Compressed Air Science Workbook PDF

Compressed Air Science Workbook:
Compressed Air Science – issue 2 Page 1 of 6

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Chapter One
Compressed Air Fundamentals 1.0 Where did it start
1.1 Units and formula
1.2 What is compressed air?
1.3 Physical fundaments
1.3.1 Temperature
1.3.2 Volume
1.3.3 Pressure
1.3.4 Volume flow
Chapter Two
Application of Compressed Air 2.1 Why use compressed air?
2.2 Keep the pressure on!
2.3 Uses of compressed air
2.3.1 Clamping with compressed air
2.3.2 Pneumatic drive tools
2.3.3 Conveying
2.3.4 Spraying
2.3.5 Blowing and flushing with air
2.3.6 Testing and inspection
2.3.7 Process control with air
2.4 Other applications
Chapter Three
Compressed Air Terminology 3.1 The language of compressed air
Chapter Four
Types of Compressors 4.1 Dynamic compressors (Centac)
4.2 Displacement compressors
4.3 Types of compressors
4.3.1 Standard compressors
4.3.2 Reciprocating
4.3.3 Rotary vane compressors
4.3.4 Screw compressors
4.3.5 Root compressor (Blower)
4.3.6 Centrifugal
4.4 Piston compressors
4.4.1 General
4.4.2 Suction capacity
4.4.3 Cooling
4.4.4 Coolant
4.4.5 Control
4.4.6 Advantages

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4.5 Screw Compressors
4.5.1 General
4.5.2 Compression process
4.5.3 Methodology
4.5.4 Coolant circuit
4.5.6 Air circuit
4.5.7 Heat reclamation
4.5.8 Control
4.5.9 Advantages of a screw
4.5.10 Components
Chapter Five
Compressor Control 5.1 Definitions
5.2.1 On-line / Off-Line
5.2.2 Auto start and stop
5.3 Modulation
5.4 Variable Speed
5.5 Control mode efficiency
5.6 Controlling multiple compressors
Chapter Six
Compressed Air Treatment 6.1 Why treat compressed air?
6.1.1 consequences
6.1.2 Impurities of air
6.2 Water in compressed air
6.2.1 Humidity
6.2.2 Dew Point
6.2.3 Moisture content
6.2.4 Condensate during compression
6.2.5 Determining pressure dew point
6.3 Air quality classes
6.3.1 ISO 8573-1
6.4 Methods of drying
6.4.1 Operating conditions
6.4.2 Adsorption
6.4.3 Vacuum regeneration
6.4.4 Cold regeneration
6.4.5 Thermal mass
6.5 Compressed Air Filtration
6.5.1 Terminology of filters
6.5.2 Pressure drop
6.5.3 Operating pressure
6.5.4 Pre-filtration
6.5.5 High Efficiency filtration
6.5.6 Activated carbon filters

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Chapter Seven
Condensate disposal 7.1 Condensate
7.2 Condensate drains
7.2.1 Manual drains
7.2.2 Float drains
7.2.3 Timed Solenoid drains
7.2.4 Moisture sensing drains
7.3 Condensate treatment
7.3.1 Gravity separation
7.3.2 Polysep operation/benefits
Chapter Eight
Dynamics of Compressed Air 8.1 Consumption of air
8.1.1 Consumption of nozzles
8.1.2 Consumption of cylinders
8.1.3 Consumption of paint spraying
8.1.4 Consumption of air tools
8.2 Sizing compressors
8.2.1 Time of operating/usage factor
8.2.2 Simultaneity factor
8.2.3 Compressed air requirement
8.2.4 Allowances for losses/reserves
8.3 Compressed air loss
8.3.1 Calculate cost of air loss
8.3.2 Quantifying leakage
8.3.3 Leakage limits
8.4 Minimisation of air loss
Chapter Nine
Compressed Air Systems 9.1 Design of installation
9.1.1 Dryer before the receiver
9.1.2 Dryer after the receiver
9.2 Sizing the Air Receiver
9.2.1 Under sizing the receiver
9.2.2 Does piping make a difference?
9.3 Controlling rate of change
9.3.1 Compressor cycle intervals
9.3.2 Idle times
9.3.2 Running times
9.4 Demand side pressure
9.4.1 Maximum pressure (Pmax)
9.4.2 Minimum pressure (Pmin)
9.4.3 Useful differential
9.5 Multiple compressor systems
9.5.1 Compressor train
9.6 Capacitance

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9.6.1 Drain Events
9.6.2 Largest system event
9.7 Calculating cost of compressed air
9.8 Peak Shaving & Tank Farming
Chapter Ten
Pneumatic System 10.0 Precise pressure control
10.1 Performance and working pressure
10.1.2 Role of the IntelliFlow
10.1.3 Life without the IntelliFlow
10.1.4 Calculating IntelliFlow savings
10.1.5 IntelliFlow operation
10.2 System control
10.2.1 Calculating system control savings
10.3 Demand side piping design
10.3.1 Structure of a compressed air circuit
10.3.2 Main branch
10.3.3 Distribution ring main
10.3.4 Distribution drop
10.3.5 Branch connection lines
10.3.6 Multiple entry points
10.4 Tips for planning pipe systems
10.4 Piping without a dryer
10.5 Piping with a dryer
10.6 Calculating pressure drop
10.6.1 Velocity in piping systems
10.7 Choosing the material of pipelines
10.7.1 Threaded galvanised steel
10.7.2 Plastic pipes
10.8 Simplair
10.8.1 Easyline
10.9 Marking pipelines
Chapter Eleven
Compressor Room 11.0 Cooling the compressor room
11.0.1 Admissible room temperature
11.0.2 Space requirement
11.0.3 Layout
11.1 Ventilation of a compressor room
11.1.1 Factors influencing cooling air
11.1.2 Natural ventilation
11.1.3 Artificial ventilation
11.1.4 Calculating inlet louvers
11.1.5 Sizing duct work
11.1.6 Extraction of air through ducting

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Chapter Twelve
Heat recovery 12.0 Heat recovery using cooling air
12.0.1 Room heating through ducting
12.0.2 Diverting for cold operation
12.1 Energy Recovery
12.1.1 Using coolant to water heat
exchangers
12.1.2 How much energy you can save
Chapter Thirteen
Auditing 13.0 IntelliSurvey
13.0.1 Advantage of IntelliSurvey
13.0.2 Understanding results
13.0.3 How the numbers are calculated
13.0.4 Raw data analysis
13.0.5 IntelliSurvey report question
Chapter Fourteen
Appendix 14.0 Symbols
14.1 Answers to questions
14.2 Useful calculations
14.3 Discharge of air through an orifice.
14.4 Industrial users classifications
14.5 IntelliFlow workpad
14.6 Connection sizes

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Chapter One
Fundamentals of Compressed Air
Compressed air within industry can be considered the 4th utility along with Electricity, Gas and Water. In
fact 10% of the electricity used within industry today is to generate compressed air. Compressed air is often
disregarded and misunderstood. We learn to understand electricity and electrical appliances from an early
age but the possibilities, advantages and essentials of compressed air is far less understood and in many
cases a taboo subject.
For example if you were asked “what is the purpose of a capacitor in an electrical system?” your reply
would be to store energy. However would you have an answer for “what is the capacitor within a
compressed air system?” See appendix if you don’t know the answer.
Within this workbook we will go some way to explain the behaviour of compressed air. There are several
examples with solutions as well as questions that need to be solved. The products shown are subject to
change.
1.0 Where did it start?

Arguably the first use of compressed air was man blowing on to tinder to fan a flame. The air used would
have been compressed within the human lung, a natural air compressor. As with many items of the human
anatomy the lung is extremely impressive. The lung capacity will very from age and healthy condition but
the lung can process 6m3 every hour at a pressure up to 8 kilopascal. Whilst healthy the reliability of the
human compressor is not to be bettered.
An example is a balloon. How hard do we have to blow to inflate a

balloon. If we twist the balloon neck the energy to is equal to the energy
required to blow up the balloon. If we let the balloon go in flight it
dissipates the energy equal to inflate the balloon.
As time evolved then so did the creation of compressed air. The human lung
to fan a flame was to be replaced by a simple bellows, considered the first
mechanical air compressor. In fact people have been using mechanical
compression since the third millennium BC. The generation of compressed
air using a foot operated bellows pump, within the production of bronze
alloy during the Egyptian dynasty was the birth of compressed air as we find
it today. There were to be many other uses in history that has give rise to
compressed air applications still used today, such as:
• Greek Ktesibos developed a hydraulic organ that used compressed air for the storage and reduction
of vibration. (Storage and suppression of pulsation.)
• Ktesibos also used compressed air to power a catapult. The Greek’s catapult generated enough
tension to propel the missile. (Storage of energy)
• First century BC, Heron in Alexandria found a way to open the doors of a temple automatically by
keeping the flame at the altar inside the building permanently alight. The expansion of hot air to
force water out of one container into another. Heron found that if by changing the condition of the
air you could perform work. (expansion and the performance of work)
• In the 17th century people began to study the physical laws applicable to compressed air. Pascal
wrote that if one man exerted energy at one end of a closed container of water it was equivalent of
100 men at the other end. (increasing energy)
• A French physicist Papin described a method in the 17th century to transport objects through pipes.
He exploited the slight difference of pressure within the pipe. What he found was that energy was
generated at an object inside the pipe. This laid the foundation of pneumatic conveyance.
(transportation)

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• 1810 trains were being powered by compressed air. Westinghouse introduced the pneumatic brake.
His brake motor works by over pressure. If there is a drop in pressure then full breaking effect is
obtained e.g a burst break hose. This technology is still being adopted today with the high speed
trains. (power and transmission)
There were many other applications like the pneumatically powered hammer drill to cut through rock.
Developed in the 19th century these hammer drills used compressed air from compressors at both ends of the
tunnel often transported over thousands of metres. Transportation of energy was demonstrated and accepted
as an advantage. Here on greater performance tools were developed.
By the late 19th century experience was gained using networks of pneumatic lines and the development of
more powerful compressors led to a pneumatic network being installed in the sewage canals of Paris.
Today we consider the most simplest air compressor as the bicycle

pump. The bicycle pump, like all other compressors, takes air in at
an initial intake pressure. As the piston moves in a cylinder, the air
is compressed into a smaller space and raises it to a higher
discharge pressure. Finally the compressed air is delivered to a
receiver be it a bicycle tire, a steel tank, or a piping system.
Heat energy is generated - feel the warmth from the output of the
pump.
1.1 Units and formula symbols.

The basic units as defined by the SI system that has been in place
since 1971 for weights and measures.
Basic units
Basic unit Formula Symbol Symbol Name

Length l (m) Metre
Mass m (kg) Kilogramme
Time t (s) Second
Strength of current I (A) Ampere
Temperature T (K) Kelvin
Quantity of substance n (mol) Mol
Compressed air units.

These are derived from the basic units and are most frequently used within compressed air.
Unit Formula Symbol Symbol Name

Force F (N) Newton
Pressure P (Pa) Pascal
(kPA) Kilopascal 1 bar = 100 kPA
(bar) Bar 1 bar = 100 000 Pa
Area A (m2) Square metre
Volume V (m3) Cubic metre
(l) Litre 1 m3 = 1000 l
Speed v (m/s) Metre per second
Mass m (kg) Kilogramme
(t) Tonne 1t = 1000 kg
Density p (kg/m3) Kilogramme per cubic
metre
Temperature T (degC) Degree Celsius
Work W (j) Joule
Energy P (W) Watt
Tension U (V) Volt
Frequency f (Hz) Hertz

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Many people will also use Nm3 as an expression for volume. This is normal cubic metre. Air that is
expressed at 0degC, 1.013 bar and 0% RH. Refer to chapter 14, appendix for calculation to convert Nm3 to
m3.
1.2 What is compressed air?

Air that is in our environment, the atmosphere, consist of 78% nitrogen, 21 % oxygen and 1% other gases
such as carbon-dioxide and argon.
If we take the basic bicycle pump compressed air is compressed atmospheric air. Compressed air is a carrier
of heat energy. If you put your finger at over the end of the pump you will feel the heat as you compressor
the air. Compressed air can be carried certain distances in pipelines and be stored in compressed air
receivers as a platform to perform work as it decompresses.
Compressed Air Pressure energy

heat
Fig 1
Simple air compression
The behaviour of compressed air.

As with any gas the air that we breathe contains molecules. These molecules are held together by a
molecular force. If the air is enclosed in a tank (constant volume), then these molecules bounce off the walls
of the tank and generate pressure. The higher the temperature, the greater the movement of air molecules
and the higher the pressure generated. Therefore if Volume (V) is a constant and the Temperateure (T)
increases the Pressure (P) rises.
Boyle and Mariotte conducted experiments and discovered the volume of a gas is inversely proportional to
the pressure.
1.3 Physical fundamentals
Compressed air condition is determined by the 3 measures of thermal state:
T = temperature
V = Volume
p = Pressure
p x V = constant
T

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As a result when the temperature is increases and the volume remains constant, the pressure rises. When the
volume is reduced and the temperature remains constan, the pressure rises. So when the temperature
increases and the pressure remains a constant , the volume increases.
Constant volume is isochore compression. Constant temperature is isotherme compression and constant
pressure is isobar compression.
If we combine the charles and boyles laws we find the following equation.
P1 x V1 = P2 x V2
T1 T2
1.3.1 Temperature
The temperature indicates the heat of a body and is read in degC on thermometers or converted to Kelvin
(K)
1.3.2 Volume
Volume V (l, m3)
Compressed air in expanded state, open air d
The volume is determined, for example, by the size of a cylinder. It is measured in l or m3 and
relative to 20 degC and 1 bar. The volume declared by any compressor manufacturer will be
in its expanded state.
h
2
V cyl = d x 3.142 x h
4
Volume (V)
Vcyl = Volume (m3)

d = diameter (m)
h = height (m)
Normal volume Vnorm (Nl, Nm3)

Compressed air in expanded state under normal conditions
The normal colume refers to the physical normal state as specified bn DIN 1343. It is ~8% less than the
volume at 20degC .
Operating volume Voperat (Bl, Bm3)

Compressed air in compressed state
The volume in operating state refers to the actual condition. The temperature, air presssure and air humidity
must be taken into account as reference points. When specifying the operating volume the pressure must be

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always be given, e.g 1 m3 at 7 bar means 1 m3 expanded at 7 bar = 8 bar abs. Compressed and only occupies
1/8 of the original volume.
1.3.3 Pressure
Atmospheric pressure pamb (bar)

Atmospheric pressure is caused by the weight of the air that surrounds us. It is
independent of the density and hight of the atmosphere. At sea level the normal
atmosphere is 1.013 bar.
The atmosphere decreases the higher the measuring location.
Over pressure p (barg)

Over pressure is the pressure above atmospheric pressure. In compressed air
technology, pressure is usually specified as barg. This is the gauge pressure.
Absolute pressure Pabs (bara)

The absolute pressure Pabs is the sume of the atmospheric pressure and the over
pressure.
Pabs = pamb + barg
According to the SI system pressure should be given in Pascal (Pa). However in practice pressure is mostly
given in barg. Pressure is still referered to in some places as psig. (pounds per square inch).
1 barg = 14.5 psig
1.3.4 Volume flow
Volume flow V (l/min, m3/ min, m3/ h)

Volume flow describes the volume (l or m3) per unit of time (minute or hour). A distinction is made
between the working volume flow and the volume flow of a compressor. One is the intake volume or piston
displacement where as the other is the output volume.
Piston displacemnt
This is calculable on piston compressors. Is is defined as the product cylinder (piston capacity), compressor
speed (number of stokes) and the number of cylinders working. This is normally expressed in l/min.
V l/min = A x s x n x c
V = Flow l/min
A = Area or cylinder (dm²)
s = stroke (dm)
n = number of strokes (1/min)
c = Number of cylinders
Output volume flow

The volume flow is measured accourding to ISO1217, DIN1945 or PN2 CPTC2 and give in l/min, m³/min,
m³/h or even cfm. The volume flow is dependant on the final pressure relative to the intake conditions of
pressure and temperature. It is always worked back to the inlet conditions.

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Chapter Two
Application of Compressed Air
2.1 Why use compressed air?
Every day people ask this question. To the point that compressed air faces competition from hydraulic,
mechanical and electrical appliances. There are fundamental reasons why compressed air is used over these
other technologies. Let us explore the reasons why compressed air is the 4th utility:
Safe to use
Compressed air works well even if there are extreme temperature changes. It can also be used where there
are very high temperatures such as operating a forge press or a blast furnace. Pneumatic devices and air
lines that are not tight are no risk to the safety of the user or the serviceability of the system. A pneumatic
system and its components will wear little and therefore will have a long working life and low failure rate.
Pneumatic elements are exceedingly safe with respect to fire, explosion and electrical hazards. Pneumatics
can be used within hazardous areas without large and expensive safety apparatus. Unlike electricity air can
safely be used in damp environments and outdoors.
Versatile & transportable

Since the outlet of air escapes open
there is no need for a return line,
which is the case for electrical and
hydraulic systems. Compressed air
can be transported over distance
within air pipelines. Typically there is
an installation of a central compressed
air generation system that can supply
users via a ring main with a constant
pressure. The energy stored within compressed air can widely be distributed this way.
No risk of overload.
Compressed air devices can be loaded until that stop without being damaged. This cannot be said for an
electrical system where there is a risk of danger with an overload. If the pressure fails the work cannot be
done but there is no damages to the network or its elements.
Cleanliness
Unlike hydraulics compressed air will not cause soiling or leave puddles of oil if pipelines are defective.
This is very important in many business sectors such as food, textiles, electronics and packaging.
Storable
Compressed air can be stored within a purpose built air receiver. The receiver is an integrated part of a
compressed air system. The air compressor will only run when the pressure drops below a set level. Due to

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that fact that there is a stored capacity the work cycle can be completed even if there was an interruption in
the power network. Compressed air can be stored within bottles for breathing. One application of this is
under water diving where there are no pipelines.
Weight
Pneumatic devices tend to be much lighter that the comparable electrical power units. This makes a
difference with pneumatic screwdrivers, nut runners and hammers.
Economical
Pneumatic components are less expensive when compared to hydraulic equivalents and need far less
maintenance.
Basic
Keep it simple stupid or KISS. The design and operation of a pneumatic system is very simple. This makes
for a much more robust and reliable system. Components are far easier to install and can be re-used without
any particular difficulty. Installation times are shorter due to the simplicity. Straight-line movements can be
accomplished within extra mechanical parts.
Adjustable
Compressed air is easily regulated to control the movement, force, torque and speed of the application
without the difficulty of using throttles.
2.2 Keep the pressure on.

Low pressure to 10 bar (145 psig)
Most applications within industry fall within the low-pressure range of up to
10 bar. In fact if we take the simple air tool this is designed to function best
at 6.2-barg (90-psig). Compressed air systems tend to operate at unnecessary
high pressures due to poor system network design. The compressors used for
this pressure range are:
• Single or two stage reciprocating compressors

• Single or two stage lubricated rotary screw compressors
• Two stage oil free rotary screw compressors
• Centrifugal oil free water cooled compressors
Medium pressure to 14 bar (200 psig)

Typical applications for this pressure would be HGV and heavy vehicle
tyres. There are specialist applications that also operate at such high
pressures like deep drilling. The compressors that would be used are:
• Two stage reciprocating compressors

• Single or two stage lubricated rotary screw compressors
• Centrifugal oil free water cooled compressors
High pressure to 40 bar (580 psig)

The compressors in this pressure range would provide air for PET bottling, diesel engine starting, testing of
pipelines and flushing tanks. They would also be used for pressure testing transportable gas containers. The
compressors used are:
• Two and three stage reciprocating compressors. Pet Star range.

• Multi stage centrifugal oil free water-cooled compressors.
It is not unusual to combine a lower pressure compressor and a use a high-pressure compressor as a booster.
"load shaping" or "peak shaving", and is typically a smaller high pressure compressor trickle charging a
bank of huge receiver tanks. This will satisfy a large volume demand for a short duration.

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High pressure up to 345 barg (5000 psig)
One example is high pressure filling of breathing air diving bottles. They
are also used within power stations, rolling mills and steel works. The
compressors tend to be low in volume but high in pressure. One example is
the H14T4X200 high pressure type 30. These compressors will be three
stage lubricated reciprocating type.
2.3 Uses of compressed air

Compressed air is extremely versatile and is intensively used within all sectors of industry today. In fact few
industries do not us compressed air. Within the chapter we shall explore some typical applications of
compressed air. At the end we ask that you include an application not covered.
2.3.1 Clamping or tensioning using compressed air.

This is a very common application of compressed air involving mechanisation and automation. Pneumatic
cylinders or a motor will fix the position of the tool that is necessary for the work process. This is often
performed by a linear motion or by a swivel movement. Energy stored within the compressed air is
converted into force and movement through exertion of pressure. The amount of force is dispensed with
precision set points. Once the work is completed the pressure is exhausted and the force is released.
2.3.2 Pneumatic drive systems/tools
Pneumatic tools are found in all areas of industry. They perform a rotary
and linear movement. Pneumatic machinery and tools covert the energy
within compressed air to a kinetic energy for moving the pistion.
Vibrators, pneumatic hammers and jolting devices belong within this
category. Pneumatic power is also used by a multitude of vlaves and
slides, tools, adjustment devices, feed system and vehicles.
2.3.3 Conveying / pneumatic transportation

Mechanisation and automation often perform conveying by compressed
air. Within these applications motors and cylinders are used for times or
un-timed conveyance or according to the particular process. Air is often
open blown on a conveying system to
turn around product or items that do not conform to specification.
Pneumatic transportation of powders and bulk solids through pipelines has

numerous advantages when compared to the alternative modes available
today. Many materials can be transported over one-half of a mile. The
systems have a relatively long life expectancy with low maintenance costs.
Product contamination is eliminated and fines emissions to the
environment are minimal.
One type of technology used to pneumatically transport these materials is

Dense Phase. It has been around for quite a while, but was typically only
used to transport just a few materials like cement and fly ash. Over the last
ten years, there have been a rapidly growing number of pneumatic
conveying installations that are using the dense phase technology to
transport a very wide range of materials from dog food to plastic pellets.
Dense phase installations have grown rapidly in the market because of the
cost savings for the producers of the products and materials that we
consume. The producers of foods, plastics, pharmaceuticals, building
materials, and dry chemicals are all global suppliers. The material
handling systems that are necessary to move these products are designed

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to transport millions of tons annually. By reducing product waste by only a fraction of a percent, any money
spent to make improvements to these systems will quickly be recovered.
2.3.4 Spraying
Spraying applications use the energy of expanding compressed air to
force the material or liquid through the spray nozzle onto the particular
product. Surface treatment processes, such as sand or gravel blasting
also appear in this category. Another application of spraying is snow
making or the atomisation of liquids through a spray nozzle.
2.3.5 Blowing and flushing with air

Compressed air itself is the working medium with blowing and flushing.
Dropping the pressure and expanding the volume to perform the work
generates the flow speed. Examples are blowing out bottles, cleaning
tools and mouldings, flushing out residue, conveying. Compressed air in
this form is also used for cooling. It is recommended that if compressed
air is used from the mains header it is regulated first. Otherwise more air
will be used at a higher pressure (see appendix, flow though an orifice).
Engineered nozzles should be recommended on open blowing
applications. Save working practice states a blowgun should be operated
at no more than 2-barg.
2.3.6 Testing and inspection

This is where the change in pressure at the measuring point is used to determine the space, weight and
change in the shape. This allows for articles to be counted, position corrected or the presence of work pieces
to be determined.
2.3.7 Process control with air

This is a very common application. In fact the control of most air compressors relies on pneumatic solenoid
valves and pressure switches. In fact all pneumatic applications must be controlled by some method. Control
mechanisms actuate in different ways such as using mechanical switches, cams or by hand. Electrical
switches are also used widely. The results determined by the pneumatic process can be used directly by the
direction of the valves or pressure switch.
2.4 Other applications

Below is a list of many applications of compressed air within industry.
• Agriculture & forestry – Plant protection and weed control, transportation of feed and grain to
and from silos, dispensing equipment, ventilation systems in greenhouses
• Chemicals industry – raw material for oxidation processes, process
control and instrumentation, remote-controlled valves, and slides within
the process circuits.
• Construction trade – Drill and demolition hammers, concrete
compactors, conveyor systems for brick works.
• Crafts – staplers and nail guns, paint spraying guns, drills and
screwdrivers, angle grinders.
• Energy industry – inserting and withdrawing reactor rods, controlled
valves and slides in steam and coolant circuits, ventilation systems for
boiler houses.

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• Environmental technology – forming oil barriers in the water, enriching water with oxygen,
keeping locks free of ice, slide actuation in sewage plants, increasing pressure in the drinking
water supply.
• Food industry – Filling equipment for drinks, closing and checking devices, bulk packing and
palleting machinery, labelling machines, weighing equipment, drying and cooling.
• Health system – power for dentist drills, air for respiration systems,
• Plastics industry – transportation of granulate in pipes, cutting and welding equipment,
blowing work-pieces from production moulds, locking mechanisms for casting moulds,
shaping and adhesive stations.
• Paper-processing industry – roller adjustment and feed machinery, cutting, embossing and
pressing machinery, monitoring of paper reels, removing torn paper from rollers.
• Steel mills and foundries – carbon reduction in steel production, bundling machinery for semi-
finished products, coolants for hot tools and systems.
• Textiles industry – thread detectors, clamping and positioning equipment in sewing machines,
sewing needle and system cooling, stacking devices, blowing out residual material and dust
from sewing.
• Traffic – starting aids for diesel and jet engines, air brakes for HGVs and rail vehicles, air
operated automatic doors, pressure testing gas transport containers.
• Wood processing industry – roller adjustment from frame saws, drill feed systems, frame, glue
and veneer presses, removal of chips and sawdust from work areas, automatic pallet nailing.
Write a brief description and include a sketch of an application not detailed

within this section.

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Chapter Three
Compressed Air Terminology
3.1 The language of compressed air.

The following words or expressions used within the compressed air world. Become familiar with these and
you will talk the language of compressed air.
Actuator - Any pneumatic device which applies power, for example a cylinder or motor.
Actual Delivery- is the piston displacement minus the losses in the cylinder. It is the air available to do
work, expressed in cfm, l/min or m³/min of free air, and is the real measure of flow.
Adiabatic – Expansion or compression of a gas without loss or gain of heat content.
Aftercooling – The removal of heat from the air after compression is complete.
Ambient temperature – The temperature of the environment in which the equipment is to work in.
Capacitance - Defined as P4 - P3 with respect to the amount of compressed air storage. Capacitance will
increase as the difference between P4 and P3 decreases.
Closed loop system – A system in which air exhausted from the actuators is returned as closed pressurised
circuit to the compressor inlet.
Coincidental Events- Multiple events firing at the same time that can lead to more compressors on line
than required.
Compressor – A device which causes a gas to flow against a pressure; it converts mechanical force and
motion into pneumatic fluid power.
Compressed air audit - Audit is designed to provide an inexpensive but effective method to capture the
best methods of maximising compressed air system efficiency from the supply-side. The audit will provide
a solution that will minimise the energy required producing compressed air while delivering the air to the
system at a consistent lower pressure with adequate storage.
Compressor capacity – The actual volume rate of flow compressed and delivered at the standard discharge
point, at stated inlet conditions, usually expressed in terms of Free Air Delivered.
Compressor regulator – A device fitted to the compressor to control the output of the machine.
Compressor Trains - A compressor system that has a single compressor coupled with its own air treatment
equipment.
Condensate – The liquid formed from water vapour in the air because of a drop in the air temperature
and/or an increase in pressure.
Constituents of Demand- The compilation of the aspects in a system that consume compressed air. Leaks,
drainage, dryer purge, production
Cubic Metre- is the common measure of air volume, it is the amount of air that fills a cube,
one-metre by one-metre.
Cubic Metre per Minute - (m³/min) is the number of cubic metre of air per minute flowing through a
system.

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Demand Event: An event on the demand side of the compressed air system that changes the supply of
compressed air to the production process.
Demand Expander - separates air supply from demand to allow for production to receive consistent air
pressure. In IR language this is an IntelliFlow. Production receives consistent air pressure while high-
pressure storage is used to meet demand fluctuations. Serving these demand events from storage reduces the
likelihood of bringing additional compressors on-line. Results include improved compressor utilisation, less
air lost to leaks, reduced dewpoint, energy savings, and stable system pressure for increased production
efficiency.
• Maintains demand-side pressure at desired levels for production requirements.
• Controls supply pressure at higher levels, allowing compressors to operate at their most
efficient pressures.
• Improves efficiency of compressor control and storage management.
• Ensures consistent air quality at constant pressure, temperature and dew point.
• Enables effective leak management.
• Designed for low pressure drop, high turn down and high expansion coefficient
Dew Point - is the temperature at which water vapor in air starts to condense into water droplets.
Displacement – The volume displaced by the compression element of the first stage per unit of time.
Dryer – A device, which reduces the water vapour content of the compressed air.
Duty Cycle: - The Duty cycle is the amount of time that the compressor will need to run in order to deliver
the required amount of air to the customers system.
Light Duty - The compressor should not need to run for more than 50% of the working time and no more
than 1/2 of the working day. This is the task for aluminium construction (Merlin) compressors.
Medium Duty - The compressor should not need to run for more than 50% of the working time but can be
run for the full working day. (continuous duty ). This is the task for the larger BD Merlin compressors.
Heavy Duty - The compressor should not need to run for more than 75% of the working time but can be run
for the full working day. (continuous duty ) This is the task for T30 Cast iron Compressors
Constant Duty - The compressor needs to run all the time it is switched on and all of the working day.
Normally rotary screw compressors would be offered for these applications.
Filter. A device, which removes foreign matter from the working medium.
Free air – Air at the atmospheric conditions at the inlet point unaffected by the compressor . It is usual for
the output of an air compressor to be refereed to the stated atmospheric conditions at the inlet, and the
consumption of a tool or pneumatic cylinder to be expressed in terms of a standard reference atmosphere.
Gauge Pressure - The pressure everyone knows and commonly refers to. What we see on a gauge at
atmospheric pressure.
Intercooling – The removal of heat from the air between stages in multi stage compression.
Isothermal – Expansion or compression carried out without change of temperature.
Kilowatt Power - is the power required at the compressor-input shaft for a specific speed, capacity, and
pressure condition.
Lubricator – A device, which introduces a controlled quantity of lubricant into the working medium.
Motor Kilowatt power - is the nominal rating of the motor. Service Factor is the additional power built into
an electric motor above the nominal rating expressed as a percent. Within the service factor the brake
horsepower of the compressor can operate above the nominal Kilowatt power of the motor.
Multi-stage compression - Compression from initial to final pressure in two or more stages (steps) with
cooling between each stage.

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Normal Cubic Metre per Minute (Nm³/min) - is the flow of air referred to a temperature of 20°C., a
pressure of 1.013 bara, and 0% relative humidity.
Piston Displacement - is expressed in cfm, l/min or m³/min, and represents the volume of air swept through
the cylinder by the piston with each stroke.
Pressure ratio – The ratio between the absolute discharge pressure and the absolute inlet pressure.
Pressure regulator (pressure reducing valve) – A device, which reduces the line pressure and maintains it
relatively constant despite changes in inlet pressure and outlet flow rate.
Pressure relief valve (safety valve) – A device, which limits the maximum system pressure by exhausting
the compressed air to atmosphere when the required back pressure is exceeded.
PSIA - When we add atmospheric pressure to the gauge pressure we have absolute pressure,
pounds per square inch absolute .
Pulsation dampener – A chamber fitted at the inlet or discharge of a reciprocating compressor to remove
the pulsation’s and prevent resonance.
Rate of Change (ROC) - The change in pressure over change in time.
Receiver, Air – A pressure vessel, which compressed air is stored.
Relative Humidity – The ratio of the amount of water vapour actually in a volume of air at a specific
temperature and pressure, to the maximum amount possible under these conditions. This is normally
expressed as a percentage.
Ring main – An air main, which begins and ends at the compressor so that every outlet has two possible
sources or routes of supply.
Separator – A device, which removes liquids from the compressed air. Also known as a moisture separator.
Single stage compression – Compression from initial to final pressure in a single stage or step.
Standard reference atmosphere – The agreed atmosphere to which specification values and test results
determined in other atmospheres are corrected.
Supply Event: An event on the supply side of the compressed air system that changes the supply of
compressed air to the production process.
The Power Efficiency - is the ratio between the amount of air delivered by the compressor and its electrical
requirements. Usually, this is expressed in Kilowatts (kW) per m³ of delivered air. This is also known as the
specific power consumption.
Volumetric efficiency – The ratio of free air delivered to the displacement of a compressor. This ration is
normally expressed as a percentage. Condensate may also be taken into account.

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Chapter Four
Types of Compressors
4.0 Compressors are divided according to their operating principle. Will all compressors they could be sub
divided into contact cooled (lubricated) and oil free (non-lubricated).
4.1 Dynamic compressors are commonly known as Turbo compressors or continuous flow, by nature of
running wheels equipped with blades that accelerate the air to be compressed. Fixed direction gear on the
blades converts speeds energy into pressure energy. These compressors are generally applied where medium
to large volumes of compressed air is required at low to medium pressures.
4.2 Displacement compressors the compression chamber closes completely after taking in the air. The
volume is re-introduced and the air is compressed by force. These compressors are generally applied where
quantities are relatively small and the pressure is medium to high.
4.3.1 Air Compressor Types –
Reciprocating, rotary screw and rotary centrifugal air compressors

The three basic types of air compressors are:
• Reciprocating
• Rotary Screw
• Rotary Vane
• Rotary Centrifugal
These types are further specified by:

• the number of compression stages
• cooling method (air, water, oil)
• drive method (motor, engine, steam, other)
• lubrication (oil, oil-free)
• packaged or custom-built

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4.3.2 Reciprocating Air Compressors
Reciprocating air compressors are positive displacement machines, meaning that they increase the pressure
of the air by reducing its volume. This means they are taking in successive volumes of air which is confined
within a closed space and elevating this air to a higher pressure. The reciprocating air compressor
accomplishes this by a piston within a cylinder as the
Outlet Valve compressing and displacing element.
Intake Valve
Single-stage and two-stage reciprocating compressors
are commercially available. Single-stage compressors
are generally used for pressures in the range of 4.8-
barg (70-psig) to 7-barg (100-psig). Two-stage
compressors are generally used for higher pressures in
Piston the range of 7-barg (100-psig) to 17-barg (250-psig).
The reciprocating air compressor is single acting

Connecting when the compressing is accomplished using only one
side of the piston. A compressor using both sides of
the piston is considered double acting.
Crankshaft 1st Stage

InterCooler
Load reduction is achieved by unloading individual
cylinders. Typically, this is accomplished by throttling
the suction pressure to the cylinder or bypassing air
either within or outside the compressor. Capacity
control is achieved by varying speed in engine-driven
units through fuel flow control.
Reciprocating air compressors are available either as

air-cooled or water-cooled in lubricated and non-
lubricated configurations and provide a wide range of 2nd Stage
pressure and capacity selections. Reciprocating
compressors can offer high efficiency.
4.3.5 Rotary vane compressors

Sliding vane compressors are rotary positive displacement machines in which axial vanes slide radially in a
rotor eccentrically mounted in a cylindrical casing. Gas trapped between the vanes is compressed and
displaced. A partial loads this type of compressors is considered in efficient due to the fact that the inlet
throttle control follows the modulation methodology as increases the compressors pressure ratio. Rapid
unloading can cause the vanes to flutter leading to fatigue and consequential failure. They are high in
maintenance costs due to the wear on the slides. A positive point with these compressors is that they tend to
be quite and compact.

