THE HISTORY STUDENT’S HANDBOOK

A Short Guide to Writing History Essays

For
HSA3043 – 20th Century Southeast Asia

Compiled By

Ahmad Zainudin Husin (Ph.D)

Department of History
Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris
(UPSI)
Assignment is Academic writing

Having a fundamental understanding of what academic writing is, will ensure that your
assignment work is appropriate and on task.

What is academic writing?

The following information outlines some of the fundamental features of academic writing.

Academic writing:

• is a formal way to write in academia

• is well structured both at paragraph level and overall 'paper' level
• uses more formal vocabulary, grammar and sentence structure
• uses references from academic literature to support the points being made
• is not a casual way to communicate and differs greatly from casual 'everyday' writing
• is a serious and professional way to communicate with your academic peers and university
teaching staff.
•
Formal / Informal language

The following examples show that effective academic writing is more formal and professional
in its tone.

Look at the differences here:

Casual writing = Kids education these days isn't as good as in the old days, is it?
Academic Writing = It can be argued by some that children's education is not as currently
effective as has been in the past.

Too casual:

Often writing in the first person 'I', 'we', 'us', 'our' etc.
Use of contractions (isn't, won't, don't, can't etc.) is too casual.
The use of questions should be generally avoided- academic writing 'informs' not 'questions'.
Generally avoid using overly emotive language e.g. 'I really love to study...'
Do not use any casual vocabulary, slang or jargon.
Do not just write 'only opinions,' academic writing needs interpretation and research to
underpin your thoughts.

Points to remember

Remember that academic writing is meant as a professional, formal and clear way to articulate
an argument, theory or thought process(es) in academia.
If you are not sure of your academic writing abilities or if writing in this style is new to
you – ensure your writing is:
• well-structured
• clear
• 100% meaningful in English/Bahasa Malaysia
• polite & not casual.
 Being clear about your purpose
• Be very clear about the specific purpose of the writing task – what have you been asked to
do?
• Seek clarification if in doubt.
• Ensure that you are following the instructions of the task strictly and carefully.
• See the section on 'Academic writing process' for more information on how to interpret an
assignment question.
Being clear about your audience
• The most obvious audience for your assignment is 'your lecturer/tutor' who is also the
'marker'. Do not leave out any basic or essential information because you think it is too
obvious for them. Your lecturer/tutor expects you to show that you know the material and
the subject matter, and that you are able to perform the task at hand.
• Imagine that you are writing for someone in order to teach the person about the topic.
Consequently, you need to be explicit and clear.
• See the writing section of this website to develop your skills in paragraph writing and
meaningful sentences.
Achieving the right tone
The right tone in your writing depends on your understanding of the:
• nature and purpose of the task
• lecturer’s requirements
• assignment type – e.g. case study, report, reflective journal, literature review. Each
assignment type has different requirements in regards to the structure and appropriate
language
• social distance between you and your reader, which will dictate whether you should use a
personal or impersonal tone, and an informal or formal writing style.

Types of assignments

Your assignments will often be in the form of an essay or a report, but there are a number of
other assignment types that you may have to do during your studies.
Below is an overview of the different assignment types you may encounter.
Note: All of the online sources linked to on this page are for general guidance only. Different
education institutions and disciplines have different requirements. Also, different subjects or
lecturers/tutors may have different conventions and expectations for written work.
So before you start an assignment make sure you check what is needed in your course
material. And if you’re still not sure contact your lecturer/tutor.

Assignment types
Click on the headings below to find out more about each of these assignment types:

Essays
An essay is a piece of writing on a specific subject, topic or issue. Essays are made up of the
following:

• Introduction - Essays always begin with an introduction, which says what you will be
talking about, how you will talk about it, and what you will show in the essay (your thesis).

• Body – Where you discuss your main points. This means introducing your point, explaining
it, and giving supporting evidence about your point and how it relates to your thesis.
• Conclusion – This is where you restate your introduction – the subject, the main points, and
the thesis.

Reviews
A review is an evaluation of a publication, project or a collection of literature on a specific
topic. Reviews focus on the purpose of something, and whether the purpose has been
achieved. They summarise and synthesise arguments and ideas, but don't add new ideas. A
review is similar to a critical analysis.

Writing Essay

Step-by-step guide to assignment writing

When you’re undertaking tertiary study there are often a lot of assignments and writing to do,
which can be daunting at first. The most important thing to remember is to start - and start
early.

If you give yourself enough time to plan, do your research, write and revise your assignment
you won’t have to rush to meet your deadline. Once you've started, you’ll also have
something down on paper or on screen that you can improve on.
Using the steps below will help your assignments to become do-able, interesting and even
enjoyable.

Step 1: Plan
Planning your assignment will help you get focused and keep you on track.

• Check how much your assignment is worth and what percentage of the final mark it is.
This will help you decide how much time to spend on it.
• Check the marking schedule to see what your tutor will be looking for when they mark
your work and how the marks will be assigned. This will help you know what to focus on.
If there is no marking schedule check the assignment question to see if the information is
there.
• Think about what you need to do to complete your assignment (for example, what
research, writing drafts, reference checking, reviewing and editing, etc). Break these up
into a list of tasks to do.
• Give each task a deadline, working backwards from your assignment due date.

Step 2: Analyse the question

Before you can answer a question, you need to know what it means. Read it slowly and
carefully, and try to understand what's expected of you. Ask yourself:
• What's the question about? What's the topic?
• What does the question mean?
• What do I have to do?
To help you understand the question, try rewriting it using your own words using the format
below:
‘This assignment is about ______________________ I have to___________________ ’
When you are analysing the question:

• Look for words that tell you what to do (instructional words). For example, analyse,
compare, contrast, etc.
• Check the meaning of the words used.
• Look for topic words, which tell you what you have to write about.
• Look for restricting words, which limit the topic and make it more specific.
You can also check for additional information about the assignment and what’s expected of
you in the course materials or on your course page or forums.
Tip: When you find something about the assignment on a course page or in a forum save a
copy of it. If you save all the information you gather about the assignment in one file you
will have all the information in one place when you start writing.

Step 3: Draft an outline

Drafting an outline will give you a structure to follow when it comes to writing your
assignment. The type of assignment you are doing will give you a broad structure, but you
should also check the question and marking schedule, as they will help you understand
how the lecturer expects the topic to be structured, what must be included, and which
sections are worth the most marks.
From there you can create your outline, using headings and gaps for the information you have
to fill in.

