The Key to Successful Renewable Energy and Storage Systems:

ELECTRONIC POWER
CONVERSION AND
CONTROL
 The Key to Successful Renewable Energy and Storage Systems: 2
Electronic Power Conversion and Control

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Implementing Power Conversion Systems . . . . . . . 11

Silicon MOSFETs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
The Renewable Energy Markets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
GaN FETs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Utilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
SiC MOSFETs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Commercial/Industrial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Super-Junction MOSFETs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Consumer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
IGBTs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Renewable Energy Trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Support Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
How Renewable Energy Systems Work . . . . . . . . . . 5 For More Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Wind Turbines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Solar Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Energy Storage Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

The Impact of the Electric Vehicle . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

The Electronics of Renewable Energy and

Storage Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
AC – DC Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
DC – AC Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
DC – DC Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
HVDC Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Power Factor Correction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

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 The Key to Successful Renewable Energy and Storage Systems: 3
Electronic Power Conversion and Control

permit. In addition, others are adopting alternative

sources on their own. Businesses are building their
own solar electrical systems. Consumers are adding
solar sources to their homes. So overall progress is
being made.

Electronics plays a major role in making wind and

solar electric power systems more viable. Many
of the obstacles to wind and solar utilities can
be overcome with improved electronic solutions.
Lower costs are the major factor but electronics can
solve some of the problems by providing improved
efficiency in power conversion and a solution to the
energy storage problem. This eBook explores the
role electronics can play in making the renewable
energy dream come true.

The Renewable Energy Markets

Introduction There are three major renewable energy markets
Renewable energy is the holy grail of the future that exist: electrical utilities, commercial/industrial
global electrical infrastructure. Free sunshine, wind and consumer.
and other natural resources could become our
primary source of energy thereby minimizing the UTILITIES Electric utilities around the world are
use of fossil fuels, nuclear, and other energy sources gradually adding renewable sources to the main
considered to be harmful to the environment and energy generation systems that is still dominated
humans. While that is still a possible scenario, the by natural gas, coal and nuclear. Renewable
clean energy dream is not so easily achieved. Yet sources require massive capital investments and
progress is being made year after year. are expensive to operate. Adding wind and/or
solar generation forces the utilities to raise prices.
Today only 17 % of U.S. electrical power comes from Everyone complains but cannot do much about it.
renewable energy. That percentage is growing each Over time the percentage of renewable sources will
year. However, the higher cost of the renewable gradually increase. However, even decades from
technologies slows adoption. Utilities are gradually now it is not likely that fossil fuel utilities will be
adding either wind or solar capability as finances totally replaced by renewable sources.