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4.3.4 Rotary Screw Compressors
Rotary air compressors are positive displacement compressors. The most common rotary air compressor is
the single stage helical or spiral lobe oil flooded screw air compressor. These compressors consist of two
rotors within a casing where the rotors compress the air internally. There are no valves. These units are
basically oil cooled (with air-cooled or water cooled oil coolers) where the oil seals the internal clearances.
Since the cooling takes place right inside the compressor, the working parts never experience extreme
operating temperatures. The rotary compressor, therefore, is a continuous duty, air cooled or water cooled
compressor package.
Rotary screw air compressors are easy to maintain and

operate. Variable speed and intake throttle capacity control is
common for these compressors. For the latter control
technique, a butterfly valve is positioned in the inlet casing.
As the compressor capacity demand is reduced, the inlet
throttle valve closes. Advantages of the rotary screw
compressor include smooth, pulse-free air output in a
compact size with high output volume over a long life.
The oil free rotary screw air compressor utilises specially

designed air ends to compress air without oil in the
compression chamber yielding true oil free air. Oil free rotary
screw air compressors are available air-cooled and water-
cooled and provide the same flexibility as oil flooded rotaries
when oil free air is required. High efficiency variable speed
driven oil free compressors are available with HPM motor
technology.
Rotary screw compressors tend to be very compact, provide

continuous air production and have a relatively low final
compression temperature if contact cooled.
4.2.5 Roots Compressor (Blower)

The roots blower belongs to the positive displacement family of compressors. Two symmetrically shaped
rotary pistons turn in opposite directions inside a cylindrical chamber.
They are connected by a synchronised transmission and operate
without contact. The air to be compressed is directed from the inside
into the compressor case. It is enclosed in the chamber between the
wind of the rotary piston and the case. At the moment in which the
piston releases the edge to the pressure side the air flows into the
discharge outlet and fills the chamber. When the wing rotates further
the content of the transported chamber is pressed out against the full
counter pressure. There is not wear on the piston and therefore no
lubrication is required. These compressors tend to be used for low-
pressure atmosphere to 1.5-barg and hence are commonly known as
roots blowers.

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4.2.6 Centrifugal Compressors (CENTAC)
The centrifugal air compressor is a dynamic compressor, which depends on transfer of energy from a
rotating impeller to the air.
Centrifugal compressors produce high-pressure discharge by

converting angular momentum imparted by the rotating
impeller (dynamic displacement). Defuser actually
compressed the air. In order to do this efficiently, centrifugal
compressors rotate at higher speeds than the other types of
compressors. These types of compressors are also designed
for higher capacity because flow through the compressor is
continuous.
Adjusting the inlet guide vanes is the most common method

to control capacity of a centrifugal compressor. By closing
the guide vanes, volumetric flows and capacity are reduced.
The centrifugal air compressor is an oil free compressor by

design. The oil-lubricated running gear is separated from the
air by shaft seals and atmospheric vents.
Centrifugal compressors provide a uniform output and are 100% oil free. The down side is that they are
sensitive to changes in load and minimum output quantities. Atmospheric changes will impact the
performance of the compressor.
4.4 Piston compressors
4.4.1 General
Piston compressors operate according too the displacement principle. The piston intakes air through the
intake valve during the downward stroke. It closes at the start of the downward stroke and then the air is
compressed and forced out of the pressure valve. The piston is drive by a crank drive with a crankshaft and
conrods.
Single stage compression.

Compression takes place in one piston stroke. Merlin compressors from
Direct Drive to BD4 (4hp) are all single
Aluminium
stage. Cast Iron High Low Pressure
Pressure
Two-stage compression.
The air is compressed in the cylinder in the
first stage (low pressure). It is then cooled via
the intercooler and then compressed to the
final pressure in the second stage (high
pressure). Pistons on the HP and LP side are
balanced, which allows for smooth running. Merlin BD5 and larger units are
two stage as well as Type 30 product.
Single acting compressors are based on one compressor action with one
rotation of the crankshaft. Where as double acting compressors have two
compressor actions with one rotation of the crankshaft.

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Compressor speed.
Speed is an important consideration when assessing wear of the compressor. High piston speed with wear
quicker compared to low piston speed.
Cast iron cylinders

100% cast iron cylinders provide better longevity compared to a cylinder constructed from aluminium or
those that even have cast iron liners.
Clearance area
This is the area located between the top dead centre of the
piston and the bottom edge of the valve. The clearance area Intake Valve Outlet Valve
will include; design tolerances, cavities in the valves and
valve seats, individual design considerations. During the
downward stroke of the piston the air in the compression
chamber expands to atmospheric pressure. At this stage and
during the down-stroke of the piston air is sucked in from the
outside of the compressor. The difference between suction
rate and output occurs because during suction the pressure of Piston
the air is already dropped across the filter, leaks will occur
and the air that is sucked in will heat up in the chamber and
re-expansion occurs in the compression space.
4.4.2 Suction capacity Connecting

The suction rate (stroke volume flow) is a calculated size for
piston compressors. It is the product of cylinder capacity,
compressor speed (number of strokes) and the number of
intake cylinders. The stroke volume flow is given in l/min,
m³/min and m³/h. The output (FAD free air delivered) is
measured according to ISO1217 or PN2 CPTC2. The ratio of Crankshaft
output to induction rate is the volumetric efficiency rate.
Many small recip compressor providers will declare the ‘Piston displacement’ figure in their literature. This
is not the FAD of the compressor.
PD = stroke x bore x RPM

2200
VE = ACFM/PD
ACFM = PD x VE
ACFM = actual cubic feet per

minute
PD = piston displacement
VE = volumetric efficiency
4.4.3 Cooling
Heat is generated in all compression processes. The amount of heat is dependent upon the final air pressure
that is being generated. Basically the higher the pressure the higher the temperature. The largest part of the
compression heat must be expelled. High compression air temperatures can be considered a danger, as small
amount of lubrication oil is absorbed into the compressed air during the compression, this could become
flammable. A flame out inside the compressor is the least danger, explosion is potentially greater because
the ratio of oxygen contained is far greater than atmospheric air. Each compressor stage therefore has to
have an intercooler and an aftercooler installed in order to cool the compressed air.
The amount of heat that is to be removed by cooling depends on the FAD and the pressure. High-pressure
compressors with multiple cylinders will ensure that the cylinders are located within the cooling airflow

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whenever possible. To intensify the cooling the cylinders are generously ribbed. Intensive cooling and
ribbing is normally not enough to lower the temperature. Therefore an intercooler between stages is
included and an aftercooler is mounted behind the second stage. In high-pressure machines multi-stage
cooling is needed due to the very high off temperatures.
The diagram below shows the typical small reciprocating compressor arrangement. The flywheel would
provide the cooling airflow across the finned coolers and the ribbed cylinders.
Two-Stage Design Simple multi-finger valves

Dependable and easy to maintain
Finned
Centrifugal Intercooler
unloader Runs cool, even
saves motor in the most
life demanding
conditions
One piece connecting Rod

Overhung crankshaft
with few wearing parts
Precision balanced to run
smoothly and quietly
Splash Lubrication
Simple and reliable does not
require an oil pump, making the
system inexpensive and easy to
maintain
4.4.4 Coolant
Reciprocating piston compressors are mostly air-cooled. Cool air has the advantage that it is
almost everywhere and unlimited. During the cooling phase condensate will form inside the
cooler. This is taken out of the cooler with the airflow into the piping and compressed air
tank. It is normal to have a drain on the tank, which is vented periodically. Alternately an
automatic drain valve is included within the supply.
The lubricant used inside lubricated reciprocating compressors is either a mineral oil or a
synthetic based lubricant like ‘All Seasons Select‘ coolant. All Seasons is blended for 2000-
hour operation or 2 years. This is 4 times longer compared to a mineral oil. This lubrication has a much
higher flash point and eliminates carbon build up that reduces the life of the valves. The result is extended
working life.
4.4.5 Control
Reciprocating compressors are normally controlled from a pressure switch. These

are positioned at the wet air receiver, which is considered a calm point in the air
supply. The pressure switch will stop the compressor at the maximum pressure or
the set upper limit. The compressor will then cut back in at the lower set point
which is normally 20% below the maximum pressure. It is not recommended to
control with a smaller differential as the compressor will cycle too often and
increase the wear and tear. Also maintaining a wider differential allows the
compressor a longer cooling down period.

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Piston compressors do not run on. When then meet the maximum pressure the compressor stops and the
motor switches off. This is the normal operating condition of an Auto Start and Stop (ASS) compressor.
These make good load shaping machines, as they will operate when the pressure drops and cut out when
max pressure is met. It is recommended that a pressure controller (PacE) is used to separate the supply side
to the demand side. This will avoid over pressurisation of the demand side that could impact system
reliability and efficiency.
Unique to the Type 30 range of compressors is the following control modes:
• C.S.C. (constant speed control) controlled by adjustable auxiliary valve on all models 10 HP and
larger (recommended for continuous load operation).
• DUAL CONTROL available as an option (ASS+CSC) allows the compressor to be used at all
times.
4.4.6 Advantages
• Compression of nearly all gases

• Economical compression of pressure up to 40-barg
• Can be used as a booster compressor
• Easy to control
• Economical start-stop operation with no idle running time
• Easy to maintain
4.5 Screw Compressors
4.5.1 General
Compared to the reciprocating compressor, the screw compressor is relatively new in construction. The
design was perfected for commercial application by a Swedish company called “Svenska Rotar Maskiner”
(SRM). The screw compressors are in the positive displacement family. Two parallel rotors with different
profiles work in opposite direction inside a housing.
4.5.2 Compression process
The inlet air is compressed to the final pressure within the rotor housing, which continuously decreases the
size through the rotartion of the screw rotors. When the final pressure is reached the air is forced out
through the discharge orifice. The compression chamber is formed by the walls of the rotor housing and the
meshing of the profiles of the screw elements. Think of the housing being the cylinder and the sliding action
of the rotor elements being the piston.
Step one. Intake air though an aperture into the opening of the screw profiles of the rotors. This is the intake
phase.
Male rotor
Female Rotor

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Step two. The air inlet aperture is closed by the continued rotation of the rotors, the volume reduces and the
pressure increases. With contact cooled compressors coolant is injected during this process. This is the
compression phase.
Step three. The final phase is the discharge of the air. The final pressure is reached when the discharge
begins. This pressure will drop slightly through to the discharge of the compressor package.
4.5.3 Typical Rotary Compressor Methodology

(1) Typically with an Ingersoll Rand lubricated single stage compressor atmospheric air is drawn into
through a cyclone suction filter which is fitted with a paper microfilter cartridge and dust ejector facility.
The filter capacity is designed for the maximum inlet flow of the compressor and is typically 3-5 micron
with an efficiency of 99.9%.
(2) After passing through the inlet filter the air is sucked into the multi-function suction inlet valve. This
normally closed valve will open to a load signal. When the compressor unloads this valve will fully
close and act as a check valve to ensure that the air does not blow back out of the inlet filter.
(3) The air enters the compression element and is compressed. During the compression phase the airend is
continuously cooled using Ingersoll Rand’s SSR Ultra-Coolant. This is injected into the airend to
remove the heat of compression, seal the rotors and lubricate the compression module. Typically the
operating temperature is around 85 °C. According to the EC machinery directive the airend discharge
temperature will not exceed 110 deg C.

March 05
(4) A large proportion of the coolant is separated from the compressed air within the coolant separator. This
three stage separation in bodies cyclone, impingement and coalescing elements. The air leaving the
separator contains no more than 3-pm of coolant.
(5) Air passes through a minimum pressure check valve. This valve will not open unless the pressure is
above 4 –barg (60-psig). This is to avoid excessive carry over.
(6) Following the MPVCV the air is passed through an aftercooler where the air is cooled from around 85
°C to 8 °C above the cooling medium. If the cooling medium is the ambient air and this is 20 °C, a cold
temperature rise 8 °C will result in a discharge temperature of 28 °C.
(7) Before the air enters the distribution piping it will flow through a cyclone water separator. This removes
the bulk water condensed from the aftercooler.
(8) The coolant that is separated within the coolant separator is re-introduced. Due to the fact that the
temperature is still above 85 °C the coolant passes through a coolant cooler, which cools the coolant
down to around 60 °C. A thermostatic by pass valve ensures that the coolant is ideal at every operating
phase. Under the system pressure the coolant will flow into a full flow coolant filter. This has a high-
pressure by-pass so that the compressor is never starved of coolant.
4.5.4 Coolant circuit

The coolant that is injected in a lubricated compressor has three basic functions to perform. The first is to
remove the heat of compression so provide cooling. The second is to offer sealing between the tip of the
rotors and the rotor housing. Finally the coolant lubricates the bearings. Ingersoll Rand contact cooled
lubricated compressors include coolant dams. This ensures that the bearing is lubricated immediately at start
up. The bearing sits in a pool of lubricant. An airend that does not have coolant dams could result in
premature bearing failure as a result of lack of lubrication at start up.
Below is a typical lubrication circuit for an Ingersoll Rand SSR rotary screw air compressor.
Compressed air separator (25)

This removes the coolant from the compressed air by creating a cyclone effect that knocks out
most of the coolant. A multi stage coalescing separator element gives further mechanical stages of
separator. Typically a new compressor will have a 0.2-barg separator element pressure drop.
During the service period of the compressor this will increase to 1-barg. At this time the element
should be replaced otherwise additional power is required to overcome this pressure drop. The air
separator also provides a sump for the coolant. System pressure forces the coolant out of the
separator into the compression stage.

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Scavenge line (24-23)
Coalesced coolant within the separator element is sucked up through the scavenge line back into the coolant
circuit. There is a small screen to remove any impurities.
Thermal by-pass valve (27) 1.0

The thermal valve directs the coolant
through the cooler or through the by-
pass during the warm up period. The
coolant injected into the airend will be at
optimum temperature, which is around
60°C.
Coolant cooler (7)

This can either be air or water-cooled. MAX DELTA
The purpose is to reduce the temperature
of the coolant prior to injection into the
airend.
Coolant filter (9)

This 10-micron coolant filter removes
the impurities in the coolant. Therefore
prevents any contamination within the
coolant circuit. This filter has a 1-bar
high-pressure by-pass. This is to ensure
that the airend is never staved with
coolant.
4.5.6 Air circuit

Below is a typical air circuit for an Ingersoll Rand SSR rotary screw air compressor.
Inlet filter (3)

This cleans the air drawn in by the compressor. Typically the grade of the filtration is 3 to 5 micron, 99.9%
efficient.

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Inlet valve (16)
This is a normally closed valve. The valve opens in the load phase and closes during the unload phase or
stopped phase. As an option the inlet valve can be modulated. See control section.
Minimum pressure check valve (18)

This valve opens only when the pressure has risen to 4-barg (60-psig), which causes a fast build up of
pressure. When the compressor switches off the minimum pressure valve prevents compressed air flowing
out of the compressor.
Compressed air aftercooler (5)

Like the coolant cooler this can be either air-cooled or water-cooled. During the cooling phase a large
amount of moisture in the air condenses out.
Water separator (19)

Standard on many Ingersoll Rand SSR and Nirvana screw compressors. Purpose is to remove bulk water
prior to the air discharging into the air lines.
4.5.7 Heat recovery

The coolant removes around 85% of the compression heat. Using a separate coolant to water heat exchanger
this heat can be extracted from the coolant and used for water heating. Low flow, high temperature rise and
high flow, low temperature rise heat exchanges are available.
Airend
A injection
Machine
Oil
Cooler Cool water in
Machine
thermostatic
valve
Cool water out
Oil from Sep.
Internal to External to compressor

B compressor (by customer)
Airend injection
Machine
Oil
Cooler Cool water in
Machine
thermostatic
valve
Cool water out
Isolation
Oil from Sep. Valve
Tank
Oil piping
Water Piping

March 05
A = Schematic arrangement of internally mounted energy recovery system
B = Schematic arrangement of externally mounted energy recovery system
4.5.8 Intake controller

The role of the inlet valve is to control the intake line of the compressor. The arrangement of the inlet valve
depends on the model of the compressor package. Typically the valve seals on idling or stopping, thus
avoiding coolant being ejected through the inlet. This can be considered as a check valve.
4.5.9 Advantages of a screw
• Compressed air is required on a continuous basis.

• Makes an ideal base load compressor but can adapt to the demand easily
• Good levels of economy
• Easy to install and maintain.
• Energy saving solutions with true variable speed control and heat recovery offerings.
4.5.10 Components
Typical rotary screw compressor – Nirvana Oil Free
IntellisysTM SGNe Microprocessor
Modular Frequency inverter drive
Optimising the speed of rotation. Dial

in performance
HPMR motor
VSD Blower. High added static
pressure
Time proven rotary screw airend

design
46C / 115F Ambient rated

Maintain target pressure within 0.1 bar
Stable pressure at any at any demand between 4.5 bar / 10.3 bar

March 05
Chapter Five
Compressor Control
The prime objective of any compressor control is to minimise the energy consumption, wear and tear as
well as maximise availability.
The type of control depends upon the construction type, size and area of the application. Controlling the
final pressure is the most important of all control tasks.
5.1 Defining the pressure

P1 Atmospheric Pressure.
P2 Discharge pressure from the compressor
P3 Clean up equipment outlet pressure
P4 Ring main pressure. P4 and P3 could be the same if there is no IntelliFlow or PacE controller. P4 would
then be the furthest distance away from the compressor in the ring main or distribution pipe work.
P5 Point of application pressure. This is the most critical of pressures within the system. Pressure that is too
low is obviously unacceptable. Likewise pressure that is too high can lead to excessive wear, increased
demand and lower productivity. The P5 will vary within the plant. Controlling at the lowest pressure is best.
The use of boosters to amplify the pressure or dedicated point of application compressors is recommended
so that the main part of the production can operate at the lowest pressure.
P1
P2
P3
P4
P5
Cut-in pressure or Pload (barg)

The cut in pressure is the pressure below which the compressor will cut in. P3 minimum pressure and the
Pload pressure is the same.
Cut-out pressure or Punload (barg)

The cut out pressure is the pressure above which the compressor will unload. The cut out pressure or
maximum P2 pressure cannot be the same as the P3 pressure. Typically the cut out pressure of reciprocating

March 05
compressors is 20% more than the cut-in pressure. For example if the cut in pressure was 8-barg the cut out
pressure will be 10-barg. On screw compressors the cut out pressure should be no less than 0.7-barg of the
cut in pressure. Therefore if the cut in pressure is 7-barg the cut out pressure should be 7.7-barg.
5.2 On-Line / Off-Line control

This is the simplest mode of control for the rotary screw air compressor.
Typically the system pressure is measured at the outlet of the compressor package, after the moisture
separator (19).
Once the pressure reaches the Pload point the 1SV load solenoid valve receives a single to open. At this
time the 3SV blowdown valve will receive a signal to close. The inlet valve opens and the compressor will
load. Once the pressure within the separator is greater that 4-barg the MPVCV opens and the pressure starts
to rise within the compressed air system. The pressure can rise quite quickly dependent on the differential
across the clean up equipment. The pressure rise is then to the Punload set point of the compressors control
panel. This rate of change in the pressure is dependent upon the system demand and the system volume. The
system volume is the size of the air receiver and the piping loop.
Punload
P2
Pload
Pressure behaviour (t)
kW 100%
30%
0%
Electrical power behaviour
Once the pressure reaches the Punload set point the compressor will unload. At this point a single is set to
3SV to open and 1SV to close. Pressure is fed to the inlet control valve to close and the sump is pressure
reduces through the 3SV blowdown valve back to the inlet. The sump pressure lowers to around 2-barg in
order to maintain sufficient internal pressure to circulate the coolant. Whilst operating in the unloaded or

March 05
idle condition the absorbed power is between 25 to 30% of full load power. P2 pressure will be higher
compared to the P3 pressure. The difference will be dependent upon the pressure drop across the air
treatment products. The pressure drop is a function of the flow across it. If there is no flow we consider that
there is not a pressure drop. If the dryer is rated for a much higher flow than the flow that is being drawn
across it then the pressure drop will be lower.
5.2.2 Auto-start and stop control

With any compressor with a conventional induction motor, which is started using a star/delta starter needs to
operate for a given period of time once started. This is to reduce the temperature of the winding as a result
of the high starting in-rush current. The motor has a limited number of starts per hour. To ensure that the
motor does not exceed the permissible starts per hour the compressors controller will not stop the
compressor until after a predetermined run on period. Once the compressor stops the compressor does not
start again until the pressure falls to the Pload point. This energy saving feature limits the period of
unloaded operation, which is considered wasteful. The negative rate of change will depend on the system
volume and the compressed air demand.
Punload
P2
Pload
Pressure (t)
kW 100%
30%
0%
Electrical power
5.3 Modulation control
Below is a typical schematic that includes modulation control. When the compressor is modulating the 3SV
and 6SV solenoids are closed. 1SV and 2SV are open and providing different pressures to either side of the
valve dependent on the systems pressure rate of change.

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For those plants, which have relatively high constant air demand relative to the compressor capacity, the
recommended control mode is modulation. Particularly if there is a small air receiver in the system.
The modulation control system retains the features of the on line / off line control, but also provides for
throttling of the inlet flow up to the off line air pressure set-point value. By applying line pressure to an
adjustable modulator valve, the throttling position of the inlet valve is controlled, thus allowing the
modulator to trim the inlet valve position as dictated by the line pressure.
The modulating pressure range is about 4-psig (0.3 BAR) and the modulator normally should be set to
straddle the compressor rated pressure. Modulation begins when the line pressure reaches about 99 percent
of the compressor rated pressure and continues as/if the line pressure rises. Modulation becomes stable
when the compressor output equals the plant air demand. When the modulation is at the factory setting, the
maximum capacity reduction will be approximately 60 percent of the compressor rated capacity (as
indicated below).
For compressors supplied with Intellisys control and modulation option, ACS control will allow the
compressor to automatically switch between on–line/off–line and modulation control, depending on air
demand. If the air demand has decreased to a level below the 60 percent modulated output, the line pressure
will increase slightly to actuate the Intellisys. The compressor will then shift to the off line control position,
and operate unloaded with the compressor vented.

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Modulation/ ACS
The automatic control selector (ACS) is designed to continuously monitor the plant air demand and select
either the on line/off line, or the modulate control mode whichever is most desirable at any time during an
operating day. It allows the compressor to operate in its most efficient mode thereby reducing power costs.
When the compressor operates in the on line/off line control mode, the length of time the compressor
remains in the off line condition is an indication of the plant air demand. Intellisys controller is sensing and
awaiting a sufficient line pressure decrease before signalling a shift to the on line mode. If the off line time
period is relatively short, thereby indicating a high demand for air, it is preferable to shift the control system
to upper range modulation. The Intellisys control panel does this, and does it automatically if the
compressor unloads 3 times within a 3-minute time period.
If later, the plant demand decreases, and even under modulate control the line pressure reaches the setting of
the Intellisys controller, and the control shifts to the off line mode, the time in this mode will still be
monitored. A long off line time period indicates a low plant air demand, indicating the desirability of
operating in the on line/off line mode. The Intellisys then does this, and does it automatically if the
compressor operates unloaded for more than 3 minutes.
Modulation Only
If MODULATION ONLY is turned on in the set-point routine, the unit will shift to Modulation control
mode immediately when the unit is running. The 3 cycles within 3 minutes time period required for ACS to
change to Modulation mode is bypassed. The unit will stay in Modulation mode until the unit runs unloaded
for 3 minutes (the unit then returns to ACS control) or MODULATION ONLY is turned off via the set
routine.
5.4 Variable Speed

In recent years controlling rotary screw compressors by changing the frequency to control the output of the
compressor has become a much more viable solution.
Simply put, the inverter modulates the frequency dependant upon the pressure rate of decay or increase. As
the pressure falls the motor speeds up and as the pressure
increases the motor slows down. The amount of turn down
depends upon the critical speed of the airend. In the case of
Ingersoll Rand Nirvana true variable speed compressors
variable speed drive performance is enhanced by:
• HPM motor – efficiency is almost constant

through the speed range as a result of using salient poles and

March 05
permanent magnets. Individual coils replace the huge chris-cross mass of windings found in an
induction motor. In themselves they are more efficient in transferring electrical power to rotary
shaft power then conventional motor. This is the first stage in understanding salient coil
efficiency. Instead of relying on the Electro magnetic effect of the stator, to induce a magnetic
flux in the rotor, we greatly help the process by putting permanent magnets in the stator. Now
we do not have to waste efficiency by trying to induce magnetic polarity of the rotor. It is
already done by the permanent magnet. The permanent magnets in the rotor are attracted to, or
repulsed by the stator coils, producing rotational movement Conventional induction motors
waste power to excite a magnetic field in the rotor. The HPM motor does not, thanks to the
permanent magnets in the rotor. The HPM motor also provides a constant power factor
• No bearings or couplings eliminate any frictional losses. This potential failure and
maintenance items are removed.
• The Nirvana has no gear sets. The user can dial in the pressure requirement in 0.1-barg
increments and the compressor maximises the compressor output for the dialled in pressure.
The lower the pressure the higher the output and hence quicker pump up of the system. This
results in longer time
stopped.
• The Nirvana compressor
can start and stop an
infinite amount of times
per hour. This is due to the
very low motor operating
temperature. Also inrush
current at start up is not
more than the full load
current of the compressor,
so heat load at start up is
avoided.
5.5 Control mode efficiency

The compressor control has two objectives:
• To save energy
• Minimisation of wear.
The amount of energy savings will vary. The graph below is a good representation of the control efficiency.
The OL/OL curve is basis an air receiver that is 10% of the compressor volume. If the receiver was say
100% of the compressor rated volume, i.e 1m³ of receiver storage for 1m³ o f compressed air the OL/OL
curve would be more representative to the following control curve. This curve was widely used in the past
but misrepresented, as typically the receiver is no where near 1 to 1.

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With small amounts of storage, average blow-down times, OL/OL is less efficient compared to modulation
control. Internal blow-down time and the differential will effect the OL/OL performance. Efficiency
deteriorates when the compressor has more inlet cycles. In some cases where the blow-down time is in
excess of 20 seconds the compressor may have reloaded prior to actually fully blowing down. The result is
that the compressor has never reached its declared unloaded power. One must also consider the fact that you
are throwing away compressed air out of the separator back to the inlet.
5.6 Controlling multiple compressors

For users of compressed air with high, much fluctuating consumption a single large compressor is not the
best solution. A combined compressor system consisting of several compressors is a much better alternative.
This offers the user greater operating reliability and economy as well as more flexibility.
Organisations that are dependent on compressed air can provide some guarantee that there supply with a
combined compressor system. If one compressor fails or servicing work is necessary the others will
continue with the supply.
Several small compressors can be adjusted more easily to compressed air consumption than one large
compressor. The unloaded running costs of a large compressor are higher than those of small, stand-by
compressors. This provides greater economy.
A combined compressor system needs to be controlled from a system controller. This provides:
• Cyclic change via a timer for equalised

operating hours or compressor optimisation. A
smaller compressor can be selected to satisfy a
known reduced system demand.
• Time lag cycling of the compressors by the
controller through pressure rate of change. If the
pressure drops and loads a compressor and the
pressure continues to fall the controller will wait
to see if the first compressor that is loaded can
impact the change in pressure before another is
loaded. Rapid loading of compressors could
increase the unloaded operation as well as the
overall compressor operational hours.
• Pressure within a narrow target range.
Controllers can control within 0.2-barg of the
set target pressure. This can significantly lower
the supply energy.
Multiple compressors without a system controller will need to be control from their own pressure switches
or transducers in a cascade arrangement. See below.

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If the differential between the Pload points of each compressor is too small you will find that two machines
could load and unload together. This is due to inaccuracies within the transducer or even worse pressure
switches. Also after time the pressure will drift. 0.5-barg differential is quite normal.
The disadvantage of this system is that the system needs to operate at a much higher pressure. If we
consider for each 1-barg pressure the power increases or decreases by 7.25% you can calculate the
corresponding effect to the input power. If this rule of thumb is questioned refer to chapter 14 for the
calculation to support this value. In fact the true value is higher than this conservative figure.
With the example below the pressure could rise by 1.4-barg (8.2-6.8 = 1.4). This would result in 12.8%
increase in consumed power.
Local cascade control is a good indication of acceptable minimum plant pressure. The P4 pressure is the
Pload pressure of the last compressor in the system. If there is a system controller you can map the Pload
pressures of each compressor in the system to find out the P4 minimum.
Example: Your system has 3 compressors that are individually controlled. The set points are shown in the
diagram below. Each compressor is nominally rated for 75 kW. On the basis of a demand of more than one
compressor but less than two what savings could be achieved by the introduction of a system controller?
The compressors are in a common manifold and feed into a wet air receiver. There is only one set of clean
up equipment.
75 x 1.1 / 0.94 = 88 kW x 2 (2 units loaded) = 176 kW

7.0 – 6.0 barg = 1 barg = 7.25% power
176 kW x 0.0725 = 12.76 kW excessive kW
12.76 x 6000 hours x €0.06 = €4593.6
#1
8.0 bar Punload
#2
7.5 bar Punload
#3
7.0 bar Pload Punload 7.0 bar
6.5 bar Pload
Pload 6.0 bar
The first compressor will load when the pressure falls in the system to 7 barg. As this
compressor cannot satisfy the demand the pressure continues to fall to the cut in
pressure of the second compressor (6.5-barg). This will effect the pressure positively as
the system delivers more air than the demand. The compressor then unloads at 7.5-barg.
Minimum pressure is 6.0-barg, which is the cut in pressure of the next and final unit.

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Your customer has 4 x 45 kW compressors all operating in OL/OL control. There is no system
controller and your aim is to show the customer how they can save energy by lowering pressure
and removing the cascade control effect. Map out the compressor set points and calculate the
savings on the basis 3 compressors running loaded. The load compressor of the 4 compressor is
6.3-barg.
In addition to these savings will be the lower pressure entering the demand side of the factory. This will be
further explained in chapter nine of the workbook.
The following is the pressure diagram basis system control. You will notice that the pressure band is greatly
Compressor 1 only
8.2
Compressor 1 at full load
Compressor 2 controlling
Compressor 1 and 2 at full load
DP DP
6.8
Compressor 1,2,3 at full load

Low Air Demand High
Each compressor requires a pressure band (DP1) for its load and unload set points, shown as 0.5 bar. This
band is sufficient to avoid excessive cycling. The offset DP2 should be at a minimum but avoid two or more
compressors loading and unloading
reduced with system control. You should note that system control works best if the system can work in local
control as well. The air receiver should be adequately sized to allow time to control rate of change in the
system. If you install a system controller with short load and unload delay times and a small air receiver you

March 05
will end up operating more compressors than necessary. You will notice that programming a pressure event
can lower the weekend pressure. This further lowers the energy.
DP
Weekday
Weekend
Air Demand
The Nirvana version of the IEO offers the following:
• Adaptation of FAD to the compressed air demand by infinite output control by the peak load
compressor. The Nirvana will trim the base load compressor. If the demand can be satisfied by
the Nirvana the base load compressor will stop and the Nirvana will satisfy the variable
demand.
• Can control up to 8 Nirvana compressors from one transducer.
• Single transducer control eliminates the inefficient system cascade effect. Avoids the issue of
transducer drift.
In a single compressor system when will P2 and P3 be almost equal?

March 05
Chapter Six
Compressed Air Treatment
6.1 Why treat compressed air?

As described earlier production equipment has many uses of compressed air. These range from untreated,
oil free and sterile compressed air, depends on the application.
•MAINTENANCE COSTS
•SPOILT PRODUCT
•DOWN-TIME
PRODUCTION
EFFICIENCY
Atmospheric air contains many impurities that cannot be seen. These can be potentially damaging to the
pneumatic system and air-using device and could have an advice effect on the quality of the product that is
to be produced. The reliability of the system is impaired. 1m³ of atmospheric air can contain impurities such
as:
• Up to 180 million particles of dirt between 0.01 and 100 micron in size
• 5-40 g/m³ water in the form of humidity in the atmosphere
• 0.01 to 0.03 mg/m³ of oil in the form of aerosols of mineral oil and unburned hydrocarbons
• Traces of metals such as cadmium, lead, mercury, iron.
• Possible traces of sulphur oxide
The air compressor draws in atmospheric air and any of the

impurities within it. The compressor just concentrates them.
For example a 10-barg air compressor (11-bara) raises the
concentration level 11 times. In addition to this a coolant
flooded compressors lubricant passes from the compressor to
the compressed air supply.
By installing correct treatment you will benefit from the

following:
• Increase the working life of production equipment

• Improve and provide a consistent product quality with
reduced scrap
• Compressed air lines will be free from condensate and
hence rust
• Lower service costs

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• Lower pressure loss through leakage
• Less malfunctions
6.1.1 consequences
Should the impurities and water remain within the compressed air the result could be intolerable. This can
apply to both the piping distribution system as well as the point of application equipment. The quality of the
product being produced could deteriorate and the amounts of scrap will increase. This will impact the
productivity of the company and as such have a direct impact on the profits.
Water in the compressed air will:

• Corrode the pneumatic system. Rust will form in the pipelines and cause leakage
• Formation of ice in the pneumatic system. In low temperatures water in the network could
freeze and crack the pipes.
• Could spoil the finished product. If the air is to be mixed with paint for coating or blow onto
product for drying.
Oil in the compressed air will:

• Could spoil the finished product being conveyed.
• In food and beverage as well as pharmaceutical industries compressed air has to be oil free for
health reasons.
• Oil can reduce the internal diameter of the pipework and cause a blockage over time. This
increases the flow resistance.
Solid matter particles will:

• Increase the wear on the pneumatic systems. Dust and other particles can be abrasive.
Particles that combine with a lubrication oil can cause a grinding paste and reduce the life of
the down stream components.
• Particles can be health damaging, in the possibility of third party supplying breathing air
apparatus.
6.1.2 Impurities of air

Within the atmosphere that we breathe there is particles within the compressed air that air invisible. To
explain this further please refer to the following table.
Concentration of particles in the atmosphere Average values mg/m³

In the country 15
In the town 30
In an industrial estate 100
In a large production plant 200
Particle diameter in microns

0.001to 0.02 – Gaseous molecules
0.002to 0.04 – Viruses
0.008to 0.8 – Tobacco smoke
0.02to 1.0 – Oil vapour
1.0to 80 – Coal dust
1.0to 100 - Flour
2to 80 – Cement dust
2to 300 – Human hair
8to 60 – Water vapour
8to 100 – Pollen dust
80to 2000 – Air borne sand
Above 20 micron particles are microscopically detectable.