Essay outlines

Most of the assignments you will have to do are essays, which generally follow the same
basic structure:
• Introduction (+ 10% of the assignment) – This is where you introduce the topic and the
main points, and briefly explain the purpose of the assignment and your intended outcome
or findings. It is a good idea to write the introduction last, so that you know what to
include.

• Discussion (+ 80% of the assignment) – This section is divided into a number of

paragraphs. Decide what points you want to discuss and include a new paragraph for each
main point. A paragraph usually starts with a topic sentence stating the main idea,
followed by supporting evidence and examples. In your outline try and include draft topic
sentences and a few ideas outlining what you want to include in each section.
• Conclusion (+ 10% of the assignment) – Conclusions briefly restate your main
argument, evaluate your ideas and summarise your conclusions. They don’t introduce any
new information.

Step 4: Find information

Before you start writing, you need to research your topic and find relevant and reliable
information. You will find some in your course materials and recommended readings, but
you can also try:
• your local public library.
• talking to experts.
• online sources.
Once you have found information, the next step will be to evaluate it to ensure it is right for
your assignment.

Step 5: Write
Once you've found the information you need it’s time to bring it altogether and write your
assignment.
Write your first draft
• Use your outline and fill in the gaps, writing your main points for each section.
• Write freely, getting as much down as you can without worrying about the wording being
100% right.
• You may find it easiest to start with the conclusion so that you know which direction your
writing is heading, or the background.
• The introduction is often the hardest to write, so leave that till last.
• Don’t spend too much time trying to make this draft perfect as it will change!

Fine tune
• Revise your first draft, and check that it makes sense and includes everything it needs to.
• Fine tune the wording, and make sure your writing flows well.
• Make sure you keep different copies of your drafts as you may want to go back to them.
• Leave the writing for a day, read it, and fine tune again.
• Compile your bibliography or reference list.

Writing in your own words

Writing good assignments involves building a well structured argument with logical
progression, using supporting evidence. Supporting evidence includes quotations taken
directly from other sources, paraphrasing someone else’s writing, or referring to other
published work.

Covered in this section

• Quotes
• Paraphrasing
• Referencing

Including supporting evidence demonstrates that your work is rigorous – you show that you
have read the relevant books and articles and that you can back up the assertions made in your
argument. You do this by

• directly quoting what another academic has said in a book or article (quoting)
• describing that academic’s work but putting it in your own words (paraphrasing)
• stating a fact or research finding and acknowledging where you found it (referencing).

Make it balanced and logical

If you are asked to make an argument for a particular theory or approach, make sure that you
make a balanced use of evidence to support your argument. Don't select only those facts
or pieces of evidence that support your argument and ignore competing material.
Understand the difference between fact and conjecture. If what you are discussing is only
possibly true, not definitely true, you should make that clear with phrases such as: 'this
suggests that ...', or 'it is possible that ...'. This is a requirement in all academic disciplines,
but is particularly important in science and technology subjects.

Step 6: Edit and proofread

Once you've written your assignment, you can improve it by editing and proofreading, but
before you do take a break. Even a short break helps you to get some distance from your
work so that you can check your assignment with a fresh eye.
Look at the big picture
• Have you answered the question you were set? Check your assignment against the
marking schedule as well as the question.
• Is the structure correct?
• Have you included all relevant parts? For example, the title page, introduction,
conclusion, reference list?
• Is the content logically arranged?
• Does your assignment read well, with each section flowing smoothly on to the next? A
good way to check this is to read it aloud.
• Have you used your own words and acknowledged all your sources?
• Is your assignment well presented?

Check the details

• Have you used academic English (if required)?
• Check the grammar, punctuation, and spelling. Don’t just use a spell checker (it won’t
pick everything up).
• Check your referencing - have you acknowledged all work that isn't your own? Is your
APA referencing correct?
• Are your pages numbered?
• Have you included your name, student ID, the assignment details and the date on each
page?

Tip: If possible, ask a friend or family member to proofread your assignment, as it can be
difficult to see mistakes in your own work.

What is Paragraph

Use your concept map or plan

Write your assignment using your map or plan to guide you. As you write, you may well get
new ideas or think about ideas in slightly different ways. This is fine, but check back to
your map or plan to evaluate whether that idea fits well into the plan or the paragraph that
you are writing at the time. Consider: In which paragraph does it best fit? How does it
link to the ideas you have already discussed?

Paragraph planning
For every paragraph, think about the main idea that you want to communicate in that
paragraph and write a clear topic sentence which tells the reader what you are going to
talk about. A main idea is more than a piece of content that you found while you were
researching, it is often a point that you want to make about the information that you are
discussing. Consider how you are going to discuss that idea (what is the paragraph plan).
For example, are you: listing a number of ideas, comparing and contrasting the views of
different authors, describing problems and solutions, or describing causes and effects?
Use linking words throughout the paragraph. For example:
• List paragraphs should include words like: similarly, additionally, next, another
example, as well, furthermore, another, firstly, secondly, thirdly, finally, and so on.
• Cause and effect paragraphs should include words like: consequently, as a result,
therefore, outcomes included, results indicated, and so on.
• Compare and contrast paragraphs should include words like: on the other hand, by
contrast, similarly, in a similar way, conversely, alternatively, and so on.
• Problem solution paragraphs should include words like: outcomes included, identified
problems included, other concerns were overcome by, and so on.

Note:
Some paragraphs can include two plans, for example a list of problems and solutions.
While this is fine, it is often clearer to include one plan per paragraph.

Linking paragraphs:
Look at your plan or map and decide on the key concepts that link the different sections of
your work. Is there an idea that keeps recurring in different sections? This could be a
theme that you can use to link ideas between paragraphs. Try using linking words
(outlined above) to signal to your reader whether you are talking about similar ideas,
whether you are comparing and contrasting, and so on. The direction that your thinking is
taking in the essay should be very clear to your reader. Linking words will help you to
make this direction obvious.

