material is 270 MPa at
R=-1 and the ultimate tensile strength is 650 MPa.
_L_
0 CJ
II
•
if
"'
r=2
Figure.] Sketch of a rectangular containing a semi-circular notch. Dimensions in mm. Not to scale.
2. Solution
A useful concept in dealing with notch effects in fatigue is the notch sensitivity q,
Kr- I
q=-- (1)
Kt-1
where Kr is the fatigue notch factor and K1 is the elastic stress concentration. The fa-
tigue notch factor is given by,
_ cr FL ,smooth
K f- (2)
cr FL,notched
where crFL,smooth and crFL,notched is the fatigue limit of the smooth and notched member
respectively.
The elastic stress concentration for the case of a semi-circular notch is given by,
(3)
In the case of Figure I, Eq.(3) yields,
3
Kt = 2.988-7.3( 2mm )+9.14"( 2mm }2 -4.42J 2mm } = 2.84
IOOnun 4l100nun \IOOnun 7
Values of q and therefore of Kr can be estimated from empirical constants. Peterson

proposed,
1
q=-- (4)
1+~
r
where a is a material constant and r is the notch radius. In the case of high strength
steels, the constant a is given by,
(5)
inmm
where Cfu is the ultimate tensile strength. Considering cru=650 MPa, Eq.(5) becomes,
2
a = 0.02.J 2070MPa } = 0.25mm
\_ 650MPa
Substituting the above value into Eq.(4), the notch sensitivity is,
Infinite life for a plate with a semi-circular notch 471
I I
q=--= 02 =0.88
I+~ I+ . 5mm
r 2mm
Using the results in Eq.(l), we have,
Kr-1 Kr-1
q=--~0.88= ~Kr ~2.62
K 1 -1 2.84-1
From the above the maximum applied stress that would allow infinite life for the
notched member is,
Kf = crFL,smooth ____..
--,
2.92 = _2_7_0_MP_a_
~ O"FL,notched =
92 5MP
· a
0" FL,notched 0" FL,notched
3. Comments
The use of the notch sensitivity methodology is only recommended for cases where the
component will be assigned a high safety factor. Otherwise, analysis based on LEFM
should be used.
4. References
[I] N. E. Dowling (1993) Mechanical Behaviour ofMaterials, Prentice-Hall, NJ.

[2] W. C. Young ( 1989) Roark's Formulas for Stress and Strain, 6 1h edition, McGraw-Hill, NY.
[3] R. E. Peterson (1959) Notch Sensitivity. In: Metal Fatigue, eds. G. Sines and J. L. Waisman, McGraw-Hill,
NY.
Problem 18: Infinite Life for a plate with a central hole *
C. A. Rodopoulos
I. Problem
Figure I shows a rectangular plate, made of 2024-T3, containing a central hole. The
plate is subjected to a load that fluctuates between 0.8 and 0.2 MN. Determine the di-
mensions of the plate that would allow infinite life. The fatigue limit of the material is
140 MPa at R=-1 and the yield strength is 450 MPa. For the hole consider an elastic
stress concentration ofK,=3.
Figure./ Sketch of a r~ngular containing a central hole.
2. Solution
The stress in the plate is determined by
p
cr=-- (I)
WxT
where Pis the load, Tis the thickness and W is the width of the plate respectively. Due
to the fluctuation of loading the fatigue stress is given by
= K Pmax (2)
crmax t
WxT
Pmin (3)
crmin =K~-
WxT
From the above equations, the stress ratio of the loading is
R = cr min = p min = 0.2MN = 0.25

crmax Pmax 0.8MN
To determine the fatigue limit (infinite life) at R=0.25 we make use of the Soderberg
model
(4)
cr -cr ·
where crFL is the fatigue limit, cr 8 is the stress amplitude ( cr 8 = max mm ), crm is
2
cr +cr ·
the mean stress ( cr m = max 2 mm ) and cry is the yield strength. A typical solution
ofEq.(4) is shown in Figure 2.

Infinite Life for a plate with a central hole 475
160
140
..
~ 100
120
-8
il 80 Finite life
11.
E
< 60
!ll
~ 40
Infinite life
20
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
Mean Stness (MPa)
Figure.2 The Soderberg diagram for 2024-T3. At R=0.25 the corresponding values, fur infinite life, are:
<Jmu=246 MPa and<Jm;,=61.5 MPa.
Using the above values into Equation 2, 3 we have
(J max = K t pmax => 246MPa = 3 0.8MN

WxT WxT
crmin =K 1 Pmin => 61.5MPa =3 0. 2MN

WxT WxT
Simultaneous solution of the above Equations: W=0.94m and T=O.Olm.
3. References
[I) C. R. Soderberg (1939) Factor of safety and working stress, Transactions ofthe American Society of Me-
chanical Engineers, 52, 13-28.
Problem 19: Crack Initiation in a sheet containing a central
hole**
C. A. Rodopoulos
1. Problem
Figure I shows the dimensions of a rectangular sheet made of 2024-T3 containing a

central hole. The sheet is subjected to a maximum stress of 145 MPa which follows a
R=O. I fluctuation . Determine whether or not the sheet can be characterised by infinite
life. The yield stress is 450 MPa, the elastic modulus is E=72GPa and the ultimate ten-
sile strength is 490 MPa. The elastic stress concentration due to the hole is K,=2 .8. The
fatigue limit of the material at R=-1 is 140 MPa and at R=O.I is 240 MPa, the thresh-
old stress intensity factor at R=O. I is I. 7 MParrn and the grain size is 50J.tm.
"
"
Figure. I Rectangular aluminium sheet containing a central hole.
2. Solution
When there is no clear indication about the existence of a fatigue crack, we need to
determine whether the loading conditions are sufficient to result into the development
of a catastrophic fatigue crack. In this problem we examine three traditional ways:
A) THE CONSTANT LIFE APPROACH
Using a constant life model, like Goodman's in Equation I, we can have a rough esti-
mate on whether the loading conditions are within the infinite or the finite life area.
(1)
cr -cr ·
where O"FL is the fatigue limit, Ua is the stress amplitude ( cra = max mm ), Urn is
2
the mean stress ( cr m = cr max +cr ·
mm ) and Ours is the ultimate tensile strength. A
2
typical solution of Equation I is shown in Figure 2.
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500

Mean S1reSS (MPa)
Figure.2 The Goodman's model fur 2024-TJ.
From Figure 2 we can extract information regarding the maximum applied stress that
would allow infinite fatigue life. In the case of R=O.I that is uGmax=230 MPa. Conse-
quently we have
(2)
The above inequality makes clear that the loading conditions of the problem are within
the finite life area of the Goodman's diagram.
Crack Initiation in a sheet containing a central hole 479
B) THE THRESHOLD STRESS INTENSITY FACTOR APPROACH.
Let us consider that there is a small crack of length c that emanates from the tip of the
hole. In this case the stress intensity factor of the small crack is given by
(3)
where the premultiplier 1.12 is the free surface correction factor. Since the threshold
stress intensity factor for the material in question is known, we have
(4)
Substitution of the known values into Equation 4 yields
c= (t.7MParrnf = 4.46Jlm
1t(I.I2)2 (2.8)2 (145MPa f
Due to the size of the crack c (about 1/10 of that of the grain size) it is probabilistically
sound to assume that a similar size intrinsic defect could be present and therefore the
sheet will exhibit finite life.
C) THE NEUBER/MORROW APPROACH
Another way is to use Neuber's rule as a "universal" notch analysis. Neuber's rule is
K t =(K E K a )112 (5)
where K, is the notch stress concentration. The parameter K. is the elastic strain con-
centration given by
(6)
where&, EN is the maximum local principal strain at the vicinity of the stress raiser and
corresponding nominal strain due to the external loading respectively. The parameter
K0 is the elastic stress concentration given by
K =cr (7)
cr S
where cr, S is the maximum principal notch root stress and the nominal stress respec-
tively.
In the case of fatigue loading and assuming elastic conditions, Neuber's rule can be
written according to Morrow et al as
(8)
2 2
where Kr is the fatigue notch factor (the ratio between the fatigue limit in a smooth
specimen to notch fatigue limit) and E is the elastic modulus. Substituting the known
parameters into Equation 8 we have
(9)
Using the above value we have
K -
f -
cr~ooth
,..notch ~ •
2 78- 240MPa
- ,..notch
notch -
~ crFL -
86 33MP
• a
VfL VfL
The above value is much smaller than the nominal stress of 145 MPa and therefore
catastrophic fatigue failure should be expected.
3. References
(I] S. Suresh ( 1991) Fatigue ofMaterials, Cambridge University Press, London.

[2] Fatigue Design Handbook AE-10 ( 1988), The Society of Automotive Engineers, Warrendale, PA.
[3] H. Neuber (1961) Theory of stress concentrations for shear-strained prismatic bodies with arbitrary nonlinear
stress-strain law, Journal ofApplied Mechanics, 28, 544-550.
[4] J.D. Morrow, R. M. Wetzel and T. H. Topper (1970) Labomtory simulation ofstructuml fatigue behaviour,
In: Effects ofEnvironment and Complex Load History on Fatigue Lifo, ASTM STP 462, 74-91.
4. Fatigue and Safety Factors
Problem 20: Inspection Scheduling**
C. A. Rodopoulos
1. Problem
Prior to commission, an ultrasonic inspection on an aluminium plate detected an edge

crack of 100 1-1m in length. After 105,000 cycles of axial loading at 250 MPa and a
stress ratio of 0.1, a second inspection revealed that the length of the crack is now 450
j.Lm. The plate is scheduled for replacement after 500,000 cycles of operation. At
400,000 cycles a third inspection is scheduled. Determine whether the inspection
schedule is right and sufficient. The Paris constants, for m/cycle growth, are C=3.2" 11 ,
m=2.8 and the crack shape factor is F=0.95. The mechanical properties of the alumin-
ium alloy are: Fatigue limit at R=O.l is 220 MPa, the yield stress is 325 MPa, the ulti-
mate tensile strength is 490 MPa, the threshold stress intensity factor range is 3.5
MPa.Jffi and the fracture toughness is 40 MPa.Jffi.
2. Solution
Inspection scheduling is a paramount process in the design of high risk applications. It

involves costly procedures and most importantly the temporary decommissioning of the
component or structure. Hence, inspection scheduling is a techno-economic process
which can change the cost effectiveness and competitiveness of a structure.
Before we commence with the solution of the problem, there are several questions that
we need to answer,
• WAS THE COMPONENT DESIGNED FOR INFINITE LIFE?
There are two ways to answer that question:
a) the component was commissioned with the 100 j.Lm crack and the operational stress
is above the fatigue limit.
b) The initial stress intensity factor range is

L\K =FI1cr.../i8. =0.95(225MPaN'1t(IOo-6 m)=3.78MPav'ro (I)
which is higher to the given 3.5 MPav'm threshold value. From the above we can
securely answer negatively.
• WAS THE INITIAL INSPECTION SCHEDULE CORRECT?
To answer that question we first need to identify the intentions of the original schedule.
We know that the component was designed to last 500,000 cycles. Since the only
growth information provided is the Paris constants, we are compelled to use the Paris
life expression
a fl-m/2 -
al-m/2
.
Nr = I (2)
c(FAcr~r(l- m/2)
for the determination of the final crack length. To obtain a value for the final crack
length, ar, we make use of the fracture toughness, K1c
(3)
Substituting the ar value from Equation 3 and using the 100 Jlm initial crack, we can
determined the total life of the component
a l-m/2
f - i
al-m/2
N r = ---;_;_---;----'----
c(FAcr~r(l-m/2) (4)
~.37-3mto.4- {wo-6mto.4
142,150cycles
3.2 -II (0.95 x 225MPa x 1.77)2·8 (- 0.4)
Equation 4 proves that the original calculation of life was wrong and consequently the
inspection schedule.
From the above it is clear that to allow the component to achieve the 500,000 cycles
life it is imperative to reduce the applied stress. To find the new operational stress, we
can set Equation 4 to 500,000 cycles and solve for llcr
Inspection Scheduling 485
a fl-m/2 - al-m/2
i
Nr= =
c(F~crv'xr (1-m/ 2) (5)
(3 31 -3 )-0.4 ~ -6 )-0.4
m - 100 m = 500,000cycles--+ ~cr ~ 143MPa
3.r (0.95 x 225MPa x 1.77)2·8 (- 0.4)
11
At this point it is worth noting that the above operational stress corresponds to a mar-
ginal life and therefore is not trustworthy. Additionally it is important that we do not
forget the result of the second inspection which states that the component should be
able to withstand 395,000 cycles having a crack of length of 450J..Lm. Using the above
requirements into Equation 2 and considering an operational stress range of 143 MPa,
we have
(6)
202,954cycles
3.r11 (0.95 x 143MPa x 1.77Y 8 (- 0.4)
which is still below the required 395,000 cycles. To achieve the required number of
cycles we need to set Equation 6 equal to 395,000 cycles
a fl-m/2 - al-m/2
i
Nr= =
C~~crv'xr (1-m I 2) (7)
p.37- mt3 0·4 - (450- 6 mt 0.4
395,000--+ ~cr ~ 112MPa
3.T11 (0.95 X ~0" X 1.77)2 ·8 (- 0.4)
Using the above operational stress it time now to reschedule the inspection. According
to the original schedule the next inspection is set at 400,000 cycles. At that time the
crack would approximately be
1-m/2 _ 1-m/2 -0.4 _ (45 0-6 )-0.4

Nr = ar ai = ar m =295000~
c(F~a-Fn"f' (1-m/ 2) 3.r 11 (0.95 X112MPa X1.77)2 · 8 (- 0.4) '
with a corresponding crack growth rate of
da/ dN = 3.T 11 ( 0.95 X112MPa~7tX1.65- 3 rg =9.5T9 ml cycle
The above value is considered safe considering that the crack growth rate is quite me-
diocre and therefore the original third inspection can be reserved.
3. References
[I] N. E. Dowling (1993) Mechanical Behaviour ofMaterials, Prentice Hall, NJ.