Below 20 micron particles are sub-microscopically detectable.
Above 100 micron particles are visibly detectable.

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6.2 Water in compressed air
Water is present within the atmosphere. This is commonly known as humidity and its
content is dependent upon the time and the place. At any temperature a certain volume of
air can only contain a maximum quantity of moisture.
6.2.1 Humidity
Humidity is the quantity of moisture that air can hold at a given temperature. This is not
pressure dependent. Relative humidity is the ratio of absolute to maximum humidity.
Air from an air compressor is always 100% saturated, 100% RH.
6.2.2 Dew point

There are 2 levels of dew point:
Atmospheric dew point °C

This is the temperature at which atmospheric air (bara) can be cooled without and
precipitation. This is a minor consideration within a compressed air system.
Pressure dew point °C

The temperature at which the compressed air at a given pressure can be cooled without precipitation in the
form of condensate.
6.2.3 Moisture content gr/m³

The following table shows how temperature can effect the moisture holding characteristics of 1m³ of
atmospheric air. 3°C PDP will contain 5.953 g/m³ of water. Where as a –40°PDP will contain 0.117 g/m³.
80 -70°C 0,0033 gr/m3

75 -40°C 0,117 gr/m3
70 -20°C 0,88 gr/m3
65 + 2°C 5,6 gr/m3
60 +20°C 17 gr/m3
55
gr/m3 +35°C 39 gr/m3
50 +50°C 82 gr/m3
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
-40 -20 +2 +35°C
Refer to back of this chapter for the full air moisture content chart.
6.2.4 Condensate during compression

Where does all the water come from? Air will contain water in the form of moisture. Air can be compressed
and water cannot. During the compression process the air is consequently compressed and water is
concentrated and dependant on the temperature may precipitate in the form of condensate. Consider the
atmospheric air as the sponge. It takes in a certain amount of water when it is relaxed. But if its squeezed
(the compression process) part of the water may be expelled. Some of the water stays in the sponge
regardless of how hard you apply the squeeze. Compressed air reacts in the same way.

March 05
The follow calculation can be used to determine the quantity of condensate that can be expected with the air
is compressed. This example is basis a summer day with the ambient at 28°C and 70% atmospheric relative
humidity.
Q = V1 x HUmax x RH1 - V2 x HUmax x RH2

100 100
Q = condensate (g)
V1 = Volume at 0 barg (m³)
HUmax = Max humidity at 28 °C (g/m³)
RH1 = Relative humidity of V1 (%)
V1 = 6 (m³)
V2 = 0.54 (m³) (6-m³ / 11 bara)
HUmax = 26.970 (g/m³)
RH1 = 70 (%)
RH2 = 100 (%) [saturated when compressed]
Q = 6 m³ x 26.970 g/m³ x 70% - 0.54 m³ x 26.970 g/m³ x 100%

100% 100%
Q = 98.71 g
When compressing 6 m³ of air to 10 bar pressure at a constant temperature 98.71 g of water will precipitate
in the form of condensate.
Calculate the amount of condensate basis 6- m³ air to 10 barg pressure.

Ambient temperature is 5 °C and 80% atmospheric RH. Consider this as a dull
and grey Manchester day!
Is the condensate more or less in the summer months?
The following example shows the amount of condensate that actually will occur when the air is compressed.
You will see that condensate will occur at several points within the compressor installation and at different
times. We will calculate the rate of condensate on a compressor with an output of 1800 m³/hr and a final
delivery pressure of 8-barg. This compressor is connected to a wet compressed air receiver and a
refrigerated air dryer.
The atmosphere contains a certain amount of water under the following conditions.
P1 = 1 bara
T1 = 20 °C
RH = 80%
HUmax = 17.148 (g/m³)
Q1 = 1800 m³/hr x 17.148 g/m³ x 80%

100
Q1 = 24,693.12 g/hr (24.7 l/hr)

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During compression the temperature rises above the pressure dew point of the compressed air and therefore
there is no condensation formation. In the aftercooler the compressed air is then cooled down to 8°C above
the cooling medium. Condensation forms and is taken out of the package via the moisture separator or taken
down the air line into the wet air receiver in this example. The volume flow calms down and water droplets
form. A considerable amount of condensate will form at this stage of the compressed air system process.
P2 = 9-bara
T2 = 28°C
RH = 100%
HUmax2 = 26.970 (g/m³)
V2 = V1 / P2 (1800 / 9) = 200 m³/hr
Q2 = Q2 – (V2 x HUmax x RH / 100)

Q2 = 24,693 – (200 x 26.970 x 100 / 100)
Q2 = 19,299 g/hr (19.3 l/hr)
This is 19.3 l/hr of water, which in 24 hours is 463.18 l per day. Over a month this is potentially 14,358
litres of water passed into the air stream. Do you think a dryer is needed?
After the air is cooled down in the refrigerated air dryer to the corresponding pressure dew point, which is
normally 3°C the condensate that precipitates in the dryer is then drained out. Provided the compressed air
temperature does not fall below 3°c no more condensate will form.
P2 = 9-bara
T3 = 3°C
RH = 100%
HUmax3 = 5.953 (g/m³)
V2 = 200 m³/hr
Q3 = (V2 x HUmax2) - (V2 x HUmax3)

Q3 = (200 m³/hr x 26.970 g/m³) - (200 m³/hr x 5.953 g/m³)
Q3 = 4,203.4 g/hr (4.2 l/hr)
Recalculate the condensate stream on the basis of the same inlet capacity and
ambient conditions. The only change is the pressure is increased to 10-barg.
What are your observations?
This is a considerable amount of condensate. If the condensate contains traces of mineral oils then the
condensate treatment equipment must treat this condensate.
Condensate in the above system would be:

Q= Q2 +Q3
Q= 19 + 4 = 23 l/hr

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If the compressors operated at 100% efficiency for 24 hours per day this would result in 552 l/day or
200,928 litres per year.
On a hot and humid summers day the quantity of the condensate will be even higher even if the PDP is
unchanged at +3°C.
P1 = 1 bara
T1 = 33 °C
RH = 80%
HUmax = 35,317 (g/m³)
Q1 = 1800 m³/hr x 35,317g/m³ x 80%

100
Q1 = 50,856,480 g/hr (50,856 l/hr)
P2 = 9-bara
T2 = 45°C
RH = 100%
HUmax2 = 64,848 (g/m³)
V2 = V1 / P2 (1800 / 9) = 200 m³/hr
Q2 = Q2 – (V2 x HUmax x RH / 100)

Q2 = 50,856,480 – (200 x 64,848 x 100 / 100)
Q2 = 37,886,880 g/hr (37,886 l/hr)
P2 = 9-bara
T3 = 3°C
RH = 100%
HUmax3 = 5.953 (g/m³)
V2 = 200 m³/hr

Q3 = (200 m³/hr x 26.970 g/m³) - (200 m³/hr x 5.953 g/m³)
Q3 = 4,203.4 g/hr (4.2 l/hr)
The condensate is very large 37,890 litres per hour.
6.3 Air Quality Classes

ISO 8573-1:2001 was created to make it easier for the compressed air user to set out their requirements and
choose the necessary air treatment products.
DIN ISO8573-1:2001 defines the quality classes from the compressed air according to:
Particle size and density

This is the size and concentration of particles that may remain within the compressed air supply, which is
measured in microns. Use this class with your customer to determine the level of particulate that is
acceptable in his system.

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Water pressure dewpoint
The definition here is the temperature at which the compressed air can be cooled without condensation
formation, measured in °C. Use this class with your customer to determine the level of moisture vapour that
is acceptable in his system.
Oil content
Residual quantity of aerosols and hydrocarbons in the compressed air measured in mg/m³. Use this class
with your customer to determine the level of oil including vapour, which is acceptable in his system.
ISO8573-1 : 2001
Solid Particles Water Oil
3
Class Maximium number of particles per m Pressure Incl Vapour
0.1 - 0.5 micron 0.5 -1.0 micron 1.0 - 5.0 micron Dewpoint C Mg/m3
1 100 1 0 -70 0.01
2 100,000 1,000 10 -40 0.1
3 - 10,000 500 -20 1
4 - - 1000 3 5
5 - - 20,000 7 -
6 - - - 10 -
Shown are the main six air quality classes we work with today. The ISO standard was revised in 2001 where
the solid particles now include a number of particles at a given size.
A system requires: less than 1 micron solids, less than +3°C Pressure Dewpoint and less
than .01 mg/m3 oil carryover
Once each point is known, then the system is defined in a common language. From here, you and the
customer will know what the parameters are at each of the five points in the system. Changes to any point
in the system now has a baseline.
S = Solid Particles
W = Water Pressure dew point
O = Oil content (including Vapour)

March 05
The P5 and A5 conditions may vary within a production facility. Therefore only by carrying out a detailed
Air Audit will you be able to define the best solution for the customer. If there are a small number of users
that need a higher pressure or a different ISO class then perhaps these users should be considered in
isolation to the main production air. The lower the ISO class then the higher the cost in capital equipment
and running costs. This leads us into the understanding of the different methods of drying.
A1
P1
A2
A3 P1
A4 P3
P4
A5
P5
Air quality S W O
A1 5 6 5
A2 3 6 3
A3 2 4 1
A4 2 4 1
A5 2 4 1
Ingersoll Rand industrial air clarifications, shown in Chapter 14 is a good guide for the compressed air user.
6.4 Methods of drying.

The following summary shows the different methods of drying the compressed air according to their
principle of operation. The distinction is made between:
• Condensation, which is the separation of the water by going below the dew point.
(Refrigeration)
• Adsorption, which is the drying by removal of the moisture, like a sponge. (Desiccant)
• Diffusion, the drying by molecular transfer. (Membrane dryer)

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Compressed air drying process
Thermal Mass
Over compression TMS
Refrigeration drying ThermoStar

Condensation TS / DS / TAS
Diffusion Membrane drying
Adsorption Heatless regeneration TZ / TZM
Internal heat regeneration
External heat regeneration
Vacuum regeneration TZV
6.4.1 Operating conditions

The flow rate of the dryer will always refer to the inlet conditions of the compressor according to ISO1217.
This is referred to an inlet pressure of 1 bar and ambient 20°C.
The drying equipment is designed according to ISO 7183 for operating conditions. This is referred to as an
inlet operating pressure of 7 barg, ambient of 25°C and an inlet temperature to the dryer of 35°C.
The dryer may operate under different operating conditions. Therefore appropriate conversions can be taken
into consideration when sizing the dryer. These conversion factors will vary dependant on the drying
processes.
The following example is the conversion factors for the Ingersoll Rand TMS dryer straight from the
brochure.
The customer has a flow rate requirement of 5 m³/min with a required PDP of 4°C. The operating conditions
are 6-barg inlet to the dryer, ambient temperature 35°C & inlet temperature 45°C to the dryer.

March 05
Correcting for inlet pressure and inlet temperature - 5m³/min / 0.77 = 6.49 m³/min
Correcting for pressure dew point – 6.49 m³/min / 1.05 = 6.18 m³/min
Correcting for ambient temperature – 6.18 m³/min / 0.9 = 6.87 m³/min
Selection would be a TMS105.
Selection of dryers for change in operating conditions.

Select a refrigerated TMS dryer for a capacity of 10 m³/min, 40 °C inlet, 6 barg inlet pressure, required
PDP 4 °C. Ambient temperature is 25°C.
One important consideration should be made when make corrections. If you are doing this to lower the size
of the dryer then consider the pressure drop of a smaller frame dryer. The higher the pressure drop then the
lower the useful differential of the compressor. This could result in increased compressor cycles.
Useful Differential is the air pressure variation after the clean-up equipment, which is defined as:
Useful Differential = Compressor Pressure Control Band – Pressure Drop Across Clean-Up Equipment
6.4.2 Adsorption
Drying compressed air by adsorption is purely physics. The moisture-

laden air is bound to the drying agent by force of adhesion. The moisture
stays on the inner and outer surface of the adsorption material. The
material has an open porous structure and the most common materials are
shown in the table below. An adsorption dryer made may be made up of a
mixture of these materials.
The properties of the adsorption material changes with the pressure and
the temperature of the gas to be dried.
There are different types of desiccant materials readily available that are
used either singularly or as a combination dependent on the application.
Adsorption material
Silicagel (SiO2) raw
Silicagel (SiO2) spherical
Activated Aluminium oxide (Al2O2)
Molecular Sieves (Na, AlO2, SIO2)

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Principle of operation.
The moist compressed air flows into the adsorption vessel. The moisture is the bound to the adsorption
material, which dries the compressed air. The adsorption material must be regenerated when the water
droplets balance the adhesive forces. This means that the water must be removed from the absorption
material. For this reason there are two parallel drying tanks with continual operation. Whilst one tank
adsorbs under pressure the other regenerates at atmospheric pressure.
ADSORPTION DESORPTION ADSORPTION DESORPTION
The following processes can achieve the regeneration process:
• Heatless regeneration
• Internal hot regeneration
• External heat regeneration either by vacuum or by blower
There are some negative factors that will effect the adsorption process:
Capacity – The flow across the dryer is higher than that of the dryer rating.
Operating pressure – The pressure across the dryer is too low and the capacity of the air is too high.
Inlet temperature – Inlet temperature of the dryer is too high.
Cold regeneration – Heatless desiccant dryer

Cold regeneration cycling typically has a 5-minute fixed cycle time. This means that for 5 minutes one
tower will absorb and the other will regenerate. The moisture will only deposit on the outer surface of the
drying agent.
H²0 vapour in
This type of dryer regenerates using a portion of the dried
volume that is branched off. This part flow relaxes to a pressure
of just over 1 bar and is thus extremely dry. The air then flows
through the regeneration vessel. In this process it takes on the
Compressed Air Science – issue 2 Page

Heat11 of 23
Out
March 05
moisture attached to the drying agent and forces the water from the agent. It then passes out into the open
through and outlet valve.
CV1 & CV2 = Non

return valves
V = Valve block
Between V3 & V4 is
the outlet valve for
the regeneration air.
This is a typical twin

tower schematic.
Details may change
dependant upon the
actual model.
B1 Loading B1 Loading B1 Regenerating

B2 Regenerating B1 Pressurisation B2 Loading
The heatless desiccant dryer:
• Has a simple construction

• Can be used at high ambient temperatures but will need to oversize
• Regeneration does not need any external energy source
• Can be expensive to run due to the purge air requirement. The compressed air used for
regeneration can no longer be used.
• The percentage of purge air will fall as the final compression pressure is increased. This
should be noted when your competitor declares a low purge rate. Typically the ratio of purge
air is per the chart below. The purge air is fixed as the purge is through a fixed orifice. Purge is
also a ratio of the rating of the dryer and not the flow that is to pass through the dryer.
• Suitable pre-filtration is essential to ensure adequate life of the adsorption material. This will
remove oil, water droplets and particles prior to entering the dryer.
• Post filtration is needed to remove dust from the drying material. Otherwise this could pass
down into the ring main and reduce the life of down stream components.
• Using EMS the cycle time can be extended. By detecting the dryness of the compressed air
leaving the dryer according to the desired dew point the EMS (Energy Management System)
will extend the cycle time if the dew point is being maintained.
6.4.3Vacuum regeneration
The vacuum regenerative dryer is a externally heat regenerative dryer. The regeneration time is 6 hours (can
be longer with EMS so that the heater is not applied so often consequently saving). During this time the
moisture within the compressed air deposits itself on to the inner and outer surfaces of the adsorption
material. To reverse this process heat must be brought in from the outside. If the heat load being applied
exceeds the regeneration temperature of the drying material then the water is evaporated off the surface of
the adsorption material. On some competitive externally heated dryers a small amount of compressed air
(nominally 2.2%) would be used to purge off the moisture.
This is not the case with a Vacuum regenerative dryer. Atmospheric air is drawn in the regeneration tower
with a partial vacuum. This achieves the highest heat yield at the lowest energy. However water evaporates
at a lower pressure under a vacuum.

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The TZV dryer has a 6 hour cycle time.
• 20 mins Depressurisation
• 280 mins Heating. will vary (min 170)
• 50 mins Cooling
• 10 mins Pressure build up / stand by
• Cycle starts all over again and depressurisation begins to start.
These dryers are extremely economical especially with high volume flows above 7m³/min. But this
is dependant on how much the customer pays for electricity.
• No additional compressed air is taken from the system for regeneration. This means that all the air
that is generated is available for the production process. This could avoid the up sizing of the
compressor.
• Long utility time on the drying agent compared to internally heated desiccant dryers that can bake
the agent
• Energy savings through lower regeneration temperature compared to an externally heated dryer or
a blower purge dryer.
• Like the heatless desiccant dryer a suitable pre-filtration is essential in order to remove the oil, bulk
liquid and particulate before entrapment on the desiccant bed.
• You would also need to allow for a dust filter.
• EMS will prolong the cycle further. This is useful if the load across the dryer is not 100% and there
is extra drying capacity. If the adsorption cycle is still maintaining the desired dew-point then there
is no need to change the cycle.
• The only disadvantages are that the ambient air must be of a high quality so that the desiccant does
not get contaminated, as this can be expensive.

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Four phase of regeneration of a TZV dryer:
A. Loading
Air enters vessel & distributed by self cleaning wedge screen. Leaves by distributor.
B. Regeneration
When loading is complete, vessel switches over.
Loaded vessel is depressurised and regenerated
V3
1. Expansion.
Expansion valve opened.
2. Heating phase
RV / V3 opened
Vacuum fan switches on
Heater switches on
3. Cooling phase
Heater switches off
Vacuum continues to draw
4. Pressure build up
V4 opens
RV / V3 close
RV
V4
6.5 Refrigerated air dryers.
We have learnt that when the temperature falls air losses its ability to retain water. Knowing this, if we want
to reduce the moisture content compressed air can be cooled by a refrigeration dryer. The refrigeration
drying process is cooling the air down within a heat exchanger. The moisture contained in the air
precipitates in the form of condensate. The quantity of condensate rises with the difference between the
entry and exit temperatures of the compressed air.
Around 90% of all air drying applications use a refrigerated dryer. They are highly economical. Pressure
drop across the dryers vary. The total differential of the clean-up equipment changes as a function of the
individual compressor’s flow. Since the differential changes as a square function of flow change, any high
differential is seen by the compressors controller, and may unload the compressor prematurely.
Below is a typical Ingersoll Rand TS direct expansion dryer schematic.

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A= Refrigeration
compressor
B = Hot gas bypass
A
C= Condenser
D D =Evaporator
E= Filter
F= Capillary
G= Condensate drain
B H= Compressed air in
H I= Compressed air out
Compressed air enters

I the dryer (H) 100%
C saturated. Within the heat
exchanger the exiting
G cooled air-cools the
incoming air, and
precipitation takes place.
The air is then cooled
E F even further as it passes
through the air to
refrigerant heat portion
of the heat exchange
coupled to the evaporator. The compressed air is reheated within the same exchanger by the transfer of heat
from the incoming air. The precipitation in the form of condensate is drained from the dryer (G) within the
evaporator portion of the heat exchanger. This is directed off before the re-heating of the compressed air
takes place.
Refrigeration system works due to a fundamental fact that if any liquid is pressurised, its boiling point is
raised and conversely, if the pressure is lowered, its boiling point is reduced. We know that at atmospheric
pressure 1 bar water boils at 100°C. If the pressure then raised to 1.38 bar the boiling point is raised to
approximately 110°C If the pressure is lowered to 0.7 bar, the boiling point is lowered to approx. 90°C.
All liquids act in this way and the liquid used in a refrigeration system is continually having its pressure
changed by the refrigeration compressor in order to vary its boiling point. The low temperature at which
refrigerant boils enables cooling to be carried out. Thus by simply reducing the pressure i.e., the suction
effect of the compressor combined with the capillary tube, the liquid in the evaporator has its boiling point
reduced and when the liquid evaporates, it must draw heat inwards. If this low-pressure vapour is now
compressed its boiling point is raised, which when cooled below its boiling point at this higher pressure will
cause condensation, thus producing high-pressure liquid.
This is the basic refrigeration cycle.
Compressor (A)
It reduces the pressure in the evaporator until the liquid refrigerant evaporates at the
correct, low, temperature. It compresses the refrigerant vapour in order to reach its
boiling point. Refrigerant exits the compressors as a high-pressure gas.
Condenser (C)
The condenser receives the hot, high-pressure vapour from the compressor and
cools it. This cools the high-pressure gas to a high-pressure liquid.

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Capillary (F)
The capillary reduces the pressure of the liquid refrigerant prior to the evaporator
ensuring the vaporisation of the refrigerant and the maximum heat exchange. This
is now a low pressure liquid.
Compressed air heat is rejected to the cooling airflow within the evaporator. This
changes the state of the refrigerant from a low-pressure liquid to a low-pressure
gas. Condensation occurs as the refrigerant passes through the condenser and the
result is high-pressure liquid, which feeds the capillary expander.
Hot gas by pass valve (B)

In the event of a varying heat load from the compressed air (load/unload)
the hot gas valve reduces the cooling capacity of the circuit in low airflow
conditions, preventing freezing.
The valve adjusts the gas to the correct pressure of the refrigerant, which
leaves the evaporator, it reverts the hot gas from the compressor back to
the suction line.
6.4.5 Refrigerated Air Dryer - Thermal Mass
Compressed air circuit

Starting at the air intake, air enters the dryer at a temperature of
usually 10 - 15 ºC above the ambient. The inlet air should
contain only water vapour, as liquid will affect the dryer’s
capacity.
On MODELS 25 and above the air passes through the pre-

cooler/re-heater. Here the temperature of the air is reduced
approximately 16 ºC thus reducing the heat load into the thermal
mass heat exchanger.
In reducing the temperature of the air we also remove water

therefore on dryers equipped with pre-cooler/re-heaters there is
a condensate drain to remove water knocked out at this point.
From here the pre-cooled air then enters the main coils of the
thermal mass heat exchanger and heat exchange inwards from
the air to the thermal mass takes place. The thermal mass is a
solution of water with 25% glycol added.
As the air passes through the main exchanger the temperature is reduced to the same level as the thermal
mass (normally 2º C), and in so doing more water is removed from the air which is removed by the separator
and trap connected to the outlet of the main exchanger.

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The air is then passed through the re-heater where its temperature is raised about 22o C. This is done to
prevent sweating on the external surfaces of the compressed air pipe work and, as already explained to
reduce the incoming load.
Refrigeration circuit
Water Separator
Thermal Mass
Heat Exchanger
Precooler/
Reheater
Refrigerant
Compressor Air Inlet
Air Outlet
Condenser & Fan Liquid Receiver
The compressor will compress the refrigerant to a high-pressure gas. This is the passed through the
condenser, which will change the state of the refrigerant to a high-pressure liquid. Dependent on the size of
the TMS dryer the refrigerant is then allowed to expand through a thermostatic control valve. Here the
refrigerant changes its state once more and becomes a low pressure liquid.
In the thermal mass heat exchanger, as well as the air coils, is a coil of pipe known as the evaporator, which
is filled with liquid refrigerant held at low pressure by the suction effect of the compressor. The heat load
from the compressed air is exchanged to the refrigerant and boils off to a low-pressure gas, which is
returned to the suction side of the refrigerant compressor. If there is a low compressed air heat load
(machine is off load) the thermostatic valves restrict the flow of refrigerant through the evaporator.
Ultimately this reflects in the shutdown of the complete unit until the heat load is reapplied by the creation
of more compressed air. The end result is saving energy whilst maintaining the dew point within the thermal
mass.
Pre-cooler:
Lowers incoming air temperatures. This reduces the load on the refrigeration unit
reducing energy consumption
Re-heater:
Raises the temp. of the outgoing dry air. The benefit is that this lowers relative humidity
protecting downstream piping from corrosion and external sweating.
The thermal mass dryers maintain constant PDP under no load conditions. The result is
no PDP peaks. With direct expansion dryers the refrigerant flow is constantly being adjusted. PDP peaks
may occur with this type of dyer.
Evaporator freezing cannot happen.

Thermal Mass Tank is the evaporator, and therefore cannot freeze (water /glycol). Variations in heat load do
not affect dryer performance. With direct expansion dryers freezing could occur, particularly in low ambient
temperatures. Load variation with a direct expansion dryer could cause dew point spikes. The biggest

March 05
advantage with a TMS dryer is the energy savings. The compressor stops and starts to maintain the thermal
load. Where as the direct expansion compressor will operate all the time.
Thermal mass dryers would normally be sold:
• Intermittent loading of compressed air system - Compressors loading / unloading

• Multiple compressors operating in sequence
• A compressor goes off line.-Evening / weekend
• High ambient temp where Thermal Mass can compensate for the heat load
If the flow is constant, 100% continuous loaded than the TMS offers no advantage. However there are other
advantages such as, adjustable thermostat for the dew point (some models).
10°C water vapour rule.

For each 10°C increase or decrease in temperature the water vapour will double.
6.5 Compressed Air Filtration
6.5.1 Terminology
This is a typical Ingersoll Rand filter. The air flows from the inside of the
filter to the outside
General purpose Filters remove:

• liquid in droplet form
• Solid particles
• Dust, pollen, bacteria etc
Specialised absorption filters

• Specific Vapours
• Odours
6.5.2 Pressure drop

The pressure drop is the difference in
pressure before and after the filter
caused by the flow. This pressure drop
will grow in time as particles of dirt,
or dust are collected in the filter media
(element).
The delta P with a clean and new filter is around 0.07 bar dry to 0.14 bar
wet depending on the type of filter. The economical acceptable limit for
pressure drop is around 0.35-barg. However one should calculate the cost
of the pressure drop compared to the cost of the replacement element. For
every 0.5-barg the kW consumed would increase by approx. 3.6 %. For a
75 kW compressor this would result in an extra cost of:
75 kW x 1.1 / 0.94 x 1.036 x 6000 hours x 0.06 €/kW/hr = €32,733

75 kW x 1.1 / 0.94 x 6000 hours x 0.06 €/kW/hr = €31,595
Cost of the increase in pressure drop €1,138.

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DP
6.5.3 Operating pressure
The maximum flow through the filter is referred to a normal working pressure of 7-barg. When the pressure
changes the flow rate through the filter also changes. This change can be calculated using the conversion
factor below. It should be noted that filters sized for the nominal bore of the pipe work offer least resistance.
Even if the filters rate flow is sized according to the compressors rated flow.
Example: An Ingersoll Rand MH75 has a nominal performance of 11.0 m³/min. The appropriate pre-filter
for this compressor basis a working pressure of 7-barg would be GP481, which is rated for 13.46 m³/min.
The next size of filter down from the GP481 is the GP350, which is rated for 9.8m³/min. Basis the higher
working pressure could this filter handle the increased air flow?
R10 = R7 x f
R10 = 9.8 x 1.13
R10 = 11.07 m³/min
An Ingersoll-Rand MH45 has a nominal performance of 6.5 m³/min. What filter would
you offer with this compressor basis a working pressure of 9 barg?
6.5.4 Pre-filtration. IR GP (General Purpose) Range

The purpose of the pre-filter is to remove solid impurities to a particle size of 1 micron. This includes
coalesced liquid water and oil, providing a maximum remaining oil aerosol content of 0.6 mg/m3 (<0.5
ppm) @ 21°C. These filters take a high load off the high performance filters and dryers. Depending upon
the application these filters are often considered sufficient on their own.
The pre-filters operate according to the principle of impingement. They purely have a sifting effect to the
compressed air supply. The size of the pore within the element depends upon the size of the particles to be
removed. The impurities will remain on the inside surface of the filter elements. Therefore once the pressure
drop is excessive the elements need to be replaced rather than cleaned.

March 05
Particle Removal
The fibres in the filter media trap particles.
Additional and different filer media stop different size particles.
Coalescing
Minute liquids are trapped on the filter fibre.
All “coalesce”(collect) to form larger
droplets. Fall to the bottom and are drained
away.
6.5.5 High Efficiency filters IR HE (high efficiency) Range
High efficiency filters are used when high quality compressed air is needed. Particle removal down to 0.01
micron including water and oil aerosols, providing a maximum remaining oil aerosol content of 0.01 mg/m3
(<0.01 ppm) @ 21°C. (Precede with Grade GP filter).
Air passes through the deep-bedded element from the inside to the outside. The liquid
phase from oil and water droplets deposit on the fibrous web when passing through the
filter. The flow of the air drives the condensate and growing droplets further through the
filter towards the outside of the element. Following the laws of gravity the condensate
forms at the bottom of the filter housing. A float drain will open and dispose of the
condensate. The working life of the filter is enhanced as the condensate that is filtered out
will no longer be a burden to the element.
The material used with these filters is designed to repel water and oil.
• Improved liquid drainage

-higher effective surface area
-increase air flow rates
• Ultra low resistance to flow

-better pressure drop
The element on the right of this picture is a

non IR brand of element. You can see that
the liquid has been absorbed by the capillary
action. Whilst the other has not.
Borosilicate fibre in the form of fibreglass

layers is the most widespread material in
high performance filters. Metallic and
synthetic fibres are also used.
Hydrocarbons are found in two conditions in

compressed air:
1. In gaseous form as oil vapour

2. Liquid in form of droplets.
High performance filters will remove almost 100% of the oil droplets. The oil vapour cannot be filtered out.

March 05
The efficiency of the filter will drop when the operating temperature rise increases. Some of the oil droplets
will vaporise and go through the filter. With a rise in temperature from +21°C to + 31°C the amount of oil
that is passed through the filter is increased by a factor of 5.
Can you always achieve pure oil-free air from an oil-lubricated compressor with in-line filters?
Compressor rooms are hot. Filters are designed to remove oil carry-over when the inlet temperature is
around 21°C. So the compressor room ambient air must be around 10-12 °C to deliver air at this
temperature. But, it is more likely that the temperature is above 20°C, delivering at over 30°C.
More heat means more carry-over. As the air temperature rises, oil carry-over increases exponentially, so
the amount of oil pumped into the air net exceeds the filter capability and there is air supply contamination.
If 100% oil free air is essential then 100% oil free compressors (Sierra, Centac or Nirvana Oil Free) need to
be offered.
Extra filters won’t help. Even a combination of filters cannot guarantee 100% air purity. Some say a three-
stage filtration system with a final stage, activated carbon filter will eliminate the oil content (Those that
don’t offer oil free compressors). This arrangement is only efficient at 21 °C so you are back to the
beginning once more. Don’t forget that the more filters will equate to a high-pressure drop. This means a
higher applied input kW.
Is the risk worth it? For pharmaceutical, food and beverage, electronics, automotive, textiles, chemical &
medical industries nearly always need and specify a clean, dry and 100% oil free compressed air system.
Oil that is carried over in vapour form will condense when the air is expanded and cooled.
Ingersoll Rand filter elements use a patented end cap with a swept bend.
This lowers the pressure drop of the filter. The moulded seal ensures perfect
alignment.
6.5.6 Activated carbon filters. Grade IR AC (Activated Carbon) Series

After passing through the pre and high efficiency filtration, technically oil
free air can be achieved by the inclusion of an activated carbon filter. (Not
absolute 100% oil free per above) Prior to this filter compressed air could
still contain hydrocarbons and diverse odorous substances. There is a
magnitude to compressed air users where residues would result in
disruptions of production, adverse quality and unpleasant smells. Oil vapour
and hydrocarbon odour removal, giving a maximum remaining oil content
of <0.003 mg/m3 (<0.003 ppm) (excluding methane) @ 21°C. (Precede
Grade AC with Grade HE filter).

March 05
These filters absorb vapour into their structure (no use with liquid).
Carbon structure eventually becomes “full”. The vapour can by-pass so
that the filter will not cause excessive pressure drop.
An activated carbon filter must always be connected up stream of a high performance filter and dryer.
Unfiltered compressor air will destroy the absorbing material and reduce the filtration effect. Once the
absorbing material is beyond its service life the material must be disposed of, as it cannot be reused.
Typically the life of an activated carbon filter is 1000 hours. AC filters do not have any differential pressure
indicators and should be replaced on operating hours.

March 05
Water vapour content in air at atmospheric pressure.
When the air re-expands to atmospheric pressure this is the quantity of water at a given temperature.
Saturation Pressure Ps And Density Pw of Water Vapour at
Atmospheric Pressure.
Moisture Vapour Content Of Air at
Atmospheric pressure of 1.0132 bar (a)
Dewpoint g/m3 Dewpoint g/m3

-70 0.0033 50 82.257
-50 0.038 49 78.497
-49 0.043 48 74.871
-48 0.048 47 71.395
-47 0.054 46 68.056
-46 0.06 45 64.848
-45 0.067 44 61.772
-44 0.075 43 58.82
-43 0.083 42 55.989
-42 0.093 41 53.274
-41 0.104 40 50.672
-40 0.117 39 48.181
-39 0.13 38 45.593
-38 0.144 37 43.508
-37 0.16 36 41.322
-36 0.178 35 39.286
-35 0.198 34 37.229
-34 0.22 33 35.317
-33 0.244 32 33.49
-32 0.271 31 31.744
-31 0.301 30 30.078
-30 0.33 29 28.488
-29 0.37 28 26.97
-28 0.41 27 25.524
-27 0.46 26 24.143
-26 0.51 25 22.83
-25 0.55 24 21.578
-24 0.6 23 20.386
-23 0.66 22 19.252
-22 0.73 21 18.191
-21 0.8 20 17.148
-20 0.88 19 16.172
-19 0.96 18 15.246
-18 1.05 17 14.367
-17 1.15 16 13.531
-16 1.27 15 12.739
-15 1.38 14 11.987
-14 1.51 13 11.276
-13 1.65 12 10.6
-12 1.8 11 9.961
-11 1.96 10 9.356
-10 2.156 9 8.784
-9 2.339 8 8.234
-8 2.537 7 7.732
-7 2.751 6 7.246
-6 2.984 5 6.79
-5 3.238 4 6.395
-4 3.513 3 5.953
-3 3.889 2 5.57
-2 4.135 1 5.209
-1 4.487 0 4.868
March 05
Chapter Seven
Condensate disposal
7.1 Condensate
As described with chapter six, condensate of water that is contained within the air that is drawn into the
compressor and which is formed during the compression process. The condensate will also contain
impurities.
• Mineral oil aerosols as well as unburned hydrocarbons from the air.