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 The Key to Successful Renewable Energy and Storage Systems:
COMMERCIAL/INDUSTRIAL Many businesses are
beginning to adopt renewable power sources,
especially solar. As companies are building new
factories, distribution centers, office buildings and
other facilities, they are adding solar electrical
systems. Data centers have backup power systems.
Roof top solar arrays generate most of the electrical
power if not all in some cases. While initially costly,
solar systems will eventually pay off over time.
CONSUMER Home owners are gradually adding solar
systems to their houses. These are expensive but
often federal, state or other local municipalities offer
incentives that greatly reduce the initial cost. Most of
these systems do not provide the total power to the
house. Instead they supplement the local utility and
lower the utility bill. Gradually, as costs continue to
decline, solar growth will continue.
4
Electronic Power Conversion and Control
Problems are the same in all three sectors. How can
efficiency be improved? How can the energy be stored
if the sun doesn’t shine or the wind doesn't blow?
Renewable Energy Trends
As indicated earlier, renewable energy only provides
about 17% of the total energy use in the U.S. as of
the end of 2017. Of that 17%, wind power is 6.3% and
solar 1.2 %. The remainder is other renewables like
geothermal, hydro, biomass and others. The good
news is that the renewable energy sector is growing.
The following trends show this positive movement.
• Renewable energy prices will continue to fall. One
indicator has been the significant decrease in
solar prices, a 62% decline since 2009. Increased
competition, increased usage in China and other
parts of the world, and improved manufacturing
methods have made solar more affordable than
ever. That trend will continue.
• More companies are committing to renewable
energy. There are long term savings to be had. One
example is retailer Target’s massive effort to put solar
power on over 300 stores. Apple’s new headquarters
is 100% renewable with solar. Others will follow as
the affordability continues to improve.
• Improved battery technology plus competition has
made battery storage more practical and affordable
than ever. Tesla’s new battery factory in Nevada will
come on line in the near future and should further
boost competition and improvements in lithium-
ion batteries. Improvements from China will also
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 The Key to Successful Renewable Energy and Storage Systems:
serve to make batteries the prime choice for storage.
In addition, more wind generation units are adding
battery storage making them more versatile than
just grid-connected units.
• With a growing infrastructure of renewable energy,
thought is being given to security, cyber and other
to protect increasing numbers of renewable sites.
How Renewable Energy Systems Work
The leader in renewable energy sources is the wind
generator. It produces the most energy per dollar
invested than any other source. Wind farms have
been built around the country, the greatest number
of wind turbines being in Texas and Oklahoma. Solar
has found a place in locations where wind conditions
are not as useful. Here is a brief look at how these
systems work.
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Electronic Power Conversion and Control
WIND TURBINES The basic energy producing entity
is a tower on which is mounted a nacelle containing
an electrical generator driven by a propeller. The
towers are usually 200 to 300 feet tall to better catch
the wind. The propeller is a three bladed structure
designed to catch the wind and produce rotation of
a shaft that drives a gear box. The rotational speed
of the propeller is only in the 30 to 60 rpm range. The
Gear box translates that rotation up to the 1200 to
1800 rpm range to drive a generator. The generator
is usually a three phase unit that develops several
hundred volts. Recall that the frequency output of
an AC generator depends upon the rotational speed.
The output frequency must be close to the desired 60
Hz (or 50 Hz outside the U.S.) target if the generator
output is to be connected to the grid. Some speed
regulation is provided by adjusting the pitch of the
propeller blades and other techniques. Overall power
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generation capability ranges from about 1 megawatt These renewable energy sources are expensive.
(MW) to about 3 MW depending on blade size. They work well especially the wind farms. Wind is
more efficient. Solar energy conversion is much
The wind turbine output is usually stepped up in less efficient. Both rely on electronics to ensure
voltage and connected to the grid. Some systems their operation and provide the energy conversion
implement energy storage, usually in batteries. AC operations needed.
to DC conversion and battery charging is needed.
Then the stored energy is released when needed by Read more on Industrial Applications here.
converting the DC back to AC with an inverter.
Energy Storage Systems
SOLAR SYSTEMS Solar seems so simple. And it is Both wind and solar power sources suffer one major
to a degree. When light strikes a semiconductor disadvantage. The energy is wasted if it is not used
photovoltaic (PV) cell it produces a DC voltage. when generated. Furthermore, there are times
The voltage is only about 0.5 volt with milliampere when the wind dies or slows and times when solar
current capability so many thousands of cells must array do not produce power such as at night or on
be used to generate enough power to be useful. Large cloudy days. To ensure a steady source of power
panels of hundreds or thousands of cells connected supplementary systems are needed to store the
in series and parallel form the basic energy generator energy for use when needed.
for a solar installation. Practical home solar systems
need multiple panels covering the roof top to A variety of energy storage systems have been
generate the 2 to 3 kilowatts (KW) of power need for developed over the years. For example, some utility
a home. Literally acres of solar panels are required companies store energy in water reservoirs. During
to produce utility level MW power levels. peak energy generation times, electricity is used to
operate pumps that pump water from a source to a
A prime issue with PV cells is their low efficiency. reservoirs at a higher ground level. Then as energy
Refined manufacturing and new materials have is needed the water flows downhill driving turbines
boosted efficiency from less than 10% in early designs that operate generators to produce power.
to over 20% today. That plus price reductions make
solar increasingly attractive for many applications. Another energy storage unit is the flywheel. Yes,
when energy is being produced motors are used to
Then the DC solar power is converted to AC by large spin heavy flywheels where the energy is stored in
electronic inverters and then to the grid. DC-DC the inertia of a weight. When needed, the flywheels
converters and a battery charger are used to store drive generators to produce the power.
the energy in batteries for future use.

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A variety of other storage methods have been tested

such as compressed air stored in underground
caverns. Even super-capacitor banks have been
tried. Fuel cells have been adopted in some very
large systems. However, a storage capability for
hydrogen is needed. Yet none of the alternative
methods works as well as batteries. Batteries and
their charging methods are mature and well known.
In addition, battery research is on-going. Huge
improvements have been made in both battery
enhancements, manufacturing improvements, and
new materials over the years.