Problem 21: Safety Factor of aU-Notched Plate*
C. A. Rodopoulos
1. Problem
Figure I shows a rectangular aluminium plate containing a single U-notch. The plate
is subjected to cyclic loading at a stress ratio of R=O. The fatigue limit (at R=O) is 220
MPa. Determine the maximum peak stress for the plate to maintain a safety factor of
1.5 under fail safe conditions. The dimensions ofthe plate are shown in Figure I.
p=5
14-----1W=50-----.i
"
Figure./ Schematic of a single U-notch plate. Dimension in mm.
2. Solution
One of the most straight forward ways of dealing with notched components subjected
to fatigue is the application of the fatigue notch factor
crsmooth
K - _...:.f_:::L--:--:- (I)
f - cr notched
FL
where cr~ooth is the smooth fatigue limit of the material and cr~ttched is the fatigue
limit of the notched material. The requirements for the applications of Eq.( l) are: a)
the notch radius R should be small but not that small so that the notch could be consid-
ered of a crack-like shape; b) conditions of infinite life should apply (like in this prob-
lem where fail safe criteria are required), the application ofEq.(l) for smaller values of
a fixed life is not recommended and c) the notch should maintain the quality of finish
assumed in the smooth specimen.
A useful concept in dealing with Eq.(l) is the notch sensitivity q
Kr -I
q=-- (2)
Kt -I
where K1 is the elastic stress concentration of the notch. In the case of a U-shape notch,
K1 is provided by
(3)
h
where for 0.5 ~ - ~ 4.0
R
In the case of our plate, Eq.(3) estimates K1 = 2.35. Values of q can be estimated from
the Peterson's formula
Safety Factor of a U-Notched Plate 489
I
q=-- (4)
1+~
p
where a is a material constant with dimensions of length and p is the notch radius.
Some typical values are:
a=0.51 mm for aluminium alloys

a=0.25 mm for annealed and normalised low-carbon steels
a=0.064 mm for quenched and tempered steels
In this case, the notch sensitivity is
q=-1-= I =0.9
I+ ~ I + ~_}_I_mm
p 5mm
Substituting the values ofK, and q in Eq.(2) we have
Kr -I
0.9 = => Kr = 2.21
2.35-1
and therefore Eq.( 1) becomes
crsmootb
K - FL => 2.21 = 220MPa => crnotched = 220MPa = 99.5 MPa
r- cr~rtched cr~rtched FL 2 _21
From the above the maximum stress that would allow an infinite life and a safety factor
of 1.5 is
,..notched
cr max = v FL = 99.5MPa = 66.33 MPa
SF 1.5
3. Comments
The use of the empirical Eq.(l) for values of stress ratio different than R=-1 may gen-
erate an error, especially in cases where the material is stress ratio sensitive, i.e. alu-
minium and titanium alloys. For these materials, methods based on LEFM should be
used. Additionally, Eq.( I) should be avoided for fixed life less than I 0 million cycles.
4. References
[I] S. Suresh ( 1991) Fatigue ofMaterials, Cambridge University Press, 1'1 edition, London.
[2] A. G. Cole and A. F. C. Brown (1958) Photoelastic detennination of stress concentration factors caused by a
single U-notch on one side of a plate in tension, J. Roy. Aeronaut. Soc., vol. 62.
(3] R. E. Peterson (1959) Notch sensitivity. In: Metal Fatigue, eds. G. Sines and J. L. Waisman, McGraw-Hill,
NY.
[4] N. E. Dowling ( 1993) Mechanical Behaviour ofMaterials, Prentice-Hall, NJ.
Problem 22: Safety Factor and Fatigue Life Estimates *
C. A. Rodopoulos
1. Problem
An aluminium alloy has a ultimate tensile strength of375 MPa. Find the safety factor
under fully reversed and tension-to-zero loading in bending of an operating maximum
stress of O'max=85 MPa . The material is polished to aerospace quality finish.
2. Solution
Juvinall suggested that the fatigue limit of most engineering alloys at fully reversed
loading can be estimated by
O'FL (R =-1) =tnO'UTs (I)
where O'UTs is the ultimate tensile strength and the parameter m is called the fatigue
limit reduction factor and represents the product of
(2)
where m. is the bending fatigue limit factor, which in the case of aluminium alloys is
0.45; m1 is the load type factor, which in the case of bending is 1.00; md is the stress
gradient factor, which in the case of notch free bending is 1.00 and m, is the surface
finish factor, which for aerospace quality finish is 1.00. Further details can be found in
the bibliography. From the above the fatigue limit reduction factor is
Substitution of the above value into Eq.(l) gives
O'FL (R = -1) = tnO'uTS = 0.45x375MPa R: 169MPa
To find the safety factor we can make use ofthe Goodman's constant life model
(3)
where
R= crmax
crmin
and
cr
a
=cr max 2- cr min is the stress amplitude
and
cr +cr ·
cr m = max mm is the mean stress.
2
Using the value of the fatigue limit and ultimate tensile strength into Eq.(3) we can
construct the Goodman's diagram as shown in Figure I.
200 ,-----:::::==========::--==--:---r
a Goodm11n's Fixed Ufe Une
150
;f
::!. 100
~
~
..;;
e
<( 50 o
UTS
=375 MPa
liS
0~--------------------------------~
.!
-50+----r---.----~---.--~----r---~---+
0 100 200 300 400
Mean Stress (MPa)
Figure./ The Goodman 's diagram for the aluminium alloy at R=-1 . It is worth noting that in this case the fixed
life is set to infinite (fatigue limit).
For the case of R=- I and for crmax=85 MPa we have

Safety Factor and Fatigue Life Estimates 493
= --..:;::.:.
cr max _- (j_.:.::::.:.:_
min 85MPa - ( -l)x85MPa
(j 85MPa
a 2 2
and
cr =_cr...::m=a::..:.x_+_cr..:.:m::.:in::... = 85MPa + (-I}x85MPa = 0 MPa.
m 2 2
Using the above values for the mean and the amplitude into Figure I we have
2oo 1 - - ---=====::;:::::::::::::;::::::::::-T
1
Goo<! man'$ R:1ed ure Line Rz-1
150
c. 100
~ Finite Lffe
B ----a5MPa
~ lnfi n~e Lffe
E
<{ 50
ouTs• 375 MPa
~
/ij
.so +--~---.--~--r--..---.----r---+
0 100 200 300
Mean Stress (MPa)
Figure.2 The Goodman's diagram and the coordinate point for a,=85 MPa and om=O. From the plot we can
determine a safety factor of I.98.
To find the safety factor for tension-to-zero loading (R=O) we make use of the Eq .(3).
In the case ofR=O, Eq.(3) can be written as
(4)
and therefore the stress amplitude fatigue limit is

cr = crFt(-l)cruTs = 169MPax375MPa :::; 116 .5 MPa.

a crFt(-l)+cruTS 169MPa+375MPa
Similarly to above the amplitude and the mean stress at R=O for crma,=85 MPa are,
cra =crm = 42.5 MPa
The safety factor for R=O can be determined, once again from the Goodman ' s diagram,
200
I -- •
I
, - --;::===============::::::;::---r
Goodm•n"• Fixed life UM R;Q
<'"','=0'. :; 42.5 MPa
150
~ 100 89 MPa. 89 MPa Finite Lne
;.~., ..~
15_
E
<
~ 50
Iii " urs =375 MPa
lnfinne LWe
0 ~-----------------------------------
100 200 300 400

Mean Stress (MPa)
Figure.3 The Goodman's diagram and the coordinate point for o,=om=42.5 MPa. The limitation for an infinite
life can be determined by taking a straight line that cotmects the origin (0,0) with the operational coordinates
(42 .5 MPa, 42 .5 MPa) and intercepts the infinite life line (89 MPa, 89 MPa). From the above a safety factor of
approximately 2 is calculated.
3. Comments
In general, the use of Goodman ' s formula would lead to very conservative results espe-
cially for ductile materials. Alternatively, Gerber's model is generally good for ductile
alloys.
4. References
(I] R. C. Juvinall and K. M. Marshek (199l)Fundamenta/s ofMachine Design, 2"" ed, John Willey, New York.
[2) Fatigue Design Handbook (1988) AE-1 0 SAE, 2"' ed, Warrendale.
[3) J. Goodman ( 1899) Mechanics Applied to Engineering, Longrnans Greene, London.
Problem 23: Design of a circular bar for safe life *
1. Problem
A solid circular bar made of steel is to be subjected to a spectrum of fully reversed axial
loads as follows: 10 kN for 1000000 cycles and 13 kN for 200000 cycles. Evaluate the
required diameter of the bar in order to withstand this spectrum loading without failure
using the Miner rule. The S-N curve of the bar material for zero mean stress is given
by the Basquin equation craNf = C with C = 400MPa and a= 0.11.
2. Solution
The bar is to be subjected to the following stress amplitudes with zero mean stress
(fully reversed loads)
(I)
with P1 = 10 kN, P2 = l3 kN and A= 1td 2 /4.

The number of cycles to failure for each load block is evaluated using the Basquin
equation
According to the Miner rule, the bar will operate safely when
(4)
Using Eqs.(2,3), Eq.(4) becomes
n 11
pi/a + n 22
pi/a
(CA)I/a (CA)I/a
1'
~l=>A~-npl/a+nPI/a
C I I 2 2
r (5)
Substituting,
n1 =1000000,n2 =200000,~ =0.01MN,P2 =0.013MN,C=400MPa
Eq.(5) gives
ml 2 14 ~ - 1-6oooooox (0.01) 110· 11 +200000x(O.OI3) 110· 11 }' 11

400
d ~0.013m.
Hence the minimum diameter of the bar for safe life is 13 mm.
3. References
[I] J.A. Collins (1993) Failure ofMaterials in Mechanical Design, John Wiley & Sons, New York.
[2] N. E. Dowling [1993] Mechanical Behaviour ofMaterials: Engineering Methods for Deformation, Fracture
and Fatigue, Prentice Halllnt, New Jersey.
Problem 24: Threshold and LEFM *
C. A. Rodopou/os
1. Problem
Figure I shows crack arrest data for a aluminium alloy. What is the minimum crack
size above which the application of LEFM is sound? The grain size of the material is
52 J.lm.
.,
ll.
~
~
!
Q,
100
---
10+---~~~~~--~~~~~------~~
1()-> 10>
Cllldt Long1h (m)
Figure./ The crack arrest curve of an aluminium alloy. The stress ratio is R;O.I and plane strain conditions
prevail.
2. Solution
Kitagawa-Takahashi demonstrated the existence of a critical crack size, a"' below

which the threshold stress intensity factor range decreases with decreasing crack length
and therefore making the application of LEFM unsound. The critical crack size can be
determine by
(I)
where ~Kth is the threshold stress intensity factor range and ~crFL is the smooth fatigue
limit. According to many the fatigue limit of the material is the stress required to
propagate a crack of length equal to the grain size. According to the above, the fatigue
limit can be obtained by drawing a line perpendicular to the crack length axis that cor-
responds to the size of the grain, as shown in Figure 2. The fatigue limit can then be
measured by taking the average from several points located between the origin of the
crack length axis and the interception point.
Interception Point
---Grair1 ~-·
Crack Lenglh (m)
Figure.2 Estimation ofthe fatigue limit via the Kitagawa-Takahashi diagram.
Using Figure 2, the fatigue limit is determined to be 215 MPa. To determine the ~Kth
we should transform the data from Figure I into ~IC versus crack length. This can be
done using the
(2)
where F is the crack shape correction factor (in this case is taken equal to unity), ~cr is
the applied stress range and a is the crack length. The transformation of Figure I is
shown in Figure 3.
Threshold and LEFM 499
1+---~~--~--.---~-.--~--,---~-,.--+
0.000 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.006 0.010
Crack Length (m)
Figure.3 Transfonnation ofthe crack arrest data into M<." versus a.
From Figure 3 it is easily to observe that AK1h tends asymptotically to a value of 7.5
MPa.frn. Using the values of AKth and the fatigue limit into Equation I, the value of
ao is determined to be
Using the above we can conclude
Ifa::Saa then the application ofLEFM will generate error.

Ifa>aa then the application ofLEFM is sound.
3. Comments
It is worth noting that prior to any calculation the trained eye should be able to deter-
mine whether the right part of the original crack arrest line is bearing a gradient of Y:..
That is representative to the stress singularity imposed by LEFM.
4. References
[I). S. Suresh ( 1991)Fatigue ofMaterials, Cambridge University Press.

[2). K. J. Miller and E. R. de los Rios (1992) Short Fatigue Cracks,ES/S 13, MEP, London.
[3] J. C. Newman Jr. and R. S. Piascik (2000) Fatigue Crack Growth Thresholds, Endurance Limit and Design,
ASTM STP 1312, PA.
Problem 25: Safety Factor and Residual Strength**
C. A. Rodopoulos
1. Problem
Figure I shows a rectangular plate made of 2024-T3 aluminium alloy containing a

lmm central crack. The operational stress is o=200 MPa at R=O. Determine the resid-
ual strength that would allow a residual strength safety factor of 1.5 after 20,000 cy-
cles. The plane strain fracture toughness of the material is 40 MPa.Jffi, the yield
stress is 325 MPa and the Paris constants (m/cycles) are C=3.2" 11 and m=2.8. The
width of the plate is 60 mm.
-2a-
~------------'W------------~
(J
Figure. I: Aluminium plate containing a I mm central crack. The stress ratio (minimum to maximum stress ratio)
is equal to 0.
2. Solution
According to [I] the residual strength of a cracked structure can be determined setting
the maximum stress intensity factor (SIF) equal to the fracture toughness of the mate-
rial
(I)
It is worth noting that it is the maximum SIF which controls the fracture of the com-
ponent and not the SIF range. In the case of a central crack, the SIF is given by
Kmax =Fcrmax& (2)
where the crack correction factor for a central crack is given by
[7a"
F=v:;=w (3)
From Equations (1-3) the residual strength is given by
(4)
or considering the safety factor, SF
(5)
where rta/W in radians.
From the above Equations it is clear that the residual strength cannot be solved di-
rectly, because F depends upon a and W and vice versa. To solve the problem we first
need to find the size of the crack after 20,000 cycles. This can be done by making use
of the Paris life Equation [I)
a fl-m/2 - al-m/2
.
Nr= ' (6)
C~SF8cr.Jir (1- m/2)
It is important to note that Equation 6 still contains the parameter F. To overcome the
problem we first assume that F=l, so that
Safety Factor and Residual Strength 503
8 1-2.8/2 _ O.S(mm)l-2.8/2
20,00o{cycles )= r (7)
3.2-11 (1.5 x 20o(MPa)x 1.77)2·8 (1- 2.8/2)
Solution of Equation 7 gives ar = 3.17mm . This means
F -_Hfar - sec 7tx3.17-3(m) --1007

sec--- . (8)
VV 6o-3 (m)
Using the above value into Equation 6 we have
8 1-2.8/2 -O.S(mm)l-2.8/2
20,000(cycles) = r (9)
3.T11 (1.5 x 1.007 x 20o{MPa)x 1.77Y8 (1- 2.8/2)
aF3.35mm and therefore
F = ~sec 7tvvar = 7tX3.35-3 (m) = l 008 (10)

sec 60-J(m) .
The difference between Equation 10 and Equation 8 is minimum and so the iteration is
complete. Substituting the above values into Equation 4 we have
crres = 40(MPa-vlrn") =388.3MPa (II)

l.008~7t3.35-3 (m)
It is important to note that we did not make use of Equation 5 since the safety factor
has been already used in the determination of ar.
3. References
[I] N. E. Dowling ( 1993) Mechanical Behaviour ofMaterials, Prentice-Hall, NJ.

[2] Fatigue Design Handbook, AE-10, ( 1988) Society of Automotive Engineers, PA.
Problem 26: Design of a rotating circular shaft for safe
life**
1. Problem
A solid circular shaft is rotating at an angular velocity of 10 rpm and it is subjected to

a concentrated load at one end as shown in Figure I (L=20 em). The load varies with
time, at intervals of I hour, from I kN to 1.2 kN, as shown in Figure 2. Evaluate the
required diameter of the shaft in order to withstand this loading without failure for I
month. The S-N curve of the bar material for zero mean stress is given by the Basquin
equation cr 8 N( =C with C =300 MPa and a= 0.11.
p
Figure. I Rotating shaft.
0 1 2 3 t (h)
Figure. 2 Applied load.
2. Solution
Due to the applied load, the shaft is subjected to a bending moment, which has its
maximum value at the bearing(= PL ). The bending stress developed is tensile at the
top and compressive at the bottom of the shaft. However, due to rotation, a material
element at the surface of the shaft is subjected to fatigue loading with zero mean stress.
The amplitude of this load is the bending stress at the surface, which is given by
(I)
32 7.68x 106 •
O"a2 =P2 L - 3 = 3 MPa(dmmm) (2)
1td 7td
The number of cycles to failure for each load block is evaluated using the Basquin
equation
According to the Miner rule, the bar will operate safely when
(5)
From Fig. 2, we can see that n1 = n2 and since the shaft should operate safely for I
month (43200 min) and it is rotating with 10 rpm
n = 432000cycles = n 1 + n 2 => n 1 = n 2 = 216000cycles.
Using Eqs (3,4), Eq.(5) becomes

Design of a rotating circular shaft for safe life 507
6)1/0.11 ( 6)1/0.11]
216000x [( 6·;;: + 7 -~~~0 xd- 310 · 11 :5:1
or d ~32mm.
Hence the minimum diameter of the shaft is 32 mm.
6 )1/0.11 ( 6 )1/0.11]
216000x [( 6·:;: + 7 ·~~~0 xd- 310 · 11 :5:1
or d~32mm.
Hence the minimum diameter of the shaft is 32 mm.
3. References
[I] H.O. Fuchs and R.I. Stephens(l980), Metal Fatigue in Engineering, John Wiley & Sons, New York.
[2] J.A. Collins (1993), Failure ofMaterials in Mechanical Design, John Wiley & Sons, New York.
Problem 27: Safety factor of a notched member containing
a central crack***
C. A. Rodopoulos
1. Problem
A plate made of 2024-T3, with dimensions shown in Figure 1, contains a semi-

elliptical edge notch and a central crack. If the plate is subjected to zero-to-tension
fatigue loading of amax=l80 MPa find whether a safety factor of 1.5 in terms of residual
strength is still valid after 10,000 cycles? The plate thickness is IOmm and the given
material properties are
~ =6.6xl o-Il AK 3·2 (m/cycle 1cry =440MPa, E =72,400 MPa,

dN
aFdR =0) =240 MPa, K IC =40MPa.J;", D =52J.1111
and CJ UTS = 525MPa
I
I
!4------'W•10omm------i
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
.........._0 sinm-----+
I
Figure. I Schematic representation of the notched plate.