• Dust and dirt particles from the air.
• Cooling and lubricating oil from the compressor.
• Rust, pieces of sealing material and weld from the distribution system.
It is the compressed air users responsibility to ensure that the condensate is disposed of as it can be
potentially harmful. Mineral oils in the condensate are hard to biodegrade and are detrimental to oxygen
enrichment and material disintegration in the water treatment works. The result is that the entire water
treatment efficiency is worsened. There is a hazard to the environment and the human health.
The condensate from a pneumatic system can differ and this depends on the environment and the
compressor type.
Contact cooled compressor systems.

On compressors of this type the oil washes a part of the
aggressive and solid matter out of the in coming air
supply within the compression process. The result is that
oil lubricated compressors generally produce condensate
that has a neutral pH-value.
Oil free compressor systems.

Harmful substances in a oil free system are discharged
by the condensate. This is the reason why the pH valve
is higher with oil free compressors compared to contact
cooled.
7.2 Condensate drains
Where condensate occurs within a compressed air system it has to be drained. If the condensate is not
drained it will flow with the compressed air and enter the pipeline. Condensate must be drained off at the
lowest possible pressure loss otherwise the draining off will create a demand event that will result in more
compressors starting or an unacceptable production pressure down stream. This will be calculated within the
next section.
On must also take not that condensate does not occur on a continued basis. We have already shown that the
amount of condensate changes with temperature and moisture that is drawn in by the compressor. (Chapter
Types of condensate drains
Manual Automatic
Manual Drain Condensate float Condensate time Condensate drain

control drain dependant drain volume sensing
ENLD /
PNLD
EDV

March 05
6) Above is a summary of the types of drains that are available.
It is important that when you select the type of drain you consider the conditions in which the drain itself is
to operate in. For example a PNLD will operate better outside or where the compressor room is damp.
Compared to the electrically operated ENLD. You should also consider:
• Aggressive condensate. Air containing SO2 (sulphur oxide) will when mixed with water create H2SO4,
which is sulphuric acid.
• Explosive (zone 1,2) areas
• High and very high pressure networks.
• Condensate drains that will need to operate when the ambient temperature is below 0°C. The water will
freeze in the drain our within the condensate drain line.
7.2.1 Manual drains

This is a very simple construction. No electrical
connection is required. The condensate collects
within a tank and servicing or operating staff must
check the level at regular periodic intervals. The
condensate must be drained off by use of a valve.
There is no alarm function with this type of drain
valve. It is common for the small reciprocating
compressor to use this type of drain, mainly for cost
reasons.
7.2.2 Float drains

Within the drain housing there is a float, which controls an
outlet valve at the bottom of the tank. This works by the same
principle as the toilet system. If the level of the float rises
above a certain level the outlet valve will open. Likewise if the
level falls once the water is expelled the float will drop and the
valve will close. This is so that the air does not escape. A pipe
into the treatment equipment then drains the condensate away.
This type of condensate drain is common on water separators

(SSR M37 and above, all Nirvana’s) as well as coalescing
filters. They are simple and inexpensive in design. Obviously
there is no need for an electrical connection so they are ideal in
hazardous areas. The down side is that they are susceptible to
go wrong. The moving parts are solidify, stick through direct
contact of the condensate. The result is that they need regular
servicing. There is no external alarm signal. If the drain has failed you will not know if it has stuck closed.
But if it has stuck opened air will continue to escape. When they work well no compressed air will be blow
off as the valve closes once the water has passed.
7.2.3 Timed Solenoid drains

Condensate will be collected within a tank or a drain leg. At a fixed interval (1.5 to 30 min) a magnetic
valve with timer opens the drain. After an opening of 0.4 to 10 seconds the valve closes again. During this
period the condensate is forced out under the air pressure. This would be piped into a condensate treatment
product.
This type of drain is highly reliable. Electrical connection is required yet on dryers and certain compressors
this is provided within the scope of supply. There is no external malfunction signal but it is rare that they
fail. The down side is that this type of drain will open even if there is no compressed air demand. This will
vent compressed air from the system and lower the pressure. Multiple drains firing off could result in the
false loading of a compressor.

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To minimise compressed air loss the cycle times of the
valves must always be adjusted to suit the local conditions.
Because the weather is not always consistent (unless you
live in Manchester where it rains all the time!) it is not
possible to set the time intervals and valve opening times so
that you do not lose compressed air at all. Either a part of the
condensate remains in the system or some of the compressed
air is lost. The quantity of condensate within the summer
months is more compared to winter months but it is
extremely rare that the rates of opening are adjusted. Where
there have been water issues the drains tend to be set for the
longest opening and the shortest fixed interval. The result is
high compressed air loss.
This shows a solenoid operated drain mounted within a dryer. Most modern refrigerated air dryers are now
supplied with moisture sensing drains.
7.2.4 Moisture sensing drains

Electricity waste due to drain operation is often a major source of energy costs associated with compressed
air systems. Condensate often contains aggressive contaminants, which makes conventional drain traps
unreliable and costly to maintain. The Ingersoll-Rand ENLD has an electronic level sensing capability
which only discharges when condensate is present, thus preventing unnecessary loss of valuable compressed
air. This intelligent sensing system operates with all types of condensate from 100% oil to 100% water.
Advantages of an ENLD drain
• Strainer and 1.5 M fly lead provided as standard

with all drain valves
• Remote alarm facility indicates blockage, overflow
and power loss fitted as standard
• Balance line supplied as standard
• Designed to complement all compressed air systems,
including, compressors, filters, water, separators,
dryers, coolers and receivers.
• • IP65/NEMA 4 Ingress Protection rating
• • Easy mounting and installation – no additional
mounting brackets required
• • Zero air loss, Zero energy loss, less maintenance
and easy to access components.
Provided they are installed correctly with the balance line

if the condensate entry is not gravity fed they are very reliable. The strainer provided ensures that large
impurities do not block inside the valve. There is no pressure loss so there is no loss of energy. Electricity is
required for each of the drain valves. These drains other great flexibly as the system adapts itself
automatically to the changing atmospheric conditions. The alarm function is useful with a potential free
signal included as well. This type of drain has a very wide performance range.
1) discharge outlet valve is closed, sensor is constantly monitoring for

presence of liquid
2) Condensate enters and is detected by the sensor. The outlet valve is
opened for a pre-set time.
3) Condensate discharged using system pressure.
4) Outlet valve closed (after a pre-set time). Pre-set time has been
calculated to allow a small amount of liquid to remain in bowl, preventing
air loss.

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As an option to the ENLD is the PNLD, pneumatically operated no
loss drain. This is drain requires no electricity supply. The features are
like the ENLD like zero loss in air pressure and the condensate
removal is activated by the demand.
Left is the PNLD from Ingersoll Rand.
PNLD’s work off an internal float

mechanism (A) that lifts as
condensate accumulates inside the
canister. When the condensate
reaches a certain level, the float opens
a valve (D) to an actuation cylinder (G), which opens the condensate relief
valve (F). Once the condensate is removed the float falls to close the valve.
No air is lost while the condensate is removed. The drain does not require
any pre-setting or manual intervention. The drain is compatible with all
types of compressor lubricant.
• Demand Activated: Eliminates need for pre-setting

• Zero Air Loss: Energy efficiency
• 2 sizes available:
PLND 16 0.5 Litre Reservoir
PNLD 52 1.54 Litre Reservoir
fewer cycles - extended service life
• Plated, anodised Components: suitable for chemically aggressive
environments
• Internal Flow Booster (proprietary): prevents airlock
• Sealed Actuation Mechanism: Unaffected by rust and pipe scale can be used in any IR or non IR
compressed air system.
• The viewing window allows you to see the level of the condensate.
7.3 Condensate treatment

Condensate that comes from oil lubricated compressors can have an oil content between 200 and 1000 mg/l
depending upon the season. The result is that the condensate could be made up of 99% water and 1% oil.
The law clearly states that the condensate must be treated as wastewater containing oil. The law stipulates
that the compressed air user must obtain consent to discharge effluent even when treated.
Due to the high water content it is worth treating the oily condensate on site. With consent properly treated
water can be disposed of into a public wastewater drainage system. The separated oil should be disposed of
in an environmentally safe way.
7.3.1 Gravity separation

The following oil water separator is suitable for treating the condensate that occurs during the operation of
screw compressors with oil injection cooling. This type of separator parts the oil from the water by a gravity

March 05
method. These separators do not work with emulsified coolant. Therefore if the compressor installation
consists of a compressor is operating with Ingersoll Rand Ultra Coolant and a compressor operating with a
mineral oil you will need to use a Polysep.
This type of separator separates the oil from the water by “passive”
gravitation and activated carbon. The carbon bag is a consumable
item and must be replaced to ensure correct operation of the
separator.
1. Condensate and air enters the centrifugal inlet chamber under pressure and is
allowed to expand.
2. Liquid drops out as it impinges on the chamber walls and vortex generator,
draining into the primary settlement chamber below.
3. Dirt particles suspended in the condensate will settle to the bottom of the
primary settlement chamber.
4. Accumulating condensate will then

flow into the main settlement tank.
5. Over a period of time, oil will separate from the water and will
float to the surface of the water within the main settlement tank.
This oil will coalesce to form a thick layer.
6. An adjustable funnel is used to skim off oil.
7. Skimmed oil is then collected in an external container.
8. Clean water flows into the carbon filter stage.
9. It is first passed through an absorbent pre-filter to remove any
bulk contamination.
10. . It then passes through the carbon filter stage to remove the final traces of entrained oil through
adsorption.
11. Finally, cleaned water is discharged from the unit into the foul sewer from the outlet, as shown.
7.3.2 Polysep operation/benefits
The Ingersoll Rand Polysep is designed to effectively separate

emulsified compressor condensate to levels between 5 to 15 PPM.
Feature / Benefits.
• Extended filter life: up to 1 year or 8000 hours
• Adsorption module contains a special ‘Zeolite’ adsorbent
& hold’s 4 times more than standard activated carbon filters.

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• Low maintenance cost - Easy to maintain - Adsorption modules
are easy to dispose
• No electricity required
• Rated up to17 Bars
• Fully Automatic
• Works with every lubricant (except Foodgrade and Silicone based).
The Polysep helps to protect & maintain the environment by efficiently separating oil from water on-site.
After separation, the condensate can be passed down the foul sewers. Meeting trade effluent regulations!
Condensate
Diffuser Chamber
Pump Compressed Air Line
Oil
Weir Zeolite Filter
Main Ball
Reservoir Valve Float
Pick-up
Tube
• The condensate enters the diffuser chamber (1) where it is depressurized.

• The oily condensate then enters a main reservoir (2) where gravity separation occurs. Any oil floating
to the surface is skimmed off through an adjustable oil weir (3).
• The condensate then moves to a separate chamber through a pick-up tube (4).
• As the condensate accumulates in the next chamber, a float (5) rises with the level of condensate. The
float is connected to a ball valve (6) by a lever arm.
• The increased level of condensate causes the float to rise and open the ball valve. As the valve opens,
the air operated pump (7) is allowed to push the condensate out to the filter module (8).
• If the level of condensate continues to rise, the float also rises and further opens the ball valve.
• Cleaned water discharged (9) from the filter module can be disposed of directly into the facility’s
sanitary sewer.
• This system assures maximum contact time for the filter module.
What is the difference between the two systems?
• For use with Mineral Oil, Diesters, Polyol Ester (Ultra Plus), PAO
• Separates oil by “passive” gravitation and activated carbon.
• Carbon Filtration
PolySep™:
• For use with Mineral Oil, Diesters, Polyol Ester (Ultra Plus), PAO, Ultra Coolant & Polyglycols
(PolySep can handle emulsions). The process can work with multi-unit separation.
• However, it will not work with Food Grade & Silicone Lubricants.
• Zeolite element filter

March 05
Chapter Eight
Dynamics of Compressed Air
It is extremely rare for a compressed air system to remain static. There is nearly always something that
causes the system to change and react in a different way than what was originally anticipated. For example
as the system ages the leaks in the system will increase. The differential across the air treatment will worsen
as the elements become contaminated with particulate. Therefore on these two common points alone the
compressed air system is dynamic.
8.1 Consumption of air

When designing a compressed air system you first need to ascertain the requirement for compressed air and
the resulting FAD of the compressor. First establish what the total expected consumption. The consumption
of each individual user devices should be added together and then adjusted to the operating conditions with
the aid of multiplication factors. One would then select the compressor according to the resulting FAD
figures.
The procedure for compressor sizing is comparable to the determining of the size of pipelines.
Determination of the type and number of consumer devices on a certain section of pipe comes first. The
consumption of the individual devices can be added together and then adjusted by any multiplication
factors.
Leakage must also be taken into account when determining the expected consumption of the compressed
air. One should also make allowances for any plant expansion.
This process is not always easy. This is due to the lack of information given by the OEM for the individual
components. Within the chapter we provide guideline values for the requirement of individual components.
These are average values and the OEM should provide the exact figures.
8.1.1 Consumption of nozzles

The air consumption of an air nozzle will vary dependant upon the shape and size.
• Larger diameter nozzles will have a greater consumption (see chapter 14)
• Operating pressure will effect the flow through the nozzle. The higher the pressure the greater the flow.
• A simple, cylindrical through a hole consumes less air compared to a conical nozzle. Therefore the
shape of the nozzle effects the flow.
• If the surface quality of the aperture is very good (smooth, no grooves or roughness) more air can flow
through.
• Usage of compressed air rises if the air is being used as a medium for paint, sand etc.
Nozzles that have a simple cylindrical bore, such as blowguns create a strong turbulent flow. This will
reduce the speed of the flow and hence lower the consumption. The following table provides a reference for
compressed air consumption of such cylindrical nozzles. This is dependent upon the pressure and nozzle
diameter. Health and Safety bodies will state the safe working pressure of a blowgun is 2-barg.
Air Consumption values are shown in l/min

Diameter 2-bar 3-bar 4-bar 5-bar 6-bar 7-bar 8-bar
(mm)
0.5 8 10 12 15 18 22 28
1.0 25 35 45 55 65 75 85
1.5 60 75 95 110 130 150 170
2.0 105 145 180 220 250 290 330
2.5 175 225 280 325 380 430 480
3.0 230 370 400 465 540 710 790

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8.1.2 Consumption of cylinders
The use of compressed air cylinders is when automation is required with the process. There is generally two
types of cylinders. These are single and double action.
Single action cylinders use compressed air to generate the movement of the working stroke. The return
stroke is performed by a spring or from the outside. Where as the double action cylinder will use
compressed air to generate the movement with both strokes. The result is that the double action cylinder will
consume twice as much compressed air as the single action.
The formula below is used to calculate the compressed air consumption.
C = d²x π x S x P x A x B
4
C = air consumption in (m³/min)

D = piston diameter (m)
S = length of the stoke or path of the piston (m)
P = operating pressure (bar)
A = working cycles per minute (1/min)
B = 1 for single action and 2 for double actions.
Example: A double action cylinder with a piston diameter 50mm is required to work at an operating
pressure of 6-barg. The working stroke is 150mm at 30 work cycles per minute.
C = 0.05²x 3.142 x 0.15 x 6 x 30 x 2

4
This cylinder would consume approximately 0.106 m³/min.
A single action cylinder with a piston diameter 50mm is required to work at an

operating pressure of 6-barg. The working stroke is 150mm at 30 work cycles
per minute.

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8.1.3 Consumption of paint spraying
When the paint is applied from the spray gun the application should be even and there should not be any
drip or runs. The spray nozzle should therefore be designed for expanding, non turbulent flow with a high
speed of exit. The consequence of this is that the spray nozzle will consume more compressed air when
compared to a cylindrical nozzle. The consistency and desired quality of the paint will determine the
operating pressure and the nozzle diameter for the spray gun. These will influence the compressed air
requirement.
There is a difference between flat, broad and round spray nozzles. The type of spray will have an influence
of the application of the paint. The following tabulation gives reference values for the compressed air
consumption of a spray nozzle depending upon the operating pressure, the nozzle type and diameter of the
nozzle or orifice.
Air Consumption values are shown in l/min and are for flat and broad spray nozzles
Diameter 2-bar 3-bar 4-bar 5-bar 6-bar
(mm)
0.5 100 115 135 160 185
1.0 125 150 175 200 240
1.5 160 180 200 225 260
2.0 185 210 235 265 295
2.5 210 230 260 300 340
3.0 230 250 290 330 375
Consumption values are shown in l/min and are for round spray nozzles
Diameter 2-bar 3-bar 4-bar
(mm)
0.5 75 90 105
1.0 95 115 135
1.5 120 140 155
We can see that increasing the pressure will increase the air consumption. This may also impact the
coverage of the paint.
8.1.4 Consumption of air tools

For many years pneumatic tools are often the most frequent consumers of compressed air within industry.
They normally require a working pressure of 6-bar but there are versions that work on different working
pressures, depending on the application and the performance required. Below is a table providing reference
values for a number of pneumatic tools. The values may vary for individual tools and should be considered
as average values. Compressors can be sized using these averages but piping should be sized for full power
air consumption. This could be up to 4 times these values.
Basis working pressure of 6.2-barg (90-psig)

Air Tool Average Air Consumption l/min
¼” impact tool 85
3
/8” impact tool 90
½” impact tool 140
¾” impact tool 270
1” impact tool 300
10-13mm Chuck Drill 110
10.2mm Chisel hammer 85
Nibbler 110
Tyre buffer 390
Body saw 720
100mm Angle grinder 170
125mm Angle grinder 170
Mini die grinder 85
Disk sander 110
Angle sander 220

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High speed pistol grip 340
sander
Air Riveter 1.7 per cycle
Angle polisher 220
8.2 Sizing compressors

When you try to determine the compressed air requirement of a pneumatic network it is not a simple case of
adding the consumption values of the individual devices. There are other factors that will influence the
usage that should be taken into account.
8.2.1 Time of operating/usage factor

Pneumatic devices, such as air tools, spray guns, blow guns, conveying systems are not 100% in use. These
are switched on and off as required. Therefore it is important that you ascertain the usage rate (UR) in order
to obtain a more accurate figure for the compressed air. Otherwise you can vastly oversize the compressed
air system or adversely undersize the system.
You can use the following formula to determine the UR factor.
UR will be expressed as a %.
UR = Usage time x 100%

Reference time
An example of this is a screwdriver that is in use for 30 min in the course of a one-hour period.
UR = 30 x 100%
60
UR = 50%
In this simple example the usage rate of the tool is 50%.
Calculate the usage rate for the following tools within a one-hour period:
Screwdriver 15 min
Grinding machine 40 min
Blow gun 10 min
Tooling machine 55 min
Shot blasting 9 min
Usage rates of some widely used pneumatic devices are given in the table below. These are general figures
and may deviate. Therefore the UR is always a question that should be asked.
Tool Average UR %
Drill 30
Grinder 40
Mortise hammer 30
Forming machine 20
Blow gun 10
Tooling machine 75

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8.2.2 Simultaneity factor
This factor is an empirical value based on the experience of pneumatic devices that are not in use at the
same time. You would use this factor to adjust the theoretical total consumption of a number of applications
with something considered more realistic.
The following tabulation shows simultaneity factors that are generally recognised in industry.
Qty of applications Simultaneity factor

1 1.00
2 0.94
3 0.89
4 0.86
5 0.83
6 0.80
7 0.77
8 0.75
9 0.73
10 0.71
11 0.69
12 0.68
You would normally apply the simultaneity factor to cylinders, pneumatic tools, machine tools &
production machinery.
8.2.3 Compressed air requirement

When establishing the total compressed air requirement of the plant the pneumatic network can be divided
into two specific users. The first is automatic consumer users. These include automatic pneumatic cylinders,
machinery that is continuously in operation, longer working cycles that all require compressed air. You
would calculate these at a total consumption.
Application Working pressure Quantity of units Individual AxB

(bar) A consumption (m³/min)
(m³/min) B
Compressed air 6 2 4 8
cylinders
Working 5 1 2 2
machinery
Total compressed air consumption of automatic devices (m³/min) 10
The second specific user or consumer of compressed air is the general user. The average usage rate can be
calculated for this type of user as they tend not to be in use all at the same time. The UR and simultaneity
factors are reducing factors and used when determining the overall consumption.
Application Working Usage rate UR Quantity Individual A x B x UR / 100

pressure % A consumption (m³/min)
(bar) (m³/min) B
Blow guns 1mm 3 10 1 0.065 0.0065
Angle grinder 6 40 3 0.5 0.6
M10 screw driver 6 20 4 0.2 0.16
20mm drill 6 30 2 0.7 0.42
1.5mm spray gun 6 40 2 0.18 0.144
1.33
Total compressed air consumption of general users (m³/min)
Simultaneity factor 0.68

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Air consumption of general users (m³/min) 0.90
Therefore the total air consumption (T) is the addition of the automatic devices and the general air users. In
this example this would equate to 10 + 0.9 = T 10.9 m³/min (10900 l/min)
This is not the final figure for the sizing of the piping and compressor system, as allowances need to made
for losses, reserves and margin of error.
8.2.4 Allowances for losses/reserves

The following must be considered in order to determine the size of the compressor system.
Losses (L) expressed as a %

This is loss that will occur through leakage and friction in all parts of the compressed air system. Generally
a new compressed air system will require an allowance of 5% of the total FAD calculated. Due to the fact
that the leakage and frictional losses will increases as the down stream equipment ages these losses can
increase to 30% for the older compressed air systems.
Reserves (r) expressed as a %

Compressed air systems are generally sized according to the estimates of today. Experience tells us that
consumption usually rises over time. It is advisable to take short and medium extensions into account when
planning and sizing the compressed air system. If this is not done at this stage later extensions can be
considered expensive. This especially applies when sizing the piping distribution system. The reserve
allowance of 100% could be considered but very much depends not the outlook. Normally 20-30% is a
typical numeration.
Margin of error (e) expressed as a %.

No matter how careful you have been in assessing the consumption figures that can be expressed can still be
wrong. The exact figure of consumption is rarely accurate. If a system is designed too small and needs to be
extended at a latter date this is costly and could render some components as redundant. Therefore a 5-15%
margin of error allowance should be included.
When it comes to sizing the piping distribution system and the compressed air storage (receiver) being over
size will only improve the operational efficiency of the system Where as being undersized will have a great
effect to the efficiency and the delivered pressure to the application.
In our example we have determined a compressed air requirement of 10.9 m³/min at a minimum pressure of
6-barg. Now we must factor in the allowances for losses and reserves.
The total air requirement can be calculated by using this formula.
FAD = T m³/min x (100 + L + r + e)

100
FAD = 10.9 x (100 + 10 + 5 + 15)

100
FAD = 14.17 m³/min (14170 l/min)
In our example the FAD required to give the air consumer an adequate supply of air at the desired working
pressure is 14.17 m³/min. All equipment and piping distribution system should be based on this value.
8.3 Compressed air loss

This is consumption of air in a system that is not being used to perform work. Ingersoll Rand refer this as a
component of artificial demand. Leakage in a system can amount to more than 30% of the entire FAD of the

March 05
compressor. The British Compressed Air Society will generally advise that the average system will leak
around 25%. Common areas of leakage are:
Condensate traps
If you use automatic drain traps, you should check whether they are functioning correctly. Some types of
drain traps are not reliable and in practice they are often bypassed so that condensate can be released from
the system. Doing this can lose large amounts of compressed air. Bypassed drain traps are often found at
remote parts of the system, where condensate collects. Float drains stuck open is a common source for air
wastage.
The electronically operated condensate traps available and very reliable. By fitting these you can remove the
need for bypassing. Liquid sensing low loss drains will return a quick return on investment.
Pipework
Ageing piping is a prime source of leaks. Replacing any leaking and corroded pipework sections will not
only improve the system but will also improve safety.
Fittings and flanges

Lengths of pipe are normally connected using screw fittings or flanges. Large leaks are often found at
connection points, both in the main distribution system and in off takes. These leaks are frequently caused
by pipe strain due to inadequate supports, inadequate joints or twisting.
Manifolds
The connection to a usage point is often made using snap connections with flexible hoses. Sometimes
several are used together, forming a manifold arrangement. Such manifolds can leak due to worn
connections and poorly jointed pipework. Take off hoses are fitted to snap connections via push on fittings
and secured with a hose clip. Such fittings often leak, especially after being in service for some time.
Flexible hoses
Where flexible hoses are used to make connections between the piping network and usage points, leaks can
be caused by:
• Damage to hose, due to abrasion by surrounding objects.
• Deterioration of the hose material, where the wrong material is used for a surrounding aggressive, oily
or hot atmosphere.
• Strain on the joint because the hose is too long or too short.
If a large flexible hose bursts or breaks free, not only will you lose a lot of compressed air, but you
could also have a dangerous open ended hose lashing around. Fit such hoses with burst sensitive valves
that can cut the air supply off in the event of sudden air loss.
Very small connections are sometimes made using flexible nylon tubing with push in connections.
Leaks are often found where the tubing has worn due to contact with its surroundings or where it has
split at bends due to cyclical movement. Although leaks are typically small, they can be numerous and
add up.
Instrumentation
Check connections to pneumatic instruments, such as regulators, lubricators, valve blocks and sensors.
Regulators often leak due to worn diaphragms.
Pneumatic cylinders
Check pneumatic cylinders for worn internal air seals, which can cause large leaks.
Filters
When taken collectively, filters are often found to be the source of quite large leaks. Leaks can be found at.
• Drainage points
• Poorly sealing automatic drains
• Badly fitted bowls

March 05
Tools
Tools frequently leak at the hose connection and/or the speed control valve. Occasionally, air tools are even
left running when not in use!
Presses and drop hammers

Some of the largest leaks found at site are due to internal seal leaks within presses and drop hammers.
However, they do not always show up when you use normal leak detection methods. Although it can be
difficult and costly to rectify internal seal leaks, it is very worthwhile. Such leaks can be enormously
wasteful – sometimes measuring over 80% of the total press shop demands.
Where possible, isolate these machines from the compressed air supply when the machine is not in use.
8.3.1 Calculate cost of air loss
The following tabulation demonstrates the cost of air leakage. This is basis 7-barg air pressure, €0.045
kW/hr electrical cost & 8760 hours per year.
Diameter of leak M³/min Air loss/day Loss/day £ Loss/month £ Loss/annum £

mm
0.4 0.013 18.4 € 0.03 € 0.89 € 11
0.79 0.045 65.24 € 0.10 € 3.15 € 38
1.19 0.10 149.24 € 2.17 € 65.70 € 788
1.6 0.18 263 € 2.32 € 70.39 € 845
2.4 0.41 591 € 4.98 € 151.03 € 1,812
3.17 0.73 1,052 € 6.77 € 205.31 € 2,464
4.77 1.65 2,377 € 13.38 € 406.01 € 4,872
6.3 2.92 4,200 € 22.26 € 675.25 € 8,103
7.95 4.59 6,606 € 36.10 € 1,095.00 € 13,140
9.52 6.62 9,541 € 44.52 € 1,350.50 € 16,206
8.3.2 Quantifying leakage

First step to minimise the compressed air loss in the system is to quantify the leakage.
The simplest method to quantify the leakage is by the emptying of the compressed air receiver. The supply
line to the compressed air receiver should be isolated and all the consumer devices should be switched off.
The receiver pressure (P3) drops as a result so of the leakage to the pressure (P4). The time is then
measured.
The following formula is used to quantify the volume of the leakage.
L = V x (P1-P2)
T
L = volume of the leakage (m³/min)

V = Volume of the receiver (m³)
P1 = Receiver start pressure (bar)
P2 = Receiver pressure at finish (bar)
T = Time measured (min)
Example: A compressed air receiver and the piping distribution system has a volume of 3.5m³ (3500l).
Within a 3-minute period the receiver pressure drops from 7-barg to 5-barg.
L = V x (P1-P2)
T
L = 2.33 (m³/min)
V = 3.5 (m³)
P1 = 7 (bar)
P2 =25 (bar)
Compressed Air Science – issue Page 8 of 11
March 05 T = 3 (min)
The leakage volume in this theoretical system is 2.33 m³ (2330l)
A compressed air receiver with a large piping distribution system has a total volume of 10m³. Within a
2-minute period the pressure drops from 7-barg to 6-barg. Calculate the approximate amount of
compressed air that would be lost through leakage.
This method of measuring is only suitable for systems where the piping distribution system is less than 10%
of the volume of the compressed air receiver. Otherwise the results are in accurate.
The second method of quantifying the volume of leakage is by measuring the operating time of the
compressor. This method can only be used with compressors having intermittent and idling operation
modes. The consumer devices should be switched off. Leakage in the system will consume the compressed
air demand and then the compressor needs to load and replace the volume.
The total time running is measured over the period of time. To obtain a realistic result the measuring time
should last for at least 5-cycle intervals of the compressor.
L = C x T1 x 1000
T2
L = Volume of leakage (l/min)

C = Compressor FAD (m³/min)
T1 = Total loaded running time of compressor (s)
(t1+t2+t3+t4+t5)
T2 = Measuring time (s)
Example: A compressor with an effective FAD (c) of 5 m³/min has five actuation’s with a measuring time
of 180 seconds (T2). Its total loaded running time during the measuring time is 30 seconds (T1)
L = C x T1 x 1000
T2
L = 833 (l/min)
C = 5 (m³/min)
T1 = 30 (s)
T2 = 180 (s)
The leakage in this system is 833 l/min (0.833 m³/min)
8.3.3 Leakage limits

Leakage within a compressed air system is inevitable. The additional costs as a result of the leakage reduce
the cost effectiveness of the system. Measures can be taken to reduce the loss but this will cost money as

March 05
well. At some point the cost to minimise the leakage losses will outweigh the possible savings. An objective
should be set to minimise the cost at an acceptable expense.
Therefore levels of some leakage should be tolerated:
• 5% max on smaller networks

• 7% on medium sized networks
• 10% on larger networks
• 13-15% on very large networks, e.g foundries, steel mills, shipyards etc.
Within the UK the Carbon Trust (Government funded body charged to lower carbon emissions) consider
5% leakage as an acceptable limit.
When leaks are repaired, the pressure will rise in the vicinity of the repairs. The higher pressure increases
the flow through any remaining smaller leaks. The velocity through the leaks increases exponentially to the
increase in flow. The result is dramatically increased propagation of the remaining leaks, which in a short
period of time, returns leaks to the original level. The long-term solution to these problems requires
controlling the demand pressure with extraordinary resolution so that decreases in leak load will not cause
increases in localised pressure. Response to less than 0.05 of a bar change is required. Compressor controls
and sequencers, even PLC based systems, can not possibly provide this type of resolution. The only devices
we are aware of that can respond in this manner is a demand expander or in Ingersoll-Rand speak an
IntelliFlow valve. Refer to Chapter 10 for details on the IntelliFlow valve.
8.4 Minimisation of air loss

Staff should be instructed to report any leaks or damage within the compressed air system. The leak should
be repaired immediately. If a system is looked after on an ongoing basis the cost is minimised and the
leakage is kept within an acceptable limit.
Leakage will increase the higher the working pressure. Therefore it is essential that the system pressure is
no higher than the desired minimum P5 operating pressure. As compressed air systems operates within a
pressure control band, and the differential across the clean up will vary dependant on flow and condition of
the filters, the system operating pressure is generally much higher than necessary.
m³/min
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
3mm
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
bar g
Refer to the flow though an orifice chart to demonstrate this.
ONE OFF LEAK DETECTION SURVEY WITH NO SYSTEM PRESSURE CONTROLLER, YOU ARE
WASTING YOUR MONEY.

March 05
The ear will detect large leaks in a compressed air system. However small and very small leaks are harder to
find because these can not be heard. In these cases, the joints, branches, valves etc can be covered with a
seal checker of soapy water. Bubbles will form immediately where the leaks are. Alternatively an ultrasonic
leak detector can be used.
When leaks are repaired the pressure will rise in the surrounding area of the repair. As the pressure rises the
flow though the leaks that are not repaired increases. Therefore relativity small leaks before could become
larger leaks, which means that in a short period of time the leakage could return to the original level.
The long-term solution is to control the demand pressure to such a resolution that this decreases the leak
load and will not cause increases in localised pressure. Response to less than 0.05 bar (0.75 psi) change is
required. Compressor controls and system controllers, even PLC or microprocessor-based systems cannot
possibly provide this type of constant pressure resolution. Recommended is a demand side pressure
controller that is set to the plants minimum desired pressure. Your compressed air audit should determine
this minimum pressure. In addition to precise pressure control a continuing leak detection program should
be introduced.
Reconstruction for a more efficient and reliable compressed air system.

When reconstructing the compressed air network top of the shopping list should be the demand expander
(IntelliFlow). Other measures that can be taken will result in less compressed air wastage.
• Tighten the leaking joints or reseal them

• Replace the leaking hoses and hose connections (common point of leakage)
• Upgrade the condensate drains. Replace mechanical float drains and time solenoid drains with
PNLD or ENLD level controlled drains.
• Flush or replace the old pipelines that could have a reduced diameter due to deposits.
• Check to make sure that piping drops can support the rate of flow.
• Replace flexible nylon hoses over 5metres with ridged piping.
• Reduce the size of the system by isolating redundant piping.
• Upgrade the air treatment to suit the desired ISO standard. If refrigerated air dryers can satisfy
the air quality consider point of application desiccant dryers where desiccant quality air is
needed.
• If only a limited number of applications need a higher working pressure consider point of
application compressors or even in-line boosters.
• Where there is large volume but short duration demand events consider the installation of
dedicated peak shaping storage. A point of application higher-pressure compressor could be
installed to create the necessary capacitance to support the demand event. (see chapter 9).
Set PacE regulator

at 6.6 barg
7.5kW
Compresso
900 litre receiver with

relief valve, pressure
gauge and manual drain

March 05
Chapter Nine
Compressed Air Systems
9.1 Design of installation
First one needs to determine the type of compressor that should be installed.
Screw compressors are particularly suitable for certain applications.