Battery types most often used for storage include

the immortal lead-acid and the newer lithium-ion.
The later type has emerged as the top technology as
it has been adopted by EVs, smartphones, and other
portable/mobile devices. Improvements continue. and a nation-wide charging grid is slowly expanding.
Other battery technologies have been tested, Each year, more EVs become available. And their
explored and experimented with and that will no prices will drop as new batteries are discovered or
doubt continue. For now the lithium-ion battery is existing batteries charge faster and become easier to
the clear leader. build. This means a forthcoming continuous elevation
of the energy demand from a growing EV population.
Batteries will no doubt continue to be the storage Some increased consumption will come from the
method of choice for must future systems. Yet special nationwide charging station network. Yet much of
methods will continue to find a place where their it will come from home charging ports. The burden
unique capabilities may be of benefit in the application. will fall to the utilities to provide that extra power.
Over time, the load demand will shift from heavy day
The Impact of the Electrical Vehicle time use to more night time energy use as consumers
One growing need is the ability of the utilities to deal recharge their EVs in the evening. The issues related
with the eventual electrical vehicle (EV) charging to this new growth continue to be improving power
infrastructure. EVs are finally on the path of cutting conversion efficiency and battery charging.
into the auto market still dominated by the internal
combustion engine (ICE). Batteries are getting better Read more on Battery Management here.

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 The Key to Successful Renewable Energy and Storage Systems:
The Electronics of Renewable Energy and
Storage Systems
As the theme of this publication suggests,
electronics plays a major role in making renewable
energy systems practical and affordable. That role
is primarily that of efficient energy conversion. The
main functions are:
• AC to DC conversion.
• DC to DC conversion.
• DC to AC conversion.
• Power factor correction.
• Power management and control.
At the heart of all these methods is switch-
mode power supply (SMPS) technology. Power
semiconductors implement switching functions
that perform the desired energy transformation.
Switching methods produce efficiencies in the
range of 80 to 98 %. The switching semiconductors
will be covered later, but here is a brief review of the
primary electronic circuits used.
Read more on DC-DC Controllers, Converters, &
Regulators here.
AC — DC CONVERSION All standard power supplies
change the AC mains voltage into one or more DC
voltages (rectification) to power electronic circuits.
In the renewable energy context AC to DC converters
are usually battery chargers. The available AC
voltage is usually adjusted up or down with a
transformer, diodes rectify the AC into pulsating DC
8
Electronic Power Conversion and Control
and capacitors filter the pulses into a constant DC.
The DC is sent to a special battery charging circuit
designed to charge the battery. This circuitry is
commonly valid for only one battery type (lead-acid,
lithium-ion, etc.). The charging circuitry controls the
charging current and prevents over charging.
Battery chargers are part of all solar arrays that are
backed up by battery storage systems. Their size and
charging capability will vary with the battery type
and size of the installation. EV charging stations for
the home or city will use these designs as well.
Other power conversion application options
include synchronous or active rectification. In this
use, MOSFETs replace diodes in basic rectification
circuits. Forward voltage drops in rectifier diodes
are in the 0.7 to 1.7 volt range and at high current
levels dissipate a significant amount power so are
very inefficient. Schottky diodes have a lower drop
in the 0.3 volt range and are more efficient. But they
cannot beat a fully conducting MOSFET with its
milliohm on-resistance and resulting high efficiency.
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 The Key to Successful Renewable Energy and Storage Systems: 9
Electronic Power Conversion and Control

+
G1 G3 G5

3ϕ AC

DC

G2 G4 G6
G1 G2 G3 G4 G5 G6

GATE DRIVERS
-
MCU

Figure 1. Simplified three phase AC to DC converter using IGBTs. A processor supplies switching signals to the gate drivers that turn the IGBTs
off and on to produce synchronous rectification.

For large power conversion uses three phase (3ϕ) to connect directly to the grid. These grid-tie inverters
AC-DC converters use MOSFETs or IGBTs to produce detect the line phase and synchronize its sine output
rectification and filtered DC as shown in Fig. 1. at the same frequency and phase. These inverters
Switching signals on the IGBT gates control the deliver power back to the grid or supplement the
timing to produce rectification. current draw from the grid. Fig. 2 (shown on pg. 10)
shows high power DC to AC inverter using IGBTs. PWM
DC — AC CONVERSION This process is one of signals applied to the IGBT gates produce output
converting DC power from batteries or a solar array pulses that are averaged into three 120 degree shifted
into AC that is similar to that available from the AC sine waves by the inductors and capacitors.
grid. These inverters are available in sizes from a few
kilowatts to many megawatts. Output voltages are DC-DC Conversion. These supplies translate one
typically the standard AC mains voltages or either 120 level of DC voltage to another. These circuits provide
volts or 240 volts at 60 Hz or 240 volts at 50 Hz. Many special energy conversion functions as needed. One
designs feature a pure sine wave output but many example is translating the DC output from a solar
others offer a distorted stepped voltage version of a array to another voltage level for battery charging.
sine wave or one that derives the sine wave from PWM Or the PV array DC may be translated into a DC
simulation and filtering. Many inverters are designed voltage compatible with the inverters used.