2. Solution
Due to the complexity of the problem is wise to construct an solution plan. This can be
done by answering the following questions:
I. How many cracks are going to be after 10,000 cycles?

2. What is the length ofthese cracks after 10,000 cycles?
3. Is it possible to have crack coalescence after 10,000 cycles?
I. NUMBER OF CRACKS
The existence of the central crack along with the expression of the safety factor in
terms of residual strength indicate that conditions of damage tolerance apply. Herein,
the important issue is to determine whether these cracks would be able to cause catas-
trophic failure.
In the case of the central crack this can be done according to the Kitagawa-Takahashi
Diagram
(I)
where
m·1
is the grain orientation factor. This parameter indicates the difficulty of intro-
m,
- :
ducing slip on a grain that is not favourable oriented. It should be noted that mi in-
creases monotonically with i from a value of I until mi reaches the saturated Taylor
value of 3.07 (truly polycrystalline behaviour). The parameter mi is the grain orienta-
tion factor and for aluminium alloys is given by
m· =1+0.35ln-
-
m1
1 (2a)
D
where 1 ~ mi ~ 3.07
O"FL(R=O): the fatigue limit at a stress ratio R=O.
a: is the crack length. In the case of a central crack (two crack tips) the true crack
length is a/2.
Safety factor of a notched member containing a central crack 511
D: is the average grain size.
The application of Equation 1 for the case of2024-T3 is shown in Figure 2.
10+-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~*
10-S 10~ 10-3 10'
Crack Length (m)
Figure. 2 The application of the Equation I for the case of a central crack in a 2024-T3 plate.
It is worth noting that Figure 2 states that crack arrest or cessation of the crack will
take place when the crack length/applied stress coordinates are within the curve de-
fined by Equation I. In the case of a=0.4 mm the Kitagawa-Takahashi diagram con-
cludes that if the a maximum applied stress is higher than 120 MPa, in this case 180
MPa, the crack will continue to grow until catastrophic failure.
Notches and other geometrical features are likely to initiate fatigue cracks. Because of
the conditions of damage tolerance established above we are compelled to assume that
a fatigue crack will initiate from the notch. The above is a necessary statement that
prevents the application of methods for crack initiation, such as the Neuber's rule [1].
The existence of a small crack at the tip of the notch does not necessarily implies the
catastrophic propagation of the crack. According to experimental results, the cessation
of crack growth at some distance from the notch tip is possible.
To analyse the above problem, we need to modify the Kitagawa-Takahashi diagram in

a way that would include the presence of a notch. Such modifications has been pro-
posed by Vallelano et al
(2)
where
(3)
and
- 2a - 2f3
The parameters a. = -and f3 = - represent in a dimensionless form the notch
D D
depth a and the notch half width J3. Solution of Equation 2 according to the geometry
of the notch in Figure I is shown in Figure 3.
~-------------------------~:~~~~! _______________________ ~
100 - - - - - - - -.••
Ill-' IQ->
~~·
Cnocl<L""""(m)
Figure.J The effect of a notch on the Kitagawa-Takahashi diagram.

From Figure 3 it is clear that the applied stress of 180 MPa is above the curve defining
crack arrest and therefore catastrophic crack propagation should be expected. Hence, it
is sound to assume the existence of two catastrophic cracks.
2. SIZE OF CRACKS AFTER 10,000 CYCLES
Central Crack
The crack growth rate of the central crack is given by
(5)
where the stress intensity factor for a central crack is
(6)
The parameter ~sec(;) is the correction factor F for a central crack. Integration of
Equation 5 in terms of life gives
1~=(: }a.J.r
a l-m/2
f
al-m/2
- i
Nr=------~----~--------- (7)
(1-m I 2)
From Equation 7, the length ofthe crack after 10,000 cycles is given by
= 10,000
and ar = 0.865mm. It should be noted that solution of Equation (8) requires iteration
due to the correction factor.
3. THE NOTCH
For a crack emanating from the tip of a notch, the crack growth rate is given by
d<J , -
dKnotch == 1.12-vna (8)
zi
where the multiplier 1.12 is the free surface correction factor. The influence of the
notch on the propagation of the crack will terminate when Z;=l. Using Equation 3, the
effect of the notch on the AK is shown in Figure 4.
70
50
I
I
"'E" 40 /
: Z,= 1. ax=24 MP'Iim "'
I
~
 1()'
Crack LongO\ (In/
Figure. 4 The effect of the notch on the stress intensity fuctor. The parameter z, becomes equal to one at AK=24
MPam'''.
To estimate the position of the crack after I 0,000 cycles we should assign a initial
crack length. In case of damage tolerance that could be equal to the size of the maxi-
mum inclusion. In cases however that such information is not available a value equal
to half the grain size is usually used. Therefore,
1- m/2 al- m / 2
r 8
N r == -,----!.--~----- i
c(t.l2dcr I Zi .Jnf
(1-m I 2) 6.6- 11 (1.12 x 180/ zi MPa x 1.77)32 (- 0.6)
== IO,OOOcycles
and ar=0.082 mm. Due to the small size of the crack it is sound to consider that the
crack growth rate is under the influence of the notch.
4. CRACK COALESCENCE
The condition for crack coalescence for the case of the plate is
w (9)
a notch + rp notch +a central + rp central =--<X
' ' 2
where the subscripts notch and central refer to the crack emanating from the notch and
the central crack respectively and rp is the crack tip plastic zone. It is worth noting that
two cracks and therefore probability for coalescence exists only at the left hand side of
the plate Before we proceed with the assessment of the crack tip plastic zones, it is
necessary to identify whether conditions of plane stress or plane strain apply. In order
to avoid complex and labouring analysis, we can assume that plane strain conditions
apply when the distances from the crack tip to the in-plane boundaries are large com-
pared to the monotonic plastic zone
In the case ofthe central crack we have
2
I Omm, 50mm- 0.865mm, 60mm ; -:.: 2.s( 9 .4JMParrn) = I.II4mm
440MPa
In the case of the crack from the notch we have
2
4.o2MParrn )
I Omm, 50mm- 0.082mm, 60mm ;;:>: 2.5( = 0.2086mm
440MPa
Thus, both cracks propagate under plane strain conditions. Consequently Equation 9
becomes
0.082mm+- I [K 2
notch )
2
I [K
lOOmrn
+0.865mm+- ~) ~----lmrn~
61t u/ 61t 2 u/
8.2-5 m + 0.053[ ~-02 MPaJrnf] + 8.65 4 m + 0.053[ ~.4JMPaJt;f] ~ O.lm -0.0 lm ~
(440MPa:f (440MPa)2 2
The above inequality makes certain that crack coalescence after l 0,000 will not take
place. Note that we used the non-conservative monotonic crack tip plastic zone for
plane strain conditions.
5. EXAMINING THE SAFETY FACTOR
Since there is no probability for crack coalescence at the left hand side of the plate, the
actual number of cracks (number of crack tips) in the plate is three. A conservative
solution is to consider that all the cracks in the plate are represented by one long crack
and that the notch depth acts like a crack
a equivalent =a notch +a+ 2acentral = 0.082mm + lmm + 1.73mm = 2.812mm
Substituting the above value into the condition for residual strength we have
Kic
cr res = -r======= (10)
F ~1taequivalent
The problem with Equation 16 is the crack correction factor F for the equivalent crack.
As a conservative solution, the use of a high F value is recommended, i.e. F=l.l2 (free
surface correction factor). Thus
Kic 40MPa.J;"
cr res = --;===== ---;::=== = 380MPa
F~1taequivalent 1.12~1t2.812- 3 m
The above value indicates that the safety factor of 1.5 is still valid since
cr applied x SF < cr res ~ 180MPa x 1.5 < 3 80MPa

3. References
[I]. S. Suresh, Fatigue ofMaterials, Cambridge University Press, 1991.

[2]. H. Kitagawa and S. Takahashi (1976) Applicability of fracture mechanics to very small cracks or cracks in
the early stage, 2nd Int. Conf. On Mechanical Behaviour ofMaterials,JCM2, ASM Metal Park, Ohio, 627-631.
[3]. E. R. de los Rios and A. Navarro ( 1990) Considerations of grain orientation and work hardening on short-
fatigue-<:rack modelling, Philloshophical Magazine, 61, 435-449.
[4]. R. A. Smith and K. J. Miller (1978) Prediction ofliltigue regimes in notched components, Inter. J. Mech.
Sci., 20, 201-206.
[5]. C. Vallellano, A. Navarro and J. Dominguez (2000) Fatigue crack growth threshold conditions at notches.
Part I: Theory, Fatig. Fract. Engng. Mater. Struct., 23, 113-121.
[6]. C. Vallellano, A. Navarro and J. Dominguez (2000) Fatigue crack growth threshold conditions at notches.
Part II: Generalisation and application to experimental results, Fatig. Fract. Engng. Mater. Struct., 23, 123-128.
Problem 28: Safety Factor of a Disk Sander ***
C. A. Rodopoulos
1. Problem
Figure I shows the design details of a disk sander that is made by Austenitic type 316
steel having O"y = 207MPa, <rtr=552 MPa (in tension). The critical force on the disk is
applied at 100 mm radius. This force is sufficient to develop of a friction torque of I 0
Nm, value close to the stalling torque of the motor. The friction coefficient that can be
developed between the disk and the object is having a maximum value of 0.6. What is
the safety factor for infinite fatigue life?
D=l8, bearing diam.
~d ~ Area
..
--~- -t
----+1
-.-.-. ~--....------+----·~
- .- --:
-----r---
d=l6, shaft diam. r = 5 radius, machined surface
Figure. I Schematic representation of the disk sander. All dimensions are in mm.
2. Solution
The 10 Nm torque requires that the tangential force FFR is 100 N. Using the friction
coefficient of 0.6 the force FFR provides a normal force F~l67 N. These two forces
produce the following loading at the shaft fillet (critical area for crack initiation):
I. ACTING FORCES
Torque, T = 10000 N mm
Axial Load, P = 167 N
Bending Torque
Horizontal component
Mh = 100 N x 50 mm = 5000 N mm
( the 50 mm represents the overhang length between the disk and the shaft).
Vertical component
Mv = 200 N x 100 mm = 16700 N mm
From the above the resultant force is
(I)
2. EVALUATION OF ELASTIC STRESSES CONCENTRATIONS
From Figure. I it is clear that the critical area (fillet) is characterised by an elastic stress
concentration. The elastic stress concentration factor, K1 , for the case of a shoulder
with fillet in circular shaft is given by
Axial
2 3
Kt(a)=kt +k2 ( D D +k4 (2h)
2h) +k3 (2h) D (2)
Where h is defined by the difference between the shaft and the bearing (h=D-d) and
k 1 = 0.927 + l.l49M -0.086(h!r)

k 2 = O.Oll-3.029M +0.948(h!r)
k 3 = -0.304+3.979AA -1.737(h!r)
k4 = 0.366- 2.098M + 0.875(h I r)
Safety Factor of a Disk Sander 521
for 0.2 ~ hI r ~ 2.0
Bending
(3)
where
k 1 =0.927+1.149.Jii/f-0.086(hlr)
k 2 = O.Ol5-3.281M + 0.837(hlr)
k 3 = 0.847 +1.716M -0.506(hlr)
k 4 = -0.790+ 0.417M -0.246{hlr)
for 0.2 5:. hI r 5:. 2.0
Torsion
2 3
Kt(t) =k) +k2 ( D D +k4 (2h)
2h) +k3 (2h) D (4)
where
k 1 = 0.953+0.680.Jii/f -0.053(hlr)
k 2 = -0.493-1.820M + 0.517(hlr)
k 3 = 1.621 + 0.908M- 0.529(h I r)
k 4 = -1.081 +0.232M + +0.065(hlr)
for 0.2 ~ hlr ~ 4.0
From Eqs.(2-4) the stress concentrations for axial, bending and torsion are about,
It should be noted that K, represents a measurement of fluctuations of the cross-section

area along the loading axis and is independent on the material. Instead of the time
consuming Eqs.(4-6), values of K, can be directly extracted from graphs in Stress Con-
centration handbooks.
3. EVALUATION OF FATIGUE STRESS CONCENTRATIONS
In the case however where the component is subjected to fatigue loading, the ratio of
the unnotched to the notched endurance limit (known as fatigue stress concentration
factor, Kr) is often below that predicted by K,. This is apparently due to internal irregu-
larities in the microstructure of the material causing local points of higher stress. More
details can be found in the bibliography. Such problems are commonly dealt with the
so-called notch sensitivity index, q
Kr-1
q=r<=I I
(5)
where q takes values between zero (KFI) and unity (KFK1). Unlike to K" Kris deter-
mined using experimental results and empirical approximations. The most known ex-
ample is the Peterson formula
K -1
Kr ~ 1+ [1+ (A/r)] (6)
the constant A depends on the strength and ductility of the material. However, q and
therefore Krwas found to vary with loading type. Subsequently Eq.(8) cannot be ap-
plied with confidence. For steels, bending and axial fatigue loading was reported to
give q values up to 5% higher than that for torsional. For the 316 steel, notch sensitiv-
ity curves suggest values of 0.85 for torsional and 0.8 for axial and bending.
Using the results for stress concentration, the values for q and Eq.(7), Kr is estimated
as,
Ktttl=l.l02
4. EVALUATION OF STRESS COMPONENTS
Using the above values for Kr, the three stress components acting at the fillet can be
evaluated as,
. P -l67N(4)
Axial: cr(a) =-Kr(a) = 2 (1.24)=-l.03MPa
A 1t(l6mm)
. 32M 32(17432Nmm)
Bendmg: cr(b) = - -Kr(b)
3 = 3 (1.23)= 53.3 MPa
1td 7t(l6mm)
. l6T I6{l0000Nmm)
Torsmn: 't = - 3 Kr(t) = 3 (l.l02)= 13.7 MPa
1td 1t(I6mm)
5. TIPS PRIOR TO FINAL SOLUTION
Axial: It is more than certain that the axial load will attain some kind of off-center
position, giving a slight bending. Consequently the axial stress would be a bit higher
than that calculated in the previous stage. The sources for this eccentricity are multiple
and in most cases difficult to established. Low precision casting, operational vibrations,
wear of the bearing and the off-angle use of the sander are probably the main causes in
this case. As a result the rotating bending endurance is expected to be about I 0% to
30% lower than that of the pristine value. In general this case is treated by multiplying
the basic endurance limitS by a factor ranging from 0.9 to 0.7.
Torsion: Ductile materials are exhibiting torsion endurance limit of about 42% lower
than the endurance limit under reversed bending. Such difference is taken into account
by multiplying the basic endurance limit by a factor of 0.58. Further information can
be found in bibliography.
Surface Integrity or Finish: The basic endurance limit often corresponds to costly labo-
ratory finishes of the specimen where stress concentrations due to scratches or residual
stresses due to surface finishing are usually extracted. In the commercial finishes how-
ever and especially for materials with fine grain structure even minimum surface ir-
regularities can have significant impact on the true basic endurance limit. Coarse grain
materials, e.g. grey cast iron, on the other hand are somehow invulnerable to surface
irregularities since their surface is already characterised by severe irregularities. Em-
pirically surface integrity is included into fatigue considerations by multiplying the
basic endurance limit by a surface factor. For fine grain materials the surface factor
ranges from 0.5 to 0.9, while for coarse grain materials is taken equal to unity. More
details can be found in bibliography.
6. FINAL SOLUTION
Structural parts barely experience fully reversed loading. Static loads can be combined
with reverse loading to produce load fluctuations. Such load fluctuations are known to
have a significant effect on the basic endurance limit of the material. Therefore for a
safe analysis, such load variations should be known to the designer. In general any
fatigue load scatter is defined by two parameters, the stress amplitude and the mean
stress. The mean stress can also be characterised by the so-called load ratio, R
(j.
R = __!!!!!!_.,-1:::::; R:::::; 1 (7)
(jmax
In general the endurance limit of the materials was observed to decrease with increas-
ing R. These decreases were reported more significant for lower strength ductile mate-
rials. Coarser grain materials were also reported to be more vulnerable than fine grain.
Generally, in cases of biaxial loading and constant fatigue life (in this case infinite),
the Maximum stress amplitude can be extracted using the well-known constant life
diagram models. Most known among these models are the Gerber, Goodman and So-
berberg. The Goodman model is based on the relation
(8)
where o. is the stress amplitude, Om is the mean stress and ors is the basic endurance
limit. The stress range for infinite life (at least 10 8 loading cycles) can be extracted
from any S-N handbook. However if no such information exists it is common practice
to assume a stress range equal to half the strength of the material, or.=crr,/2. Since it is
extremely difficult and unsafe to acquire a different stress ranges for each loading type
and then to superpose, the use of a failure theory is recommended. Accordingly, the
equivalent stress range is calculated by the maximum energy distortion theory
(9)
and the equivalent mean stress by the modified Mohr Theory
eq 0 (a)
cr m =--+ (10)
2
Both methods can be found in any mechanics handbook. The Goodman's diagram us-
ing Eq.( I 0) and the above values is shown in Figure.2.
'
10 '
,' ,,e'A (S3.3MPa, 13.8MPa)
0 100 zoo 300 401 !DO 600

Mean Balding Stress (MPa)
Figure.2 The Goodman diagram.
The construction of the Goodman diagram is straightforward two step process. In the
first step, the infinite fatigue life straight line is draw by connecting the basic endur-
ance limit reduced by the axial, torsion and surface integrity factors at the bending
stress range axis to the fracture strength at the mean bending stress axis. In second step
a straight line is draw by connecting the origin to the equivalent stresses coordinates
(point A, also known as working point). The interception of the two lines (point B)
represent the failure point (eventual fatigue failure). Examination between the working
point and the failure point reveals that the working stresses should be increased by a
factor of about 4.3 to cause failure. Therefore a safety factor of about 4.3 is characteris-
ing the disk sander.
3. References
[I] D. W. A. Rees (1990) Mechanics ofSolids and Structures, McGraw-Hill, Oxfurd.