Different parts of the essay:

While different types of essays have different requirements for different parts of the essay, it
is probably worth thinking about some general principles for writing introductions, body
paragraphs and conclusions. Always check the type of assignment that you are being
asked to produce and consider what would be the most appropriate way to structure that
type of writing.
Remember that in most (not all) writing tasks, especially short tasks (1,000 to 2,000 words),
you will not write headings such as introduction and conclusion. Never use the heading
‘body’.

Writing an introduction:
Introductions need to provide general information about the topic. Typically they include:
• Background, context or a general orientation to the topic so that the reader has a general
understanding of the area you are discussing.
• An outline of issues that will and will not be discussed in the essay (this does not have to
be a detailed list of the ideas that you will discuss). An outline should be a general
overview of the areas that you will explore.
• A thesis or main idea which is your response to the question.
Here is an example of an introduction:
It is often a good idea to use some of the words from the question in the introduction to
indicate that you are on track with the topic. Do not simply recount the question word for
word.

Writing the body:

• Each paragraph should make a point which should be linked to your outline and thesis
statement.
• The most important consideration in the body paragraphs is the argument that you want to
develop in response to the topic. This argument is developed by making and linking points
in and between paragraphs.

Try structuring paragraphs like this:

• Topic sentence: open the paragraph by making a point
• Supporting sentences: support the point with references and research
• Conclusive sentence: close the paragraph by linking back to the point you made to open
the paragraph and linking this to your thesis statement.
Here is an example of a body paragraph from the essay about education and globalisation:

As you write the body, make sure that you have strong links between the main ideas in each
of the paragraphs.
Writing the conclusion:
This is usually structured as follows:
• Describe in general terms the most important points made or the most important linkage
of ideas
• Do not include new information, therefore it does not usually contain references
• End with a comment, a resolution, or a suggestion for issues that may be addressed in
future research on the topic.
Here is an example conclusion from the essay on education:
Presentation skills

During your time at UTS, you will almost certainly have to give an oral presentation. Most
presenters feel nervous about giving a presentation, but success comes with preparation and
practice.

A good presentation requires:

• speaking clearly and confidently
• convincing the audience your subject is important
• presenting your information in a logical and interesting way
• answering questions from the audience
• managing a discussion afterwards.

The following pages will give you help and guidance on the above issues.
It is important to remember that your voice is one of your most important presentation tools.
Use it to deliver content which is clear, meaningful and easily heard by your audience.
Your audience shouldn't have to work hard to understand what you are saying.
Use your voice to engage your audience and convince them that you have something
worthwhile and interesting to say. If you don't address your audience, nor speak clearly with
confidence and commitment, along with projecting your voice, your audience will soon lose
interest in what you are saying.

Conclusion

15 foolproof tips for writing a great assignment

If you’re the kind of person that only has to hear the word “assignment” and immediately has
flashbacks to stuffy classrooms, ticking clocks and staring a blank page for hours….DON’T
PANIC.
Our 15 foolproof tips for writing a great assignment will guide you to success.

Before you start…

1. Do your reading
Your course or module will have a reading list; make sure you actually use it! Your tutors
choose texts to specifically help with your assignments and modules, and you’ll gain some
valuable insights into the topic that are sure to make writing your assignment easier.
Expert tip: If you have the time, do some reading from other sources not on your list to back
up your argument.

2. Check the deadline

There’s nothing worse than scheduling time to sit down and write then glancing at the
calendar and realising you’ve only got a few days left. Double-checking the deadline means
you’ll have no nasty surprises.
Expert tip: There are many apps out there that can add a ‘countdown’ to your phone or
tablet. Use these to keep your assignment deadline front of mind.

3. Plan your time

Finding time to write is easier said than done, but if you break your time down into
manageable chunks you’ll find it’s much easier to keep on top of your workload. Try
scheduling mini-deadlines along the way (e.g. aim to have the first section done by a certain
day) to keep your momentum going.
Expert tip: Be realistic about the time you have spare, and the time you’re willing to give up.
If you schedule a writing session at 9 p.m. on Friday evening when you’d rather be relaxing,
chances are you won’t get anything done.

4. Ask for help (if you need it)

If there’s any doubt in your mind about the question or the requirements of the assignment,
ask your tutor. It’s better to start right than have to re-write in the last few days.
Expert tip: Remember, your tutor wants you to do well. He or she will not be annoyed if you
need to ask a few questions.

5. Plan your assignment structure

Before you start, it can help to create a basic assignment structure. This can be as detailed as
you like but the basic structure should contain your introduction points, your key arguments
and points, and your planned conclusion.
Expert tip: Try writing out your plan on sticky notes. These will allow you to rearrange your
arguments and points easily as your plan develops.

As you’re writing…
6. Introduction
You wouldn’t start a conversation without introducing yourself; your assignment is the same.
Your first paragraph should introduce your key argument, add a bit of context and the key
issues of the question, and then go on to explain how you plan to answer it.
Expert tip: Some people find it easier to write their introduction after they’ve finished the
rest of their assignment. Give it a try!

7. Structure your argument

As you write the body of your assignment, make sure that each point you make has some
supporting evidence. Use statistics or quotes you gathered during your reading to support your
argument, or even as something to argue against.
Expert tip: If you’re using a lot of different sources, it’s easy to forget to add them to your
reference list. Make things easier for yourself by writing it as you go along.

8. Conclusion
Your conclusion is your final chance to summarise your argument and leave a lasting
impression with your reader. Make sure you recap the key points and arguments you made in
your assignment, including supporting evidence if needed.
Expert tip: Make sure that you don’t introduce any new ideas in your conclusion; this section
is purely for summarising your previous arguments.

9. Getting over writer’s block

Struggling to write? There’s nothing more frustrating than putting aside time to write and then
just staring at a blank page. Luckily, there are lots of thing to try to get you inspired: a change
of scenery, putting on some music, writing another section of the essay or just taking a short
break.
Expert tip: If you find yourself unable to write, try to use your time to read ahead or re-read
what you’ve already written.
10. Make sure you use your ‘essay voice’
While each university, school or each college will probably have its own style guide, you
should always use a neutral and professional tone when writing an assignment. Try to avoid
slang, overly-familiar phrases and definitely don’t use text-speak!
Expert tip: If you’re not sure about a phrase or word, search for it online to see what other
publications use it. If it’s in a dictionary or used by a national newspaper it’s probably OK to
use in your assignment.