• Long usage rate. The screw compressor is
suitable in situations where the
consumption is continuous and without a
large peak load. They are excellent as base
load machines within the compressed air
system.
• High FAD. These are economical where
high capacity is needed. The two-stage
compressor provides approximately 15%
more capacity for the same amount of
electrical input power when compared to a
single stage screw compressor. (lubricated)
• Pulse free air. Very sensitive consumer
devices can use the screw compressor.
• Screw compressors operate efficiently with
final compression pressure of between 5 and 14-barg. Normally the working pressures are 7, 8,
10 and 13-barg. Approximately 50% of the compressors sold operate with a working pressure
of 7-barg or less.
Reciprocating compressors tend to be applied within light industrial type or special applications. They can
often supplement the screw compressor.
• Intermittent requirements. These compressors are
suitable for a fluctuating consumption of compressed air.
They can be used as peak shaping machines in a
compressor system.
• Small FAD. They are ideal compressors where the FAD
is small and in frequent.
• The differential pressure is normally wide on these
compressors in order to lower the compress cycles.
(Punload –20%)
• Piston compressors can compress to a high pressure.
Normal working pressure is 8, 10, 14, 30 and 35-bar.
The next step when determining the size of a compressor with the associated compressed air receiver and air
treatment products would be to establish the compressor Punload. The basis the maximum pressure
(Punload) is the cycle difference (Punload-Pload) of the compressor control and the maximum operating
pressure of the consumer devices. The total pressure loss of the air system needs to also be considered.
The wet compressed air receiver (receiver before the dryer) will always fluctuate between the Pload and
Punload. The Pload must be higher than the operating pressure of the down stream consumer devices. There
will always be pressure loss within the compressed air system and the pressure loss of the various
components must be taken into consideration. The following values should typically be considered when
defining the Punload pressure (compressor cut out pressure).

March 05
• Pneumatic Piping Network – The network should be designed so that the total pressure drop
does not exceed 0.1-bar to 0.3-bar worst case.
• Treatment of compressed air – Absorption dryers with filtration could have a pressure loss of
0.8-bar. Where as typically a refrigerated air dryer will see a pressure drop of 0.3-bar. Pressure
drop is a function of the flow across the product. If the dryer is generously sized the pressure
drop will be lower compared to a dryer that is marginally sized or top of its frame size.
Change in Pressure
7.4
7.3
7.2
7.1
Pressure
6.9
6.8
6.7
6.6
6.5
18/01/2005 18/01/2005 18/01/2005 18/01/2005 18/01/2005 18/01/2005 18/01/2005 18/01/2005
14:52 15:00 15:07 15:14 15:21 15:28 15:36 15:43
• Compressed air treatment by filters and separators – Filters in general could see a pressure
drop of 0.6-bar. When new the filter pressure drop is at least 0.14-bar. Dust filters will tend to
have a slightly lower pressure drop of around 0.07-bar. Over time the pressure drop will rise
through the filter as a result of soiling.
• Compressor set points – This will vary as the wider the set points the more potential stored
energy. Ingersoll Rand compressors that operate in on-line/off-line control will have a
minimum differential of 0.7-bar. This can be increased by 0.1-bar increments on the IntelliSys
control panel. Reciprocating compressors tend to have set points basis Punload less 20%.
• Reserves – Pressure loss that could occur over time within the pneumatic system. This is more
like a contingency reserve in order to avoid a loss in performance. This reserve should be
made basis the Unload point of the set points and not the load point.
The most critical pressure within the pneumatic system is the P5 consumer pressure. If this pressure is
lower than acceptable production will be effected and in variably it is the compressor service provider who
will be blamed. The normal fix by the responsible compressor plant operator would be to turn on additional
compressors.
Below is a typical schematic of a single compressor system. The size of the compressed air receiver is
normally 10% of the compressor volume. This rule of thumb has been handed down from generation to
generation of compressor sales people. Any CAS attendee would normally confirm this.

March 05
The total pressure drop across a system like this could be as much as 1-barg but allowing in this example the
pressure drop is 0.2-bar across each filter and 0.2-bar across the dryer.
75kW Pmin……….7.0
P3
Pmax………..7.3
Useful Diff……..0.3
1.5m³
P2
P5 = 6-bar
7.9 bar Punload

0.6 bar
P2 P4
7.0 bar Pload
During the Compressed Air Science course the attendees would be asked what would you set the
compressor set points at basis the end users P5 being stated as 6-bar? Nearly every one would state the
Pload point 1-bar higher than the requested P5 pressure. The Punload point will often create some debate
but this is often stated as being 0.7 to 1-barg higher than the Pload pressure.
The Pmin pressure is in fact the same pressure as the Pload set pressure. The Pmax pressure is the Punload
pressure minus the differential. This leaves the useful differential, which is the Pmax-Pmin. If we consider
the compressor being loaded the differential is the square root of the flow. The pressure up stream of the air
treatment (P2) will always be higher compared to the down stream (P3) and the differential pressure is a
function of the flow. Therefore in this example the pressure needs to be 7.6-bar upstream before the down
stream pressure starts to rise. If the demand is as much as the delivered pressure the down stream pressure
will not rise. However if the demand is less than the delivered pressure the down stream pressure will rise.
This is where the compressor is delivering more air into the system than what the consumer is using so the
system pressure increases. As the system pressure rises the up stream and down stream pressures will rise at
the same rate. The pressure will rise to 7.3-bar on the down stream side and 7.9 on the up stream and then
the compressor will unload.
The P2 pressure will fall to almost the same pressure as the P3 and then the pressure will fall to the Pload
point and the compressor will load once more. The rate of decay in the pressure will depend upon the
system volume and the useful differential.
Pmin……….
P3 Pmax………..
75kW
Useful Diff……..
1.5
m³
P2
P5 = 5-bar
7.9 bar Punload
0.5 bar
P2 P4
7.0 bar Pload

March 05
In the above example calculate the Pmin, Pmax and Useful differential.
Pmin……………….
Pmax………………
Useful differential…
For many years the debate has raged with respect to the location of the compressed air receiver. In fact both
locations are acceptable and it really depends upon the application. Ingersoll Rand recommends Dry storage
or stored volume at the Air Quality the customer requires for the majority of applications.
9.1.1 Dryer before the receiver
P2
Advantages:
• The dryer can be sized according to the actual consumption of the compressed air, or for a partial flow
of compressed air that needs to be dried.
• Slightly lower compressed air entry temperature. The compressed air has a limited opportunity to cool
down within the compressed air receiver.
• Low quantities of condensate will collect in the receiver and not burden the rest of the system.
Disadvantages
• Condensate within the compressed air receiver will lead to corrosion.
• The dryer will be overloaded if there is any abrupt heavy withdrawal of compressed air. This will rise
the pressure dew point in the compressed air lines and could result in loss of productivity.
9.1.2 Dryer after the receiver
P3
P2
• Dried air within the compressed air receiver results in stored compressed air at the air quality the user
requires.
• No possibility of rust in the receiver, longer life.
• Consistent compressed air quality even if there are any unexpected large volume demand events.
• Common sensing point for multiple compressed air trains or multiple compressors.
Disadvantages
• Dryer must be sized for 100% of the compressor rating. All the air needs to be dried.

March 05
• Reciprocating compressors deliver a pulsating flow of air. This puts stress on an air dryer. Here a wet
air receiver should also installed to act as a pulsation damper.
• Transmission time is longer when there is clean up equipment before the system network and the
pressure sensing point on the compressor. This is particularly relevant when there is an IntelliFlow
(demand expander) in the compressed air system.
The installation of a wet air receiver is very emotional and comes from the days of reciprocating
compressors. Is the installation of the wet receiver truly justified?
• Takes out moisture before it his the dryer – This is minimal as the air is not in the tank for loang with a
small receiver. Some cooling as there is moisture
• Lowers compressor cycles. This is true however irrelevant if the control point is at the dry receiver,
which is more efficient as you can narrow the pressure band in multiple machine installations.
• Dryer manufacturers will not honour warranty if there is no dry storage. Not the case with refrigerated
air dryers. We offer dryers inside the compressor enclosure. In the case of desiccant dryers our
recommendation to retain the small receiver as the wet receiver.
• Pre-longs the life of the pre-filter. Not true. Water does not effect element life it is particulate.
• Acts as a cooler. Not as effective as you think and the receiver can also be hot.
9.2 Sizing the Air Receiver

For an efficient operation of a compressed air system the size of the compressed air receiver is critical. First
let us look at what happens in our compressed air system with an air receiver that is sized for 10% of the
compressor volume.
75kW Pmin……….7.0
P3
Pmax………..7.3
Useful Diff……..0.3
1.5m³
P2
P5 = 6-bar
7.9 bar Punload

0.6 bar
P2 P4
7.0 bar Pload
Here we have a compressed air receiver that is sized for approximately 10% of the compressor volume. Let
us consider a demand of 10 m³/min and the compressor’s rated flow is 12.6 m³/min. Using the following
formula we can calculate the time the time unloaded and the time loaded.
T = V x (P1-P2)
C x Pabs
T = Time (mins)
V = Receiver volume (m³)
P1-P2 = Acceptable drop in pressure (bar)
C = Flow (m³/min)
Pabs = Atmospheric pressure (bar)

March 05
Therefore within 0.045 minutes (2.7 seconds) this compressor would reload. The 0.3 bar is the useful
differential. You would not use the full compressor set points due to differential across the clean up
equipment.
T = V x (P1-P2)
C x Pabs
T = 0.045 (mins)
V = 1.5 (m³)
P1-P2 = 0.3 (bar)
C = 10 (m³/min)
Pabs = 1 (bar)
To calculate the time to elevate the pressure to the cut out pressure you would use the following formula.
T = V x (P1-P2)
RC-C x Pabs
T = Time (mins)
C = Flow (m³/min)
RC = Rated flow of compressor (m³/min)
T = V x (P1-P2)
RC-C x Pabs
T = 0.17 (mins)
V = 1.5 (m³)
P1-P2 = 0.3 (bar)
C = 10 (m³/min)
RC = 12.6 (m³/min)
Pabs = 1 (bar)
The time to elevate the pressure from point of loading (Pload) to point of unloading (Punload) would be
0.17 mins (10.38 seconds). This would manifest itself as a frequently cycling compressor.
Recalculate the load and unload times on the basis of a 4m³ air receiver and a useful differential
of 0.4-bar.
Load time……
Unload time….

March 05
What if we wanted to control a demand event of 10 m³/min for 30 seconds without loading the compressor
the size of the air receiver would be calculated by the following formula. The acceptable drop in pressure is
0.3-barg.
V = T x C x Pabs
(P1-P2)
T = Time (mins)
C = Flow (m³/min)
V = T x C x Pabs
(P1-P2)
T = 0.5 (mins) [30 seconds]

V = 16.66 (m³)
P1-P2 = 0.3 (bar)
C = 10 (m³/min)
Pabs = 1 (bar)
To control this demand event the receiver would need to be 16.66 m³ (16,660 litres). This calculation is
particularly of use when determining the required storage for large demand event protection.
What is becoming very apparent is that stored volume and pressure differential as a big effect on the rate of
change within the compressed air system. A limited amount of storage and a small useful differential will
result in increased cycling of a compressor or the loading of additional compressors to satisfy the demand
events.
Ingersoll Rand recommend that the receiver should be sized to protect the largest system event. If this is not
known then the loss of a base load compressor and the time to start up a stand-by compressor is considered
the largest event the system will see. Typically it will take around 15 seconds (0.25 min) to start up a stand-
by compressor. During this time we want to limit the fall of the pressure in the system. We would
recommend a drop in pressure of 0.3-bar. So the demand side pressure (P4 or Pmin) should be at least 0.3-
bar above the minimum acceptable production pressure (P5). We have to consider worst case when is the
full output capacity of the base compressor.
V = T x C x Pabs
(P1-P2)

V = 10.5 (m³)
P1-P2 = 0.3 (bar)
C = 12.6 (m³/min)
Pabs = 1 (bar)
To protect the system integrity the receiver needs to be at least 10 m³ (10,000l). If you accept a 0.6-bar drop
in pressure the size of the receiver would be reduced by 50%. However this will cost an additional 3.6%
input kW for the extra 0.3-bar.

March 05
6.6 bar Punload
5.6 bar Pload

Pmin……….5.6
1.5m³ Pmax………..6.1
P3 10m³
Useful Diff…0.5
P2
P5 = 5-bar
0.5 bar
P4
P2
6.3 bar Punload
5.3 bar Pload
In the above example the base load compressor fails and the pressure starts to fall. Once the pressure
reaches 5.3-barg the second compressor will see the signal to start and then load. Within this 15-second
cycle the pressure will drop by a further 0.3-barg and then the pressure will start to rise as the machine
loads.
You will notice that the differential between the Pload on the first machine and the Pload on the second is
0.3-bar. This should be considered as the minimum differential between the local set points of the
compressors. The reason for this is transducer inaccuracies and drift. Typically a pressure transducer will
have a sensitivity of 1% of full span. Therefore a 13.8-bar rated transducer will be 0.138-bar accurate. If the
set points are too close you will end up loading and unloading the compressors together.
The small wet air receiver in the example is the existing receiver on site. This could be moved down stream
of the clean up equipment so that the additional receiver is smaller. It most cases it is less expensive to leave
the small receiver in its existing position rather than move it.
9.2.1 Under sizing the receiver

The best way to show an under sized receiver is to explain to the air user what could happen if there was a
large unexpected or planned system event. Use the formula below.
(P1-P2) = T x C x Pabs
V
T = Time (mins)
C = Flow (m³/min)
You have visited a site that has two compressors. This customer primarily operates on one compressor with
the second compressor being stand-by. The compressors are rated for 7m³/min and there is 750l of storage.
If there were a failure to the lead compressor the system pressure could fall by 2.33-bar.

March 05
The obvious question to the compressed air user is that “is this a problem for you?”
V
T = 0.25 (mins)
V = 0.75 (m³)
P1-P2 = 2.33 (bar)
C = 7 (m³/min)
Pabs = 1 (bar)
You have visited a site that has multiple compressors. This customer primarily operates on two
compressors with the third compressor being stand-by. The compressors are rated for 15m³/min
and there are 2000l of storage. If there were a failure to the lead compressor how far will the
pressure fall?
9.2.2 Does piping make a difference?

Many will say that the piping network is also potential storage and this should also be considered.
Potentially this statement is correct but we can calculate the significance of this volume to the pressure rate
of decay. It should also be noted that this is uncontrolled volume.
V2 = π r2 x L
V2= Volume of piping (m³)

π = 3.142
r2= radius of piping (m)
L = length of piping (m)
The total length of the piping system shown in this example is 350m. The system volume can be calculated
to be:
6.6 bar Punload Diameter 50mm
75m
5.6 bar Pload
1.5m³
P3 Pmin……….5.6
Pmax………..6.1
Useful Diff…0.5
P2
100m 100m
0.5 bar
P5 = 5-bar
P4
P2
75m
6.3 bar Punload
5.3 bar Pload

March 05
V2 = π r2 x L
V2= 0.687 (m³)

π = 3.142
r2= 0.0252 (m)
L = 350 (m)
You can see that this is relatively insignificant compared to the volume of the air receiver. Often this is so
low that it is not worth consideration. However this can be calculated should this become an issue.
Your customer has a system that includes 2 x 5000l air receivers as well as a ring main that is
200mx200m with an internal diameter of 75mm. Calculate the total system volume.
Then calculate the drop in pressure should a 30-m³/min base load compressor fail.
The forth and final iteration of this formula is the calculation of the flow. If you measure the drop in
pressure over time and you know the system volume you can calculate fairly accurately the flow
consumption during this cycle.
C = V x (P1-P2)
T x Pabs
T = Time (mins)
C = Flow (m³/min)
You have measured a drop in pressure of 0.5-bar over a 10-second period. The total system volume is 8-
m³/min. Basis this known information the calculated demand event is 25 m³/min.
C = V x (P1-P2)
T x Pabs
T = 0.16 (mins)
V = 8 (m³)
P1-P2 = 0.5 (bar)
C = 25 Flow (m³/min)
Pabs = 1 (bar)
You have measured a drop in pressure of 0.6-bar over a 20-second period. The total system
volume is 20-m³/min. Basis this known information the calculated demand event.

March 05
9.3 Controlling rate of change
For an efficient and reliable compressed air system it is paramount to control the rate of change of pressure
in the system. Rate of change is defined as the fall or rise of pressure over time.
14.16 m³/min compressor

B unloads
event begins -2.83 m³/min roc
A
0 m³/min roc
-8.5 m³/min roc +11.33 m³/min roc
R 0 m³/min roc
event ends demand reduces
G by 11.33 m³/min
T I M E
Where the demand exceeds the supply the pressure will

fall and create a negative rate of change. A positive rate
of change is opposite and the demand is less than the
supply and the pressure will increase. Ideally the system-
stored volume and the pressure differential manage rate
of change in a system. If the pressure differential is too
small and/or the stored volume is too small you will end
up starting more compressors. Increasing the stored
volume is much more efficient than increasing the
pressure differential. The increase in pressure will result
in a higher input kW. A conservative value is 7.25% per
each 1-bar increase in pressure.
Storage costs nothing to run and nothing to maintain and would result in operating fewer compressors
within the air system.
9.3.1 Compressor cycle intervals

Once you have defined the size of the compressed air receiver you can demonstrate to the air user the
compressor running and idle times.
9.3.2 Idle times

The following formula is used to calculate these times.
T = V x (Pload-Punload)
C x Pabs
T = Idle time (min)

V = Volume of compressed air receiver (m³)
Pload = Cut in pressure (bar)
Punload = Cut out pressure (bar)
C = Flow FAD (m³/min)
Pabs = 1 (bar)

March 05
Example:
Size of the receiver 3000L (3m³)
Pload is 8 barg
Punload is 10 barg
FAD is 2 m³/min
T = V x (Pload-Punload)
C x Pabs
T = 3 (min)
V = 3 (m³)
Pload = 8 (bar)
Punload = 10 (bar)
C = 2 (m³/min)
Pabs = 1 (bar)
9.3.2 Running times

The following formula is the used to ascertain the compressor running time.
Tr = V x (Pload-Punload)
Cr-C x Pabs
Tr = Running time (min)

V = Volume of compressed air receiver (m³)
Pload = Cut in pressure (bar)
Punload = Cut out pressure (bar)
C = Flow FAD (m³/min)
Cr = Required FAD (m³)
Pabs = 1 (bar)
Example:
Size of the receiver 3000L (3m³)
Pload is 8 barg
Punload is 10 barg
FAD is 2 m³/min
FAD required is 3.65 m³/min
Tr = V x (Pload-Punload)
Cr-C x Pabs
Tr = 3.64 (min)
V = 3 (m³)
Pload = 8 (bar)
Punload = 10 (bar)
C = 2 (m³/min)
Cr = 3.65 (m³)
Pabs = 1 (bar)

March 05
9.4 Demand side pressure (P5) Varying working pressure
Unnecessary over pressurisation of the main volume flow of the pneumatic system can cause considerable
costs. In most cases, these additional costs justify the installation of a second system.
The minimum working pressure must be

determined in order to establish the maximum
working pressure of the compressors. This is also
needed to appropriately select the air treatment
equipment. This pressure will most likely vary so
you will need to find the consumer device that
operates on the highest pressure. Note that if
there are users that need a higher pressure
compared to the majority of others consider the
installation of a point of application booster. You
may also want to consider a point of application
total air system (TAS).
Ingersoll Rand’s (IR) compressed air pressure

intensifiers are a simple, low-cost method for
improving air systems performance and resolving point of use low-pressure problems.
By installing an IR intensifier, it is possible to boost your air pressure by a 2:1 ratio. For example, an
incoming pressure to the booster of 5.5-bar, an output pressure of up to 11-bar can be achieved.
Running your entire compressed air system at the lowest pressure possible is the most efficient and cost-
effective way to produce and use compressed air. Incorporating point-of-use intensifiers, and boosting
pressure only at specific points in your system that require high pressure, helps to achieve this.
IR intensifiers require no electricity and are completely self-

contained units. Simply pipe compressed air into the inlet port
of the unit and adjust the unit’s integral pressure regulator to the
required discharge pressure. High-pressure will be delivered.
All IR intensifiers are mounted on a 50 Litre 13.8-bar CE rated

buffer tank, which helps prevent pulsation in the volume of air
delivered from the booster to your application. The tank is fitted
with a 13.8-bar safety relief valve and manual drain valve. On
the outlet port of the buffer tank is a secondary high-flow/high-pressure self-relieving regulator that allows
for simple and precise pressure control from the buffer tank to the application.
When the intensifier reaches the set pressure the unit simply stalls and no air or energy is consumed. When
pressure drops, the booster will automatically re-start.
The air consumption used to drive an intensifier is between ½ to 1 times the amount of pressure-boosted air.
If 0.57 m3min of air is required, between 0.85 to 1.13 m3min of compressed air will be used. Between 0.28
to 0.57 m3min will be vented through the units exhaust muffler.
9.4.1 Maximum pressure (Pmax)

The pressure will vary, as this is a function of the differential across the air treatment products. If the dryer
is sized for say 100% of three compressors and only one compressor runs the Pmax will be higher compared
to the Pmax should all three compressors operate. Another influence on Pmax would be the compressor set
points. Often worst case differential is assumed and the Punload set point is set at around 1-bar to
accommodate the unknown. To overcome this it is recommended that the compressor (s) is controlled from
the dry receiver using a remote signal or a system controller in the case of multiple compressor systems.
9.4.2 Minimum pressure (Pmin)

Pmin is always the Pload pressure of the compressor. In the case of multiple compressor systems Pmin
would be the Pload of the lag compressor.

March 05
9.4.3 Useful differential
This is the working differential of the compressed air system. Pressure will rise at the inlet of the air
treatment at a higher rate to that of the outlet. It is only when the compressor unloads is the pressure on the
inlet of the dryer and the outlet of the dryer equal. Below is a measurement of the P2 and P3 pressures. You
can see that when the compressor loads the pressure rises quickly to overcome the pressure drop across the
clean up equipment. Then the pressure rises more slowly as there is a positive rate of change. Once the
pressure reaches the Punload point the pressure falls off quickly on the P2 side and the P2 and P3 pressures
are almost identical. Compressed air is still being consumed so the pressures decay at about the same rate.
9.5 Multiple compressor systems

Typically 80% of compressed air systems include more than one compressor. Over 70% of these
installations have 3 or more compressors. We have seen in chapter five it is important to control multiple
compressors in an efficient manner. If not this will increase the energy costs and will also have an impact on
the reliability and productivity of the complete air system.
The individual set points of the system should be assessed and adjusted accordingly otherwise chaos could
prevail!
9.5.1 Compressor trains

You have sold a brand new installation that is very similar to thousands of installations in Europe: a
compressor train of 3 machines with wet receiver (sized in the usual way, i.e. the rule of thumb of 10% the
capacity) and air treatment. As a professional of compressed air systems, you know that each clean-up
equipment (air treatment) has a pressure drop that evolves: it is for example higher when the filters are dirty.
But have you ever thought about checking the effect of the different pressure drops on your system
integrity? The compressors may not be situated together and could be located within different compressor
rooms feeding the same ring main. This often happens if there are space constraints.

March 05
First example
Dryer
8.2
7.5
0.4 bar
Dryer
Pmax:…
7.7
7.0 Pmin:…
0.5 bar
Dryer
7.2
6.5
0.6 bar
Let's say that in the system demand is equivalent to 2.5 compressors. What would be the minimum and
maximum pressure seen by the users (demand side)?
Answer: Pmin: 6.5

Pmax: 6.6
Explanation: when 2 compressors are loaded, the system pressure falls due to the demand > 2.5
compressors. The clean-up equipment builds the pressure only when the compressor is loaded (in other
words, only when there is a flow across the equipment). Hence, when this pressure reaches 6.5-barg at the
demand side, the pressure on the supply side will be: 6.9-barg (6.5+0.4) for the first compressor, 7.0
(6.5+0.5)-barg for the second compressor and 6.5-barg (unloaded compressor -> no clean-up equipment
differential) for the third compressor. This compressor loads as 6.5-barg is its on-line set pressure. As soon
as this compressor loads, the clean-up equipment differential appears on the third compressor.
With 3 compressors loaded, the pressure builds up in the system. When the pressure reaches 6.6-barg at the
demand side, the respective supply side pressures are 7.0 for the first compressor, 7.1 for the second and 7.2
for the third compressor. This pressure corresponds to the off-line pressure of the third compressor, which
goes then unloaded.
Conclusion: in this configuration, this system leads to a quick cycling of the third compressor.
In the case the demand is 1.5 compressors, what would be the minimum/maximum demand side pressure?
Answer: Pmin: 7.0

Pmax: 7.2

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Explanation: when 1 compressor only is loaded, the pressure falls to 7.0-barg at the demand side, which is
the same as the on-line pressure of the second compressor. This compressor effectively sees this pressure
because the clean-up differential disappears without flow. When the second compressor loads, the pressure
builds up immediately at the supply side to 7.0+0.5 = 7.5 barg. It means that an increase of 0.2 bar in the
system pressure is enough to reach the off-line pressure of this second compressor.
Second example
Dryer
7.6
6.9
0.4 bar
Pmax:…
Dryer
7.4 Pmin:…
6.7
0.6 bar
Dryer
7.2
6.5
0.3 bar
Take this example, with a system demand of 2.5 compressors. What would be the minimum and
maximum pressure seen by the users (demand side)?

March 05
Third example
Dryer
8.2
7.4
0.8 bar
Dryer
8.2
7.2
0.4 bar
Dryer
7.8
7.0
0.3 bar
If the demand equals 2.5 compressors, what is the minimal and maximal pressure seen by the demand side?
Answer: Pmin: 7.0

Pmax: 7.4
Conclusions: in this example, the first compressor is cycling and not the third as it was probably planned
originally. Moreover, this compressor is cycling very rapidly: when it goes unloaded, the clean-up
equipment differential disappears very quickly and the pressure sensor sees soon 7.4-barg…which is the on-
line pressure of the compressor! If you push a bit further and consider a pressure differential of 0.9 bar for
the first compressor, a rapid calculation shows that the maximum system pressure would be 7.3-barg. This
pressure is below the on-line pressure of the first compressor and this situation means a very quick cycling
of the first compressor.
Last example: the chaos!
Consider a demand of 2.5 compressors to determine the minimum and maximum demand side pressure. The
answer is:
Pmin: 7.0 barg

Pmax: 7.4 barg
However, consider that the 3 compressors are loaded and the demand pressure reaches 7.4-barg, the
compressor N°1 & N°3 see respectively the following pressure: 8.2-barg and 7.7-barg…which is the off-line
pressure of each compressor. The two compressors go offloaded at the same time and are cycling together!

March 05
You can push further this exercise and see by yourself that it is possible to have the situation where your 3
compressors are cycling at the same time. If you see this then there is a massive amount of opportunity.
Dryer
8.2
7.4
0.8 bar
Dryer
8.0
7.2
0.4 bar
Dryer
7.7
7.0
0.3 bar
European Compressed Air System.

Typically the European compressed air systems are not intentionally designed as a compressor train.
However there are some benefits of the compressor train. For example you could operate one system during
periods of low production and therefore lower the energy as the system is closer matched to the demand.
European air systems tend to be configured with the compressors piped into a common manifold and then
piped to the wet air receiver or straight into a single dryer with filters. This will be sized for 100% flow of
all the compressors or alternatively sized for two compressors knowing the third is a stand-by.
The differential across the air treatment is a function of the flow. Therefore the pressure drop across the air
treatment can be low if the dryer is sized for 100% of all compressors installed. The system pressure on the
demand side can be variable due to this differential changing. The compressors are often sized as 50/50/50.
This means that the compressors are of the same size and two compressors would equal 100% of the desired
capacity. One unit would be base load, the second would trim and the third would be stand-by.
The diagram shown on page 19 is a typical compressed air system arrangement. Yet there is plenty of scope
for improving the efficiency, reliability and productivity of the system.
You can see the typical Pmin, Pmax and useful differential within the demand side piping. This is basis a
load of less than one compressor, less than two compressors and less than 3 compressors. Note that the
pressure on the demand side can be much higher than the desired P5 pressure of 5-barg.
What is also common is the load pressure of the first compressor being set to the same load pressure of the
second machine. This can happen if the first compressor is always operating fully loaded.

March 05
# compressors running
1 2 3
Pmin……… 6.6 6.3 6.0
Pmax…… 7.1 6.9 6.5 Diameter 50mm
75m
Useful Diff…… 0.7 0.6 0.5
P3
1 2m³
P5 – 5 bar
P2
100m 100m
0.5 bar
2
P4
1
7.6 bar Punload
2 75m
7.3 bar Punload
3
6.6 bar Pload 7 bar Punload
6.3 bar Pload
3
6 bar Pload 55kW
9.6 Capacitance
Defined as the amount of air needed (over what is already being supplied) to raise (or lower) the system
pressure by 1 bar. Expressed in terms of m3/bar or m³/kpa. The following formula is used to calculate the
capacitance in the system.
M³/bar = M³ x 1
Pabs
M³/bar = capacitance
M³ = size of the air receiver
Pabs = atmospheric pressure
In the above system the receiver size is 2m³. There for the capacitance can be calculated as follows:
M³/bar = 2 x 1
1
M³/bar = 2
M³ = 2
Pabs = 1
Therefore if there was a demand event of 2m³ this will see the pressure fall by 1-bar. (2m² event / 2m³/bar =
1-bar)

March 05
This is a particularly useful calculation to demonstrate fall in pressure should an event occur. These events
would be dealt with by the capacitance in the system or increased on-line kW’s.
Within a compressed air system there are two typical supply side events that can occur. The first is the
occurrence of solenoid operated drains opening at the same time and dropping the pressure. The second is
the loss of the base load compressor.
9.6.1 Drain Events

Example of drain event
Let us consider a system that has 15 timed solenoid drain valves. Statistically these drains could open all at
the same time. Let us consider the drain is open for 10 seconds. The size of the orifice is 6mm and this will
flow 3m³/min (per the flow through an orifice chart) at 7-bar. We can calculate this event by using the
following formula.
C x N x T = DP
m³/bar
DP = drop in pressure (bar)

M³/bar = capacitance (m³/bar)
C = flow of event (m³/min)
N = number of events
T = duration of events (min)
C x N x T = DP
m³/bar
DP = 3.82 (bar)
M³/bar = 2 (m³/bar)
C = 3 (m³/min)
N = 15
T = 10 seconds / 60 = 0.17 (min)
Should this event occur the pressure could fall by 3.82-bar. The obvious solution would be to replace these
drains with ENLD’s or PNLD’s.
You need to demonstrate to an air user the effect of little capacitance in their compressor
installation. Calculate the drop in pressure should all their drains fire off together. The customer has
7 drains with a 6mm orifice. They are set to open for 8 seconds. The size of the air receiver is 1500
litres.
9.6.2 Largest system event

It could be argued that the solenoid drain event could never occur, but that must be a statistical possibility of
this occurrence.

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What needs to be demonstrated is the largest event. We have advised earlier that the loss of a base load
compressor and the time to start up the stand-by compressor is typically the largest event that can occur. We
can use capacitance to easily demonstrate the effect that this event would have to the pressure in the system
Let us consider the example on page 19 where there is a 2m³-air receiver and the capacitance in the system
is 2m³/bar. The compressor capacity is 10 m³/min. We can calculate the drop in pressure as follows:
C x N x T = DP
m³/bar
DP = 1.25 (bar)
C = 10 (m³/min)
N=1
T = 15 seconds / 60 = 0.25 (min)
There is a much higher probability of this occurring than possibly the drains. Many customers may not see
this drop in pressure as the P4 pressure is much higher than the P5 pressure anyway. To lower the system
energy we must lower the pressure so if the capacitance is not increased the air user could experience loss of
production due to lower P5 pressure.
You have demonstrated loss in pressure due to drains now demonstrate the drop in pressure due to a
base load compressor failure. In your system the compressor capacity is 7 m³/min. Duration to start
the stand-by unit is 15 seconds.
The solution is to increase the system capacitance. Or alternatively run the system at a much higher pressure
to make provision for unexpected demand events. The latter would result in increased on-line kW’s .
If we size the air receiver for the largest event this would allow for increased capacitance and minimum
drop in pressure. Using the calculation shown earlier in this chapter:
V = T x C x Pabs
(P1-P2)

V = 8.3 (m³)
P1-P2 = 0.3 (bar)
C = 10 (m³/min)
Pabs = 1 (bar)
Therefore the capacitance would become 8.3m³/bar. If we calculate the largest system event using an 8m³
receiver the drop in pressure would be as follows:

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C x N x T = DP
m³/bar
DP = 0.31 (bar)
C = 10 (m³/min)
N=1
T = 15 seconds / 60 = 0.25 (min)
This means that the P4 pressure should be at least 0.31-bar above the P5 pressure.
Increase the capacitance to ensure the pressure never drops lower than 0.3-bar basis the largest
system event. The base load compressor is 7m³/min. Round up the receiver size and calculate the
drop in pressure using the capacitance formula.
The following diagram now includes our solution of increased capacitance. However there is still an issue
over the variable P3/P4 pressures. We have lowered the compressor set points from the previous set points.
# compressors running
1 2 3
Pmin……… 5.9 5.6 5.3
Pmax…… 6.6 6.2 5.8 Diameter 50mm
75m
P3
8m³
1 2m³
55kW P5 – 5 bar
P2
100m 100m
0.5 bar
2
55kW P4
1
6.9 bar Punload
2 75m
6.6 bar Punload
3
5.9 bar Pload 6.3 bar Punload
5.6 bar Pload
3
55kW 5.3 bar Pload

March 05
This would lower the input energy by 5%. (7.25% x 0.7-bar reduction in pressure = 5% lower energy)
With one compressor running the pressure could rise to 6.9-bar compared to 3 compressors running which
would be 6.3-bar. One could lower the unload pressures on compressors one and low due to the differential
across the clean up but an increase in filter contamination could be problematic.
Typically with the compressors operating on local control the pressure will vary between 5.6 and 6.6-bar on
the demand side of the system. This is basis a demand of less than the capacity of two compressors (10-
20m²/min). Therefore the pressure is at least 0.6-bar more than the desired P5 minimum pressure stated by
the air consumer.
This does not make for an efficient system. The increase in pressure will have an impact on the artificial
demand.
Artificial demand is a combination of the following:
1. Air that is lost through leaks.