[2) W. C. Young (1989) Roark's Formulas for Stress and Strain, 6'' edition, McGraw-Hill.
[3) D.P. Rooke and D. J. Cartwright (1974) Compendium ofStress Intensity Factors, HMSO, London.
[4) S. Suresh (1991) Fatigue ofMaterials, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
[5) R. E. Peterson ( 1959) Notch Sensitivity, In: Metal Fatigue, G. Sines and J. L. Waisman editors, McGraw-
Hill, NY.
[6) R. C. Juvinatl (l983)Fundamentals ofMachine Components Design, John Willey & Sons.
[7) H. E. Boyer and T. L. Gatl editors ( 1985) Metals Handbook-Desk Edition, 7'' editions, ASM, Ohio.
[8) T. C. Lindley and K. J. Nix (1986) Metatlurgical Aspects offatigue Crack Growth, In: Fatigue Crack
Growth - 30 years ofprogress, R. A. Smith editor, Pergamon Press.
[9) H. Gerber ( 1874) Bestimmung der zulassigen Spannungen in Eisen-konstructionen, Zeitschrift des
Bayerischen Architeckten und Ingenieur-Vereins, 6, 101-110.
(to) J. Goodman (1899) Mechanics Applied to Engineering, Longmans Green, London.
[II] C. R. Soderberg (1939) Factor ofsafety and working stress, Transactions of the ASME, 52, 13-28.
[12] S. P. Timoshenko (1953)History ofStrength ofMatenals, McGraw-Hill, NY.

5. Short Cracks
Problem 29: Short Cracks and LEFM Error *
C. A. Rodopoulos
1. Problem
Figure I shows crack growth data from the propagation of a surface crack in a 2024-
T351 aluminium alloy specimen subjected to mode I fatigue loading. The loading con-
ditions are: peak stress 325 MPa, stress ratio of 0.1 and fatigue life of 139,500 cycles.
The threshold stress intensity factor is ..:lKth=4.5 MPa.Ji; and the fracture toughness is
K1c=40 MPa.Ji; .Determine the error in life from the application ofLEFM.
1E-6
fll 2024-T351 I
••
1E-7
.. • ••
• • ·J"• •
.-
.., 1E-8
•
~
z 1E-9
....., •
~ '!'I I •
•
1E-10
•...
1E-11
10 100
•K (MPa m•")
Figure./ The crack growth rate ofa surface crack in a 2024-T351 plate.
2. Solution
Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics (LEFM) acknowledges the exercise of the Paris
linearity between the crack growth rate (da/dN) and the applied stress intensity factor
range (ilK)
~=CAKm (I)
dN
where C and m are empirical parameters who depend on the material and the testing
conditions. According to Eq.(J ), the life of a component is given by
a fl-m/2 - al-m/2
Nr =
0
• (2)
c(FAcr~f(I- m/2)
for m :t: 2. In Eq.(2) the parameters are: ar is the final crack length, a; is the initial
crack length, tiu is the applied stress range and F is the crack correction factor which
in the case of a surface crack is taken to be 1.12.
To obtain the parameters C and m we need to select two points from Figure 1 which
fall along an imaginary straight line. The problem with Figure I is that the data are so
scattered and hence there are more than one imaginary lines. In cases like this, it is
advisable that we select two points that correspond to a high propagation rate as shown
in Figure 2.
I• 2024-T351 I
1E-7
Point1 .. ~-
.,
.
1.59-Brn/cycle ,-.; .. ............_
4.82MPamw .... ,.,. .- ~
1E-8 .... , - • ,-----="----If
l
z
~, .. •
,- •t, • •
'
Point2
5.52-SmJcycle
I
1E-9
' I • 19.5 MPam"'
:"
1E-10
••
10 100
AK(MPa m'l2)
Figure.2 Selection of points for the determination ofC, m.
From the two points we have

Short Cracks and LEFM Error 531
1.59-9 = C(4.82)m and 5.52" 8 = C(l9.5)m (3)

Dividing the second equation by the first allows C to be eliminated
5.5T8 =( 19.5)m
1.59-9 4.82
Hence
34.71 =(4.04)m
Taking logarithms of both sides and solving form gives
m = log(34.71) = 2 _56
log(4.04)
Using the previous result, in any of the two points given by Eq.(3) we can determine C
1.59-9 = C(4.82)256 ~ C = 2.83. 11
To apply Eq.(2), we first need to determine ai and ar. The initial crack length can be
determined by the AKth
(4)
(9.86)x(I.25)x(292.5MPaf
Similarly to ai, the final crack length can be determined by the fracture toughness K~c
(4oMPa .JrnY = 1. 51 _3 m (5)

(9.86)x(l.25)x(292.5MPa) 2
Using the above results into Eq.(2), we can determine the life
( _3 )-o.28 _I _5 \-0.28
N - _1. 51 - !1.92 L 157,066cycles
r- 2.8r 11 (u2(292.5MPa}J~Y 56 (- 0.28)
The corresponding error is

lo/) 157,066xl00
ErrorFo = ------ 112.6% or 0\:j (+)13% error.
139,500
The positive sign represents overestimate.
3. Comments
It should be noted that for simplicity the crack correction factor was kept constant. A
more thorough solution requires a varying crack correction factor. The overestimation
can be reduced by applying the method to several points and taking an average.
4. References
[I] P. C. Paris and F. Erdogan (1963) A Critical Analysis of Crack Propagation Laws, Journal of Basic
Engineering, 85, 528-534.
[2) N. E. Dowling (1993) Mechanical Behaviour of Materials - Engineering methods for deformation, frac-
ture and fatigue, Prentice-Hall, NJ.
[3) S. Suresh ( 1991) Fatigue ofMaterials, Cambridge University Press, London.
Problem 30: Stress Ratio effect on the Kitagawa-Takahashi
diagram*
C. A. Rodopoulos
1. Problem
Plot the effect of the stress ratio R on the Kitagawa-Takahashi diagram for the case of
a surface crack in a 2024-T3 aluminium alloy with fatigue limit at R=-1 equal to 140
MPa and a grain size of 50~. Make use of the Goodman's fixed life model.
2. Solution
The Kitagawa-Takahashi diagram is given by
(I)
where m/mt is the grain orientation factor, O"FL(R) is the fatigue limit for different val-
ues of R, a is the crack length, o- 1 is the crack closure stress and D is transverse grain
size. To determine the effect of stress ratio on the fatigue limit we make use of the
Goodman relation
(2)
where
cr max - cr min
cr = ----==----==.::... (3a)
a 2
is the stress amplitude
cr max + cr min
cr
m
= --===----=::...
2 (3b)
is the mean stress and
R = cr min is the stress ratio.

crmax
Solving the system of equation 2, 3 for different values of R we can determine the ef-
fect of stress ratio on the fatigue limit as shown in Figure I.
500
400
'i
~
~
::I 300
i
"-
200
100+--~--.--~~--r--r---.--~--+
·1.0 ..0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0
Stress Ratio
Figure.} Predicted distribution ofthe futigue limit as a function ofR according to Goodman.
Using the values from Figure 1 into Equation 1, the effect of R into the Kitagawa-
Takahashi diagram is shown in Figure 2.
Stress Ratio effect on the Kitagawa-Takahashi diagram 535
- R ~- 1
•• •• R ~o
R• 0.7
Crad< Longtn (m)
Figure.]. The effect ofR on the Kitagawa-Takahashi diagram according to Goodman. In the predictions a 1 is
taken equal to zero and the grain orientation factor for aluminium alloy was given by
~=I
m
+0.35tn( 2a) ·
D
1
It should be noted that the above technique is based on the assumption that u 1 is equal
to zero and therefore it should be used to extract information about the threshold stress
intensity factor range, ~Kth. Such prediction is more complex and requires knowledge
of the crack closure stress as a function of the crack length . In the case of 2024-T3,
Elber suggested that plasticity induced crack closure can be determined by
crop 2
--=0.5+ O.IR + 0.4R (4)
crmax
where CJ0 p is the crack opening stress. Hence, crack closure can be extracted by
cr 1 = crop - cr min (5)
A typical output of Equation 5 is shown in Figure 3.

120
100
.
Q.
~
80 ~
II!
t
"' 60
i
iJ 40
~
20
00 02 06 08
Figure.3. The effect of crack closure as a function ofR for 2024-T3.
By incorporating the values from Figure 3 into Equation I we have,
R• O.J
R• O 7
10+---~~~~"T--~~~~~r-~--~~~+
104
Cracl< longlh (m)
Figure.4. The effect of crack closure on the Kitagawa-Takahashi diagram according to Elber for 2024-T3 . The
filc1 that the - 0.5 gradient that corresponds to the !1K,. disappears at R>O. 7 represents a limitation of Equation 4.
Stress Ratio effect on the Kitagawa-Takahashi diagram 537
3. Comments
It should be noted that the Goodman's model may provide conservative results for duc-
tile alloys. The negligible effect of crack closure for high positive stress ratios is ra-
tionalised in many textbooks.
4. References
[I] C. A. Rodopoulos and J. R. Yates (2002) Fatigue Damage Tolerance Analysis Using the Fatigue Damage
Map, In: Recent Advances in Experimental Mechanics, Ed. E. E. Gdoutos, Kluwer Academic Publishers, 197-
202.
[2] J. Goodman (1899) Mechanics applied to Engineering. LongrnansGreen, London.
[3] W. Elber (1970) Fatigue crack closure under cyclic tension, Engineer. Fract. Mech., 2, 37-45.
[4] S. Suresh ( 1991) Fatigue ofMaterials, Cambridge University Press.
Problem 31: Susceptibility of Materials to Short Cracks **
C. A. Rodopoulos
1. Problem
Compare the susceptibility to short cracking between Ti-6Al-4V and 2024-T4. The
mechanical properties of the materials are:
Ti-6Al-4V: Fatigue limit at R=O.l is 480 MPa and the cyclic yield stress is 827 MPa.
2024-T4: Fatigue limit at R=O.l is !50 MPa and the cyclic yield stress is 448 MPa.
2. Solution
Material selection is one of the most costly and laboured process in any high risk con-
struction involving fatigue loads. Apart from common parameters like stiffness,
strength, deformability etc, every material should be scrutinized against fatigue failure.
Knowledge of the life span of the material and consequently of the structure requires
accurate experimental crack growth databases and therefore can not be solved by the
simple application of Paris type solutions. This is due to the fact that short cracks can
achieve a much higher crack growth rate under the same values of the stress intensity
factor than long cracks.
To overcome this problem, Rodopoulos et al proposed a theoretical way of scrutinizing

against short crack behaviour. According to their work, the propagation range of a
short crack is limited between the Kitagawa diagram and the transition between short
and long crack behaviour. According to the theory a short crack will start to exhibit
long crack growth characteristics (Figure I) when the plasticity ahead of the crack tip
has reach a size of about two grains in length.
)
I
I
I
Figure. I Differences in the propagation behaviour between a long and a short crack.
According to the above the extend of short cracking bounded by:
the Kitagawa Diagram, given by
(I)
where mi is the grain orientation factor, crFL is the plain fatigue limit and i is the crack
length expressed in terms of half grains ( i=2a!D, where D is the grain size). The grain
orientation factor represents a measurement of the difficulty faced by the crack to
propagate plasticity along differently oriented grains. The grain orientation factor fol-
lows the equation
~= l + 0.5ln(i) (2)
m,
and the transition from short to long crack given by
(3)
Susceptibility of Materials to Short Cracks 541
where cr'y is the cyclic yield stress. Using Equations I and 3 the short crack extend for
the two selected materials of the problem can be calculated as shown in Figures 2 and
3.
1000
...•
~
~
J 100
10 100 1000 10000

•· No of hal grainS
Figure.] The extend of short cracking for Ti-6AI-4 V. The interception point, in this case 63 half grains, reveals
the maximum amount of short crack that is independent to the applied stress.
•
Q.
~
100
&
"I
i< 10
........
10 100 10000
1, No 011\al Qrtin$
Figure.3 The extend of short cracking for 2024-T4. The interception point, in this case 5596 half grains, reveals
the maximum amount of short crack that is independent to the applied stress.
Comparison between the above plots indicates that the 2024-T4 is significantly more
susceptible to short crack growth and therefore the generated error by the application
of Paris type solutions will be much greater than in the case of the Ti-6Al-4V.
3. References
[I] C. A. Rodopoulos and E. R. de los Rios (2002) Theoretical Analysis on short tiltigue cracks, Inter. J. ofFa-
tigue, 24,719-724.
[2] G. R. Yoder, L.A. Cooley and T. W. Crooker (1982) On microstructural control of near-threshold liltigue
crack growth in 7000-series aluminium alloys, Scripta Meta/1.,16, I 021-1025.
[3] H. Kitagawa and S. Takahashi (1976) Applicability of fracture mechanics to very small cracks or cracks in
the early stage, 2nd Int. Conf. On Mechanical Behaviour ofMaterials, ICM2. ASM Metal Park, Ohio, 627-631.
[4]. E. R. de los Rios (1998) Dislocation modelling of fatigue crack growth in polycrystals, Eng. Mechanics, 5
(6), 363-368.
Problem 32: The effect of the Stress Ratio on the Propaga-
tion of Short Fatigue Cracks in 2024-T3 ***
C. A. Rodopoulos
I. Problem
Determine the value of the stress ratio that eliminates short crack growth in 2024-T3
aluminium alloy under mode I loading. The mechanical properties of the material are:
Fatigue limit at R=O is 240 MPa, the cyclic yield stress is 450 MPa, and the grain size
is 50JJI1l.
2. Solution
In several works it was proposed that the propagation of short fatigue cracks is limited
by the Kitagawa-Takahashi diagram and the transition from short to long crack behav-
iour. A modified version of the Kitagawa-Takahashi diagram is given by
.6.
cr arrest
(R = O)= m;
m, J3i=0)
.!\crFL (R
a
(1)
where m; is the grain orientation factor, a is the crack length, LicrFL(R=O) is the fatigue
limit for R=O and D is the grain size. The grain orientation factor for the 2024-T3 is
given by
m; = l + 0.35tn( 2a)
m1 D
In the case of 2024-T3, the effect of the stress ratio on the fatigue limit of 2024-T3 is
given by
(2)
It is worth noting that the use of Equation 2 promotes the Umax dependent near-
threshold propagation. From Equations I, 2 the effect of the stress ratio on the Kita-
gawa-Takahashi diagram is
(3)
The effect of the stress ratio Ron the Kitagawa-Takahashi diagram is shown in Figure
I.
Figure./ The effect of the stress ratio on the Kitagawa-Takahashi diagram for 2024-T3 .
The transition from short to long crack propagation is achieved when the crack is able
to develop plasticity of a size comparable to the size of two successive microstructural
features (grains, pearlite zones, etc). According to the above the transition from short
to long crack growth is given by
(4)
where u 1 ~ 11 is the transition stress, Q is the crack shape factor and Ucy is the cyclic
yield stress. In the case of aluminium alloys, the propagation of short crack and long
cracks depends primarily on L!.u. In the same work they proposed that
The effect of the Stress Ratio on the Propagation of Short... 545
1-R
dcr=--crmax (5)
1+ R
Hence, Equation 4 becomes
dcri-+n = Q1-R[2
- - -crc
1+ R 1t Y
~D
---
a+ 20
l (6)
A typical output of Equation 6 is shown in Figure 2.
c.
~
f
.
0:
;:
Qj
100 - ',
'
..
......
v
< R•O I
R•O 3
Rz0.5
10
10' 11!-' 1()-1 10'
Crock leiiQih (m)
Figure.2 The effect of the stress mtio on the transition from short to long cmck growth for 2024-T3 and Q~ I.
From Equations 3 and 6, the effect of the stress ratio, R, on short crack growth can be
analysed as shown in Figure 3.
Short Cre ck Atu
i
! Point8
&
li
a: 100
i
.ii
!
8: R..C.1
< IU:agaWI-Tikar.asl'l1
- Tn~nsllon from short to
lon~ crack growth
10
1() 5 to-< 10-l t()l
Cr.ek Length (m)
Figure.J Determination of short crack growth area for R=O. I for 2024-T3 and Q= l. Point B shows the end of
short crack area.
Examination of Figure 3 reveals that the "anomalous" propagation of short fatigue

cracks decreases with R. This tendency becomes more clear for higher values of the
stress ratio as shown in Figure 4.
1000
Short Crac11. Area

i
<l.
.~
a: 100
.
~
;;; ''--
a R=0.3
~ Klagawa--Takahashi
- Transiion from shat to
tong era~ grONth
10
1() 5 10• 1()-l 1Q-:
Cn>Ck Leng1h (m)
Figure.4 The effect ofR=0.3 on short crack behaviour for 2024-T3 and Q= l .
From the above it is clear that complete disappearance of the short crack growth is
achieved when
The effect ofthe Stress Ratio on the Propagation of Short... 547
1-R 2 /4r)
= 1+ R ;crcnJ~
Graphic solution of Equation 7 is given in Figure 5.
0.40-t--~-L-~~--'--~-~-~--'--~-+
0.38
0.36
0.34
a::: 0.32
0 ~LongCrackGrowlh
: 0.30
~
~ 0.28
~
U)
0.26 Short Crack Growth