After you finish…

11. Get a little distance
If you’ve got time (and you should have if you managed to stick to your schedule!), put your
first draft aside for a day or two before re-reading it. This will give you time to step back and
read your assignment objectively, making it easier to spot mistakes and issues.
Expert tip: If you find it easier to review on paper, print out your assignment with double-
line spacing to accommodate your notes and corrections.

12. Make sure you’ve answered the question

As you’re reading through your first draft of your assignment, check that all your points are
relevant to the original question. It’s easy to drift off on a tangent when you’re in mid-flow.
Expert tip: Read each paragraph and consider it on its own merit as to whether it answers the
question, and also to check that it contributes to your overall argument.

13. Don’t be afraid to cut text out

Sometimes, when you’ve struggled to reach a word count it can be hard to remove text that
you’ve slaved over. But if a piece of text isn’t supporting your argument then it doesn’t have a
place in your assignment.
Expert tip: With word processing software, the ‘Track Changes’ feature allows you to edit
text without losing it forever. And if you realise later that you’ve made a mistake, just reject
the change.
14. Check and double-check your spelling
Nothing can give a bad impression as quickly as a spelling mistake. Errors are distracting,
look unprofessional and in the worst case they can undermine your argument. If you’re unsure
about the correct use of a word, look it up online or use an alternative that you’re more
comfortable with.
Expert tip: While you’re running your spell-checker, check your word count too. You’re
usually allowed to deviate by 10% above or below the assignment word count, but check with
your institution’s guidelines.

15. Cite your sources

References and creating a bibliography are key skills that you unfortunately have to master
when writing an assignment. Check your institution’s guidelines before you start to make sure
you’re including all the information you need.
Expert tip: Some eBooks have a citation feature that automatically collates all the
information you need for your bibliography.
Books
General Model for Citing Books in the Chicago Notes and Bibliography System
Footnote or endnote (N):

1. First name Last name, Title of Book (Place of publication: Publisher, Year of
publication), page number.

Corresponding bibliographical entry (B):

Last name, First name. Title of Book. Place of publication: Publisher, Year of publication.
Book by one author

N:
1. Jack Kerouac, The Dharma Bums (New York: Viking Press, 1958), 128.

B:
Kerouac, Jack. The Dharma Bums. New York: Viking Press, 1958.

Book by multiple authors

Two or more authors should be listed in the order they appear as authors, and not necessarily
alphabetically.

N:
2. Scott Lash and John Urry, Economies of Signs & Space (London: Sage Publications, 1994),
241-51.

B:
Lash, Scott, and John Urry. Economies of Signs & Space. London: Sage Publications, 1994.
Translated work with one author

N:
3. Julio Cortázar, Hopscotch, trans. Gregory Rabassa (New York: Pantheon Books, 1966),
165.

B:
Cortázar, Julio. Hopscotch. Translated by Gregory Rabassa. New York: Pantheon Books,
1966.

Book with author and editor

In notes, CMOS prefers the abbreviation of “editor(s)” as “ed.” or “eds.,” and translator(s) as
“trans.” In bibliographic entries, these abbreviations are not used. Instead, titles are spelled
out in full. This information appears in The Chicago Manual of Style, section 14.103.

N:
4. Edward B. Tylor, Researches into the Early Development of Mankind and the Development
of Civilization, ed. Paul Bohannan (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964), 194.

B:
Tylor, Edward B. Researches into the Early Development of Mankind and the Development of
Civilization. Edited by Paul Bohannan. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964.
Chapter from a single-authored book

CMOS supplies two correct forms for bibliographic entries. Both are noted here.
N:
5. Gloria Anzaldúa, “How to Tame a Wild Tongue,” in Borderlands: The New Mestiza – La
Frontera, (San Francisco: Aunt Lute Book Company, 1987), 53-64.
B:
Anzaldúa, Gloria. “How to Tame a Wild Tongue.” In Borderlands: The New Mestiza – La
Frontera. San Francisco: Aunt Lute Book Company, 1987.

Or

Anzaldúa, Gloria. Borderlands: The New Mestiza – La Frontera. San Francisco: Aunt Lute
Book Company, 1987. See esp. chap. 5, “How to Tame a Wild Tongue.”
Contributions from an edited collection with various authored chapters
When citing work by a single author that appears in a book with multiple authors, the
contributing author’s name is cited first, followed by the title of their contribution, the word
'in' and the title of the book, along with the name(s) of the editors, and other standard
information.

N:
6. Muriel Harris, “Talk to Me: Engaging Reluctant Writers,” in A Tutor's Guide: Helping
Writers One to One, ed. Ben Rafoth (New Hampshire: Heinemann, 2000), 24-34.
B:
Harris, Muriel. “Talk to Me: Engaging Reluctant Writers.” InA Tutor’s Guide: Helping
Writers One to One, edited by Ben Rafoth, 24-34. New Hampshire: Heinemann, 2000.

Introduction, Preface, or Afterword in a Book

Unlike other citations for books, bibliographic entries of this kind include the page number
range for the part cited.
N:
7. Steven Pinker, introduction to What is Your Dangerous Idea?, ed. John Brockman (New
York: Harper Perennial, 2007), xxv.
B:
Pinker, Steven. Introduction to What is Your Dangerous Idea?, xxiii-xxxiii. Edited by John
Brockman. New York: Harper Perennial, 2007.

Anonymous works--Unknown authorship

Sources that have no known author or editor should be cited by title. Follow the basic format
for "Footnote or Endnote" and "Corresponding Bibliographical Entry" that are exemplified
above, omitting author and/or editor names and beginning respective entries with the title of
the source.

Citing indirect sources

Because authors are generally expected to be intimately familiar with the sources they are
citing, Chicago discourages the use of a source that was cited within another (secondary)
source. In the case that an original source is utterly unavailable, however, Chicago requires
the use of "quoted in" for the note:
N:
8. Ian Hacking, The Social Construction of What? (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press, 1999), 103, quoted in Manuel DeLanda, A New Philosophy of Society (New York:
Continuum, 2006), 2.

Self-published or Privately Published Books

Books published by the author should be cited according to information available on the title
page or copyright page. In place of publisher, include language such as “self-published”
(abbreviated as “self-pub” in notes, but not a bibliography) or “printed by the author” is
usually appropriate. For self-published e-books, add the name of the application or device
required to read the book or the name of the file format, or both.
N:
9. Kathleen Long, Chasing Rainbows: A Novel (self-pub., CreateSpace, 2011).
B:
Long, Kathleen. Chasing Rainbows: A Novel. Self-published, CreateSpace, 2011.