2. Poorly regulated or unregulated air consumers.
Using the flow through an orifice chart one can demonstrate that the higher the pressure the greater the flow
through an orifice. Therefore operating the pressure above the P5 minimum pressure will result in an
increased consumption of compressed air. This will cause the compressors to operate for longer.
Demonstration of the artificial demand is critical in order to highlight the total opportunity in lowering the
costs associated with compressed air.
9.7 Calculating cost of compressed air

Calculating artificial demand.
Leaks in the compressed air system will vary. If the total % of leaks in the system is not known you can use
the industrial average as quoted by the government trade body or the compressed air association. We
normally consider the average leakage rate in a medium industrial air user of between 25 and 30% of the
total amount of air generated.
The amount of poorly regulated or non-regulated air users will also vary. Ingersoll Rand’s compressed air
auditors and Plant Air Technology (North America’s largest independent compressed air audit company)
would advise that 50% of the compressed air consumers are either poorly or unregulated. This is not to be
confused with 50% of the compressed air generated.
Consider the flow through a 6.3-mm orifice. At 5.5-bar the flow would be 40.45 l/s. Where as the flow at
6.9-bar is 49.09 l/s..
49-40 = 0.184 x 100 = 18.4% reduction in flow.

49
Therefore if we controlled the pressure at 5-bar the reduction of flow through the leaks at the poorly
regulated users would be 18.4% lower. If the leakage rate is say 28% and the artificial demand was 50% the
reduction in flow would be as follows:
28% x 0.184 = 5.15%

50% x 0.184= 9.2%
Total reduction in flow is 14.35%.
This could be the matter of operating an additional trimming compressor or not.
The production demand is around 14m³/min and two compressors are operating. Lowering the artificial
demand by 14.35% would result in a new demand of 12m³/min. The flow reduction directly correlates to a

March 05
power reduction. Therefore 14.35% flow is 14.35% less power consumed. In addition to this is reduced
maintenance costs.
Ideally the pressure going into the plant must be constant. Within the next chapter we will review how we
can achieve the Nirvana or the compressed air system.
5.7 bar Punload
# compressors running IEO 5.5 bar Pt

1 2 3
Pmin……… 5.9 5.6 5.3 5.3 bar Pload Diameter 50mm
Pmax…… 6.6 6.2 5.8
75m
P4
P2
P3 8m³
1 2m³
P5 – 5 bar
100m
100m
0.5 bar
2
1 75m
6.9 bar Punload
6.6 bar
2
Punload
3
5.6 bar Pload
3
5.3 bar Pload
The next opportunity would be to remove the cascade effect of the compressor control. Here the pressure
band is between 5.3 and 6.9-bar. When one compressor runs the pressure is between 5.9 and 6.9 at P2 and
5.9 and say 6.6 at P3 locations.
The installation of a system controller (IEO) would narrow this pressure band. Here the pressure on the
supply side would reduce by around 1-bar, which is 7% energy reduction. Basis the original compressor set
points the reduction is 12%.
So at this point even without the discussion of a Nirvana compressor we have lowered the energy by
26.35%. We have improved the system integrity by installing a receiver with stored air at the air quality
needed by the air user. Productivity is improved by the provision of a more constant pressure.
9.8 Peak shaving & Tank Farming

Peak shaving and tank farming are high volume, high-pressure storage applications, which use relatively
high differential pressure from supply to demand. Peak shaving is off line storage, which is selectively re-
introduced into the downstream side of an IntelliFlow at a much lower pressure. This differs from tank
farming, where you would use the traditional supply source to store high volumes of air through a metering
valve to the tank farm. Peak shaving has it’s own independent supply source from the system into which it
is dumped. The applications for these two approaches are similar on the demand side, but only peak shaving
can serve demand and supply side or multiple demand applications in one system because of it’s more
sophisticated controls approach.

March 05
These are a couple of applications where Peak shaving or tank farming could be employed.
Paper breaks in a paper mill. When the paper on a paper mill breaks, it is essential to rethread the paper
tailing onto the final roll as quickly as possible. In order to do this, air is used to hold down the paper on the
rolls and to thread the paper tailing to the final roll. This can be done manually, with one or more paper
showers, and two to four operators with 20 to 25mm hand held air lances. This can also be done with
automatic tail threading equipment. The intention is to do this as quickly as possible to avoid lost
production. The typical break occurs 1-3 times per shift per paper machine, it is unscheduled and quite a
panic. The amount of air required can range from 14-70 m³/min for 3-15 minutes. The method of tail
threading will determine the approximate amount of air required and the time involved. In other words, the
total volume can be determined and is relatively predictable per application. The number of paper machines
and the chances of a short reoccurring break determines the recovery time. Virtually all paper mills run
between 450-900 kW of unnecessary energy blowing off or wasted 100% of the time to support 30-60
minutes a day of usage. Although most mills accept the inevitability of breaks, every effort is made
technically to avoid the problem.
Dense Phase Transport. There are dense phase transporters, which are referred to as “plug and push”. This
is a relatively low volume application, where you drop a batch or plug into the transport piping and inject air
behind it. The next plug then drops behind the air batch and when you drop a plug into the system, another
plug comes out the other end of the system. There are also batch transfer dense phase systems. In this
application, the batch is transferred from the transporter the entire distance to the receiving hopper. The air
requirement can range from 10-35 m³/min per transport cycle and can take from 20 seconds to 3 minutes. It
would not be unusual to have dozens of transporter in the same system. Scheduling multiple transports is the
first action that limits the coincidence of air usage; next would be the applications of peak shaving or tank
farm applications. You would use a microprocessor to limit the transport cycles to a maximum of say 3-4 at
any one time, and use peak shaving to support more than two at a time. Most dense phase applications
require between 2-3 barg article pressures. The amount of storage capacitance determines the required
starting pressure. In most cases, the OEM transport manufacturer applies a small tank (a few hundred litres)
and depends largely on supply energy.
The IntelliSurvey below shows how input energy is being used to satisfy dense phase transportation
application. You can see 250kW two stage compressors loading for short duration’s to satisfy the
transportation events.

March 05
If you did not use the tank farm approach to this application, you would need to apply 120-m³/min of supply
energy at more than 4.1-bar to compensate for the line losses or differentials from the compressor discharge
to the point of use. With this complex applications approach, we are able to support the same application
with 30kW instead of >825kW (3 x M250kW loaded). There is no configuration of on board power to
support this problem, which will not provide as spectacular a return on investment. Including any number of
individual compressors or types, when you include all of the elements including clean up and back up
equipment.
IntelliFlow set
pressure 5.6 bar >16m³ receiver per application
4Logic controller Master signal set at
6.5 to 6.9 barg 16.32m³/bar
5.6 – 3.1
Lead 0.66 m³/min Transportation for 1 x every hour
30kW 5.6 40m³/min, 1 min per start
0.24 to 0.34 bard 40
m³/min
Control m³/min
7.2 –7.6 barg - 0.66
storage 5.6 bar m³/min
Lag/ready Clean up 4.6m³/bar
40 m³/min Transportation for 1 x every hour
30kW 5.6 m³/min Filter / Dryer 40m³/min, 1 min per start
6.7 –7.4 barg
Back up with 15 sec 16.32m³/bar
control permissive >4.6 m³ receiver 5.6 – 3.1
to support a base
unit failure
16.32m³/bar
40 m³/min = 0.66 m³/min pilot feed 5.6 – 3.1 Transportation for 1 x every hour
60
0.66 m³/min 40m³/min, 1 min per start
40 m³/min
Capacitance m³/bar = V(m³) x ___1___
P1 (bara)
A 16m³ air receiver can support a 40-m³/min demand event provided the differential is 2.45-bar. If the event
occurred every 30 minutes the pilot feed to the receivers would need to be increased to 1m³/min.
Note: Remember that the intention of this application is to keep a continuous and intermittent supply
system’s energy to a minimum or to avoid adding one or more large compressors to the supply to support
the intermittent or transient event (s). These applications are relatively expensive in terms of capital, but can
save so much energy, operating cost, and attendant maintenance that the return on investments are much
less than one year and often measured in a few months.

March 05
Chapter Ten
Pneumatic System
10.0 Precise pressure control
It is critical to control the pressure going out into the demand side in order for an efficient and reliable
compressed air system. Lowering the pressure without increasing the capacitance will result in the
unwanted telephone call from production. The objective is to provide the air user with the exact pressure to
meet the demand event and provide sufficient capacitance to ride the largest of these demand events.
Capacitance can be achieved with smaller storage but you will need a larger differential.
Lowering the pressure will do two things for the compressed air consumer?
1. Lower the supply energy

2. Lower the artificial demand in the system, which also impacts supply energy.
10.1 Performance and working pressure

Increasing the amount of air in a system doesn’t have to mean adding compressors.
Artificial demand is the excess volume of compressed air created for unregulated users as a result of
supplying higher line pressure than necessary. It includes all unregulated consumption, including
appropriate and inappropriate production usage, open blowing, leaks, and points of use with regulators
adjusted to their maximum setting. These applications track the supply pressure as though there were no
regulators being used.
As the supply pressure fluctuates, artificial demand changes from a minimum to a maximum waste level.
When real production demands decreases and pressure rises, artificial demand increases. Eliminating leaks
causes the pressure to rise and all unregulated demand increases in proportion to the pressure rise, including
remaining leads.
Many systems have as much as 80% of their total volume uncontrolled. This condition results from
regulator use based on the recommendations of equipment manufacturers. Most plants have regulators on
50% of their use points, which normally represent only a small portion of the total volume. Since little care
is used in the selection of regulators and filters, they frequently have high-pressure drops and require high
settings.
Operators increase pressure to improve equipment performance. When an operator can no longer elevate
the pressure, the supply pressure limit of the system has been reached. At this point, the application follows
supply pressure. The volume required is artificial demand and can represent 10% to 25% of total
compressed air used.
10.1.2 Role of the IntelliFlow

A demand expander can correct these problems, when adjusted to the minimum required system pressure. It
is a main line valve that controls the maximum pressure at which demand air can be removed from the
system.
Expanders maximise air compressor and system efficiency by separating the supply side (compressors)
from the demand side (users). They are designed to provide for the expansion of compressed air from
storage to the system with a minimum loss of energy; results are a consistently lower plant air pressure. As
pressure is lowered in the piping system, all unregulated flows and leads are reduced. The pressure dew
point is also lowered as a result of expansion.

March 05
Expanders require little supply energy to function
properly – as compared to a regulator that can require
5% to 10% of the system’s input energy to overcome
resistance to flow. It is a precise control device that has
a control and response sensitivity within +/-0.05 bar
(0.75-psi) Using an expander allows storage to be
maintained in the upstream supply system for handling
variations in demand, rather than utilising compressor
power.
The expander allows compressed air to be stored on

the upstream side and be instantly available to demand
at the lower, downstream control pressure. Rather than
operating the system at an elevated pressure all the
time, preventing an event from dropping pressure
below an acceptable level, storage is maintained for
this purpose while not activating another compressor.
Amount of available storage is a function of vessel size
and useful pressure differential. On the supply side,
compressors that once served to dynamically meet every change in demand now can serve storage.
Compressor controls can be adjusted to a design point maximising efficiency. Changes in demand do not
result in immediate compressor activity. With proper compressor management, motor starts can be
minimised and one or more compressors could be shut down.
10.1.3 Life without the IntelliFlow

Without an expander, demand is the same as supply pressure. Ideally, there are no leaks, everything is
regulated, and all regulators are set at the minimum required pressure. However, this is not realistic.
Central or sector control of maximum demand pressures is far more reliable than hoping that all production
and maintenance personnel are diligent in the installation and use of air operated equipment. If there are a
number of use sectors that need different pressures, an expander can be used for each area to minimise the
system’s energy requirements.
When a new use of air comes on line (demand event), it can elevate operating pressures and generate a
great deal of artificial demand. The excess of demand over supply energy is expressed as negative m³/min.
Until the supply system responds to the event, the air required is taken from the demand piping system.
This action causes pressure to drop.
The effect of pressure decay is greater at the point of use and diminishes moving toward the supply. See
below.

March 05
The decay continues system wide until the supply adjusts. Next, the system assumes a positive rate of
change until the event and the air removed is replaced, pressure comes back to the original control point,
and a neutral point is again reached. This is known as droop.
The supply never sees the pressure drop that occurs at the point of application, but users in the vicinity of
the event do. The magnitude of the differential is a function of the size of the event, distance from the
supply or transmission speed, amount of storage in the system, and response time of the supply equipment
controls.
The usual way of dealing with this problem is to raise production pressure at the point of use so it never
drops below an acceptable level. This approach involves adding compressors to achieve this elevated
pressure, and significantly increases the artificial demand volume in the system. The compressor room only
knows it has to run the system at a higher pressure to avoid phone calls from production.
This problem is usually rationalised as pressure losses in the piping. If the piping system is reworked, it
does not improve the situation other than provide a minimal increase in storage. If the compressor controls
must see a 1-psig (0.07b-barg) drop to respond, pressure at the point of use can drop more than 5-psig
(0.34-barg). If the supply must drop 2-psig (0.14-barg) for a supply control response, the demand event
may see between 5 and 10-psig (0.34 – 0.7-barg) drop.
If an expander has a 0.1-psig (0.07-barg)-response range, the event would only drop between 0.1 and 0.5-
psig (0.007 and 0.03-barg). An expander would see the initiation of the event and allow control storage to
stop system decay. Control storage should be large enough to limit upstream pressure drop while a
compressor is started up and to prevent it from loading, if the event duration is short. Responsiveness of an
expander determines production side pressure fluctuations.
Demand expanders are designed to maintain small pressure range differentials, typically 0.075-psig (0.05-
barg). Many systems, prior to using an expander, fluctuated more than 15-psig (1-barg) at the point of use.

March 05
The small pressure range controls the response of the expander to events that occur in the system. An
expander should open to allow control storage to stop decay at the other end of a system regardless of the
distance.
Because of this response, demand can always be operated at the lowest required pressure. This figure
requires less power and provides support for the largest system events with minimum artificial demand and
the tightest possible control of pressure to production. Supply corrects to a neutral rate of change to events
that occur and production sees no change in pressure.
Aside from the accuracy maintained in the production piping system, operating costs should drop. In a
supply-controlled system, support of an event diminishes volume in the system until a compressor responds.
The compressor must not only match the added demand event, it must also replace the lost storage in the
system. The time between the event beginning and the response occurring determines how much volume
must be replaced.
Typical pressure-only controls on compressors respond as fast as they can. The next available compressor or
compressors bring the system back to the unload pressure. If the supply capacity is twice that of the event,
response is fast.
An electrical peak is created and rapid cycling of the compressors begins. A typical solution is to turn too
many compressors on and put them in modulation. This approach stabilises system pressure but increases
operating costs. Automated operation in conjunction with an expander can use a pressure, rate of change,
and time protocol to limit the response to an event volume and not require any added compressor capacity.
10.1.4 Calculating IntelliFlow savings

The following formula can be used to determine the savings with IntelliFlow.
Pex = existing system pressure

Pnew = new system pressure
% Leak = estimate of leak loading
% PG = estimate of poorly regulated or unregulated air usage
kW = Average kW
£/kWh = blended power costs including standing charges and Climate Change Levy.
Hours = hours of operation per annum (based on 24/7).
(Pex – Pnew) x ((% Leak x kW) + (% PG x (kW - %leaks))) x £/kWh x Hours

Pex
Example:
The existing pressure in the plant is 7.5-bar. You have determined the minimum P5 plant pressure to be 6.2-
barg. Basis your plant walk through you have noticed a large amount of unregulated air consumers and you
have ascertained through interviews no leak detection policy. Therefore you have estimated the leakage to
be 30% and poorly regulated is 50%. Average kW consumption basis the 3 x 150KW compressors installed
is 265kW. This plant operates 8760 hours per year and the blended electrical costs is €0.06. The calculated
IntelliFlow savings are as follows:
Pex = 7.5 existing system pressure

Pnew = 6.2 new system pressure
% Leak = 30% estimate of leak loading
% PG = 50% estimate of poorly regulated or unregulated air usage
kW = 265 Average kW
£/kWh = €0.06 blended power costs including standing charges and Climate Change Levy.
Hours = 8760 hours of operation per annum (based on 24/7).

Pex

March 04
(7.5 – 6.2) x ((0.3 x 265) + (0.5 x (265-79.5))) x 0.06 x 8760
7.5
IntelliFlow savings equate to €15,692 per annum.
The existing pressure in the plant is 7.0-bar. You have determined the minimum P5 plant pressure to
be 6-barg. Basis your plant walk through you have noticed a large amount of unregulated air
consumers and you have ascertained through interviews no leak detection policy. Therefore you have
estimated the leakage to be 25% and poorly regulated is 50%. Average kW consumption basis the 3 x
75KW compressors installed is 132kW. This plant operates 6000 hours per year and the blended
electrical cost is €0.08. The calculate the IntelliFlow savings
10.1.5 IntelliFlow operation
A pressure transducer on the down stream leg of the valve senses the pressure rate of decay or increase. The
PID (proportional, integral, derivative) control compares the pressure transducers reading to the IntelliFlow
pressure set point.

March 04
The proportional set point defines the valves response. The Integral set point defines the valves response
interval and the derivative is the dampening of the valve set at zero.
The PID controller actuates at butterfly valve in order to stabilise the system pressure. As the system
pressure increases the IntelliFlow decreases the amount of airflow. If the system pressure decreases the
IntelliFlow will increase the amount of airflow.
It is imperative that the IntelliFlow is installed down stream of an adequately sized air receiver. The pilot
regulator needs a dry 5.5-barg supply. If the pressure is lower the valve response is not as good. The
IntelliFlow is rated for the following flow rates. If the flow is too high or too low the ability to hold the
0.05-barg-pressure control deteriorates. At minimum flow this should not be an issue as it is likely at this
flow there is not much production and demand is mostly leak loading.
IntelliflowTM models and flow rates:
Flow M³/min @ 8.6 barg inlet

Model Min Max CPN
IR-BP-BV-50 (50mm) 5 24 42560151
IR-BP-BV-80 (80mm) 9 44 42560169
IR-BP-BV-100 (100mm) 14 86 42560177
IR-BP-BV-150 (150mm) 29 222 42560185
Investigate Plant Air System

¾ Determine production issues associated with fluctuations in pressure
¾ Quantify % usage of compressed air attributed to leaks
¾ Quantify % of compressed air usage that is inappropriately regulated
¾ Determine minimum acceptable pressure in facility
¾ Determine Dry Storage Requirements. Remember that this is to protect the system integrity.
¾ How effective are downstream regulators at maintaining precise point of use pressure?
¾ What percentage of scrap or poor quality is attributed to inappropriate air pressure?
¾ Are there productivity gains associated with stable air pressure?
The use the IntelliFlow calculator or IntelliFlow workpad to define the opportunity. By carrying out an
IntelliSurvey audit you will quantify the opportunity. This will provide the average pressure existing as will
as the average kW’s.
10.2 System control

The system controller is required to remove the inefficiencies created by local cascade control. System
controllers today can be programmed to consider rate of change in the system. By setting a load delay time
you will avoid the start up of additional compressors until the compressor that has just been loaded has time
to respond to the demand events. If the pressure is rising the controller will see this and not start additional
compressors. The latest IEO control panel allows the user to select optimisation control.
The method for selective rate-of-change would result in a more reliably maintained Pressure band of
operation, as well as allowing the natural selection of the most efficient set of machines for operation. The
selection algorithm basically uses the largest compressors to drive the air system into the band and the
smaller compressors to maintain pressure inside the band. Once the system is in a steady state of operation
inside the target band, the IEO will periodically check the set of compressors used to maintain the operating
band and adjust the set of compressors where possible to select a more efficient set in more complex
systems. To assist with appropriate values in critical set-points, a “learning” mode checks certain critical
values and automatically set those values to recommended values when certain criteria are not met.
To maximise on the system controller opportunities it is best to size the receiver in accordance with the
recommendations outlined earlier within this work book.
System controls have advanced over the years from simple sequencing to system optimisation. Tighter
control of the pressure can be achieved within a pressure band of 0.2-barg using a single pressure

March 04
transducer. The transducer is recommended to be located at the control storage (dry tank). Central control
that is closer to the point of supply eliminates signal response time that could exist with local control and air
treatment differentials.
10.2.1 Calculating system control savings

The system control savings can be calculated from the reduction in pressure control band.
75 x 1.1 / 0.94 = 88 kW x 2 (2 units loaded) = 176 kW

7.0 – 6.0 barg = 1 barg = 7.25% power
12.76 x 6000 hours x €0.06 = €4593.6
#1
8.0 bar Punload
#2
7.5 bar Punload
#3
6.5 bar Pload
Pload 6.0 bar
The first compressor will load when the pressure falls in the system to 7 barg. As this
compressor cannot satisfy the demand the pressure continues to fall to the cut in
pressure of the second compressor (6.5-barg). This will effect the pressure positively as
the system delivers more air than the demand. The compressor then unloads at 7.5-barg.
Minimum pressure is 6.0-barg, which is the cut in pressure of the next and final unit.
10.3 Demand side-piping design

A central compressed air supply will need a pipeline to deliver the compressed air to the individual devices.
This must meet various conditions in order to provide a reliable and economical operation of the air
consumer devices. The golden rules of engagement are as follows:
• Adequate volume flow. Each device in the circuit must be supplied with the required volume
flow at all times.
• The necessary working pressure. Each device must have the necessary air pressure at all times.
• Quality of compressed air. Each device in the system must have compressed air of the required
air quality.
• Low pressure loss. The pressure within the air net should be as low as possible in order to
maximise the energy savings.
• Secure operation. The supply of compressed air should consider 100% up time as much as
possible. If there are repairs to be made these should be done without putting the entire system
out of use.
• Safety rules. The relevant safety rules must apply at all times in order to prevent accidents.
10.3.1 Structure of a compressed air circuit

The piping network is made up of individual sections. This allows for more flexibility and connection
between the compressor and dependent devices.

March 04
10.3.2 Main branch
We consider the main line as the connection between the outlet of the compressor manifold though to the
distribution ring. The pressure loss within the main line should be minimal and allow the entire output of the
compressors. Therefore if you install 3 compressors with the intention for the third to become stand-by your
compressor room piping should consider the flow of 3 compressors.
5.7 bar Punload
# compressors running IEO 5.5 bar Pt

1 2 3
Pmin……… 5.9 5.6 5.3 5.3 bar Pload
Pmax…… 6.6 6.2 5.8
P2
P3
1 2m³
Main
line
0.5 bar
2
1
6.9 bar Punload
6.6 bar
2
Punload
3
5.6 bar Pload
3
5.3 bar Pload
10.3.3 Distribution ring main

The distribution lines are laid to bring compressed air to the air consuming devices. They should always be
in a ring main wherever possible in order to equalise the flow and lower the pressure drop. This increases
the system economy and security of operation. The pressure drop should be no more than 0.03-bar.
The ring main is a closed loop. It is recommended to allow for isolation valves so that branch lines or cross
headers can be isolated in time of addition of a new air user to the system or repairs to existing. This avoids
the complete venting of the system and down time for other air users.
If the compressed air is supplied through a distribution loop or rings the compressed air has a shorter route
to travel to the air consumer, when compared to a single pipe distribution system. This results in a much
lower pressure drop. When dimensioning the ring main one can calculate with half the flow pipe length and
half the volume flow.
Below is a typical graphic representation of a ring main with take off lines.

March 04
Connection line
Main line
Isolation Valves
Ring Main
A single pipe distribution system should be avoided. Take off lines distributes the compressed air from a
single large diameter distribution line. The only advantage is that less material is needed when compared to
distribution ring mains. The disadvantage is that the single branch lines need to have a larger internal
diameter and frequently cause issues over excessive drop in pressure. These lines tend to have non-return
valves that isolate them from the main system. This makes for easier servicing and repair work.
Main line
Isolation Valves
Ring Branch Line
Connection line

March 04
10.3.4 Distribution drop
For industrial applications a 25mm (1”) drop is normally acceptable. This size has next to no cost
disadvantage compared with smaller sizes and nearly always guarantees a reliable supply of compressed air
to the user. Devices requiring up to 1800 l/min can be supplied through lengths of up to 10m with little loss
in pressure. The use of nylon hoses greater than 5 metres should be avoided due to excessive loss in
pressure. It is still good practice to take the drop from the top of the branch pipe or ring main with a
gooseneck. This is to avoid any risk of condensate flowing down the drop. In fact if the compressed air
dryer is working there should be no condensate in the piping network any way.
10.3.5 Branch connection lines

Branch connection lines or branch headers supply the compressed air to consumer devices in the middle of
the ring main or loop. Since devices will operate at different pressures it is advisable to install a PacE
pressure controller hat can be used to lower the pressure to the consumer. This is particularly useful in spray
painting or welding applications. The pressure loss in connection lines should be no more than 0.03-bar.
10.3.6 Multiple entry points

This is quite common and the main reasons for this is that the air user has expanded production and they
need more air or they have increased their artificial demand and they think they need more air. Without a
planned control philosophy it is very difficult to control compressor trains. This is because of the changing
differentials in each system. The best way to control multiple entry point systems is with an IntelliFlow at
each entry point with adequate control storage. The IntelliFlow set points would be set with a 0.1 to 0.2 bar
differential. This will designate one station as lead and the over as lag. Without this there is an extreme
possibility of operating the multiple separate systems at a different state of part load. There will also be a
much higher system pressure to compensate.

March 04
10.4 Tips for planning pipe systems
To minimise pressure drop the compressed air lines should be as straight as possible. At the corners that
cannot be avoided do not use a tee piece. Use a curved pipe or Y piece. Abrupt changes in piping diameter
should also be avoided due to the high loss of pressure this causes.
Consider sizing the filters for the size of the piping rather that the rate of the flow. This can lower the
pressure drop as well as increase the life of the filter elements.
Where applications need a higher pressure consider a decentralised compressor system and look at point of
application compressors. This is more practical now as the compressor comes complete with integrated
dryer and filters. They are also much quieter and can be situated close to the work place. The result is lower
pressure drop.
Where pipes should be welded they should be welded with V-seams. Therefore this is less resistant and
detached particles of welded metal will not clog down stream components.
10.4 Piping without a dryer

We have already highlighted earlier in the workbook compression causes water in the air to form
condensate one the air is cooled. If the compressed air is not processed through a dryer you will get water in
the pipeline network.
In this situation there are various steps that can be taken in order to prevent damage to the consumer devices
in the system.
1. The pipeline should be laid with a gradient of approximately 1.5-2% in the direction of the
flow. Any condensate in the pipeline will collect at the lowest point in the line. At the end of
the line you should install a water separator and drain trap.
2. A vertical main line should come out of the compressed air receiver should be vertical. This
way any condensate will flow back into the receiver and can be drained out of the bottom in
the normal way.
3. Condensate drains should be installed at the lowest point within the compressed air system
4. Drops should come off the top of the pipeline and should be as straight as possible to avoid
excessive pressure loss.
5. Where possible compressed airlines should be laid so that the air does not cool down when
flowing. The air should be heated gradually.
6. Filter, water separator and pressure regulators should be positioned at the point of application
to take out any bulk condensate.
10.5 Piping with a dryer

When there is a dryer installed with appropriate filtration measures that would have been taken can be
dispensed with:
1. The piping can be laid horizontal, as there should be no condensate in the system.
2. The condensate drains that are fitted to the filters and dryer should be sufficient. Therefore
addition drains are not needed down stream.
3. The drops can come from the bottom of the pipe and not the top. This will possibly lower the
pressure drop.
4. Water separators and in line filters at point of application can be dispensed of. This is provided
the main compressor room air treatment is adequate. Point of application regulators may still
be needed if the desired pressure is less than the P4 pressure. Lubricators may also be required
on the application.
There tends to not be much cost difference between the two installations. However you will have the
operating costs of the dryer.

March 04
10.6 Calculating pressure drop
The following calculation can be used to determine the acceptable flow through a pipe.
Q = (P 2 + P1)* D 2
85
Q = Air flow rate l/s free air flow
D = diameter of pipe in mm
P2 = air pressure in barg
P1 = atmospheric pressure bara
Therefore basis a 50mm pipe with a pressure of 7 bar this should flow:
Q = (7+8) x 502
85
Q = 206 l/s (12.35 m³/min)
The following calculation can be used to determine the permissible flow through a pipe to avoid excessive
pressure loss.
1.85 D 5 * 1010 * dp * P max = V
1.6 * 103 * L
D = inside diameter of pipeline (m)
V = Total volume flow (m³/s)
L = effective pipe length (m)
dp = Target pressure loss (bar)
Punload = compressor cut out pressure (bara)
Therefore basis our 50mm pipe (0.05m) with a length of 200m, target pressure loss of 0.03-bar and 7.7-bar
Punload the calculated volume flow is:
1.85
0.055 * 1010 * 0.03 * 7.7 = 0.037m ³ / s
1.6 * 103 * 200
This system would flow 0.037-m³/s or 2.2 m³/min. If the piping was a ring main the flow could be doubled
or the pressure drop could be halved.
Calculate the permissible flow through a pipe basis the following:

Dp = 0.04
D = 100mm
Punload = 8
L = 100m

March 04
10.6.1 Velocity in piping systems
The velocity through piping can be calculated using the following formula.
V2 = P1V1 / A
P2
V2 = velocity of air m/s

P1 = atmospheric pressure (bara)
P2 = discharge pressure (bara)
V1 = flow in m³/s
A = area m² (πr2)
Example:
40mm (1.5”) piping, 7 bar discharge pressure, flow is 4 m³/min calculate the velocity through the piping.
V2 7.31m/s = 1 x 0.066 / 0.00114

8
For galvanised steel piping the velocity should be kept below 15 m/s. Otherwise the pressure drop increases
in the piping due to turbulent flow. The noise of the flow would also be excessive. This is not the case with
aluminium tubing, as the frictional losses through the piping are much lower.
Turbulent flow is where the air is whirly and uneven. The paths of flow have an effect on each other and
form small whirls. This type of flow has two main properties:
• High pressure loss

• High heat transition
Laminar flow is a more even layer flow. The air moves in parallel and flowing layers. This type of flow has
two properties:
• Low pressure loss

• Low heat transition.
The objective is to maintain laminar flow.
10.7 Choosing the material of pipelines

For many years the system piping networks have been made of steel and in particular galvanised steel. Over
the most recent years aluminium piping has been more the piping of choice.
Whatever piping material is chosen it should satisfy the following criteria:
• Piping materials should be resistant to corrosion. The pipes must not rust over a period of time.
Modern dryers will prevent this.
• Some materials lose tensile strength with there is excessive heat and become brittle at low
temperatures.
• The higher the internal surface quality the better. This is to reduce the loss in pressure. Think
of a down hill skier. They always polish the bottom of the ski’s prior to the down hill run.
• A multiple of pre-shaped parts, fast and easy installation and cheaper materials can reduce
installation costs.
• The maximum pressure rating of the piping is an obvious consideration.
10.7.1 Threaded galvanised steel

These tend to be used within small and medium sized systems as well as branch connection lines and drops.
Above 4” (100mm) steel piping is normally welded. The advantage of threaded pipes is that they are in

March 04
expensive and quick to install. There are different and useful fittings that can be re-used as the joints can be
connected and reconnected.
The disadvantage is that they have a high flow resistance and the joints will leak after time. An experienced
piping fitter is needed to install these network systems. Un-galvanised treaded pipe should not be used as
these will corrode.
The nomogram below can be used to calculate the flow pressure drop through steel piping. Connect the pipe
length (A) with the air flow (B) and extend the line to (C). the intersection of line (C) is then connected with
the pipe diameter (D) and is extended to line (F). With the intersection of line F as a pivot connect the actual
working pressure (F) with scale G and read the pressure drop.
10.7.2 Plastic pipes

Because plastic does not corrode there is an obvious attraction to this material. Plastic is up to 80% lighter
when compared to steel. Therefore the installation costs is less as more can be installed in one day. The
inside surface of the tubing is extremely smooth. This will result in low resistance in flow and will lower the
pressure drop. PVC piping systems have a large number of moulded fittings, which also speeds up the
installation. The pipe sections would be fitted together and given an airtight seal using a special adhesive.
No special skilled labour is needed to install these systems. The key benefits are low-pressure loss and leak
free.
There are disadvantages with the plastic system. Low cost PVC systems have a maximum operating
pressure of 12.5-bar at 25°C. This maximum pressure reduces dramatically as the temperature rise

March 04
increases. For this reason plastic pipes should not be used within hot areas of the compressor system. They
would be used within the demand side only. Plastic pipes have a large coefficient of expansion and therefore
the mechanical stability is not high.
Plastic pipes are not resistant to certain types of condensate and types of oil. The pipes are not manufactured
in large quantities for high pressure and large diameters. This makes the initial capital cost expensive, in
particular the fittings. On large diameter piping systems an experienced plastic welder is needed to install
these parts. The rigidity of the piping is not that high and smaller bore piping needs a large amount of
supporting brackets. Otherwise the pipes will droop and look unsightly.
10.8 Aluminium tubing (Simplair)

Aluminium tubing provides a more flexible and lower energy alternative to galvanised steel pipe. The
modular design allows for quick and easy installation and modification. Alterations to the air system can be
completed in a matter of minutes minimising costly downtime. Smooth bore tubing prevents high-pressure
losses and allows for high flow rates than that of conventional piping systems. Surface finish is measured in
roughness. Aluminium tubing normally has a roughness of 0.04 micron compared to 1.9 micron for
galvanised steel.
Moisture, that is ever present in a compressed air system even after treatment causes corrosion and
contamination to the inside of the conventional piping. Particles in the form of rust and scale reduce the
quality of the air being delivered to production equipment causing component failure and costly downtime.
Aluminium tubing that is anodised to prevent corrosion from forming in the piping guarantees a higher
quality of air delivered throughout the system.
Simplair is anodised aluminium extruded piping system that is unique to Ingersoll Rand. It is a modular
system designed for the use of distributing compressed air / vacuum or other inert gases in a dry state. The
surface finish has a low coefficient of friction and the general roughness of 0.04 micron compared to 0.19
micron for a steel tube. Smooth bore tubing experience less friction and pressure loss, which results in less
power required for air distribution. The fact that the pressure is lower greater volume of air can be
transported. The result is that small-bore tubing can be used. This will have a positive impact to the
installation costs.
SimplAir Galv
25mm flows 40% more than 1”
32mm “ 50% more than 1 1/4”
50mm “ 130% more than 2”
63mm “ 150% more than 2 1/2”
80mm “ 253% more than 3”
This is basis 7-barg operation.
Diameter 7 barg (103 psig) 8 barg (118 psig) 10 barg (147 psig)
Aluminium Steel Aluminium Steel Aluminium Steel
mm in. l/sec l/sec l/sec l/sec l/sec l/sec
14 1/2" 16.9 8.5 19.3 9.4 22.1 10.4
25 1 35.3 26.0 40.5 35.4 52.3 40.1
32 1 1/4" 73.1 33.0 81.1 37.8 102.0 48.1
50 2 227.0 188.8 260.0 212.4 326.0 236.0
63 2 1/2" 444.0 306.8 491.0 358.7 634.0 408.3
80 3 848.0 566.4 906.0 613.6 1021.0 660.8
Flows are based on approx. 1 psig, pressure drop per 30 metres (100ft)

March 04
INGERSOLL-RAND
Simplair HBS tubing has an O’ring seal design. This is to ensure leak free operation even after extended
periods of operation. Installation is quick, easy, simple and requires no special tooling. Therefore semi-
skilled installation people can be used. Once installed it is extremely flexible and easy to modify. The main
benefits are as follows:
• Low Pressure Drop - Saves Energy

• No Corrosion - Maintains Low PD
• No Leakage - Saves Energy
• Flexible System - Easily Modified
• Low Installion Cost - Simple, Fast
• High Quality Air - Less Down Time
• Looks Good - Low Level Installation
• Light - no weight restrictions
The question to ask is the customer is do you want the latest state of the art piping system or the old
galvanised piping?
10.8.1 Easyline (Simplair EL range)

This Ingersoll Rand product is intended for use within Automotive and light industrial compressed air
systems. However EL could be used for drops in larger industrial air users. These markets are driven by
costs, ease of installation and limited skill level.
EL piping is non-anodised tubing supplied in 3m lengths from 15mm to 28mm internal diameter. To lower
the number of fittings this piping can be bent using a tube bender. This will reduce the number of fittings
needed and hence lower the cost of the installation, which compared to galvanised steel piping.
The fittings are produced from Acetal plastic or

brass and there is a range of around 20 different
fittings. The piping is simply pushed into the fitting
and a collet gripper that has stainless steel teeth
bites into tubing. There is an O’ring that provides a
permanent seal.