0.24
'----~
0.22
0.20-t--~-...---~-..-~--.-~---.-~-+
0.0000 0.0002 0.0004 0.0006 0.0008 0.0010
Crack Length (m)
Figure.5 Neutralisation of short crack growth as a function ofR and crack length according to Equation 7.
The fact that neutralisation of short crack growth depends on the crack length is useful
in the case of variable amplitude loading. It should be noted that Equation 7 applies
only to 2024-T3 and thus it should not be used for other materials. Care should be
taken with the crack shape and the loading conditions (parameter Q), since they affect
the transition from short to long crack growth (Equation 6). The effect of Q on the Ki-
tagawa-Takahashi diagram is taken as minimum since the diagram implies a closed
non propagating crack with negligible crack tip plasticity.
3. References
(I] H. Kitagawa and S. Takahashi (1976) Applicability of fracture mechanics to very small cracks or cracks in
the early stage, 2nd Int. Conf On Mechanical Behaviour of Materials, ICM2, ASM Metal Park, Ohio, 627-631.
[2] S. Suresh, Fatigue ofMaterials, Cambridge University Press, 1991.
[3] S. A. Curtis, J. Solis Romero. E. R. de los Rios, C. A. Rodopoulos and A. Levers (2003) Predicting the Inter-
faces Between Fatigue Crack Growth Regimes in 7150-T651 Aluminium Alloy Using the Fatigue Damage Map,
Mater. Sci. Engng. A, A344, 79-85.
[4) K. J. Miller (1997) The three thresholds for futigue crack propagation, In: Fatigue and Fracture Mechanics,
STP 1296, edited by R. S. Piascik, J. C. Newman andN. E. Dowling, ASTM, 267-286.
[5) D. Kujawski (2001) A new (AK +K max j.5 driving force parameter for crack growth in aluminium
alloys, Inter. J. ofFatigue, 23,733-740.
6. Variable Amplitude Loading
Problem 33: Crack Growth rate during irregular loading**
1. Problem
An aircraft cracked component can be approximated as a wide plate with a centre-

crack. The component is subjected to the following repeated load sequence: 5, 120, 15,
91, 18, 75, 40, 80, 10, 110 MPa. A crack of length 20 mm has been detected in the
component. Evaluate the crack growth rate at this crack length using the root-mean-
square (RMS) method. Fatigue crack growth tests showed that the material behaviour
obeys the following rule:
da/dN = 2xl0- 9 (.1.K) 3. 12 with da I dN in m/cycle and .1-K in

(I- R)Kc -.1-K
MPa .Jm . The fracture toughness of the material is K IC = 77 MPa .Jm.
2. Solution
The irregular loading given has five maximum and five minimum applied stress levels
amin: 5, 15, 18, 40, 10

amax: 120,91, 75, 80, 110
According to the RMS method, the fatigue crack growth rate equation can be used with
the root-mean-square values of the quantities involved. The root-mean-square maxi-
mum and minimum stresses are given by
amin
rms
= _!_~(a.
sL. mm
)2 = _!_{5
5\ +15 +18 +40 +10 )=21.3MPa (I)
2 2 2 2 2
1=1
and
R = cr:~ =2 1.3 =0.22 (3)

rms crmax 96.8
rms
The root-mean-square stress intensity factor range is given by
L\Krms =(cr:;'- cr~)~ =(96.8- 21.3).JO.Obt =13.4 MPav'ro".
Fatigue crack growth rate can be evaluated from
(~Krms )3.12 2x1o-9 (13.4)3.12

da 1 dN = 2 x 1o-9 -'---='----
(1- Rrms )Kc - L\Krms (1- 0.22) X 77-13.4
=1.4x10- 7 rnlcycle.
3. Comments
The RMS method should be avoided in cases of very complex spectra.
4. References
[I] J.A. Collins (1993) Failure ofMaterials in Mechanical Design, John Wiley & Sons, New York.
[2] N. E. Dowling (1993) Mechanical Behaviour of Materials: Engineering Methods for Deformation, Frac-
ture and Fatigue, Prentice Halllnt, New Jersey.
Problem 34: Fatigue life under two-stage block loading *
1. Problem
The stress history of Figure I is applied to a metal specimen. Use the Miner rule to
determine the number of cycles n 2 required for final failure of the specimen after it
has been subjected to n1 = 500000 cycles . The material of the specimen behaves
according to the Basquin equation cr aN r= C with C = 400 MPa and a =0.11 .
MPa
110
-80
-110
Figure. I A two-stage block loading
2. Solution
For the first loading block
(l)
~ Nn =2260855 cycles
For the second loading block
O"azNfz = C => Nf2 = ( cr~Jia => Nrz = ( ~~~ ro 11

(2)
=> Nr 2 = 56682 cycles
Miner rule for failure
n1 n2
--+--=1 n1 ] Nr =>
::::::> n 2 = [ 1--- 2
N n N r2 Nn (3)
n2 =[ l- 500000] x 56682 =44146cycles

2260855
3. References
[I] J.A. Collins, Failure ofMaterials in Mechanical Design, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1993.
[2] N. E. Dowling, Mechanical Behaviour of Materials: Engineering Methods for Deformation, Fracture and
Fatigue, Prentice Hall Int., New Jersey, 1993.
[3] C. R. Soderberg (1939) Factor of safety and working stress, Transactions of the American Society of Me-
chanical Engineers, 52, 13-28.
Problem 35: The Application of Wheeler's Model*
C. A. Rodopoulos
1. Problem
A fatigue crack in a structural component made of aluminium 2024-T3, of yield stress,

cry= 345 MPa propagates at a constant amplitude with a stress intensity factor range of
9MPam 112 with R=O. During the operation a malfunction caused an single tensile over-
load of 60%. After the overload the component returns to normal operation. Find the
difference in the crack growth rate immediately after the overload considering a retar-
dation exponent ofn=l in the Wheeler's model. Consider plane stress conditions.
2. Solution
According to Wheeler the main cause for crack retardation is the residual compressive
stress field developed at the crack tip by the overload. In his model the variable ampli-
tude growth rate daldN0 ., is related to the equivalent constant amplitude growth rate
under the baseline load, daldN••, by a retardation coefficient CR, so that
(I)
where
(2)
and
(3)
Where a0 is the crack length at the onset of the overload, a; is the current crack length
after the overload (a; 2: a0 ) corresponding to the i1h cycle of the baseline load, rpo is the
cyclic plastic zone produced by the overload and rp; is the current cyclic plastic zone
corresponding to the im cycle and n is an empirical constant known as retardation ex-
ponent. The delay distance considered in this model is defined as the difference be-
tween rpo and rpi· The cyclic plastic zone size for plane stress conditions is given by
r=..!._(~]2 (4)
1t 2cr Y
According to Eq.(4), the cyclic plastic zones prior and during the overload are
r i =..!._( AK ]2 =..!._( 9MPav'm ]2 ~5.41-sm

P 1t 2cr Y 1t 2x345MPa
r =. !._( AK ] 2=. !._( l.6x9MParrnl 2""1.38 -4 m

po 1t 2cr Y 1t 2x345MPa
Since we are searching for the crack growth rate immediately after the overload we
make use ofEq.(2). Using the above results we obtain
It is important to note that immediately after the overload a0 =a;. Thus the propagation
rate immediately after the overload is 400/o of that before the overload.
3. Comments
The principle of Wheeler's model is that crack growth retardation occurs due to the
propagation of the crack through an additional plasticity crack closure effect caused by
the overload. Due to the above the model can only be used for cracked components
failing within the LEFM limits.
4. References
[I] 0. E. Wheeler (1972) Spectrum loading and crack growth, J. Bas. Engng, 94, 181-186.
The Application of Wheeler's Model 557
[2) W. Schutz (1989) Standarised stress- time histories- An overview, In Development offatigue loading spectra,
ASTM STP I 006.
[3) P. J. Bernard, T. C. Lindley and C. E. Richards ( 1976) Mechanisms of overload retardation during futigue crack
propagation, in Fatigue Crack Growth Under Spectrum Loads, ASTM STP 595, 78-97.
[4) R.E. Jones (1973) Fatigue crack growth retardation after a single cycle peak overload in Ti-6AI-4V titanium
alloy, Engng. Fract. Mechanics, 5, 585-604.
[5) J. Lankford and D. L. Davinson (1976) Fatigue crack tip plasticity associated with overloads and susequent
cycling, J. Engng. Mater. Techn., January volume, 17-23.
[6) R. H. Cristensen ( 1959) Metal Fatigue, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Problem 36: Fatigue Life Under Multiple-Stage Block
Loading**
1. Problem
The S-N curve of a material for zero mean stress is given by the Basquin equation
a aN[ =C. A specimen made of this material is subjected to a three-stage block
loading, shown in the following table. Determine the fatigue life of the above specimen
considering that after blocks A and B, block C is applied.
Block O"m (MPa) O"a (MPa) No. of cycles

A 120 80 4X10 5
B 80 100 3X10 5
c 150 75
Coefficients of Basquin equation: C = 650 MPa and a = 0.13.
Goodman equation: ~ + cr m = 1 with cr B = 500 MPa.

crr crs
2. Solution
In order to use the Basquin equation, it is necessary first to use Goodman equation to
find the stress amplitude for each block that yields to same damage but for zero mean
stress.
Block A:
~ crfA =105.26MPa
~+Cim=I- cr. 100

-err=---=
Ci f Ci B 1 - Ci m 1 - 80
Block B: crB 500
~ crrn = 119.05 MPa
Ci 3 75
err=---=
1 _crm 1 _150
CiB 500
~ crtt: = 107.14 MPa
Now, the Basquin equation can be used to evaluate the number of cycles to failure for
each block
crrANfA =C ~ NrA =( cr~A Jlia ~ NrA =C~:.~6)Jio.n

~ N fA = 1207600 cycles
C Jl/a N = (~)110.13
crrnNffi = C ~ Nrn = ( crrn ~ fB 119.05
~ N rn = 468431 cycles
C )1/a N =(~Jl/0.13
Citt:Nft:: =C ~ Ntt: = ( Citt: ~ tt: 107.14
~ Nte =1053859cycles
According to Miner rule
=1
~+~+~=I~ 400000 + 300000 + nc
NfA Nrn Ntt: 1207600 468431 1053859
~ n c = 29854 cycles.
Hence the fatigue life of the specimen would be

Fatigue Life Under Multiple-Stage Block Loading 561
nA + ns + nc = 729854cycles.
3. References
[I] J.A. Collins (1993), Failure ofMaterials in Mechanical Design, John Wiley & Sons, New York.
[2] N. E. Dowling (1993), Mechanical Behaviour of Materials: Engineering Methods for Defonnation, Fracture
and Fatigue, Prentice Hall Int., New Jersey.
Problem 37: Fatigue Life Under two-stage Block Loading
Using Non-Linear Damage Accumulation**
I. Problem
The stress history of Fig. I is applied to a metal specimen. Determine the number of
cycles n2 required for final failure of the specimen after it has been subjected to
n1 =500000 cycles. Determine the number of cycles n1 if the second block is ap-
plied first. Use the Manson-Halford rule. The material of the specimen behaves accord-
ing to the Basquin equation a 0 Nj =C with C = 400 MPa and a= 0.11.
(Nf2/ Nn )04
Manson-Halford equation: (
~ )
+ ~ =I .
Nn Nf2
MPa
120
-80
Figure./ A two-stage block loading.
2. Solution
For the first loading block

~ N n = 2260855 cycles
For the second loading block
C
cra2Nf2 =C ~ Nr2 = ( - -
)1/a ~ N =(400)1/0.11
-
O"a2 f2 120
~ N r 2 = 56682 cycles
Using the Manson-Halford equation
( ~)(Nf2/Nnf"
4
+ ~= 1 ~~= 1 _( 500000 )(56682/2260855)
04
Nn N r2 56682 2260855
~ n2 =16555cycles
If the second block is applied frrst, then
(Nn /Nn )0 ·4 16555 )(2260855/ 56682)04

( n2 ) nl 1 nl 1(- - -
Nf2 + Nn = :::::> 2260855 56682
~ n 1 = 2250402 cycles
We note the big difference in the calculated number of cycles for the first block when
we change the order of loading. This is characteristic of the non-linear damage accu-
mulation rules. If Miner rule were used, n1 would be the same in both cases.
3. References
[I] J.A. Collins ( 1993 ), Failure ofMaterials in Mechanical Design, John Wiley & Sons, New York.
[2] N. E. Dowling (1993), Mechanical Behaviour of Materials: Engineering Methods for Deformation, Frac-
ture and Fatigue, Prentice Hall Int., New Jersey.
Problem 38: Fatigue Crack Retardation Following a Single
Overload**
I. Problem
A thin wide plate contains a centre crack and it is subjected to constant amplitude fa-
tigue loading from 20 to 100 MPa. When the crack is 20 mm long, an overload cycle of
130 MPa is applied to the plate. Evaluate, using the Willenborg model, the change in
fatigue crack growth rate due to the overload after the crack has grown by 0.4 mm.
Fatigue crack growth tests showed that the material behaviour obeys the following rule:
da/dN=2xl0- 12 (~K) 4 · 2 with da/dN in m/cycle and ~K in

(l-R)Kc -~K
MPa.Jffi, with Kc = 130 MPa.Jffi. The yield stress of the material is
cry = 400 MPa .
2. Solution
According to the Willenborg model, the crack growth rate after an overload is less than
the crack growth rate we would expect for constant amplitude loading. This is referred
to as crack retardation and it is assumed to happen until the crack grows beyond the
plastic zone created by the overload. The overload plastic zone size for thin plates
(plane stress) is given by
roL =-1 [KoL )2 =-1 [croL~l2

27t cry 27t cry
(I)
2
=-1 [l30.JO.Olx7tl =O.S 3 mm
27t 400
As overload affected zone size we define the length

aP = a 0 L + r0 L = 10.53 mm (2)
According to the Willenborg model, the stress required to produce a yield zone suffi-
cient to terminate retardation is given by
(3)
where a; is the current half crack length.
For ai = I 0 + 0.2 = I 0.2 mm, the above equation gives
crreq =2x400 I0. 53 -I0.2 =I43.9MPa.