Periodicals
Periodicals include printed journals, electronic journals, magazines, and newspapers. Citations
for these sources should include enough information for the reader to find the resource in a
library or a database. Thus, publication dates are essential: magazines and newspapers are
typically serialized by day, month, and year; journals include volume, year, month, or season
and issue number.
One of the major differences between notes and bibliographic entries in periodicals concerns
the way in which major elements are separated. In notes, the major elements are separated by
commas. In the bibliography, these elements are separated by periods.

Journals
Notes and bibliographic entries for a journal include the following: full name of author(s),
article title, journal title, and issue information. Issue information refers to volume, issue
number, month, year, and page numbers. For online works, retrieval information and the date
of access are also included.

Author Name:
Notes include the author’s name as listed in the article. Bibliographic entries, however, invert
the author’s name.

Article Title:
Both notes and bibliographies use quotation marks to set off the titles of articles within the
journal.

Journal Title:
Journal titles may omit an initial “The” but should otherwise be given in full, capitalized
(headline-style), and italicized.

Issue Information:
The volume number follows the journal title with no punctuation and is not italicized. The
issue number (if it is given) is separated from the volume number with a comma and is
preceded by “no.” The year appears in parentheses after the volume number (or issue number
if given). The year may be preceded by a specific date, month, or season if given. Page
information follows the year. For notes, page number(s) refer only to the cited material; the
bibliography includes the first and last pages of the article.

N:
1. Susan Peck MacDonald, “The Erasure of Language,” College Composition and
Communication 58, no. 4 (2007): 619.
B:
MacDonald, Susan Peck. “The Erasure of Language.” College Composition and
Communication 58, no. 4 (2007): 585-625.

Electronic Journals
Citing electronic journals generally follows the same format for printed periodicals, which is
explained in the Journals section. Additionally, entries include the DOI or URL (DOIs are
preferred). The date accessed is not required by Chicago in citations of formally published
electronic sources. If an access date is required for other reasons (e.g. by discipline, publisher,
or instructor), the access date should be included immediately prior to the DOI or URL. If
included, access dates should be separated by commas in notes or periods in bibliographical
entries.

Dates:
Even if weekly or monthly magazines are numbered by volume or issue, they are cited by date
only. When following the CMOS Note and Bibliography style, the year is presented as shown
in the examples below. When following the CMOS Author Date style, the date is essential to
the citation and it is not enclosed in parentheses.

Page Numbers:
Citations for journal articles may include a specific page number. Inclusive page numbers for
the entire article are often omitted in bibliographical entries, however, because the pages of
the article are often separated by many pages of unrelated material. If page numbers are
included, they should follow the date and be preceded by a colon.

N:
1. Henry E. Bent, “Professionalization of the Ph.D. Degree,” College Composition and
Communication 58, no. 4 (2007): 141, accessed December 4, 2017,
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1978286.
B:
Bent, Henry E. "Professionalization of the Ph.D. Degree.” College Composition and
Communication 58, no. 4 (2007): 0-145. Accessed December 4, 2017.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1978286.

Magazines
Notes and bibliographic entries for magazines include the following information: author’s
name, article title (enclosed by quotation marks), magazine title (italicized), and date. Page
numbers are included in notes but are omitted in bibliographic entries. Regular departments
(or regularly occurring subsections) in a magazine are capitalized, but not put in quotation
marks. For example, National Geographic is the magazine that regularly includes a
department called Foods of the Region.
N:
1. Emily Macel, “Beijing’s Modern Movement,” Dance Magazine, February 2009, 35.
B:
Macel, Emily. “Beijing’s Modern Movement.” Dance Magazine, February 2009.
Online Magazines

Notes and bibliographic entries for online magazines should follow the relevant examples for
printed magazines. Additionally, online magazine entries should contain the URL at the end
of the citation. If no stable URL exists, the name of the database can be substituted.

Note: In the examples below, Green Room is not placed in quotation marks because it is the
department title rather than the article title.

Access Date:
Access dates are not required by Chicago in citations of formally published electronic
sources. If an access date is required for other reasons (e.g. by discipline, publisher, or
instructor), the access date should be included immediately prior to the URL. In notes, access
dates are surrounded by commas and in bibliographic entries they are surrounded by periods.

N:
1. Barron YoungSmith, "Date Local: The case against long-distance relationships," Green
Room, Slate, February 4, 2009, http://www.slate.com/id/2202431/.
B:
YoungSmith, Barron. "Date Local: The case against long-distance relationships." Green
Room. Slate, February 4, 2009. http://www.slate.com/id/2202431/.

Newspapers
Notes and bibliographic entries for newspapers should include the following: name of the
author (if listed), headline or column heading, newspaper name, month (often abbreviated),
day, and year. Since issues may include several editions, page numbers are usually omitted. If
an online edition of a newspaper is consulted, the URL should be added at the end of the
citation. Time stamps may be appropriate to include when stories for unfolding events are
modified.

Names of Newspapers:
If the name of a newspaper begins with “The,” this word is omitted. For American
newspapers that are not well-known, a city name should be added along with the newspaper
title (see below). Additionally, a state abbreviation may be added in parentheses after the city
name.

News Services:
News services, such as the Associated Press or the United Press International, are capitalized
but not italicized and often appear in the author position of the citation.

Headlines:
Headlines may be capitalized using “headline style,” in which all major words are capitalized.
Although many major newspapers prefer sentence style, the CMOS recommends headline
style for consistency among various types of cited sources. Headlines presented entirely in
full capital letters in the original are usually converted to headline-style upper and lower case
in the citation.
Regular Columns:
If a regular column is cited, the column name may be included with the article title.
Editorials, Letters to the Editor, and Readers’ Comments:
Published editorials and letters to the editor should be treated generically, usually without
headlines. Instead of a title, use “letter to the editor” [14.196].

Citing in Text:
Newspapers are more often cited in notes or parenthetical references than in bibliographies. If
newspaper sources are carefully documented in the text, they need not be cited in the
bibliography.