March 04
The advantage of EL is that the system is very easy to install and is extremely in expensive. No special tools
are required, all you need is a pipe cutting and a bender. EL is extremely light when compared to galvanised
steel piping and is quicker to install.
To complete the range of Simplair piping there is the speed-line range. This is very much like the EL range
but speed-line uses heavy-duty hydraulic compression type fittings and the piping is anodised.
Tubing is available in 14, 22 and 28mm sizes. It is specially heat-treated so that it can be formed in various
shapes. You will notice from the photo above the bend in the piping. The safe working pressure of this
piping is 17-barg compared to at best 12.5 for plastic. This makes for a much more safe and versatile
system. Compared to steel, copper and plastic tubing the cost of speed-line tubing is less.
• High quality product

• Better performance flow/pressure than steel/copper/plastic systems
• No corrosion
• Low cost
• Fast and easy installation
• Unique fittings retains future customer business
• Simple hydraulic fittings
– No leaks
– Only spanners required for installation
– High structural strength
10.9 Marking pipelines

The industrial colour code for pipes carrying compressed air is blue. Marking plates would normally
indicate the direction of the flow and the pressure rating.

March 04
Chapter Eleven
Compressor Room
When designing the compressor station it must be remembered that the compression process inside the
compressor generates a large amount of waste heat. The principle of thermodynamics applies, which is the
entire electrical power absorbed by the compressor is converted to heat.
The waste heat must be extracted reliably since there could be an accumulation of heat in the compressor. If
the temperature inside the compressor is too high for too long this could lead to mechanical damage within
the compressor itself or the drive motor. Cooling the compressor can be achieved in two ways:
Air-cooling is the most common method for all types of compressors. When this is used the ventilation of
the compressor room is of paramount importance. This must be well planned for at the beginning and
implemented well. It is recommended that you follow up the order with a thank you and then state clearly
the requirements for installation. Otherwise thermal problems with the compressor and possible associated
equipment could occur. Correction would occur.
Water-cooling is normally used on larger compressors or where the heat cannot be removed by air-cooling.
With certain compressors cooling with water is the only option (Centac, large reciprocating compressors,
PET boosters). Water-cooling places fewer demands on the ventilation system inside the compressor room.
In cases where the compressor will operate in high ambient temperatures, water-cooling is recommended.
The dryer can be sized basis a lower approach temperature as the CTD of the compressor will be above the
cooling medium, which in this case would be chilled water.
Within this chapter we shall cover general recommendations.
The compressor room should be clean, free of duct, dry and cool. Strong sunlight must not be allowed to
enter. There should be no heat emitting pipes or assemblies in the installation room (not next to a boiler) of
the compressor. Good lighting should be provided in order to accommodate the servicing work and periodic
inspections. Ensure the compressor room is ventilated.
The following general points should be observed:
• Compressor and compressed air receiver should be mounted on a flat industrial floor. Special
mountings are not required for most compressors.
• Compressors should be mounted on rubber mat. This stops vibration transmitted to the floor
and the compressor noise be carried to other parts of the building.
• The air discharge of the compressor can either be connected to the fixed compressed air lines
or with a high pressure hose that is connected to the compressed air line. The latter is sometimes
more practical and compensates for in accurate piping.
• Where there is high dust the compressor would be fitted with a washable or paper package
intake filter.
11.0.1 Admissible room temperature

The minimum operating temperature should be +2°C. Otherwise
pipelines and valves can ice up. Additional anti freeze facility allows
for the ambient temperature to fall to –10°C. The maximum
permissible compressor operating temperature is +40 to +46°C
dependant upon the compressor model. If the ambient temperature is
above the maximum level the compressed air outlet may exceed the
limit and the compressor will trip on high discharge temperature. The
quality of the compressed air will also deteriorate and the service
intervals would become shorter.

March 05
As shown on the diagram on page 1 of this chapter, cooling air could be diverted back into the compressor
plant room in order to heat up plant room.
11.0.2 Space requirement

It is recommended that at least 1 metre of space be around the compressor. The compressor must be
installed to allow ease of access for operation and servicing. For cooling to be assured there must be a
certain minimum distance between the ventilation fan or cooler and the neighbouring wall or other
components within the compressor system. If this is not the case the cooling is reduced. When there are
multiple compressors installed the cooling air discharge of one compressor must not be used as the cooling
air for another. Nor should the cooling air of the compressor be used for the cooling air of the air dryer.
11.0.3 Layout
Typical layout drawing.
IEO
P3
11.1 Ventilation of a compressor room

The most important consideration of a compressor room is the ventilation. There needs to be sufficient
cooling air drawn into the compressor room and the heat must be removed. Waste heat that is generated
must be extracted. There are three possible options for this:
1. Natural ventilation. This is through inlet and outlet apertures within the side of the walls or in the roof
of the compressor room. This is without the means of any additional ventilation fan.
2. Artificial ventilation. This is like natural but uses an additional fan to support the flow of air through
the compressor room.
3. Inlet and outlet ducting. Ventilation of the air is by means of appropriate ducts. Dependent upon the
length of the ducting there is an additional ventilation fan installed. Restrictive ductwork would result
in the warm or hot air stalling in the duct and could also stall the compressor fan. This would result in
the compressor overheating.
11.1.1 Factors influencing cooling air

The volume of the cooling air is influenced by the following factors:
• Part of the heat that is generated is sent out as transmission heat by the walls enclosing the installation
room. This would include the windows and the doors. The will have a considerable influence to the cooling
airflow. The best ventilation is a compressor in the middle of a field but this offers little protection to the
elements.
• Room temperature influences the cooling air. The higher the temperature the greater the cooling
airflow needed to more the heat.

March 05
• The greater the temperature differences between the inside of the compressor room and the outside, the
lower the requirement for the cooling air.
• Room height and size will influence the cooling airflow. The larger the room the better the distribution
of the heat that is generated. A room with a very high ceiling is much superior compared to a low ceiling.
11.1.2 Natural ventilation
A With this type of ventilation an air inlet aperture (F) and

G an outlet aperture (G) control the circulation of the air.
These are located in the side walls of the compressor
room. The natural circulation of the air exchanges the
heat, as the hot air rises. The air outlet aperture must be
located as far away as possible to the air inlet.
Generally this method of ventilation is only considered

F
suitable for compressors with kW ratings up to 18.5kW.
However even smaller compressors may need force
ventilation fans. The outlet should be 20% larger compared to the inlet.
The following table is the cooling airflow of Ingersoll-Rand rotary screw compressors, (37kW to 160kW).
Cooling airflow’s for other Ingersoll Rand compressors can be located on the compressor datasheets.
Model Fan Air Flow m³/sec

M37 1.88
M45 1.88
M55 2.93
M75 2.93
M90 5.2
M110 5.2
M132 5.95
M160 5.95
11.1.3 Artificial ventilation
In many cases natural ventilation is not sufficient. The hot air

must be extracted with the use of a ventilation fan. This
increases the flow of speed of the cooling air inside the
installation room and provides a guarantee of the required
cooling airflow. There is a much greater reserve should the
ambient temperature outside the compressor room be high.
It is recommended that the ventilator fan is thermostatically

controlled as this is not needed when the compressor room is
cool. Ideally the ventilation fan should speed up when the
temperature inside the compressor room is high. With natural ventilation the cooling airflow comes from
the compressors cooling air. (See table above). The ventilator output should be approximately 15% greater
than the required cooling airflow. This guarantees adequate cooling in summer months.
With artificial ventilation the exhaust extractor determines the size of the air outlet aperture. This can be
smaller when compared to the natural ventilation principle. The size of the inlet aperture depends on the
extractor output and maximum flow speed in the inlet aperture. It is recommended that to calculate the flow
speed of 1m/s. But if there are structural restrictions that do not permit the size of the aperture it is also
possible to use a flow speed of 3m/s.

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11.1.4 Calculating inlet louvers
The minimum size of the air inlet aperture is calculated with the following formula.
Area = V m³/sec
S m/s
V= cooling air flow (m³/sec)

S= maximum cooling air velocity (m/s)
It should be taken into consideration that when cooling air-flows through ducts and apertures, when the flow
speed increases the dynamic pressure rises, so there is a pressure loss. A ventilator will only be able to
overcome dynamic pressure if this is below the defined surface pressure. If the dynamic pressure is higher
than the surface pressure of the ventilator no volume flow will occur. A delta P of 100Pa can be considered
for simple apertures without unfavourable ducting.
Example.
Your installation consists of a ML75 rotary screw compressor with a TS140 refrigerated air dryer. Natural
ventilation is not sufficient due to problems with the location of the outlet aperture. Therefore it is decided
to force ventilate the compressor room.
P3
The calculated size of the inlet aperature is as follows:
Area 1.68 m² = 2.93 m³/sec x 1.15

2 m/s
V= cooling air flow (m³/sec)

S= maximum cooling air velocity (m/s)
If there is a louvre over the inlet aperture this will restrict the airflow. Therefore assuming 70% free area for
the louvre the size of the inlet aperture needs to be 2.41 m². (1.47/0.7 = 2.41)

March 05
This does not make allowance of the airflow for the TS dryer. This airflow should be added to the airflow of
the ML75 and the size of the aperture should be recalculated.
11.1.5 Sizing duct work

The movement of cooling air through inlet and outlet ducting is a good solution to thermal problems that
can arise within the compressor station. The cool air that moves through the compressor enclosure is
directed away through duct work wither through the ceiling of the compressor room or into an adjacent
building or both.
Ingersoll Rand compressors are fitted with cooling fans that generate a surface pressure of approximately
62Pa (124 Pa for Nirvana). The typically means that the internal fan of the compressor can force the exhaust
cooling air 5–metres through straight ducting (10-m for Nirvana) with the recommended cross sectional
area. The cross sectional area should be twice the size of the outlet aperture of the compressors exhaust grill.
The duct will be connected to the cooling air exhaust opening. This will be directed out to the open but it is
possible to redirect cooling air to an adjacent building for heating in winter.
It is possible to supply the cooling to the compressor by inlet ducting. Be aware that the inlet duct reduces
the induction volume flow and thus has a negative effect to the compressor performance output. This is why
inlet ducting is only recommended if the environment is not clean or the temperature is high at the
compressor location.
When we say unclean environment this is resulting from a high dust or dirt presence, chemical impurities or
too much moisture (steam). Air needs to be drawn into the compressor from a cleaner location. High
temperature at the compressor location could be as a result of positioning the compressor in the same
location as other machinery that radiates a lot of heat.
11.1.6 Extraction of air through ducting
C D
H H

March 05
Diagram C on page 5 shows the hot air being directly exhausted into the open. This is recommended where
there are high temperatures in the compressor station and the heat rise from the compressor exhaust would
add to this problem.
Diagram D on page 5 depicts the hot cooling air being directed into the open. When temperatures in the
compressor room air cold the diverter panel opens and directs the warm or hot cooling air into the
compressor room. This circulatory ventilation prevents the unit from freezing, when outside temperatures
are below zero. Auxiliary heating within the compressor enclosure is recommend during periods of shut
down. This will prevent freezing during the start up of the compressor. When this method is adopted it is
recommended that the air outlet be dimensioned according to the flow of the cooling air in addition to the
outlet duct.
When the ambient temperature is cold outside it is possible to direct some cooling air into an adjacent
building for heating. There is normally a thermostatic diverter panel so that the warm or hot air is diverted
into the open in the summer months. This is shown in diagram E on page 5. Air filters or silences can be
installed in the outlet of the duct in order to lower the noise in the room that is to be heated.

March 05
Chapter Twelve
Heat recovery
12.0 Heat recovery using cooling air
When an end user buys a new compressor the capital purchase represents only the first cost factor.
Additional expendature comes in the form of electricity and after-care.
Using a ten-year depreciation period, an efficiency calculation would show those energy amounts to
approximately 70% of the total costs.
Where can energy savings be made?
Within the global market place today the vast majority of compressed air users simply discharge the heat
generated in compressing the air straight to the atmosphere as troublesome waste!
It is in this area the user can claw back substantial savings in energy and produce heat free of charge.
If one takes as an example the power required at shaft of an air-cooled rotary compressor approximately
85% of heat is dissipated is available for recovery, the remainder stays in the re-cooled compressed air. In
the case of a 55 kW compressor 51.42 kW is total dissipated heat.
The heat given off by the electric motor must also be added. In the case of a IP55 motor having an
efficiency of 94% it means 6% of heat is lost i.e. of 55kW this represents 3.3 kW.
How does the user make use of this heat from the rotary compressor?
12.0 Heat recovery using cooling air

The simplest solution is to install the compact plant in the room where the compressed air is also being
consumed. This is made possible because of modern rotary compressors are fitted with noise attenuators.
The noise emission is normally well below that of the noise in the factory workshop. This also would
represent a saving in length of compressed air pipes. However, this solution can present problems at
summer temperatures.
Another possibility would be to convey the waste heat in a duct made from sheet metal. The facility of
discharging the hot air to atmosphere must also be available as the heating required in summer differs from
the amount required in winter. This can be done by a manually-operated slide valve fitted in the duct, or if
necessary by a thermostatic control. See diagram within this chapter for ideas.
The so called hot air ventilator is designed so the hot air can be conveyed both forward and upwards and to
the right or to the left as necessary. The calculations of the discharged air channel and any additional
ventilator are very important and the formula for designing the cross section of the channel is given below:
A = cross section of the channel in m²

V = volumetric flow of cooling air m³/hr
V = Air speed (3 to 5 m/s) x 3600
Example: Volume of cooling air flow 10560 m³/hr for the Ingersoll-Rand ML55
A= 10560 = 0.98 m²
3 x 3600
A cross section of the channel is simply adapted to the size of the building on the discharge air side for ducts
up to approximately 5 m long.

March 05
It is important for the compressor room to be ventilated, i.e it must be possible to suck in the volume of cold
air without any resistance.
Compressor ventilation can be calculated using the following formula.
12.0.1 Room heating through ducting

Q = Compressor package airflow m³/sec (Obtain from Engineering data)
A = Plant room grill area m²
V = Maximum cooling air velocity (* Aim to keep below 1 m/sec)
Calculation:
A=Q
V
Example – Ingersoll-Rand ML55
Q = 176 m³/min
= 2.93 m³/sec
A = 2.93
1
= 2.93 m²
Assuming only 70% free area of a suitable louvre
Requirement = 2.93
0.7 = 4.18 m² ventilation grill opening
The inability to conduct the air over a great distance is a disadvantage of the hot air system. The radiation
would be too great. Where it concerns longer ducts, particularly with bends and ‘T’ junctions the added
static pressure created by the duct should not exceed 6mmWG. Additional ventilators in the ductwork may
be necessary to move the air.
The amount of heat recovered can be calculated using the following formula.
Q = 1.19 x V x 1.005 x (T2-T1)
Where:
Q = Heat load (kW – in practice 85% of full load shaft power)
V = Volume of working air (m³/sec)
T1 = temperature in (°C)
T2 = temperature out (°C)
Rearranging the formula
T2 = Q + t1
1.2 x V
For ML45
Q = 0.85 x 60 kW = 51 kW
T1 = 20 °C (or whatever ambient figure you wish to input)
V = 10560 m³/hr = 2.93 m³/sec
T2 = 51 + 20 = 34.5 (°C)
1.2 x 2.93

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12.0.2 Diverting for cold operation
The previously described use of heat is not quite perfect. The advantages only exist during the cold seasons
and sometimes on cold summer days. It is not possible to store hot air and use heat as and when needed.
When the compressor room is cold the cooling air can be diverted into the compressor room in order
maintain the temperature above freezing.
12.1 Energy Recovery

HOT WATER ENERGY RECOVERY SYSTEM FOR IR SSR ML55 COMPRESSORS
The possibility of storing heat would exist if it were decided to opt for a rotary compressor with a coolant to
water heat exchanger.
Hot water could be stored in a water tank the thermal insulation designed according to the operating
conditions. In fact the recovered heat may be used in a number of ways such as:
1. Hot water for showers and washing

2. Pre-heat boiler feed water thus reducing the energy consumed by the steam generator
3. Space heating for hot water radiators
4. Any other application, which call for hot or warm water.
85% of the compressor shaft power can be recovered in the form of hot water to heat up, for example tap
water up to a temperature of 80°C when the plant is operated continuously.
12.1.1 Using coolant to water heat exchangers

The ERS is specifically designed to recover a high percentage of the heat of compression by means of water
to coolant heat exchanger. All equipment is designed to be mounted and piped within the compressor
package.
The ERS is installed in parallel to the existing coolant cooler. This offers no additional pressure drop to the
coolant system and will not starve the compressor of its lubricant.
IR offer ERS in two options according to the water inlet temperature rise required.
Option one is basis high water flow rate giving a low temperature rise. 60°C in 70°C out.
Option two is basis a reduced water flow rate and high temperature rise. 20°C in 70°C out.
These options can either be installed at our factory or field fit kits are available through our Services
channels.
The ERS kit includes all necessary piping, thermostatic control valves, heat exchanger or isolation valves if
the ERS is purchased without the heat exchanger.
The option less heat exchanger would be offered for cases where the application requires a different heat
exchanger from our standard design, for reasons of process, materials etc.
The diagram within this chapter shows the two typical arrangements available.

March 05
12.1.2 How much energy you can save?
The following is a typical example.
Assumptions.
Annual compressor running time = 2240 hrs (280 days at 8 hours per day)
Compressor type is a ML55
Recoverable heat = 51.4 kW
Gas boiler efficiency = 90%

Oil boiler efficiency = 80%
Electricity cost = €0.045 kW/hr

Oil cost = €0.011 kW/hr
Gas cost = €0.015 kW/hr
Annual savings basis these assumptions. It is likely that the savings are higher than those demonstrated due
to the rising energy costs.
The following annual energy is made available by the ERS:
51.4 x 2240 hrs = 115192 kW
If we now compare this with the cost of heating with other forms of energy, we can determine the annual
cost savings of the ERS.
1.Electrically heated tank - 115192 x €0.045 = €5,184
2. Oil fired boiler (80% efficient) – 115192 x €0.011 x 100/75 = €1,689
3. Gas fired boiler (90% efficient) – 115192 x €0.015 x 100/90 = €1,920
From the above we can calculate the typical pay back period of an ERS costing, say €5000.
1. Electricity
€5000 = 0.67 years (7 months)

€7257
2. Oil
€5000 = 2.07 years (2 years)

€2365
3. Gas
€5000 = 1.82 years (less than 2 years)

€2688
It is obvious to see that the longer the compressor is run the more energy can be saved.
Why pay twice to compress air and heat the building?

March 05
You have been asked to provide a system offering the lowest possible energy savings. Within the
compressor room will be a ML160-2S, which will be base loaded. Calculate the possible energy
savings by using an ERS system to heat up water feeding a boiler. Also calculate the heat loading by
utilising the cooling air discharge to heat an adjacent storage building. Cooling airflow for the
ML160-2S is 5.95 m³/sec. Work on an ambient temperature of 20°C.

March 05
Hot air discharge.
A B
G
F H
C D
H H
A = Natural ventilation of compressor. Supply air opening F should equal exhaust air opening G
B = Forced ventilation of compressor location. Supply air-opening H
C = Duct ventilation to the atmosphere, without recycle flap
D = Recycle flap for winter operation to prevent icing, by mixing the warm air to cold air at intake
temperatures around 0°C
E = Exhaust air for heating, waste heat recovery

March 05
Using a coolant to water heat exchanger to heat up the water.
A = Schematic arrangement of internally mounted energy recovery system

B = Schematic arrangement of externally mounted energy recovery system
Airend injection
A
Machine
Oil Cooler
Cool water in
Machine thermostatic
valve
Cool water out
Oil from Sep.
Internal to compressor External to

B (by IR) compressor (by
Airend injection customer)
Machine
Oil Cooler
Cool water in
Machine
thermostatic
valve
Cool water out
Isolation
Oil from Sep. Valve
Tank
Oil piping
Water Piping

March 05
Chapter Thirteen
Auditing
A properly conducted audit of a compressed air system provides the air user with the only sure way to
manage the often-mysterious workings of the air system.
Problems associated with operating a modern compressed air system are fairly complex and often
camouflaged to the untrained eye. At the same time, many companies have cut back the internal resources
dedicated to defining and solving those problems. That's where a professional Air Audit can help by
addressing the total process of producing compressed air... not just the compressors. It's about taking
compressed air, looking at it as the fourth utility, and making compressed air as dependable as electric,
water and gas services.
The compressed air consumer should consider the air audit part of the investment. Without the Audit the
consumer is working in the dark and could make judgements that will have an adverse effect on the
reliability, productivity and efficiency of the compressed air system.
For many years we have endeavoured to find ways of metering and monitoring compressor supply. Intrusive
devices invariably result in plant down time and are costly. Commercially available logger devices have
assisted in this process, but many were not intended for compressor monitoring and only provide half the
story. Those that are intended for compressed air provide a higher investment cost and require a
considerable amount of time to interpret the results into real savings and identified opportunities for energy
saving products. There is an element of guesswork and assumptions when using these products.
13.0 IntelliSurvey
This is an automated compressed air audit. It will provide up to 7-days of data collection pulsing every
second on up to 4 compressors in a single compressor room & 1 common system pressure point.
Your IntelliSurvey kit will

include 4 x CT clamps with
cable, 1 x pressure transducer
with cable, the IntelliSurvey
data collection box, 1 x 64M CF
card with USB reader &
extension cable, multi-meter,
ESA software. The power
supply can be either 110V or
240V. 2005 kits are also
supplied with a clock correction
kit. This synchronises the date
and time in the logger to the
time on your PC. The it is
supplied in a solid & hard-
wearing case.
The IntelliSurvey scope of works is as follows.
7-Day measurement of pressure and amps

604,800 data points collected and analysed
Log of up to 4 compressors maximum amps 500
Report that shows:
• Statistical analysis providing maximum, minimum and average amps, average % of amps,
standard deviation (measure of variability) for each compressor measured
• Flow analysis providing maximum, minimum and production average flow in m³/min for each
compressor measured. Minimum, maximum and average pressure in bar is additionally shown.

March 05
Also tabulated is total average flow, current yearly power costs, average yearly kW usage,
average hourly kW usage, projected yearly power costs and potential hour kW savings.
Guaranteed savings +/- 10% of calculated kW.
• Graphs for amps and pressure, as well as calculated flow in m³/min with pressure for the full
duration. Daily graphs include amps and pressure for the period of measurements.
• System integrity graph showing pressure variation and recommended system storage
calculated off the largest system event possible.
• Duration of operation for each compressor with loaded and unloaded hours.
• Drill down into the raw data showing size and duration of events (as required).
The report can be used to show how the compressors react to changes in demand. Typically compressed air
systems react to demand events with additional on-line kW’s. Small changes in pressure could result in
additional compressors starting. You will see clearly how amps respond to changes in pressure. Blow-down
or unloading times and unloaded run on time for each compressor can be demonstrated.
System saving opportunities presented:
1. Enhanced demand side system pressure control with increased system storage, which will lower
artificial demand by controlling the pressure within +/-0.05barg. Creating capacitance to support
demand events and not extra on-line kW’s.
2. Supply side system control using a compressed air optimiser panel to control the pressure within the
control storage to a 0.2-barg-pressure band.
3. Using a Nirvana True Variable Speed Drive compressor as the trim machine compared to the existing
compressor with OL/OL, Modulation, or Geometry control methodology.
4. System integrity improvements that positively impact productivity.
IntelliSurvey is the starting point for anyone who wishes to improve the reliability, productivity and energy
associated with the compressed air system. Using IntelliSurvey and an IR feasibility study we can create a
justification for a more detailed and comprehensive analysis of your compressed air system. IntelliSurvey
will show the user how the compressors react to changes in demand but will not always tell you why?
13.0.1 Advantage of IntelliSurvey
Some of the competitive loggers measure the load and unload cycles from the load solenoid valve.
Measuring the load/unload cycles is a decent method to determine compressor-loading cycles on
online/offline compressors. However this method does not record the actual unloaded power as it results in
total consumed power. An example would be their method would show the demand of a 28m³/min
(1000cfm) compressor loaded for 4 hours and unloaded for 4 hours in an 8 hour shift as 14 m³/min (500cfm)
(1000*4/8). Our method of measuring the incoming power will show the demand as 14 m³/min (500cfm)

March 05
but would also calculate in the power when the compressor has timed out and shut down. There method
will show the required power is 4 hours *Full load power + 4 hours * unloaded power. The true power will
be something less than that as we know 4 hours is at full load however when the machine times out and
shuts off will be less than the 4 hours * unloaded power calculation. Their method overstates the existing
case and misrepresents the truth. Also their method is limited to compressors operating in online/offline.
What do they do when the compressors operate in modulation, geometry or variable speed?
Other commercially available loggers that are not intended for monitoring compressed air measure
incoming current and not measure pressure. This is like checking the number of miles (or kilometres) a car
has travelled and then guessing the fuel efficiency (Miles/gallon or KM/litre). There are three main
components to an air system: Pressure, Volume, & Time. Checking power may lead to Volume & Time -
cfm, however without pressure the system cannot be properly identified. One can also not determine if the
amps are reducing to reduced system pressure or rising to increasing system pressure. On modulation
machines amps rise when pressure falls. Loggers that only measure amps have no way of knowing this.
Modulation, geometry and variable speed driven compressor monitor adds significant guesswork with this
type of logging. Loggers are based on the Easylog 12 bit data loggers commercially available from suppliers
like RS components. According to the RS web site the non-volatile memory stores up to 8,000 readings on
these loggers. This means that at 1-minute intervals they will store 5.55 days worth of data. It is possible to
increase the sample rate but this with reduces the sample duration. For example 5-second interval is 1600
data points or just over a one-day. In a compressed air system much can happen in 1-minute.
Energair (CMC) measure both pressure and current. However they program takes into consideration power
factor when calculating energy. Their method assumes a constant power factor. Our methodology utilises
equations that were generated from several motor manufacturer data. This curve takes into consideration
the declining power factor as the load (current) falls away from full load. The ideal method would be to
utilise expensive kW meters which actually measures the power factor and the true power of the
compressor. The downside is the costs of such meters. These loggers do not identify the opportunities with
Nirvana, IEO and IntelliFlow. Yet again one needs to spend time analysing data and graphs to make a guess.
13.0.2 Understanding results

Within this part of the chapter we will interpret different IntelliSurvey reports. This will assist you when
you understand reports that you have created yourself.
Within Europe the most common mode of compressor control is on-line / off-line with auto-restart. The first
of the reports will be similar to many of the reports you can expect to get.

March 05
The first question to ask the customer is that “was production typical during the week where the
measurements were taken?” If not then it would be wise to repeat the exercise.
You should also ask “was production disrupted at all during the week of the measurements? “This will help
you ascertain the minimum plant pressure.
Another question would be “are you going to install more machinery that will result in the use of more
compressed air?”
Within this installation the original intention was to operate one D40 with one ML55. Over time things have
changed. You should point out to the customer that frequently three compressors operate to support the
demand. Where there are blocks of colour the compressor is cycling frequently. Logging ever second will
sequence the amp measurements together. When the compressor is fully loaded you can clearly observe this.
On-Line / Off-line compressors cycle because the supply is more than the demand. The pressure rises and
the compressors unload. High differential across the clean up equipment would result in a lower useful
differential. This can increase the cycling if there is limited system storage. You should discuss this with the
customer as increased cycling has implications on the reliability and efficiency of the compressed air
system.
What seriously effects the rate of change in the system is the system volume and the set points of the
compressors related to the differential across the clean up equipment.
You should also point out the standard deviation. This is a gauge of the variability of the data measured. A
high standard deviation would indicate a high degree of variability with the data measured. This would say
that the demand is not consistent and there is a high degree of cycling. A low standard deviation would
indicate that the compressor was fully loaded or perhaps in modulation control. With this logging the
compressors operated in on-line / off-line. With on-line / off-line compressors the amps will always follow
the direction of the pressure.

March 05
The flow analysis is the second of the pages that you would present the customer. One of the objectives here
is to demonstrate the average production. This is the average whilst the compressor ran during the period of
the measurements. With on-line / off-line compressors the maximum measured flow is always realised as
the compressor reached full load amps. This does not mean that the compressor was fully loaded. A cycling
compressor could reach max amps as well. With the trimming OL/OL compressor the average flow gives a
good indication of the load on this machine.
In this example we know that all compressor reached max flow and they did fully load. The total average
flow would be the 3 compressors that ran together, which is 21.2 m³/min. The total flow would be the ML55
and one D40 fully loaded plus the average flow of the second ML55, which is 23.7 m³/min.
You would also point out the yearly power costs to the customer. It is worth pointing out the average %
amps related to the average capacity. With modulating compressors the average % amps is usually very high
compared to the average capacity. You should show the customer the control curves and point out that both
OL/OL and Modulation are not efficient methods of control if the compressor is part loaded.
The flow analysis page will also confirm the minimum, maximum and average pressures. The system
integrity page can support this. Discuss how operating at a higher than desired pressure will effect the
artificial demand in the system. As systems are so dynamic it is impossible to control the pressure precisely
with the compressors local controls or even a system controller yet precise pressure controlled is important
for an efficient and reliable system.
The third of the pages would be the system integrity page. The graph shows the pressure variation in the
system. If the pressure was measured down stream of the clean up equipment the pressure band could be
narrow as you have measure the useful differential. You can compare this to the set points on the
compressors. Measuring before the clean up will show you the full range of the compressor set points. This
graph could also show how far the pressure fell if there was large demand events or simultaneous demand
events.

March 05
The recommended storage is the dry side control storage. This would be additional to the dry side storage in
the system. If there is no dry storage then the value calculated will be the recommended storage. This is
calculated on the basis of the largest system event, which is failure of the largest base load compressor
(ML55) and the time to start up the next machine. You can use the IntelliFlow workpad to support the
positioning of this page (see chapter 14). We would recommend that you show the air user what could
happen if there was a large unexpected demand event and how this could effect the production.
Finally you should support your discussions with the daily graphs. You should deep dive into the minimum
and maximum demand events to support your discussions.
People want to buy rather than be sold to. Therefore attaching a quotation for a variable speed compressor
with your IntelliSurvey report is a big NO.
So far you have not really spoken about any products but you have just presented the problems. Positioning
is extremely important and can easily go astray. You can position the report to demonstrate the value of a
variable speed driven compressor within the installation. But to differentiate from your competition you
should explore the reasons why compressors operate in the way that they do and work towards creating
more system capacitance to support the demand events.
IntelliSurvey can also be used to position you for a more comprehensive supply and/or demand side audit.
This has tremendous value for the customer as you seek out more answers and ways to reduce the amount of
compressed air that they use, improve the reliability and enhance the productivity. The result for the

March 05
compressed air consumer is increased operating profitability. Working in the demand side is the land of
opportunity for you and your air consumer. This moves you from the peddler of compressors to the
Solutioniser. Full auditing would focus on the following:
• Leakage
• Poorly regulated or unregulated air
• Flow restrictions like un-wanted filtration, regulators wound fully open, restrictive pipe-work.
• Redundant piping resulting in the possibility of zoning.
• Cooling products – use fans instead or water cooling if suitable. If this can only be performed using air
use engineered nozzles.
• Drying with compressed air – possible application for a low pressure blower
• Idle equipment – install isolation solenoid valves. Compressor installations are often left on overnight,
even when there is no production. This could be for a process that needs a constant pressure feed.
• Aspirating, Atomising – use low pressure blowers
• Abandoned equipment – isolate
• Cleaning with unregulated compressed air blasts.
• Compare the actual operating pressure with the design pressure and, if appropriate install a pressure
reducing valve (Ideally the overall distribution line pressure should be reduced)
• If there is a piece of equipment that needs a higher pressure than any other piece of equipment look to
satisfy this requirement in another way. For example a dedicated system or a high-pressure amplifier.
• Install localised receivers with metered recovery for large infrequent demand events. A dedicated high
pressure total air system could be installed to shape the peak loads of the system.
• The total air drying capacity required should be calculated during the end user audit. If more air than
necessary is being dried, the possibility of having two distribution systems, wet and dry, should be
considered. Consideration should also be given to treating the higher quality air at the point of
application.
• Drainage traps should be checked to ensure that they are neither leaking nor binding.
• The location of the air intakes into the compressors should be checked to ensure that they are not
supplying warm, wet or dusty air.
• The cooling air discharge of the dryer should be ducted away from the air treatment. Elevating the
ambient air will reduce the performance of the dryer.
• Evaluate the performance and operating condition of the existing supply side components including
compressors, filters, dryers, traps, cooling system, drainage and controls. This includes profiling the
signals, differentials, and set points in the supply system. This profiling will be done to determine the
displacement of each individual piece of equipment at power as well as the total system displacement
at power and pressure.
• Record the electricity consumption of the compressors over a week using a demand logger. At the
same time also record the pressure variation.
• Calculate the air generation efficiency basis the power consumed and the flow for each compressor. A
simple calculation will then identify how much energy either maintaining the poor machines or
preferentially using the more efficient ones to satisfy the demand can save. Using VSD compressor as
trim or top up compressor helps to optimise the system and will lower your energy bill.
• Consider age and condition of the existing compressed air system and the impact this could have
longer term to the operational costs. The average life cycle of a rotary screw compressor up to 90kW is
10 years and above 90kW it extends to 13-years. (source independent EC study on compressed air
systems)
• Investigate the load profiles of each compressor with a view to deciding whether the optimum size
machines are running at any one time.
• Consider better methods of compressor control, such as selective rate of change or rotational
sequencing depending on the compressor load profiles.
• Determine the supply side capacitance (storage) or lack of. Control storage will be analysed to insure
support of control permissive of standby and trim compressors.
• Install a demand expander to ensure that the demand side pipe-work is at a constant pressure and not at
the compressors regulated pressure, if one does not exist.
It is recommended that if you are not the incumbent service provider your explore different opportunities to
gain customer trust. Trust is a fundamental component of the decision process of the purchaser.