I0.2
The effective maximum and minimum stresses are given by
crmaxerr =2crmax -crreq =2xiOO-I43.9=56.1MPa
O"minerr =a max +a min - crreq =I 00 + 20 -I43.9 = -23.9 MPa.
Since no compressive stresses are allowed in the model, U min elf is set to zero. The
effective stress ratio and stress intensity factor range are given by
(j 0 ,,..
Relf =~=0 (4)

(j max elf
.::\Kerr =(crmaxerr -crminerr~ =(56.1-0)JO.OI02x1t =I0.04MPa.Jffi.
Fatigue crack growth rate is calculated from
(.::\Kerr )4.2 (I0.04) 4 •2

da I dN = 2 X I o- 12 _ _..:...._--=!.,;._--- 2 X 10-12 - - ' - - - ' - - - - -
(1- Rerr )Kc -.::\Kerr (1- 0) X 130-10.04
= 2. 7 X I o- 10 m/cycle.
Fatigue Crack Retardation Following a Single Overload 567
If no overload was applied then
R == cr min == 20 == 0.2
Ioo '
O"max
AK == (cr max - cr min).;;;;:== (I 00- 20}Jo.O I 02 x 1t == 14.32 MPa.J;"
and
(I4.32) 42
da/dN==2xi0-12 (AK) 42 2 xI o- 12 - - - ' - - - ' - - - - -
(I-R)Kc- AK (I-0.2)x I30-I4.32
== 1.6 x 10-9 m/cycle.
We note that the overload decreased the fatigue crack growth rate by a factor of6.
3. References
[II H.O. Fuchs and R.I. Stephens ( 1980), Metal Fatigue in Engineering, John Wiley & Sons, New York.
Problem 39: Fatigue Life of a Pipe Under Variable Internal
Pressure**
1. Problem
A very long pipe of diameter Im and thickness 4 em is used for transferring gas and
consists of pieces welded together. Measurements show the existence of tensile residual
stresses in the circumferential direction at the welding area. The magnitude of these
stresses varies slightly in the pipe thickness and has an average value of 20% the yield
stress of the material. The pipe has been used for 3 years at an internal pressure vary-
ing from 0 to I 0 MPa, at intervals of 2 hours. It has been decided to increase the
maximum pressure to 12 MPa. Evaluate the residual life of the pipe with and without
considering the effect of residual stresses. The S-N curve of the pipe material for zero
mean stress is given by the Basquin equation <JaN~ = C with C = 300 MPa and
(J (J
a = 0.11. Yield stress <J Y = 250 MPa. Goodman equation: _a + ~ = l with
crr cra
cr 8 = 300 MPa.
2. Solution
For a very long open pipe, only circumferential stress develops. This stress is given by
crt = Pd/2t (I)
with P the internal pressure, d the internal diameter and t the thickness.
For the two maximum loads, 10 and 12 MPa, Eqn. (I) gives the maximum circumfer-
ential stress, with the minimum being zero. Without considering residual stresses, the
amplitudes and mean stresses of these loadings are given by
<J 81 =0.5xP1d/2t=62.5MPa and <Jml =<Jal =62.5MPa

cra 2 = 0.5 x P2 d I 2t = 75 MPa and crm 2 = cra 2 = 75 MPa.
find the stress amplitude for each loading that yields to same damage but for zero mean
stress.
(jal + CJml =l => (jfl = (jal 62.5

CJfl CJs 1- CJml 1- ~~·~ (2)
CJB 300
cr n = 78.95 MPa
CJa2 + CJm2 = 1 => crfz = CJa2 75

---=>
CJ f2 CJ B 1 _ (J' m2 1- 25 (3)
CJB 300
cr n = 100 MPa
each block
crnN!\ =C => Nn =(~)lla => Nn =( 300 )110.11 =>

crn 78.95
N f1 = 186478 cycles
C )1/a _ ( 300)1/0.11
crf2N~2 =C => Nrz = ( - - => Nrz- - - =>
(jf2 100 .
Nr 2 =21750cycles
It is given that the pipe has been used for n 1=3 years= 26280 Hours= 13140 cycles
at the first loading. Then the Miner rule becomes
~+~=I=> 13140 +~= 1 =>

Nn Nr 2 186478 21750
n 2 = 20217 cycles = 4.6 years.
Fatigue Life of a Pipe Under Variable Internal Pressure 571
If we consider the effect of residual stresses, then the residual stress has to be added to
the minimum and maximum circumferential stress due to internal pressure. The resid-
ual stress is
cr r = 0.2cr y = 50 MPa
and
crmax2 = crr + P2d/2t = 200MPa and O"min 2 = crr = SOMPa.
Hence
cral = 0.5 x (crmaxl - crmin 1) = 62.5 MPa
and
O"ml =0.5 X (crmaxl + crminl) = 112.5 MPa
cra2 =0.5x(umax2 -uminz)=75MPa and Um2 =0.5x(umax2 +umin2)=125MPa.
We notice that the residual stress changes the mean but not the stress amplitude. Simi-
lar to the first case we can evaluate
O"al + O"ml =I => cr fl = cr a! 62.5

=> crn = 100 MPa
crn crs 1- (jllll 112.5
1-- --
crs 300
0" a2 + 0" m2 = 1 => cra2 75

0" f2 = => cr n = 128.57 MPa.
crf2 crs 1- 0" m2 1- 125
O"s 300
crnNfi =C:::} Nfl =( 0~1 )I/a:::} Nfl =(~~~rO.II

:::}Nn =21750cycles
C )1/a N =(~)1/0.11
crr2Nf2 =C:::} Nr2 = ( crr2 :::} f2 128.57
:::} N r 2 = 2215 cycles
~ + ~ = 1 :::} 13140 + __!2_ = 1 :::} n 2 = 877 cycles = 0.2 years.

Nn N r2 21750 2215
We observe a dramatic reduction in residual fatigue life (0.2 as compared to 4.6 years)
when we consider the effect of residual stresses due to welding. It should be noted,
however, that our result is over-conservative, since, most probably, the residual stresses
would have relaxed long before the failure of the pipe.
3. References
[I] J.A. Collins (1993), Failure ofMaterials in Mechanical Design, John Wiley & Sons, New York.
[2] N. E. Dowling (1993), Mechanical Behaviour ofMaterials: Engineering Methods for Deformation. Frac·
ture and Fatigue, Prentice Halllnt., New Jersey.
Problem 40: Fatigue Crack Growth Following a Single
Overload Based on Crack Closure ***
1. Problem
A thin wide plate made of an aluminium alloy contains a centre crack and is subjected
to a constant amplitude loading from 0 to 100 MPa. When the crack length is 30 mm
an overload cycle of 160 MPa is applied to the plate. Evaluate the crack length after
I 00 cycles following the overload using the crack closure model. Fatigue crack growth
tests showed that the material behaviour obeys the following
rule: da I dN = 2 xI o- 11 (~K) 4 with da I dN in mlcycle and ~K in MParrn.
Assume that the crack tip opening stress after a single overload is constant for the first
cycles following the overload and it is 20% of the overload stress.
2. Solution
According to the crack closure model, an effective stress range is used to account for
interaction effects in variable amplitude fatigue loading. This effective stress range is
given by
~cr eff = cr max - crop
where U 0 P is the crack tip opening stress determined experimentally. For simplicity,
here we assume that after the application of a single overload U 0 P is constant for the
first cycles following the overload and is given by
The effective stress intensity factor range is then

The fatigue crack growth rate is given by
Integrating the above equation from N =0 to N = AN = I 00 , we find
(I)
1 -II 4 2
- = --2xl0 (crmax -0.2cr 0 d 1t dN (2)
af ai
where a; is the initial crack length and a1 is the crack length after I 00 cycles.
Substituting in the above equation cr max =100 MPa , cr OL = 160 MPa,
a; = 0.015 m, we find that after AN= 100 cycles the crack length is
af = 0.015096m = 15.096mm.
If no overload was applied, then the final crack length would be 15.453 mm. It should
be noted that the crack tip opening stress value depends on many factors such as mate-
rial, thickness, temperature, corrosive environment, stress peaks and load sequence and
that the approach followed in this problem is over-simplified. The evaluation of the
crack tip opening stress is still subject of research.
3. References
[I] H.O. Fuchs and R.I. Stephens (1980), Metal Fatigue in Engineering, John Wiley & Sons, New York.
Problem 41: Fatigue Crack Growth Following a Single
Overload Based on Crack-Tip Plasticity***
1. Problem
A thin wide plate made of an aluminium alloy contains a centre crack and is subjected
to a constant amplitude loading from 0 to 100 MPa. When the crack length is 30 mm
an overload cycle of 160 MPa is applied to the plate. Evaluate the crack length after
I 00 cycles following the overload using the Wheeler model. Fatigue crack growth tests
showed that the material behaviour obeys the following rule:
da/dN=2xi0- 11 (!1.K) 4 with da/dN in m/cycle and ~Kin MPa.Jffi. The
yield stress of the material is u Y == 300 MPa and the exponent of the retardation pa-
rameter in Wheeler model is I.
2. Solution
According to the Wheeler model, the crack length after n cycles following an over-
load is given by
n
an = a 0 L + LCi(da/dN)i (I)
i=O
where an is the (halt) crack length after n cycles, a0 L is the crack length at which
the overload is applied, ( da I dN); is the crack growth rate for the specific cycle as
calculated from constant amplitude fatigue crack growth and C; is a retardation pa-
rameter, which is given by
(2)
with m an empirical parameter (here equal to 1), a; the current crack length, and
ry;, r0 L the current and the overload plastic zones, respectively, given by
ryi =_I [Kmaxi ] = _1

21t cry
21t
2
[crmaxi~l
cry
2
(3)
It should be noted that the term for i = 0 in Eq. (I) corresponds to the application of
the overload cycle, which will contribute to crack growth. Following the calculation of
crack growth for the overload and the first cycle is described. For the "zero" cycle, the
overload cycle, we have that
a; =a0 =a0 L =15 mm and ry; =r0 L =2.13 mm

and Eq. (2) gives, as expected, C0 =1 (no retardation). The fatigue crack growth rate
is da/ dN = 2 x I0- 11 (l60.J0.015x n) 4 = 0.029mm/cycle and Eq. (I) then gives
a 1 = I5+ Ix0.029= I5.029mm.
For the first cycle after the overload, we have that
[Kmax1] 2=_I (IOO.J1tx0.0I5029) 2=O.S 3Smm

r
Y
1= _1
2n cry 21t 300
and from Eq. (2) that C1 =0.397.

The fatigue crack growth rate is
Fatigue Crack Growth Following a Single Overload Based on . .. 577
da/dN = 2x10- 11 (100.J0.015029xx) 4 = 0.0045mm/cycle

and Eq. ( 1) then gives
a2 = 15.029 + 0.397 x 0.0045 = 15.0308 nun .

This procedure can be repeated up to IOOth cycle and the final crack length will be
a 100 = 15.216mm.
It should be noted that when no overload is applied, the final crack length is 15.453
mm. Even though the difference seems small, we should consider that during the life-
time of a component a large number of overloads are applied and the retardation they
introduce can be significant, even leading to crack arrest. Evaluation of fatigue crack
growth under multiple overloads and spectrum loading is still a subject of research.
3. References
[I] H.O. Fuchs and R.I. Stephens (1980), Metal Fatigue in Engineering, John Wiley & Sons, New York.
Problem 42: Fatigue Crack Growth and Residual Strength
of a Double Edge Cracked Panel Under Irregular Fatigue
Loading***
1. Problem
Evaluate the number of cycles for failure of the specimen of Fig. I. The specimen is
subjected to the following repeated load sequence: 5, 120, 15, 91, 18, 75, 40, 80, 10,
110 (MPa). The initial crack lengths are 10 mm and the width is 80 mm. Fatigue crack
growth tests showed that the material behaviour obeys the following rule
da/dN -- 2.5xto-9 (AK)3.I2 with da I dN in m/cycle and AK in

(1-R)Kc -AK
MPa.J;', with Kc = 77 MPa.J;'. The yield stress of the material is
u.v = 400 MPa. The stress intensity factor for the configuration of Fig. I is given by
K = ~& where Q = ll.l2(1- 0.5A)- 0.0151.? + 0.091A3 j;.Jt- A and

A= 2a/w.
a a
Figure. 1 Double edge cracked panel.

2. Solution
The irregular loading given has five maximum and five minimum applied stress levels:
amin: 5, 15, 18, 40, 10

amax : 120, 91, 75, 80, I 10
and
Rnns = cr:~ = 2 1.3 =0.22.

cr:; 96.8
and fatigue crack growth rate can be evaluated from
(~ )3.12
da/dN=2.5xl0- 9 nns
(1- Rnns )Kc - .1Knns
Failure of the plate will be assumed either by fracture, i.e. the maximum SIF
Krnax = Qamax J;;; reaches its critical value or by net-section yielding, i.e. when the
net-section stress reaches the yield stress of the material. If t is the thickness of the
plate, then the condition for net-section yielding is
Fatigue Crack Growth and Residual Strength of a Double Edge . . . 581
2a cr max 120 2a
cr y(w-2a)t=cr max wt~-=1---=1--~-=0.7
w cry 400 w
~a=28mm.
where it was assumed that failure will occur at the application of the maximum stress
ofthe spectrum (i.e. 120 MPa).
To evaluate crack growth, an incremental approach will be employed. The cracks are
assumed to grow at a constant rate for every /).JV = 3000 cycles. For every incre-
ment, the fatigue crack growth rate will be evaluated and the cracks will be assumed to
grow by
After each crack growth, the new crack lengths will be evaluated. Furthermore, the
values of the stress intensity factors will be calculated and compared to the critical
value.
The following tables show the results we obtain following the described incremental
procedure. All lengths are in mm and SIFs in MPa.Jffi.
Cycles a 2alw Q Kmax Meff /).a

0 10.00 0.25 l.l3 24.08 15.15 0.80
3000 10.80 0.27 l.l3 25.09 15.78 0.93
6000 11.73 0.29 1.14 26.22 16.50 1.08
9000 12.81 0.32 l.l4 27.51 17.31 1.28
12000 14.10 0.35 l.l5 29.02 18.26 1.55
15000 15.64 0.39 l.l6 30.82 19.39 1.92
18000 17.56 0.44 l.l7 33.08 20.81 2.48
21000 20.04 0.50 1.20 36.11 22.72 3.43
24000 23.47 0.59 1.25 40.78 25.66 5.44
27000 28.91 0.72 1.41 50.94 32.05
We notice that at 27000 cycles a= 28.91 mm > 28 mm . This suggests that the fail-
ure mode will be net-section yielding and it will happen between 24000 and 27000
cycles.
3. References
[I) J.A. Collins ( 1993 ), Failure of Materials in Mechanical Design, John Wiley & Sons, New York.
[2) N. E. Dowling (1993 ), Mechanical Behaviour ofMaterials: Engineering Methods for Deformation, Frac-
ture and Fatigue, Prentice Hall Int., New Jersey.
[3) M.H. Aliabadi (1996), Database ofstress intensity factors, Software by G.F.L. Lopez Computational Me-
chanics Publications, London.
Problem 43: Fatigue Crack Growth Rate Under Irregular
Fatigue Loading*
I. Problem
An aircraft cracked component can be approximated as a wide plate with a centre-

crack. The component is subjected to the following repeated load sequence: 5, 120, 15,
91, 18, 75, 40, 80, 10, I 10 MPa. A crack of length 20 mm has been detected in the
component. Evaluate the crack growth rate at this crack length using the root-mean-
square (RMS) method. Fatigue crack growth tests showed that the material behaviour
obeys the following rule:
(M<)312
da I dN = 2XI o- 9 with da I dN in m/cycle and M in
(1- R)Kc- L\K
MPa.Jffi. The fracture toughness of the material is K 1c = 77 MParrn.
2. Solution
The irregular loading given has five maximum and five minimum applied stress levels
(j'min: 5, 15, 18, 40, 10

(j'max : 120,91, 75, 80, 110
max
cr nns
and
Rnns = cr:~ = 2 1. 3 = 0.22 (3)

cr;:; 96.8
M<rms = (cr;:: - cr':::.~ )J;ffi = (96.8- 2l.3)~0.0bt = 13.4 MPa.Jffi.