N:
1. Nisha Deo, “Visiting Professor Lectures on Photographer,” Exponent (West Lafayette, IN),
Feb. 13, 2009.
B:
Deo, Nisha. “Visiting Professor Lectures on Photographer.” Exponent (West Lafayette, IN),
Feb. 13, 2009.

Web Sources
General Model for Citing Web Sources in Chicago Style
Titles for Websites, Blogs, and Social Media: The title of a website that is analogous to a
traditionally printed work but does not have (and never had) a printed counterpart can be
treated like titles of other websites. For example, Wikipedia can be treated as a website, rather
than as a conventional encyclopedia. This is a departure from previous editions of CMOS.
Titles of websites should follow headline-style capitalization and are usually set in roman.
There are, however, some exceptions: titles of blogs are set in italics and titles of books,
journals, television shows, movies, and other types of works should be treated the same
whether cited as a print version or an online version. For example, when citing the website of
the television news station CNN, the title maintains italics. Furthermore, in cases such as this,
when a website does not have a distinctive title, it can be cited based on the entity responsible
for the website, for instance, CNN online.

Footnote or Endnote (N):

1. Firstname Lastname, “Title of Web Page,” Publishing Organization or Name of Website in
Roman, publication date and/or access date if available, URL.
Corresponding Bibliographical Entry (B):
Lastname, Firstname. “Title of Web Page.” Publishing Organization or Name of Website in
Roman. Publication date and/or access date if available. URL.
Electronic Books and Books Consulted Online
Electronic books are cited exactly as their print counterparts with the addition of a media
marker at the end of the citation: Kindle, PDF, EPUB, etc. Books consulted online are also
cited exactly as their print counterparts with the addition of a DOI (or URL) at the end of the
citation. See also Books.

Note: Stable page numbers are not always available in electronic formats; therefore, you may
include the number of chapter, section, or other easily recognizable locator instead.
Weston, Anthony. A Rulebook for Arguments, 4th ed. Indianapolis: Hackett, 2010. Kindle.
N:
1. Donald Davidson, Essays on Actions and Events (Oxford: Clarendon, 2001),
https://bibliotecamathom.files.wordpress.com/2012/10/essays-on-actions-and-events.pdf.
B:
Davidson, Donald, Essays on Actions and Events. Oxford: Clarendon, 2001.
https://bibliotecamathom.files.wordpress.com/2012/10/essays-on-actions-and-events.pdf
Online Periodicals (Journal, Magazine, and Newspaper Articles)

Online periodicals are cited exactly as their print counterparts with the addition of a DOI or
URL at the end of the citation. See also Periodicals. Also keep in mind that while access dates
are not required for formally published electronic sources (journal articles), they can be useful
for informally published electronic sources or may be required for by some disciplines for all
informally and formally published electronic sources. Access dates should be located
immediately prior to the DOI or URL.

For four or more authors (in a book), list the first author in the note followed by et al. For the
corresponding bibliographic entry, list all authors (up to 10).

N:
1. Kirsi Peltonen et al. “Parental Violence and Adolescent Mental Health,” European Child &
Adolescent Psychiatry 19, no. 11 (2010): 813-822, doi: 10.1007/s00787-010-0130-8.
B:
Peltonen, Kirsi, Noora Ellonen, Helmer B. Larsen, and Karin Helweg-Larsen. “Parental
Violence and Adolescent Mental Health.” European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry 19, no.
11 (2010): 813-822. doi: 10.1007/s00787-010-0130-8.

Web Page with Known Author and Date

N:
7. Richard G. Heck, Jr., “About the Philosophical Gourmet Report” last modified August 5,
2016. http://rgheck.frege.org/philosophy/aboutpgr.php
B:
Heck, Jr., Richard G. “About the Philosophical Gourmet Report” last modified August 5,
2016. http://rgheck.frege.org/philosophy/aboutpgr.php

Web Page with Known Date but without Known Author

N:
8. “Illinois Governor Wants to 'Fumigate' State's Government,” CNN online, last modified
January 30, 2009, http://edition.cnn.com/2009/POLITICS/01/30/illinois.governor.quinn/.
B:
"Illinois Governor Wants to 'Fumigate' State's Government.” CNN online. Last modified
January 30, 2009. http://edition.cnn.com/2009/POLITICS/01/30/illinois.governor.quinn/.

Web Page with Unknown Publication Date and Author

N:
9. “Band,” Casa de Calexico, accessed October 27, 2017.
http://www.casadecalexico.com/band.
B:
“Band.” Casa de Calexico. Accessed October 27, 2017. http://www.casadecalexico.com/band.
Blog
Blog titles should be set in italics and blog entries should be set in quotation
marks. Generally, blog entries and comments are cited only as notes. If you frequently cite a
blog, however, then you may choose to include it in your bibliography. Note: if the word
“blog” is included in the title of the blog, there is no need to repeat it in parentheses after that
title.
N:
1. J. Robert Lennon, “How Do You Revise?,” Ward Six (blog), September 16, 2010 (8:39
a.m.),http://wardsix.blogspot.com/2010/09/how-do-you-revise.html.

2. Susan Woodring, September 17, 2010 (3:40 a.m.), comment on J. Robert Lennon, “How
Do You Revise?,” Ward Six (blog), September 16, 2010 (8:39 a.m.),
http://wardsix.blogspot.com/2010/09/how-do-you-revise.html.

Podcast
Note: If the word “podcast” is included in the title of the podcast, there is no need to repeat it
enclosed in commas after that title. “Podcast audio” is used below, then, as an example
placeholder and would not necessarily be required for this specific example.
N:
1. Sean Cole and Ira Glass, “622: Who You Gonna Call?,” August 4, 2017, in This American
Life, produced by WBEZ, podcast, MP3 audio, 1:00:27, accessed October 31, 2017,
https://www.thisamericanlife.org/radio-archives/episode/622/who-you-gonna-call.
B:
Cole, Sean and Ira Glass. “622: Who You Gonna Call?.” Produced by WBEZ. This American
Life. August 4, 2017. Podcast, MP3 audio, 1:00:27. accessed October 31, 2017.
https://www.thisamericanlife.org/radio-archives/episode/622/who-you-gonna-call.