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 The Key to Successful Renewable Energy and Storage Systems: 10
Electronic Power Conversion and Control

+
G1 G3 G5

3ϕ AC
DC IN
}
G2 G4 G6
PWM
G1 G2 G3 G4 G5 G6

- GATE DRIVERS

MCU

Figure 2. Simplified inverter that translates DC into three phase AC using IGBTs. A processor delivers the PWM switching signals to the IGBT
gates via special gate driver ICs.

HVDC CONVERSION A growing trend in long distance factor as you may recall is the ratio of the actual or
power transmission is to use very high voltage DC true power (Pt) consumed to the apparent power (Pa)
instead of the stepped up AC. Voltages in the 100 drawn from the supply.
kV to 1 MV DC are used. HVDC is more efficient as
fewer smaller conductors are needed and skin effect PF = Pt/Pa
and inductive effects are not present. However, The ideal PF is 1 where all the power is consumed
power converters are needed at each end of the HV by the load. However many loads are reactive and
link to convert three phase (3ϕ) AC into HVDC for create a phase shift that lowers the power factor.
transmission then from HVDC back to AC 3ϕ for grid The effect is to have to develop and distribute more
compatibility. Most power converters use an AC to DC power than needed. The electric grid is essentially
supply at one end and an inverter at the other end. inductive in nature due to the motors, transformers
Some of the converters are referred to as solid stateand other inductive loads. Utility companies use PF
transformers (SST). correcting methods to bring the grid back to a PF or 1.
This is done by connecting capacitors across the line
POWER FACTOR CORRECTION Power factor to cancel the inductive effect.
correction (PFC) is a favorable feature of most SMPS
in high power renewable energy applications. Power

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This is not the kind of power factor correction SILICON MOSFETS. These versatile devices have
associated with switch-mode power supplies been around for years and have been continually
(SMPS). The goal in SMPS PFC is to compensate improved. These normally-off enhancement mode
for the short pulses of current that flow through devices are common in SMPS of all sizes and can
the rectifier diodes in a power supply as the filter operate at relatively high radio frequencies (RF).
capacitor charges and discharges. The short pulses In switching applications they can operate at
represent a spectrum of fundamental sine wave frequencies of 300 kHz to 2 MHz rates with power
at 60 Hz plus many odd harmonics. Real power is levels up to tens of kW. Typical maximum drain-
in the fundamental and the harmonics represent source voltage levels are in the 25 V range with
lost power making the power factor less than current capabilities to 100 amperes. They are
one. The goal is to make the output of the rectifier versatile and low cost and are still a good choice
more sinusoidal. A compensating circuit is placed for many power conversion applications. For more
between the rectifier output and the filter capacitor. demanding applications, wide band gap devices are
There are multiple variations of how this is done but more appropriate.
engineers have access to PFC ICs that do the job
for you. This greatly improves the efficiency of the Check out an Application Note on a >85% Efficient
power supply reduces the harmonics in the system. 12 to 5 VDC Buck Converter here.
PF improvements from 0.6 to 0.98 are possible.
Check out an Application Note on 800 V SuperFET®
Read more on Power Management here. II MOSFET Cuts Switching Loss for High System
Efficiency with Reliability here.
Implementing Power Conversion Systems
The core of power conversion equipment is the
power semiconductor. These include standard
silicon MOSFETs, gallium nitride (GaN) FETs, silicon
carbide (SiC) MOSFETs, and insulated gate bipolar
transistors (IGBTs). These devices serve as switches
in circuits with energy storage components like
inductors and capacitors to build the various power
conversion circuits. Support ICs help make the
circuits smaller and less complex to design. Each of
these power devices has its own place depending
upon its characteristics and performance. Here is a
summary of these devices and their applications.