Fatigue crack growth rate can be evaluated from
da I dN = 2 X I o- 9 (AKnns)312
_ _ _.-:.=:.....__ __ 2xlo-9 (13.4)3.12
(I- Rnns )Kc - AK nns (!- 0.22) X 77-13.4
= 1.4 x 10- 7 m/cycle.
The RMS method should be avoided in cases of very complex spectra.
3. References
(I] J.A. Collins, Failure ofMaterials in Mechanical Design, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1993.
(2] N. E. Dowling, Mechanical Behaviour of Materials: Engineering Methods for Deformation, Fracture and
Fatigue, Prentice Hall Int., New Jersey, 1993.
(3] H.O. Fuchs and R.I. Stephens (1980), Metal Fatigue in Engineering, John Wiley & Sons, New York.
Problem 44: Fatigue Life of a Pressure Vessel Under Vari-
able Internal Pressure**
1. Problem
A pressure vessel can be considered as a closed-end tube with inside diameter of I m

and wall thickness of 4 em. The vessel has been used for 3 years at an internal pressure
varying from 0 to 15 MPa, at intervals of I day. It has been decided to increase the
maximum pressure to 18 MPa. Evaluate the residual life of the vessel. The S-N curve
of the vessel material for zero mean stress is given by the Basquin equation
. . Goodman equation: aa +am --1

a 3 N af = C wtt'h C = 300MPa and a = 011
ar as
with a 8 = 300 MPa.
2. Solution
For a closed-end tube under internal pressure both circumferential and longitudinal
stresses develop and are given by
at= Pd 12t (I)
a 1 =Pd/4t (2)
with P the internal pressure, d the internal diameter and t the thickness.
Since P varies from 0 to ~ =I 5 MPa and P2 =I 8 MPa, we can calculate the

mean stress and the stress amplitudes in the circumferential and longitudinal directions
as
atal =0.5x~d/2t=93.75MPa and atmt =aral =93.75MPa
a 131 = 0.5x P1d/4t = 46.875MPa and a 1m 1 = cr 131 = 46.875MPa

cr 1a2 =0.5xP2d/2t=II2.5MPa and cr 1m2 =cr 1a2 =II2.5MPa
cr 1a2 = 0.5 x P2 d/ 4t = 56.25 MPa and cr 1m 2 = cr 1a2 = 56.25 MPa.
We can now evaluate the equivalent mean and amplitude by using the expression for
the von-Mises stress as
1 I 2 2 2
cral = ..f{V(crtal -erial) +crtal +<rtal =81.19MPa
(3)
and crm 1 =cra 1 =8l.I9MPa
I I
cra2 = J2 ...;(cr ta2 - <rta2) + cr ta2 + <rta2 = 97.43 MPa
2 2 2
(4)
and crm 2 =cra 2 =97.43MPa
find the stress amplitude for each loading that yields to same damage but for zero mean
stress.
81.19
--:::-::--::-::- => ern = II1.32 MPa
I- 81.19
300
cr a2 cr m2 97.43
- - +- - = I => cr f2 = --==--
cr a 2
97 _43 => crr 2 = I44.29 MPa.
crf2 era I- crm2 1---
era 300
each block
onN~1 =C ~ Nn =(..£.)t/a ~ Nn =(~)1/0.ll ~ Nn =8205cycles

on 111.32
Fatigue Life of a Pressure Vessel Under Variable Internal Pressure 587
crf2Nf2 =C ~ Nr2 =(cr~Jlta ~ Nr2 =(.::~9)1/0.11

~ N r2 =776 cycles
It is given that the vessel has been used for n 1= 3 years= 1095 days= 1095 cycles
at the first loading. Then the Miner rule becomes
- n1 +-n
2 __ 1 1095 n2
==> - - + - = 1 ==> n2 =672cycles=672days.
N 11 N 12 8205 776
3. References
[I] J.A. Collins, Failure ofMaterials in Mechanical Design, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1993.
[2] H.O. Fuchs and R.I. Stephens (1980), Metal Fatigue in Engineering, John Wiley & Sons, New York.
7. Complex Cases
Problem 45: Equibiaxial Low Cycle Fatigue **
J. R. Yates
l. Problem
The major fatigue loading for a turbocharger intercooler on a lorry engine is the once
per day start up and cool down cycle. The intercooler is made from an aluminium alloy
whose properties are given below. The critical location for fatigue failure is known
from finite element models to experience an equibiaxial, in-phase proportional strain
cycle where the maximum principal strain varies from --0.5% to +0.5%.
Estimate the lifetime of the intercooler and comment on the accuracy of your predic-
tion.
Yield strength at working temperature, MPa 370

Tensile strength at working temperature, MPa 460
Cyclic stress strain behaviour
Strain life fatigue strength, cr~ MPa 900

Strain life fatigue ductility, cj 0.4
The Wang-Brown equivalent strain for multiaxial fatigue
(l)
590 J. R. Yates
where S = 1 for Type A and 0 for Type B cracks. The associated strain life curve is
1
g = ~cr'f -
2cr )
n,mean (2 N f )b + &[ (2 N f )c (2)
E
2. Solution
The Wang-Brown approach to in-phase proportional multiaxial loading distinguishes

between cracks that grow along the surface of the component and those that grow
through the load bearing section. The former are called Type A and the latter Type B.
Wang and Brown consider both the shear strain in the crack plane and the normal
strain perpendicular to the crack.
Since the strains are very large, we need only concern ourselves with the plastic behav-
iour and so Poisson's ratio is 0.5. We can find the maximum shear strain and the ten-
sile strain normal to that plane by calculation or by drawing draw Mohr's circle for
equibiaxial loading. In either case, we can see that the shear strain on the crack plane
is
1 [1+u']
Ymax =2 1-u' &1
(3)
and the tensile strain normal to that plane is
&
n
= .!._[1-
2 1-U'
3u'] 8
I
(4)
Therefore y max = 0.0 15, &n = -0.0025, S = 0 and the mean stress is zero. The
equivalent strain amplitude is
i= 0.015+0 =0.01
1+0.5+0
so,
0.01 = (900-0)(2N )-o·' +0.4(2N \-o. 7

73000 f f}
Equibiaxial Low Cycle Fatigue 591
The solution is N1 = 404 cycles, which is a typically short lifetime for such a high
strain amplitude under equibiaxialloading.
This is amongst the best of the multiaxial fatigue models, but is unlikely to be more
precise than about a factor of two.
3. References
[I) C.H. Wang and M. W. Brown ( 1993) A path independent parameter for fatigue under proportional and non·
proportional loading. Fatigue and Fracture ofEngineering Materials and Structures, 16, 1285-1298.
[2] M.W. Brown, O.K. Suker and C.H. Wang (1996) An analysis of mean stress in multiaxial random fatigue.
Fatigue and Fracture ofEngineering Materials and Structures, 19, 323-333.
Problem 46: Mixed Mode Fatigue Crack Growth in a Cen-
ter-Cracked Panel **
S. Pante/akis and P. Papanikos
1. Problem
Evaluate the initial fatigue crack growth rate for a 20 mm centre crack in a thick wide
plate. The crack is oriented at an angle of 45° to the direction of loading. The plate is
subjected to a constant amplitude fatigue loading from 0 to I 00 MPa. Material proper-
ties: E = 210 GPa, v = 0.25 . The material obeys the following fatigue crack growth
rule:da/dN=6.9xl0- 12 (.:1K) 3 ,with daldN inm/cycleand .:1K in MParrn.
For the configuration shown in Fig. I, the stress intensity factors are given by:
K 1 = a sin 2 ~.;:;;;, and K 11 = a sin J3 cos ~..Jii; .
Figure. I A plate with an inclined crack

594 Mixed Mode Fatigue Crack Growth in a Center-Cracked Panel
2. Solution
In a mixed mode problem, the crack does not grow in a self-similar manner and it is
required that we first evaluate the direction of crack growth and then an equivalent
value of the stress intensity factor, which will be used in the fatigue crack growth rate
equation.
Following the strain energy density theory and assuming plain strain conditions (thick
plate), the strain energy density factor is given by
(I)
where
all= - 1 -[(1 + cose)(3- 4v- cos e)] (2a)

l6nG
al2 = - 1 -sin 9[2 cos e- (2- 4v)] (2b)

16nG
a22 = - 1-[(1- cos9)(4- 4v)+ (1 +cos e)(3 cos e -1)] (2c)

l6nG
and G the shear modulus of elasticity, v the Poisson's ratio and 0 as shown in Fig.
I.
Substituting the given expressions for the stress intensity factors into Eq. (1) gives
According to the strain energy density theory the crack is assumed to grow in the di-
rection that
as =O (4)
ae
Using Eqs (2) and (3), Eq. (4) becomes
S. Pantelakis and P. Papanikos 595
(2- 4v )sin(e- 213)- 2 sin[2(e -13 )] -sin 29 =0 (5)
For f3 = 45° and V = 0.25 Eq. (5) is satisfied when () = 8 0 ::::: -50°. It should be
noted that the positive solution of Eq. (5) corresponds to compressive loading. Now the
coefficients ofEq. (2) can be evaluated and then Eq. (3) gives
1.1
S =--cr 2
na (6)
16nG
To find the equivalent mode I stress intensity factor we consider Eq. (1) for mode I
loading, ( f3 = 90° and () = 0°)
S=-2-K2 (7)
l61tG eq
From Eqs (6) and (7) it is concluded that
Keq = 0.74cr.J;i.
and the stress intensity factor range is given be
~Keq =0.74~cr.Jii. =0.74xlOO.Jnx0.01 =l3.12MPav'm.
The initial fatigue crack growth rate would be
da I dN = 6.9 x 10- 12 (13.12) 3 = 1.6 x 10-8 m/cycle .

3. References
[I) G .C. Sih ( 1991 ), Mechanics of Fracture Initiation and Propagation, Kluwer Academic Publishers, New
York.
Problem 47: Collapse Stress and the Dugdale's Model**
C. A. Rodopoulos
1. Problem
Use the Dugdale's plastic zone strip model to determine the relation between the col-
lapse stress and the applied stress of an aluminium plate that contains a central crack,
Figure 1. The plate width is W=50 mm. The ultimate tensile strength is 450 MPa and
the yield stress is 350 MPa.
~---------w----------~
(J
Figure./ Central crack in an aluminium plate.
2. Solution
Dugdale demonstrated that the crack, a, and the crack tip plastic zone, rp, can be de-
termined by
(1)
or in terms of the so called fatigue damage R (crack and plastic zone)

cos--
(2)
R =a+ rP = [ 1tcr )
2cry
The nominal stress for collapse is given by
W-2a
O"c = cruTs (3)
w
where O"UTs is the ultimate tensile strength. To incorporate however the join effect of
the crack and the crack tip plastic zone, Equation 3 should read
W-2R
O"c = W O"uTs (4)
Using Equations 2 and 4, the collapse stress is
a
w- 2 ---o-------:-
cos[~)
2cry
0" c =---=--W--'----'-"'-0" UTS (5)
or according to the values of the problem
(6)
In graphical terms Equation 6 is shown in Figure 2.

Collapse Stress and the Dugdale' s Model 599
:: r-
~0+-------_.~_.~~~----~~--~~~~
UTS- -~-~--:-
.~ - .:-:.:-:-:-:-:-:-:--~----
· · · ·· -.: .. .. ......~
200
f~ 100
: 0+---------------------------------~---+
cil
! -100
!!
8 ·200 o•100 MPa
o •~MPa
-300
<>'"200 MPa
....oo o• 300 MPa
10->
Crack Leng1h, 2a, (m)
Figure.2 Collapse stress versus crack length for an aluminium plate containing a central crack for different level
of applied stress.
From the plot it is worth noting the behaviour of the slope gradient with the applied
stress.
3. References
[I) D. S. Dugdale (1960) Yielding of steel sheets containing slits, Journal of the Mechanics and Physics of
Solids, 8, 100· 108.
[2) C. C. Osgood (1982) Fatigue Design, Pergamon Press, 2"' edition.
Problem 48: Torsional Low Cycle Fatigue ***
J. Yates and M W. Brown
1. Problem
A solution annealed type 316 stainless steel exhibits a uniaxial cyclic stress-strain
curve at 550°C of
cr a = 15401~& pa}\o. 24 MPa
where <ra and Epa are the stress and plastic strain amplitudes. Fatigue tests on smooth
specimens give the uniaxial Coffin-Manson relationship
A&P • N~· 53 = 0.3

Estimate the torsional fatigue life at 3% shear strain range (i) by use of equivalent
strain range, (ii) using the Wang and Brown equivalent strain, and (iii) by use of a
fatigue crack propagation rule. Compare to the experimentally determined endurance
of 1540 cycles. For parts (i) and (ii) find the equivalent plastic strain and use the Cof-
fin-Manson equation to calculate the lifetime. Do the crack propagation calculation
using the Tomkins model and the maximum principal strain. Mohr's circle of strain
can be used to find principal strains. The equivalent strain can be found from
e
where A= 11(V2(l+u) to make equal the applied strain in a uniaxial test. The
Wang-Brown equivalent strain for multiaxial fatigue
• (Ymax +S&n)
E = --'-'-==----,--=..c..._.
1+ v' + S(l- v')
where S = I for Type A and 0 for Type B cracks. Principal stresses can be found from
principal strains using equations of the form
602 Torsional Low Cycle Fatigue
For torsion
£} + E2 + E3 = 0
You might want to assume that for crack propagation ap a0 , Y and NJare the same for
both tensile and torsional load cases for the same maximum principal stress range.
Tensile strength at 5500C, MPa 465

Reduction in area at 550°C, % 65
Young's modulus at 550°C, GPa !54
Poisson's ratio for elastic loading 0.334
Poisson's ratio for fully plastic loading 0.5
2. Solution
l. EQUIVALENT STRAIN RANGE METHOD
For a torsional strain range= 3%, we can obtain the principal strains from Mohr's
circle
£1=0.75% }
£2 = 0 strain amplitudes
£3=- 0.75%
The equivalent strain is
(I)
where
A= 1 (2)
J2Q+u)
to make E equal to the applied strain in a uniaxial test. Therefore for torsion
- J3el
S=-- (3)
(1 + u)
J. Yates and M. W. Brown 603
The cyclic stress-strain curve relates equivalent stress and strain amplitudes, so that
(4)
and for elastic strains
(5)
therefore
(6)
and, if u = 0.5, & = 0.866% and the equivalent stress is, cr = 446.7 MPa. Note that
a numerical solution is required to obtain the stresses from the strains when using the
Ramberg-Osgood form of the stress strain curve.
If we consider only elastic conditions, u = 0.334, & = 0.974% and the equivalent
stress is, cr = 463.7 MPa. The effective elast<rplastic Poisson's, u,
lies between
these values, probably close to 0.5 since E'p=0.576%, a large proportion of the total
strain amplitude. Therefore assume u = 0.5 and so A&P = 1.152%.
From the Coffin-Manson equation
0.01152.NJ· 53 =0.30
the lifetime is 469 cycles.
2. WANG AND BROWN'S EQUIVALENT STRAIN
The equivalent strain for Type A cracks and torsional loading is
A y,_
&---:.....::::;::--"" (7)
-l+v'+(l-v')
The equivalent strain range becomes AEeq = 1.5%, the equivalent stress range is then
852 MPa and the plastic strain range is 0.947%. Substituting into the Coffin-Manson
equation gives a lifetime of 679 cycles.
3. CRACK PROPAGATION METHOD
Under linear elastic conditions, the Paris law gives
~=C(IlK )m (8)
dN 1
where
and dcr 1 is the maximum principal stress range. For dy=3%, we have exceeded yield,
and must use an EPFM rule, such as replacing .t1K1 by a strain intensity factor, .t1K8 ,
where for LEFM
Now for elastic behaviour
EE 1 = cr 1 - ucr 2 - ucr 2 )
EE 2 = cr 2 -ucr 3 -ucr 1
E~; 3 = cr 3 - ucr 1 - ucr 2
giving three equations which may be solved simultaneously for crt, the maximum prin-
cipal stress
(9)
For a mode I crack
For torsion
J. Yates and M. W. Brown 605
(10)
Note that for all other stress states, the elastic-plastic value of u must be evaluated.
Therefore for torsion
~K =2Y&t &_ (ll)

E (I+ u)
and for tension
(12)
for a tensile strain amplitude & 1•
Now
(13)
and integrating between a 0 and atover a life Nf
(14)
gives
ifY is constant throughout life. This is often a reasonable approximation as Y does

not change significantly for much of the lifetime.
Similarly for tensile loading

If Of ao. Y and Nfare the same for both the tensile and torsional cases, then
&1_=&
__
(l+v)
Ifu = 0.334, &I= 0.75%, then &= 0.562% and from the Ramberg-Osgood stress strain
equation above, A&p = 0.624%, o = 385.5 MPa giving in the Coffin-Mason equation,
NF149l cycles. For u = 0.5, the solution is 2095 cycles. This method gives the best
comparison with the experimental data.
Rather than using the Coffin-Manson equation, one could predict the endurance from
the Tomkins crack growth law instead
~ =£(~)2 AE2n+la (15)

dN 8 T P
where Tis the tensile strength and k and n are the coefficient and exponent, respec-
tively, in the Ram berg-Osgood stress-strain relationship. Let at= I 0 mm, a0 = 30 fJm
t;
(a grain diameter), k = 1540 MPa, n = 0.24, T= 465 MPa, then
M,.N:+~" =H::}.s:r:,
I
Notice how this is the same form as the Coffin -Manson law has comparable coeffi-
cients. So, for A&p = 0.624%, the estimated lifetime is Np = 878 cycles which is within
a factor of 2 of the actual fatigue life. The various models give a range of predicted
lifetimes from 469 cycles to 2095 cycles, spanning the lifetime of the, single, experi-
ment at 1540 cycles. This is typical of strain life based models and it should be noted
that the high strain crack propagation model gave a reasonable lifetime estimate.
3. References
[I] N. E. Dowling ( 1993) Mechanical Behavior ofMaterials, N.E. Dowling, Prentice-Hall, 2'' edition.
Problem 49: Fatigue Life Assessment of a Plate Containing
Multiple Cracks***
1. Problem
Consider the problem depicted in Fig. I. The plate is subjected to fatigue loading from
=
0 to 130 MPa. Both cracks have initial half lengths a 0 1 0 mm and the initial half
distance between their centres is b0 =18 mm . Evaluate the number of cycles that the
cracks coalesce. The material behaviour obeys the following rule:
da/ dN = 2.5 x 10- 12 (~K) 4 with da/dN in m/cycle and M in MPa.Jffi.
The yield stress of the material is crY = 400 MPa .