Blank Form for Online Multimedia

N:
1. Firstname Lastname of Performer, Writer or Creator, Title of Text, indication of
format/medium, running time, publication date, URL.
B:
Lastname, Firstname of Performer, Writer or Creator. Title of Text. Indication of Medium,
Running Time. Publication Date. URL.

Audiovisual Recordings and Other Multimedia

This resource explains how to cite film, television, and other audiovisual materials. Citations
for such recorded media usually include some or all of the following information: name of the
person primarily responsible for the content of the recording (composer, writer, performer,
etc.), a title in quotation marks or italics, recording company or publisher’s name, identifying
number, an indication of medium (DVD, videocassette, etc.), and a copyright and/or
production or performance date. Entries for recorded material found online should also
include a DOI or URL.

Note that the examples below are in the Notes and Bibliography (NB) format.
General Model for Citing Film, Television, and Other Recorded Mediums in Chicago Style
The order of the elements listed—and whether or not they will be included—depends not only
on the nature of the source, but also whether a part or the whole source is cited, and whether a
particular contributor is the focus of the citation.
Footnote or Endnote (N):
Entire Work:
1. Firstname Lastname, Title of Work, directed/performed by Firstname Lastname (Original
release year; City: Studio/Distributor, Video release year), Medium.

Episode:
1. Title of Work, episode number, “Episode Title,” directed/written/performed by Firstname
Lastname, aired Month day, year, on Network Name, URL.

Corresponding Bibliographical Entry (B):

Lastname, Firstname. Title of Work. Directed/Performed by Firstname Lastname. Original
Release Year; City: Studio/Distributor, Video release year. Medium.
Lastname, Firstname, dir. Title of Work. Season number, episode number, “Episode Title.”
Aired Month day, year, on Network Name. URL.

DVD
N:
1. Joe Versus the Volcano, directed by John Patrick Shanley (1990; Burbank, CA: Warner
Home Video, 2002), DVD.
B:
Shanley, John Patrick, dir. Joe Versus the Volcano. 1990; Burbank, CA: Warner Home Video,
2002. DVD.

Musical Recordings
General audiovisual guidelines apply to music recordings. If no date can be located, CMOS
recommends consulting a library catalog or another source. Usually, musical citations without
a date are unacceptable, but if they must be used, “n.d.” (for no date) can be substituted. Note
that some musical recordings have writers who are not the primary performer(s) on the song,
and that this affects the citation.
N:
1. Name of group or composer or performer, Title, contributing personnel, Recording date,
Recording Company or Publisher, Track Number on Name of Album, Year of Release,
Medium.
1. Bob Dylan, “Workingman’s Blues #2,” recorded February 2006, track 3 on Modern Times,
Columbia, compact disc.
2. Ray Charles, vocalist, “Georgia on My Mind,” by Hoagy Carmichael and Stuart Gorrell,
recorded March 1960, track 2 onThe Genius Hits the Road, ABC-Paramount, Vinyl LP.
B:
Name of group or composer or performer. Title. Contributing personnel. Recording date.
Recording Company or Publisher, Medium.
Dylan, Bob. “Workingman’s Blues #2.” Recorded February 2006. Track 3 on Modern
Times. Columbia. Compact disc.
Charles, Ray. “Georgia on My Mind.” By Hoagy Carmichael and Stuart Gorrell. Recorded
March 1960. Track 2 on The Genius Hits the Road. ABC-Paramount. Vinyl LP.
Interviews and Personal Communication

Unpublished Interviews
N:
1. Alex Smith (retired plumber) in discussion with the author, January 2017.
2. Harvey Kail, interview by Laurie A. Pinkert, March 15, 2009, interview 45B, transcript.
Published or Broadcast Interviews
N:
1. Carrie Rodriguez, interview by Cuz Frost, Acoustic Café, 88.3 WGWG FM, November 20,
2008.
B:
Rodriguez, Carrie. Acoustic Café. By Cuz Frost. 88.3WGWG FM, November 20, 2008.
Personal Communications
Personal communications are usually fully integrated within the text or contained within a
note. They rarely appear as bibliographic entries. Email addresses or the like belonging to an
individual are generally omitted, and should only be cited with permission from the owner.
N:
1. Patricia Burns, email message to author, December 15, 2017.

Lectures and Papers Presented at Meetings

This resource covers The Chicago Manual Style guidelines for citing lectures, papers
presented at meetings or poster sessions, and other similar presentations. Such entries often
include the sponsorship, location, and date of the meeting following the title. When such texts
are published, they should be treated like a chapter in a book or article in a journal.
N:
1. Paul Hanstedt, “This is Your Brain on Writing: The Implications of James Zull’s The Art
of Changing the Brain for the Writing Classroom” (presentation, Annual Convention of the
Conference on College Composition and Communication, San Francisco, CA, March 12,
2009).
B:
Hanstedt, Paul. “This is Your Brain on Writing: The Implications of James Zull’s The Art of
Changing the Brain for the Writing Classroom.” Paper presented at the Annual Convention of
the Conference on College Composition and Communication, San Francisco, CA, March
2009.

Legal, Public and Unpublished Materials

General Guidelines for Public and Unpublished Materials

Notes and bibliographic entries for public documents, like other documents, should include
the elements needed to locate the items. These essential elements often include the following:
• Country, city, state, county
• Legislative body, executive department, court, bureau, board commission or committee
• Subsidiary divisions
• Title, if any, of the document or collection
• Individual author (editor or compiler), if given
• Report number or any other identification necessary or useful in finding the specific
document
• Publisher, if different from issuing body
Footnote or Endnote (N):
1. Firstname Lastname, “Title of Document” (source type identifier, Place of Publication, year
of publication), page number(s).

Corresponding Bibliographic Entry (B):

Lastname, Firstname. Title of Document.” Source type identifier, Place of Publication, year of
publication.
Legal Materials and Government Documents
Legal materials and other government documents should be cited using footnotes, endnotes,
and/or citation sentences (with clauses including the same information required in a footnote).
They are not required to be cited in a bibliography or on a references page. In Author-Date
style, citation sentences alone are an acceptable form of citation, so long as the document has
only a few legal citations (for more information, see The Chicago Manual of Style, 17th ed.,
sections 14.269-305 and 15.58.)

In the case of legal documents, print copies of the sources are preferred to digital, though
verified digital sources are acceptable.