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 The Key to Successful Renewable Energy and Storage Systems: 12
GAN FETS Gallium nitride is a wide band gap device
that has found a niche in the RF power applications.
These unique devices are known as pseudomorphic
high-electron-mobility transistors (pHEMT) . They
are of the depletion-mode type and can operate as
RF amplifiers up into the 30 to 100 GHz range. The
also operate at higher voltage (50 volts) and current
levels than conventional MOSFETs. Standard
enhancement mode MOSFET variations are also
available. They can switch at
frequencies up to 10 MHz up
to tens of kW.
SIC MOSFETS Another wide
band gap device is the silicon
carbide MOSFET. This device
is capable of switching at
frequencies up to about
1 MHz but at power and
voltage levels far exceeding
the ratings of other MOSFETs.
Maximum drain-source voltage is up to about 1500 V
with a current capability to 100 amperse. In addition,
the on-resistance of a SiC device is much lower than
that of silicon MOSFETs making them more efficient
in all SMPS designs. Their main downside is that
they require a higher gate drive than other MOSFETs.
The SiC devices need 18 to 20 volts or gate threshold
drive to achieve their ultra low on-resistance while
traditional Si MOSFETs only require up to 10 volts. In
addition, the SiC devices need a -3 to -5 V gate drive
for switching to the off state. The solution to this
problem has been the development of special gate
drive ICs that solve this problem for the user.
Electronic Power Conversion and Control
Check out a Whitepaper on SiC MOSFETs: Gate
Drive Optimization here.
Check out an Application Note on Application of
SiC MOSFETs On the Effect of Threshold Shift of SiC
MOSFETS here.
Check out a Webcast on Wide Bandgap Ecosystem
Fast Switches and Disruptive Simulation
Environments here.
Super-Junction MOSFETs. Super-junction MOSFETs
are high voltage, high power silicon MOSFETs that
have been designed to reduce on-resistance while
at the same time decreasing parasitic capacitances.
This has the effect of increasing efficiency while
simultaneously increasing switching speeds. While
these two features are usually traded-off against
one another, the physical chip redesign allows both
benefits to be realized. The planar architecture of
the conventional power MOSFET is replaced with
a multiple p-type pillars and related structure
that increases cell density. This means a smaller
footprint that translates into lower on-resistance
and lower parasitic capacitance that enables faster
dv/dt transitions. A family of these MOSFETs called
SuperFET II has been developed to bring these
significant benefits to all types of SMPS including
standard power supplies and those for energy
generation and distribution. A typical device may
have a maximum source to gate voltage of 600 V, a
drain current limit of 77 A, an on-resistance of 41 mΩ
and rise/fall times in the 50 to 180 ns range. Such
devices can often replace IGBTs in some applications.
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 The Key to Successful Renewable Energy and Storage Systems: 13
A downside of such improvements is potentially
increased EMI. The improved switching time can
cause oscillation (ringing) at the gate during turn-off
in a power factor correction (PFC) circuit. This can
be readily controlled thanks to an internal series
gate resistor in Super-Junction MOSFETs plus proper
design of the gate drive circuit.
Electronic Power Conversion and Control
Check out an Application Note on New Generation
Super-Junction MOSFETs, SuperFET® II and SuperFET®
II Easy Drive MOSFETs for High Efficiency and Lower
Switching Noise here.
Check out an Application Note on Driving and Layout
Design for Fast Switching Super-Junction MOSFETs
here.
IGBTs. The insulated gate bipolar transistor is the
combination of an enhancement mode MOSFEET
driving a bipolar junction transistor. The BJT device
may even be a Darlington configuration. These
devices exhibit a high input impedance, low gate
threshold switching, very high voltage and current
capability.
While their switching speed is limited to less than
about 100 kHz, they more than make up for that with
collector-emitter voltages ratings up to 2 kV and
current capabilities up to a maximum of 1k amperes.
IGBTs find their way into heavy duty applications
such as industrial welders, induction heating, motor
drives and solar inverters.
Check out an Application Note on IGBT Basics here.
Support Products. A variety of integrated circuits
have been created to make these devices easy to use.
Examples are the PFC devices and special gate drive
circuits for SiC and other MOSFETs. Other circuits
include regulators, conversion circuits as well as the
embedded microcontrollers that operate all of the
power conversion circuits.
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Electronic Power Conversion and Control

Some of the most useful products are the power

modules. These are complete pre-wired circuits in
a package. An example is the ON Semiconductor
AND9390/D 3-Phase Inverter Power Module. The
module has a circuit similar to that shown in
Figure 2. The IGBTs are all prewired to internal gate
drive circuits that are ready to accept the six PWM
inputs from an external MCU. A typical application
is 3-phase motor control. Designers just need to
furnish the DC input voltage and the MCU.

Check out a video on the Q0 & Q2 series of Power

Modules here.

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