The stress intensity factors at tips A and B are given by
K A = cr·Jru~ll- 0.0037(al b)+ O.I613(a lb)2 - O.I628(a /bY + O.I560(a/ b)4 J
K 8 = cr&lt - 0.00426(a I b)+ 0.546l(a I b )2 -1.1654(a I b)3 + 1.2368(a I b)4 J

608 Fatigue Life Assessment of a Plate Containing Multiple Cracks
2!!. i'
A ' B Bi A
-+--
--=+----+
2r i '
2b
Figure. 1 A plate containing two co-linear cracks.
2. Solution
The cracks are assumed to coalesce when the plastic zones ahead of their inside crack
tips B "touch" each other. This condition is satisfied when
2
b-a = d = r = _I [ K B ) ( 1)
y 27t 0" y
where ry is the plastic zone according to Irwin. The use of Eq. (I) cannot be
made a priori, since the values of a , b and d depend on the way the crack
grows. To evaluate crack growth, an incremental approach will be employed.
The crack is assumed to grow at a constant rate for every M =1000 cycles .
For every increment, the fatigue crack growth rates at tips A and B will be
evaluated and the cracks will be assumed to grow by
LlaA = (~) x LiN and .1.a 8 = ( da) x LiN.

dN A dN 8
After each crack growth, the new values of a , b and d will be evaluated as
Sp. Pantelakis and P. Papanikos 609
ai+I =ai +(AaA +Aa 8 )/2

di+I = di - Aas
When the current value of d reaches ry, the cracks are assumed to coalesce. The fa-
tigue crack growth rates can be evaluated using
(da/dN) 8 =2.5xi0- 12 (K 8 ) 4
where K A and K 8 are evaluated for cr = 130 MPa . The following table show the
results we obtain following the described incremental procedure. All lengths are in mm
and SIFs in MPa.Jffi.
Cycles a d b alb
0 10.00 8.00 18.00 0.56
1000 10.71 7.22 17.93 0.60
2000 11.57 6.27 17.84 0.65
3000 12.63 5.05 17.68 0.71
4000 14.06 3.34 17.40 0.81
5000 16.25 0.49 16.74 0.97
ry KA KB AaA Aa 8
0.62 23.84 24.98 0.65 0.78
0.69 24.81 26.27 0.76 0.95
0.78 25.99 27.95 0.91 1.22
0.92 27.48 30.38 1.14 1.70
1.19 29.58 34.56 1.53 2.85
2.04 33.42 45.31
The results of the table suggest that the cracks will coalesce between 4000 and 5000
cycles.
3. References
[I] S.A. Meguid ( 1989), Engineering Fracture Mechanics, Elsevier Applied Science, London.
610 Fatigue Life Assessment of a Plate Containing Multiple Cracks
(3] M.H. Aliabadi (1 996), Database of stress intensity factors, Software by G.F.L. Lopez Computational Me-
Problem 50: Fatigue Crack Growth and Residual Strength
in a Simple MSD Problem ***
1. Problem
A major problem for the structural integrity of aging aircraft components is the multi-
ple site damage (MSD) phenomenon. MSD usually refers to multiple cracks emanating
from adjacent rivet holes that can reduce the fatigue strength of the component. As a
simple example consider the problem depicted in Fig. I. To simplifY the solution we
can consider that the two cracks (and holes) do not interact and that the plate is wide
enough to avoid edge interaction. The plate is subjected to constant amplitude fatigue
loading from 0 to 130 MPa. The initial crack lengths are a1 6 mm and =
=
a 2 3 mm , the radius is 3 mm and the width of the plate is 80 mm. Evaluate the
failure mode and the number of cycles to failure using an incremental crack growth
approach. The material behaviour obeys the following rule:
da/dN=2xl0- 12 (~K) 4 with dald.N in m/cycle and M< in MParrn. The
yield stress of the material is cry = 400 MPa and the fracture toughness
Kc = 70 MParrn. The stress intensity factor for a crack emanating from a hole is
given by
K=Qu.fii.
Approximate values of Q are shown in the following table.
aiR 1.0 1.5 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 >5.0

Q 1.31 1.12 1.03 0.93 0.88 0.82 0.75
Figure. 1 A simple MSD problem.
2. Solution
Failure of the plate will be assumed either by fracture, i.e. the maximum SIF reaches
its critical value or by net-section yielding, i.e. when the net-section stress reaches the
yield stress of the material. If t is the thickness of the plate and a1 , a2 are the left
and right crack lengths, respectively, then the condition for net-section yielding is
CJ Y <Ymax
(I)
wt (w-4R-a 1 -a 2 )t
or
a 1 +a 2 = (l-<Ymax I <Yy)w- 4R = (l-130/ 400)x 80-4 x3 = 42mm
To evaluate crack growth, an incremental approach will be employed. The cracks are
=
assumed to grow at a constant rate for every !1N 10000 cycles. For every incre-
ment, the fatigue crack growth rates at the two tips will be evaluated and the cracks
will be assumed to grow by
Aa 1 =(~)
dN
xAN and Aa 2 =(~)
dN
xAN.
1 2
Fatigue Crack Growth and Residual Strength in a Simple MSD Problem 613
After each crack growth, the new crack lengths will be evaluated. Furthermore, the
values of the stress intensity factors at the two tips will be calculated and compared to
the critical value.
The fatigue crack growth rates can be evaluated using
where K1 and K 2 are evaluated for a = a max = 130 MPa .
The following tables show the results we obtain following the described incremental
procedure. All lengths are in mm and SIFs in MPa.Jffi .
LEFT CRACK
Cycles al a 1/R Q Kl dal
0 6.0 2.0 1.03 18.38 2.3
10000 8.3 2.8 0.95 19.94 3.2
20000 11.5 3.8 0.89 21.99 4.7
30000 16.2 5.4 0.75 22.00 4.7
40000 20.9 7.0 0.75 24.98 7.8
50000 28.7 9.6 0.75 29.28
RIGHT CRACK
Cycles a2 a 2 /R Q K2 da2
0 3.0 1.0 1.31 16.53 1.5
10000 4.5 1.5 1.12 17.31 1.8
20000 6.3 2.1 1.02 18.65 2.4
30000 8.7 2.9 0.94 20.20 3.3
40000 12.0 4.0 0.88 22.21 4.9
50000 16.9 5.6 0.75 22.47
We notice that at 50000 cycles a 1 + a 2 = 45.6 mm > 42 mm. This suggests that the
failure mode will be net-section yielding and it will happen between 40000 and 50000
cycles.
3. Note
In real MSD situations new cracks are originating at the rivet holes during fatigue
crack growth. Furthermore, the cracks interact with each other and the bolt or rivet
pressure on the hole has to be accounted for. No analytical solution, even approximate,
would be able to account for all these phenomena. In this case, numerical techniques,
such as the finite element or the boundary element methods have to be employed.
4. References
[I] S.A. Meguid ( 1989), Engineering Fracture Mechanics, Elsevier Applied Science, London.
[3] M.H. Aliahadi (1996), Database ofstress intensity factors, Software by G.F.L. Lopez Computational Me-
INDEX
A
Airy Stress Function 3
ASTM C496 177
ASTM E399 161
ASTM E813 162
ASTM E813-87 233
B
Basquin 559
Biaxial stress 277
Biomaterial interface crack 333
BS 5762 254
c
Crack and ...
acceleration 380
coalescence 515
face tractions 71
instability 171
stability 163
plasticity induced closure 535
plastic zone 75
Crack growth -unstable 355
Crack speed 380
Crack tip opening displacement 253,397
Collapse stress 597
Compliance 127,137
Cyclic stress-strain 413
D
Dilatational wave speed 373
Dugdale and crack tip opening displacement 254
Dugdale and plastic zone 103,107,113
E
Elastic stress concentration factor 469
Equibiaxial low cycle fatigue 589
Equivalent mean stress 524
F
Failure by yielding 190
Failure by unstable crack growth 190
Fatigue and residual stresses 461
616 Index
Fracture toughness 161
G
Goodman's model 478,492,524
Grain orientation factor 535
H
Hydrogen embrittlement 385
Hydrogen diffusion 390
Hillen borg's characteristic length 179
I
Irwin's crack tip plastic zone 95
J
J-Integral and ...
compact tension specimen 247
critical 233
elastic beam 197
fracture toughness 251
interfacial crack 207
mode I loading 211
mode-III loading 219
notch 229
potential energy 239
semi-infinite crack 201
Juvinall's method 410
K
Kitagawa-Takahashi diagram 497,510
M
Manson-Raiford equation 564
Maximum circumferential stress criterion 306,319
Miner's rule 553
Mises yield criterion 78
Mises yield criterion, modified 91
Mixed mode loading and plastic zone 81
Mixed mode and crack growth 277
Multiple site damage 6ll
Index 617
N
Neuber's rule 432,479
Notch sensitivity factor 469,488
p
Path independent integrals 223
Pressure vessel (cracks in) 189,339,347
R
Rayleigh wave speed 369,373
Reservoir method 407
Residual strength 502
Root-Mean-Square Method 551,580,583
s
Shear wave speed 373
Shigley's method 411
Smith-Watson-Topper method 417
Soderberg model 474
Strain energy 379
Strain energy release rate 117,121,131,135,139
Strain energy release rate (critical) 147
Strain energy density 301,305,355
Stress - Hydrostatic 386
Stress and ...
cylindrical vessel 59
stress ratio 543
Stress intensity factor and ...
critical 157
dynamic 359,366
effective 95,99
integration 49
mixed mode 57
plain strain 156
photoelasticity 63,65
strain energy release rate 143
superposition 45
threshold 479
weight function 69
T
Thermal loads 193
Transition from short to long crack growth 457
618 Index
Tresca yield criterion 83
w
Wang-Brown equivalent strain 589
Weight function 71
Westergaard method and ...
crack under concentrated load 11,33
periodic array of cracks 17,21
shear stress 41
stress intensity factor 25
Wheeler's model 555,575
Wing stringers 405
Willenborg model 566
y
Yoffe crack model 369

E. E. Gdoutos (Auth.), Emmanuel E. Gdoutos, Chris A. Rodopoulos, John R. Yates (Eds.) - Problems of Fracture Mechanics and Fatigue - A Solution Guide-Springer Netherlands (2003) PDF

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E. E. Gdoutos (Auth.), Emmanuel E. Gdoutos, Chris A. Rodopoulos, John R. Yates (Eds.) - Problems of Fracture Mechanics and Fatigue - A Solution Guide-Springer Netherlands (2003) PDF

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Problems of Fracture Mechanics and Fatigue

Problems of Fracture Mechanics

SPRINGER-SCIENCE+BUSINESS MEDIA, B.V.

ISBN 978-90-481-6491-2 ISBN 978-94-017-2774-7 (eBook)

Printed on acid-free paper

Ali Rights Reserved

Editor's Preface on Fracture Mechanics xix

Editors Preface on Fatigue xxiii

List of Contributors XXV

PART A: FRACTURE MECHANICS

1. Linear Elastic Stress Field

Problem 1: Airy Stress Function Method 3

Problem 2: Westergaard Method for a Crack Under Concentrated Forces 11

Problem 3: Westergaard Method for a Periodic Array of Cracks Under

Problem 4: Westergaard Method for a Periodic Array of Cracks Under

Problem 5: Calculation of Stress Intensity Factors by the Westergaard Method 25

Problem 6: Westergaard Method for a Crack Under Distributed Forces 31

Problem 7: Westergaard Method for a Crack Under Concentrated Forces 33

Problem 8: Westergaard Method for a Crack Problem 39

Problem 9: Westergaard Method for a Crack Subjected to Shear Forces 41

Problem 10: Calculation of Stress Intensity Factors by Superposition 45

Problem 11: Calculation of Stress Intensity Factors by Integration 49

Problem 12: Stress Intensity Factors for a Linear Stress Distribution 53

Problem 13: Mixed-Mode Stress Intensity Factors in Cylindrical Shells 57

Problem 14: Photoelastic Determination of Stress Intensity Factor K1 63

Problem 15: Photoelastic Determination of Mixed-Mode Stress Intensity

Problem 16: Application of the Method of Weight Function for the

2. Elastic-Plastic Stress Field

Problem 17: Approximate Determination of the Crack Tip Plastic Zone

Problem 18: Approximate Determination of the Crack Tip Plastic Zone

Problem 20: Approximate Determination of the Crack Tip Plastic Zone

Problem 21: Crack Tip Plastic Zone According to Irwin's Model 95

Problem 22: Effective Stress Intensity factor According to Irwin's Model 99

Problem 23: Plastic Zone at the Tip of a Semi-Infinite Crack According

Problem 25: Plastic Zone at the Tip of a Penny-Shaped Crack According

3. Strain Energy Release Rate

Problem 27: Calculation of Strain Energy Release Rate

Problem 28: Compliance of a Plate with a Central Crack 127

Problem 32: Calculation of Stress Intensity Factors Based on Strain Energy

Problem 33: Critical Strain Energy Release Rate 147

4. Critical Stress Intensity Factor Fracture Criterion

Problem 35: Experimental Determination of K1c 161

Problem 36: Crack Stability 163

Problem 38: Three-Point Bending Test in Brittle Materials 173

Problem 39: Three-Point Bending Test in Quasi Brittle Materials 177

Problem 40: Double-Cantilever Beam Test in Brittle Materials 183

Problem 41: Design of a Pressure Vessel 189

Problem 42: Thermal Loads in a Pipe 193

5. J-integral and Crack Opening Displacement Fracture Criteria

Problem 44: J-integral for a Strip with a Semi-Infinite Crack 201

Problem 45: J-integral for Two Partly Bonded Layers 207

Problem 46: J-integral for Mode-l 211

Problem 47: J-integral for Mode III 219

Problem 49: Stresses Around Notches 229

Problem 52: Experimental Determination of J from Load-Displacement Records 243

Problem 53: Experimental Determination of J from a Compact Tension Specimen 247

Problem 54: Validity of J1c and K1c Tests 251

6. Strain Energy Density Fracture Criterion and Mixed-Mode Crack Growth

Problem 63: Growth of a Circular Crack Loaded Perpendicular to its

Problem 65: Growth of Radial Cracks Emanating from a Hole 297

Problem 67: Failure from Cuspidal Points of Rigid Inclusions 305

Problem 68: Failure of a Plate with a Hypocycloidal Inclusion 309

Problem 69: Crack Growth From Rigid Rectilinear Inclusions 315