Court Decisions and Cases

Notes for court cases should include case name, number, volume number, abbreviated
name(s) of reporter, and, in parentheses, the abbreviated name of the court and the date. Case
names written in full are typeset in Roman, while in subsequent shortened citations the short
form of the case name is italicized. Citations are assumed to refer to decisions as a whole
unless a particular page is cited using “at” (see example 3 below). The CMOS offers the
following note examples in section 14.276:
1. United States v. Christmas, 222 F.3d 141, 145 (4th Cir. 2000).
2. Profit Sharing Plan v. Mbank Dallas, N.A., 683 F. Supp. 592 (N.D. Tex. 1988).
3. Christmas, 222 F.3d at 145. The court also noted that under United States v. Sokolow, 490
U.S. 1, 7 (1989), police may briefly detain a person without probable cause if the officer
believes criminal activity “may be afoot.” Christmas, 222 F.3d at 143; see also Terry v.
Ohio, 392 U.S. 1 (1968).

Theses and Dissertations

Thesis and dissertation titles appear in quotation marks, not in italics, but are cited in all other
ways like books. Include author’s name, title, type of document, academic institution, and
date, in that order. If the item was found online, include a URL or DOI (see guidelines
for citing online sources).

Footnote or Endnote (N):

1. Tara Hostetler, “Bodies at War: Bacteriology and the Carrier Narratives of ‘Typhoid
Mary’” (master’s thesis, Florida State University, 2007), 15-16.
Corresponding Bibliographic Entry (B):
Hostetler, Tara. "Bodies at War: Bacteriology and the Carrier Narratives of ‘Typhoid Mary.’”
Master’s thesis, Florida State University, 2007.
Letters and Unpublished Manuscripts
Letters and unpublished materials that have not been archived may be cited like other
unpublished material, with information on location replaced by wording such as “private
collection of Trinity Overmyer” or “in the author’s possession.” The location is not
mentioned.
Citing Unpublished Sources
Citing documents from archival sources requires elements that vary from a published work.
Unpublished works may include:
• Letters
• Diaries
• Manuscript (MS) or typescript (TS)
• Company business records
• Photographs and artwork
• Audio-visual materials (sound recordings, moving images)
The following elements may be required regardless of the citation style used and should
be recorded during archival research:
• Author (for example, the author of a letter)
• Format (letter, diary, memo, etc.)
• Collection/fonds* (where the item is found)
• Box number where the item is found
• File number or other identifying number if available
• Date
• Institution housing material (William Ready Division of Archives and Research
Collections, McMaster University Library)

Examples using Turabian (Chicago) Style

Mills Quick Reference, 1st floor Z 253.C53 2003
Citations: Note and Bibliography
The elements to include for note and bibliographic citations vary. For note citations, the main
element is usually a specific item (letter, diary, memo, etc.) and is cited first. In a
bibliography, the main element is usually the collection in which the specific item can be
found, the author(s) of the items in the collection, or the depository for the collection. Specific
items are not used in a bibliography unless only one item from a collection is cited (Turabian
Manual, 2007).

Letter: Footnote or Endnote Citation

Clara H. Abey to Johnson, 14 December 1912, box 1, file 1, Pauline Johnson fonds, William
Ready Division of Archives and Research Collections, McMaster University Library (Given
names may be omitted if the identities of sender and recipient are clear from the text).
Letters: Bibliography Citation
Clara H. Abey fonds. William Ready Division of Archives and Research Collections,
McMaster University Library.

Examples using the MLA Style

Mills Quick Reference, 1st floor LB 2369 .T8 2007
Citations: Works Cited
The elements to include depend on the format of the item being cited. Letters, diaries,
manuscripts and typescripts are cited differently. Please consult the MLA style guide for
more detailed examples than those provided below.

Diary
Molony, William O’Sullivan. Diary. 1913-1914. MS numbered album 22, World War, 1914-
1918 collection. William Ready Division of Archives and Research Collections, McMaster
University Library.
Manuscript
Laurence, Margaret. The Stone Angel. 1964. TS box 1, files 1-3, Margaret Laurence fonds.
William Ready Division of Archives and Research Collections, McMaster University Library.
*What is a fonds? A fonds is a term used to refer to all of the archives of a common
provenance or source. For example, the ‘Margaret Laurence fonds’ is another way of saying
‘Margaret Laurence archives’.
 ASSIGNMENT FRONT PAGE (INDIVIDUAL)

FAKULTI SAINS KEMANUSIAAN

JABATAN SEJARAH

TUGASAN INDIVIDU

KURSUS:
HSA3043 ASIA TENGGARA ABAD KE-20

KUMPULAN:
A/B/C/D

NAMA PENSYARAH:
DR. AHMAD ZAINUDIN HUSIN

NAMA PELAJAR: Barrista Auinger

MATRIKS: D20171076464
NO. TELEFON: 011-36184283
TAJUK: The failure to comply with the agreement that reached in
the Geneva Conference on Indochina in 1954 led to the open war
between Communists and Anti-Communists in Vietnam. Debate.
 ISI KANDUNGAN

PERKARA MUKA SURAT

Pendahuluan 1

Latar belakang 3

Isi Pertama 5

Isi Kedua 9

Isi Ketiga 13

Rumusan 14

Bibliografi
 ASSIGNMENT FRONT PAGE (GROUP)

FAKULTI SAINS KEMANUSIAAN

JABATAN SEJARAH

TUGASAN KUMPULAN:
1/2/3/4

KURSUS:
HSA3043 ASIA TENGGARA ABAD KE-20

KUMPULAN:
A/B/C/D

NAMA PENSYARAH:
DR. AHMAD ZAINUDIN HUSIN

TAJUK:
Ulasan buku: The Modern World, Part One: Global History from
1760 to 1910.

NAMA AHLI, NO. MATRIK DAN NO TELEFON

Bil. Nama Matriks No. Telefon

1 (Ketua)
2
3
4
5
 Assignment Content

Bil Content Page

1 Background to Indochina War

1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 The end of World War Two 2
1.3 Geneva Conference 4

2 The Birth of Two Vietnams

2.1 Geneva Accord and the emergence of two state 6
2.2 Ho Chi Minh vs Ngo Dien Diem 8
2.3 The failure of Geneva Accord 11
2.4 The War in Vietnam 14

3 Conclusion 17

4 Bibliography 20