March 05
The next example is a compressor system operating in Modulation control. This is apparent as the amps
work in the opposite direction to the pressure. As it is not possible to sequence compressors that our
operating in modulation control. Therefore the compressors are being manually switched on and off.
The standard deviation on all three compressors is very low. The conclusion should not be that there was a
constant demand but there is little variance with the measured data. What appears to be happening is that
each compressor is fighting against each other on its own pressure setting. Also frequently all three
compressors operate, which has maintenance cost implications.
You will find that for the very high current you will have lower capacity. You may also find that if the
customer increased the storage and installed an IEO with an IntelliFlow they would operate one less

March 05
compressor and have a more controlled and automated system. The system integrity will be maintained by
increasing the capacitance in the system.
Point out that the average % amps on the first Rollair 100 are almost 85% for 80% flow. The second unit is
90% for approx. 90% flow and the third smaller Rollair 50 is 53% amps for 18% flow.
Indicate to the customer the drop in pressure and question if this effected production on not. Modulation
controls to a fairly close pressure band at the expense of input kW’s. Here it is highly likely that the
production would run on two of the Rollair 100’s and leaving the Rollair 50 as a stand-by compressor.
The daily graphs in this case support the high amp loading of the Rollair compressors. Question the starting
and stopping strategy on the customer and why they feel this is necessary.

March 05
Point out the variation in pressure and how artificial demand (leaks and poorly regulated) will be high at the
higher operating pressure. If production was not disrupted when the pressure fell to 5.5-bar then this should
be the system pressure the customer should work at.
There is Nirvana opportunity here which will be high. Use the control curves to show how modulation is in
efficient compared to a compressor operating in ol-ol with a correctly sized receiver or a Nirvana
compressor. However note that these are not Ingersoll Rand compressors, which could limit the success
rate.
The third IntelliSurvey example is an installation with Sierra SM110’s. The customer was concerned that
both compressors now run and there is no stand-by compressor. There should always be a reason to carry
out a Survey. Many would say the reason is to find ways of lowering energy. With climate change upon us
this is a valid justification. However improving the system reliability is high consideration as this is the
number one concern of the person responsible for compressed air. Improving productivity is also paramount
as this increases the profits of the company.
At this food processing plant there is a large amount of artificial demand. The higher the pressure the worst
the artificial demand gets. At the beginning of the survey the ISC control panel was switched off. The
compressors then operated on their own internal pressure switches. The evaluated pressure caused both
SM110’s to load and unload. The red SM110’s off load pressure is slightly higher as indicated by the
slightly high amp loading. Around a day later the ISC was switched back on. We can see that the blue
SM110 (designated lead compressor at this stage) is highly loaded with the second SM110 cycling as and
when required. Towards the end of the logging the ISC changes the sequence rotation and the red unit takes
up the load with the blue cycling. The load cycles on the blue unit is much less at the end of the logging
period.

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The flow analysis clearly shows the increase in pressure at the beginning of the logging and increase in
demand. The pressure is controlled within a band of 0.8-bar. Point out to the customer that the pressure
disappears when the compressors stop. This is a good indication of the leakage in the system. There is
demand events in the system that is resulting in the starting of the second SM110. But there is also a serious
amount of artificial demand. Should the pressure on the demand side be lowered and controlled more
precisely as well as increasing the system capacitance the second SM110 would stop. Investigations should

March 05
then be made in the demand side of the plant to lower the artificial demand.
20m³ air receiver is a seriously large storage tank. This is sized on the basis of the largest system event,
which is the loss of the base load compressor and the start up of the next unit. During this period the
pressure can only fall 0.3-bar. If the acceptable drop in pressure were 0.6-bar then size of the receiver would
be 10m³. Use the IntelliFlow workpad (See example chapter 14) to demonstrate the drop in pressure basis
the existing 3m³ storage.
The increase in pressure of 0.3-bar would result in 2% input energy. If there is no IntelliFlow this would be
more as the artificial would be higher.
With the daily graphs you should highlight unnecessary loading of the second compressor and the resulting
unloaded operation.
Deep diving into the raw data would help your positioning considerably with cases like this.
13.0.3 Raw data analysis.

Quite often deep diving into the raw data would support your interpretation and positioning with the
customer. Can intermittent large demand events but short duration be supported by increased capacitance?

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This is the deep dive for the third IntelliSurvey example. We can see here that by increasing the storage the
starting of the second SM110 would be avoided. Using an IntelliFlow to control the demand side pressure
more precisely will help lower and control the artificial demand.
You can also use the deep dive to highlight the run on time of the motor. In this example this is 10 minutes.
We can see that the compressor loaded again before the motor had time to stop. If the load delay time on the
ISC was increased this could avoid the start up of the compressor during this period as the pressure shows a
high positive rate of change.

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This is another deep dive example. At the beginning of the graph the red unit cycles frequently with a very
narrow pressure band. We can see the red ML75 is unloaded and then operates for long period unloaded and
the ML75 loads to demand. The pressure band on this compressor is much wider.
It would appear that the red unit is manually unloaded and the pressure falls to the cut in pressure of the blue
unit. Someone must have realised what has happened and the red unit was loaded, the blue unit then
unloaded and stopped after its period of running time.
One takeaway here is the pressure is unnecessarily high. The result is around 7% more input energy as well
as higher artificial demand.
To calculate a demand cycle event use the following formula:
D= C m³/min x T1 / T1+T2
D= demand event

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C m³/min = rated capacity of the compressor
T1 = time for pressure rise
T2 = time for pressure fall
If the pressure increases at the same rate as the pressure decreases this would signify that the compressor is
50% loaded, shown by the black lines. Therefore if the compressor is 12 m³/min this would show a + ROC
of 6 ³/min and a – ROC of 6 m³/min.
T1 min = 30 seconds
T2 min = 30 seconds
12 m³/min x 0.5 = 6 m³/min + ROC - ROC

0.5 + 0.5 Change in
Pressure
Time
The red line shows a steep + ROC and a shallow –ROC. This would signify that the user is using less air
than what the compressor delivers. Therefore the pressure will rise quickly, unload and the demand would
be supported by system volume.
The blue line shown is the opposite. The +ROC is shallow with a steep –ROC. This would tell us that the
compressor is not 100% loaded but the load is fairly high. The pressure drops of quickly as there is little
system volume and the compressor then reloads.
13.0.4 How the numbers are calculated.

The savings shown in the report are calculated as follows.
IntelliFlow –
The Intelliflow calculation uses the average pressure, the maximum pressure and the standard deviation of
the pressure data. Using the difference of the maximum amps and the minimum amps, as well as the
magnitude of the standard deviation, a new system pressure is calculated. From here, the lower system
pressure is subtracted from the average pressure. This pressure saving is then scaled by the % lost to leaks
and the % poorly regulated. This atmospheric pressure adjusted number is then calculated into a saving
using the average system amps and the individual characteristics of the compressors in the system. It should
be noted that if the true P5 pressure is lower than what has been measured the IntelliFlow savings should be
recalculated using the IntelliFlow workpad.
IEO –
Similar to the Intelliflow, the IEO calculation uses the average pressure, the maximum pressure and the
standard deviation of the pressure data. By creating a smaller pressure band with the IEO than the one that
currently exists (current band =
Maximum Pressure – Average Pressure) using the standard deviation and average pressure, the pressure
savings is converted to a amp savings using the average system amps.
Please note that for the IntelliFlow and the IEO, minimum pressure is not taken into consideration.
Minimum pressure could be acceptable and it could not be acceptable for your customer. It is up to you and
the customer to decide!
VFD –
The VFD savings is related to average system amps, average % kW for each compressor and the available
remaining capacity in the system. The VFD calculation will drive as many compressors as is measure to full
load (for a multiple compressor system) until the last compressor is in a part load condition. The saving is
then calculated by calculating the savings of the last compressor (now in a part load condition) as if it were
a VFD plus the savings of any compressor that would be turned off. If it were a single compressor system,

March 05
the VFD savings are calculated by comparing the current power cost of the compressor operating to the
power cost of that air compressor if it were a VFD.
One other point of notation is, what will happen if the compressor was fully loaded and failed to meet the
production demand. You will notice that the amps will be drawn down with the pressure. This is simply
known as “draw down”. The following graph shows this. Draw down is only a problem if the pressure falls
to the point where it does not satisfy production. In many cases people experience draw down and rarely
know it as the pressure is higher than needed anyway.
Area of draw
down
Loggers that do not monitor pressure or only monitor inlet valve cycles will not be able to show draw down.
If this is a real shortfall in capacity you can calculated the additional capacity needed to meet the desired
pressure using the following formula.
(Required plant air pressure [bar] / present air pressure [bar]) x current capacity [m³/min] = required capacity
% capacity proposed
Example
Required plant pressure = 6.2 barg
Present air pressure = 5 barg
Current capacity = 10 m³/min
% capacity proposed = 90%
(6.2 / 5) x 10 = 14 m³/min
90/100
Present short full is 4 m³/min

March 05
This compressed air user has two Ingersoll Rand 45kW compressors. Unfortunately you are not the service
provider. This is being performed by a competitor. You have seen opportunity during you plant walkabout
and recommend an IntelliSurvey to provide data to support you claims to improve the plant reliability and
system integrity, which will be funded by energy savings.
Interpret the IntelliSurvey pages and provide a solution that offers the quickest ROI.
One ML45 has Intellisys and the other is the older non-Intellisys model.

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Explanation

March 05
Chapter Fourteen
Appendix
14.0 Symbols
An air dryer may be positioned either before or after the air receiver. It is easier to
match the dryer to the compressor when the dryer is placed upstream (before) the
air receiver and cannot, therefore be overloaded by surges in demand; this is
particularly relevant in the case of refrigerant dryers. On the other hand a desiccant
dryer placed down stream (after) the receiver is less likely to be contaminated by
oil or other liquids. When adding a dryer to an existing plant it may be best to place
AIR INLET it downstream (after) of the air receiver when only part of the supply is to be dried.
Ideally an optimised system will have a wet and dry receiver and the compressor
control will be from the dry side. In the case of installations where the compressor
AIR INLET FILTER is reciprocating type a wet air receiver is mandatory.
PRESSURE GAUGE
PRESSURE SWITCH
SAFETY
WATER
t SEPARATOR
COMPRESSOR
SEPARATOR
DRIVE AIR
NON RETURN VALVE

SPRING LOADED OIL REMOVING PARTICULAR RECEIVER
FILTER FILTER
AUTOMATIC DRAIN VALVE

(REFRIGERATED DRYERS
AFTERCOOLER
t
COOLING AIR OR

March 05
Answers to questions:
Chapter 1, Page 1.
What is the capacitor in a compressed air system? Of course the answer is the compressed air receiver. The
larger the air receiver the greater the amount of stored energy in the system to support a demand.
Chapter 5, Page 9.
Your customer has 4 x 45 kW compressors all operating in OL/OL control. There is no system controller
and your aim is to show the customer how they can save energy by lowering pressure and removing the
cascade control effect. Map out the compressor set points and calculate the savings on the basis 3
compressors running loaded. The load pressure of the 4 compressor is 6.3-barg.
45 x 1.1 / 0.94 = 52.6 kW x 3 (3 units loaded) = 158 kW

7.3 – 6.3-barg = 1 barg = 7.25% power
11.45 x 6000 hours x €0.06 = €4123.8
#1
8.8 bar Punload

#2
8.3 bar Punload
#3
7.3 bar Punload

7.3 bar Pload
Pload 6.8 bar
6.3 bar Pload
Chapter 5, page 10.

In a single compressor system when will P2 and P3 be almost equal? This will happen when the compressor
unloads. In the loaded condition P2 will be higher than P3 as there will be a differential across the clean up
or air treatment products when there is flow.
Chapter 6, page 4
Calculate the amount of condensate basis 6- m³ air to 10 barg pressure.
Ambient temperature is 5 °C and 80% atmospheric RH. Consider this as a dull and grey Manchester day!
Q = V1 x HUmax x RH1 - V2 x HUmax x RH2

100 100
Q = condensate (g)
HUmax = Max humidity at 5 °C (g/m³)
V1 = 6 (m³)
V2 = 0.54 (m³) (6-m³ / 11 bara)

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HUmax = 6.790 (g/m³)
RH1 = 80 (%)
RH2 = 100 (%) [saturated when compressed]
Q = 6 m³ x 6.790 g/m³ x 80% - 0.54 m³ x 6.790 g/m³ x 100%

100% 100%
Q = 28.9254 g
You can see that the water content is less when the ambient temperature is lower. Hence the greater
precipitation in the summer months and when a dryer is needed more.
Chapter 6, page 5
Recalculate the condensate stream on the basis of the same inlet capacity and ambient conditions. The only
change is the pressure is increased to 10-barg.
What are your observations?
The atmosphere
P1 = 1 bara
T1 = 20 °C
RH = 80%
HUmax = 17.148 (g/m³)
Q1 = 1800 m³/hr x 17.148 g/m³ x 80%

100
Q1 = 24,693.12 g/hr (24.7 l/hr) No change from example given
P2 = 11-bara
T2 = 28°C
RH = 100%
HUmax2 = 26.970 (g/m³)
V2 = V1 / P2 (1800 / 11) = 163.64 m³/hr
Q2 = Q2 – (V2 x HUmax x RH / 100)

Q2 = 24,693 – (163.64 x 26.970 x 100 / 100)
Q2 = 20,279 g/hr (20.28 l/hr)
There is more condensate at the higher pressure. This is because more moisture is compressed with the air.
P2 = 11-bara
T3 = 3°C
RH = 100%
HUmax3 = 5.953 (g/m³)
V2 = 163.64 m³/hr

Q3 = (163.64 m³/hr x 26.970 g/m³) - (163.64 m³/hr x 5.953 g/m³)
Q3 = 3,437.58 g/hr (3.44 l/hr)
Less water is condensed out of the dryer.

March 05
Chapter 6, page 7
A system requires: less than 1 micron solids, less than +3°C Pressure Dewpoint and less than .01 mg/m3 oil
carryover
New Revised ISO8573-1 : 2001

Solid Particles Water Oil
Class Maximium number of particles per m3 Pressure Incl Vapour
0.1 - 0.5 micron 0.5 -1.0 micron 1.0 - 5.0 micron Dewpoint C Mg/m3
1 100 1 0 -70 0.01
2 100,000 1,000 10 -40 0.1
3 - 10,000 500 -20 1
4 - - 1000 3 5
5 - - 20,000 7 -
6 - - - 10 -
Therefore the solution would be ISO8573-1 class 1.3.1
Chaper 6, page 10
Selection of dryers for change in operating conditions.
Select a refrigerated TMS dryer for a capacity of 10 m³/min, 40 °C inlet, 6 barg inlet pressure, required PDP
4 °C. Ambient temperature is 25°C.
Customer flow rate is 10 m³/min

Inlet temperature & pressure correction factor 0.87
Required PDP correction factor 1.05
Ambient correction factor 1.00
10 m³/min = 10.95 m³/min therefore you should have selected TMS150.

0.87 x 1.05 x 1.00
Chapter 6, page 19.

An Ingersoll-Rand MH45 has a nominal performance of 6.5 m³/min. What filter would you offer with this
compressor basis a working pressure of 9 barg?
The IRGP216 has a rated capacity of 6.05 m³/min at 7 barg.
R10 = R7 x f
R10 = 6.05 x 1.13
R10 = 6.83 m³/min
Basis the higher working pressure the GP216 filter would be adequate.
Chapter 12, page 5

You have been asked to provide a system offering the lowest possible energy savings. Within the
compressor room will be a ML160-2S, which will be base loaded. Calculate the possible energy savings by
using an ERS system to heat up water feeding a boiler. Also calculate the heat loading by utilising the
cooling air discharge to heat an adjacent storage building. Cooling airflow for the ML160-2S is 5.95 m³/sec.
Work on an ambient temperature of 20°C.
Annual compressor running time = 8736 hrs (364 days at 24 hours per day)
Compressor type is a ML160-2S
Recoverable heat = 149.6 kW
Gas boiler efficiency = 90%
Oil boiler efficiency = 80%

March 05
Electricity cost = €0.045 kW/hr
Oil cost = €0.011 kW/hr
Gas cost = €0.015 kW/hr
149.6 x 8736 hrs = 1,306,905 kW
If we now compare this with the cost of heating with other forms of energy, we can determine the annual
cost savings of the ERS.
1.Electrically heated tank - 1,306,905 x €0.045 = €58,810

2. Oil fired boiler (80% efficient) – 1,306,905 x €0.011 x 100/75 = €10,781
3. Gas fired boiler (90% efficient) – 1,306,905 x €0.015 x 100/90 = €17,643
The amount of heat recovered can be calculated using the following formula.
Q = 1.19 x V x 1.005 x (T2-T1)
Where:
Q = Heat load (kW – in practice 85% of full load shaft power)
V = Volume of working air (m³/sec)
T1 = temperature in (°C)
T2 = temperature out (°C)
Rearranging the formula
T2 = Q + t1
1.2 x V
For ML160-2S
Q = 0.85 x 172 kW = 149 kW

T1 = 20 °C (or whatever ambient figure you wish to input)
V = 21240 m³/hr = 5.95 m³/sec
T2 = 149 + 20 = 40.86 (°C)

1.2 x 5.95
Chapter 8, page 2
A single action cylinder with a piston diameter 50mm is required to work at an operating pressure of 6-barg.
The working stroke is 150mm at 30 work cycles per minute.
C = 0.05²x 3.142 x 0.15 x 6 x 30 x 2

4
C = 0.053 m³/min.
The double action cylinder is twice as much as the single action.
Chapter 8, page 4
Calculate the usage rate for the following tools within a one-hour period:
Screwdriver 15 min - UR = 25%
Grinding machine 40 min – UR = 66.66%
Blow gun 10 min – UR = 16.66%
Tooling machine 55 min – UR = 91.66%
Shot blasting 9 min – UR = 15%

March 05
Chapter 8, page 8
A compressed air receiver with a large piping distribution system has a total volume of 10m³. Within a 2-
minute period the pressure drops from 7-barg to 6-barg. Calculate the approximate amount of compressed
air that would be lost through leakage.
L = V x (P1-P2)
T
L = 3.33 (m³/min)
V = 10 (m³)
P1 = 7 (bar)
P2 = 6 (bar)
T = 3 (min)
Amount of air lost through leakage is 3.33 m³/min (3300l)
Chapter 9, page 4
Pmin……….
P3 Pmax………..
75kW
Useful Diff……..
1.5
m³
P2
P5 = 5-bar
7.9 bar Punload
0.5 bar
P2 P4
7.0 bar Pload
In the above example calculate the Pmin, Pmax and Useful differential.
Pmin……………….7.0-bar
Pmax………………7.4-bar
Useful differential…0.4-bar
Chapter 9, page 6
Recalculate the load and unload times on the basis of a 4m³ air receiver and a useful differential of 0.4-bar.
T = V x (P1-P2)
C x Pabs
Tload = 0.16 (mins) [9.6 seconds]

V = 4 (m³)
P1-P2 = 0.4 (bar)
C = 10 (m³/min)
Pabs = 1 (bar)

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T = V x (P1-P2)
RC-C x Pabs
T = 0.615 (mins) [36.92 seconds)

V = 4 (m³)
P1-P2 = 0.4 (bar)
C = 10 (m³/min)
RC = 12.6 (m³/min)
Pabs = 1 (bar)
You can see that by increasing the storage and increasing the differential the time to increase the pressure
and lower the pressure is much greater.
Chapter 9, page 9
You have visited a site that has multiple compressors. This customer primarily operates on two compressors
with the third compressor being stand-by. The compressors are rated for 15m³/min and there are 2000l of
storage. If there were a failure to the lead compressor how far will the pressure fall?
V
T = 0.25 (mins)
V = 2 (m³)
P1-P2 = 1.875 (bar)
C = 15 (m³/min)
Pabs = 1 (bar)
The pressure would drop by 1.875-bar in a 15-second period.
Chapter 9, page 10
Your customer has a system that includes 2 x 5000l air receivers as well as a ring main that is 200mx200m
with an internal diameter of 75mm. Calculate the total system volume.
Then calculate the drop in pressure should a 30-m³/min base load compressor fail.
V2 = π r2 x L
V2= 3.53 (m³)

π = 3.142
r2= 0.03752 (m)
L = 800 (m)
Total system volume is 13,500 or 13.5 m³.
V
T = 0.25 (mins)
V = 13.5 (m³)
P1-P2 =0.56 (bar)
C = 30 (m³/min)
Pabs = 1 (bar)
Drop in pressure will be 0.56 bar in 15 seconds.

March 05
Chapter 9, page 10
You have measured a drop in pressure of 0.6-bar over a 20-second period. The total system volume is 20-
m³/min. Basis this known information the calculated demand event.
C = V x (P1-P2)
T x Pabs
T = 0.33 (mins)
V = 20 (m³)
P1-P2 = 0.6 (bar)
C = 36.36 Flow (m³/min)
Pabs = 1 (bar)
Chapter 9, page 16
Take this example, with a system demand of 2.5 compressors. What would be the minimum and maximum
pressure seen by the users (demand side)? Which compressor is cycling?
Dryer
7.6
6.9
0.4 bar
Dryer
7.4
6.7
0.6 bar
Dryer
7.2
6.5
0.3 bar
Answer: Pmin: 6.5

Pmax: 6.8
Have a closer look to the regulation. Which compressor is cycling? This is the second one and not the third
as it was planed in you original configuration…. beginning of the system problem!
Chapter 9, page 20
You need to demonstrate to an air user the effect of little capacitance in their compressor installation.
Calculate the drop in pressure should all their drains fire off together. The customer has 7 drains with a
6mm orifice. They are set to open for 8 seconds. The size of the air receiver is 1500 litres.

March 05
Capacitance in the system is:
M³/bar = 1.5 x 1
1
M³/bar = 1.5
M³ = 1500l / 1000 = 1.5
Pabs = 1
C x N x T = DP
m³/bar
DP = 1.82 (bar)
M³/bar = 1.5 (m³/bar)
C = 3 (m³/min)
N=7
T = 8 seconds / 60 = 0.13 (min)
Chapter 9, page 21
You have demonstrated loss in pressure due to drains now demonstrate the drop in pressure due to a base
load compressor failure. In your system the compressor capacity is 7 m³/min. Duration to start the stand-by
unit is 15 seconds.
C x N x T = DP
m³/bar
DP = 1.17 (bar)
M³/bar = 1.5 (m³/bar)
C = 7 (m³/min)
N=1
T = 15 seconds / 60 = 0.25 (min)
Chapter 9, page 22
Increase the capacitance to ensure the pressure never drops lower than 0.3-bar basis the largest system
event. The base load compressor is 7m³/min. Round up the receiver size and calculate the drop in pressure
using the capacitance formula.
V = T x C x Pabs
(P1-P2)

V = 5.8 (m³)
P1-P2 = 0.3 (bar)
C = 7 (m³/min)
Pabs = 1 (bar)
C x N x T = DP
m³/bar
DP = 0.29 (bar)
C = 7 (m³/min)
N=1
T = 15 seconds / 60 = 0.25 (min)

March 05
Chapter 10, page 5
The existing pressure in the plant is 7.0-bar. You have determined the minimum P5 plant pressure to be 6-
barg. Basis your plant walk through you have noticed a large amount of unregulated air consumers and you
have ascertained through interviews no leak detection policy. Therefore you have estimated the leakage to
be 25% and poorly regulated is 50%. Average kW consumption basis the 3 x 75KW compressors installed
is 132kW. This plant operates 6000 hours per year and the blended electrical cost is €0.08. The calculate the
IntelliFlow savings.
Pex = 7.0 existing system pressure

Pnew = 6.0 new system pressure
% Leak = 25% estimate of leak loading
% PG = 50% estimate of poorly regulated or unregulated air usage
kW = 132 Average kW
£/kWh = €0.08 blended power costs including standing charges and Climate Change Levy.
Hours = 6000 hours of operation per annum (based on 24/7).

Pex
(7.0 – 6.0) x ((0.25 x 132) + (0.5 x (132-33))) x 0.08 x 6000

7.0
IntelliFlow savings equate to €5,544 per annum.
Chapter 10, page 12

Calculate the permissible flow through a pipe basis the following:
Dp = 0.04
D = 100mm
Punload = 8
L = 100m
1.85
0.15 * 1010 * 0.04 * 8 = 0.419m³ / s
1.6 * 103 * 100
This system would flow 25m³/min and not exceed 0.04 bar pressure drop. If the piping were a ring the
pressure drop would be halved or the flow would be double.
Chapter 13, page 16

This compressed air user has two Ingersoll Rand 45kW compressors. Unfortunately you are not the service
provider. This is being performed by a competitor. You have seen opportunity during you plant walkabout
and recommend an IntelliSurvey to provide data to support you claims to improve the plant reliability and
system integrity, which will be funded by energy savings.
Interpret the IntelliSurvey pages and provide a solution that offers the quickest ROI.
One ML45 has Intellisys and the other is the older non-Intellisys model.

March 05
Essentially these compressors have the same package kW ratings. There may be some difference as the
older ML45 had a slightly larger fan motor. However why would the amps on the older ML45 (shown in
red) be dramatically higher when compared to the newer unit (shown in blue). The route cause of the higher
amps could be high separator differential and/or the pressure is set higher on this compressor. Remember
that IR is not the service provider. Increased current will not only have an impact on the energy but will
effect the reliability of this compressor. If you want it to brake quickly then wind up the pressure and the
motor overload. These are ML compressors but the pressure rose to 9.2-bar. This is another indication of the
route cause of the high amps.
The standard deviation is relatively high, showing a degree of variability with the measured data. There are
times where both compressors run. This tends to be at the beginning of the working shift. We can see that
there are times where the ML45 is fully loaded by invariably the demand is less than the supply and
compressor is responding to rate of change in the pressure.
The average % amp load is high on both compressors. The result will be a high-calculated flow.

March 05
The calculated flow on these two compressors is high. We can see clearly the pressure variation. What is
strange is the way the pressure falls off when the compressor stops. When the compressor restarts the
pressure drops right off and the compressor loads. IntelliSurvey will not tell you why this is happening. In
fact the route cause is solenoid operated isolation valves on the discharge of the dryers. When the
compressors are isolated these valves close. The system remains pressurised before the receiver but down
stream of the valve the pressure is vented through leaks. When the compressors restart the isolation valves
open and the pressure falls off until the compressors can build up system pressure. The decay in pressure on
the supply side is attributed to the solenoid drain valves firing off.
This is good to demonstrate to the customer that solenoid drains waste energy by venting off compressed
air.
Also point out the yearly power costs. Starting the compressor before the production commences could
avoid the start up of both compressors. There is justification for a variable speed driven compressor but the
utilisation of the fixed speed compressor is high. Use the control curves to show typical efficiency of an on-
line / off-line compressor compared to a VSD.
You find that this customer operates two dryers. Differential is the square root of the flow so this should not
add to the pressure drop. However there is the energy to consider by operating the two dryers.

March 05
This page of the report shows more clearly the change in pressure. The control storage is sized on the loss of
the base load compressor and the time to start up then next.
Vm³ = Cm³/min x T min x Pabs / (P1-P2)

Vm³ = 7.5 m³/min x 0.25 min x 1 bar / 0.3 bar
Vm³ = 6.25 (nearest is 6000l)
Basis the existing storage of 1000l should the compressor fail and the demand is that of the ML45 the
pressure will fall by:
(P1-P2) = Cm³/min x T min x Pabs / V m³

(P1-P2) = 7.5 m³/min x 0.25 min x 1 bar / 1 m³
(P1-P2) = 1.875 bar.
Point out that there is insufficient volume to control the demand events, which is resulting in additional
compressor loading.
Controlling the pressure more precisely will lower the artificial demand so it is important to establish the
minimum P5. The following calculation will define the potential savings:
Pex – Pnew / Pex = potential drop in artificial demand

7 – 6 / 7 = 14%.

March 05
There is a large amount of cycling on these two days yet we can see a period of time where the blue unit is
fully loaded and the second ML45 starts up. Ask the customer what happened in the production process at
this time. Increasing the storage and installing an IntelliFlow valve will create sufficient capacitance that the
second compressor would not start up. Therefore you will create 100% stand-by.
Deep diving into the raw data will allow you to calculate the demand event that caused both units to start
and the how increasing the storage will avoid the start up of the second compressor.
This example of IntelliSurvey shows you how the compressors react to change in pressure / demand. But
without the plant walk through you will find it hard to find the answer to WHY!

March 05
14.2 Useful calculations.
The following calculation can be used to calculate the increase in air consumption for the drop in pressure.
New flow = rated flow + (delta pressure (psig) x 0.00075 x rated flow)
Control Storage Calculation

V(m³) = Volume of the receiver in cubic meters
sec Pabs m³/min = flow requirement
V (m³) = m³ / min* *
60 ( P2 − P1 ) sec = event time
P2-P1 = maximum pressure drop

March 05
Volume of a cylinder (ft3)
d2 L V(m3) = Volume
V (m 3 ) = Π ∗
4 d= diameter of cylinder in m
L= length of cylinder in meters
IntelliFlow Saving Calculation

P 4 Ex * P 4 New
IntelliFlowsavings = * ([%leaks * kW ] + [% poorreg * kW ]) * kW / hr cos ts * hours
P 4 Ex
P4Ex = Existing header pressure bar
P4New - acceptable header pressure bar
% leak load
% poor regulated
Average consumed kW
kW/Hr costs
Hours run
Science of Compressed
Air Calculations
V m³ = Receiver volume
Cm ³ / min* T min* Pabs C m³/min = demand for air (base compressor)
V (m³) = T min = Duration of event (0.25min is time to start next
( P1 − P 2) compressor
(P1-P2) = Acceptable drop in pressure (0.3 barg)
T min = Duration of event in minutes

V (m³) * ( P1 − P 2)
T min = (P1-P2) = Acceptable drop in pressure
Cm ³ / min xPabs C m³/min = demand for air (base compressor)
V m³ = Receiver volume
C m³/min = demand for air

V (m³) * ( P1 − P 2)
Cm ³ / min = V m³ = Receiver volume
T min* pabs (P1-P2) = Acceptable drop in pressure
Cm ³ / min* T min* Pabs (P1-P2) = Acceptable drop in pressure

( P1 − P 2) = C m³/min = demand for air (base compressor)
V (m³) V m³ = Receiver volume

March 05
Calculating metres of storage if you know the internal diameter and length of pipe in feet
d2 L V(m³) = Volume of the receiver in cubic meters

V (m³) = Π ∗ d= internal diameter of cylinder in meters
4
L=length of cylinder in meters
Vrec ( P2 − P1 ) 60
m³ / min comp = ( + V pipe ) * *
Pump up formula Pabs t 2 − t1
m³/mincomp = Compressor volume

Vrec = volume of the receiver in metres
Vpipe = volume of any pipe above 80mm in diameter in m³
t2-t1= time of event
P2-P1 = maximum pressure drop
3
m V 1
Capacitance formulas = rec *
bar Pabs
m3/bar
Vrec = volume of the receiver in m³
Pabs = atmospheric pressuren kpa
Coolant usage calculator

((C x D x Hrs x 60) x (PPM/1,000,000)) / SG = CU
C = flow requirement m³/min

D = density of air at temperature (1.209 kg/m³ @ 20°C)
Hrs = running hours
PPM = coolant carry over
SG = specific gravity of the coolant (0.9901 for Ultra Coolant)
CU = Coolant usage
Example
C = 25 m³/min
D = 1.209
Hrs = 8000
PPM = 3
SG = 0.9901
CU = 43.96 l/year

March 05
14.3 Discharge of air through an orifice.
Discharge of air through an orifice.

Pressure Diameter of orifice (mm)
psi bar 0.397 0.794 1.588 3.175 6.350 9.525 12.700 15.875 19.050 22.225 25.400
Discharge in l/s
1 0.07 0.013 0.053 0.212 0.85 3.389 7.646 13.546 21.24 30.538 41.583 54.28
2 0.14 0.019 0.075 0.299 1.194 4.767 10.76 19.116 29.878 43.046 58.528 76.464
3 0.21 0.023 0.092 0.366 1.463 5.853 13.12 23.364 36.58 52.392 71.744 93.456
4 0.28 0.026 0.105 0.421 1.68 6.75 15.15 26.904 42.102 60.416 82.6 107.62
5 0.34 0.029 0.117 0.469 1.874 7.505 16.85 29.972 46.87 67.496 92.04 119.89
6 0.41 0.032 0.128 0.514 2.048 8.213 18.46 32.804 51.448 73.632 100.54 131.22
7 0.48 0.034 0.138 0.552 2.209 8.826 19.92 35.4 55.224 79.296 108.56 141.6
9 0.62 0.039 0.156 0.623 2.502 10.01 22.51 39.978 62.304 90.152 122.72 160.01
12 0.83 0.045 0.179 0.717 2.865 11.47 25.77 45.784 71.744 102.9 140.18 183.14
15 1.03 0.05 0.198 0.793 3.172 12.7 28.56 50.976 79.296 114.22 155.29 202.96
20 1.38 0.058 0.232 0.925 3.71 14.82 33.37 59.472 92.512 133.58 181.72 237.42
25 1.72 0.066 0.265 1.062 4.239 16.94 38.18 67.968 106.2 152.46 207.68 271.4
30 2.1 0.075 0.299 1.194 4.767 19.12 43 76.464 119.42 172.28 234.11 305.86
35 2.4 0.083 0.332 1.326 5.334 21.24 47.67 84.96 132.63 191.16 260.07 339.84
40 2.8 0.092 0.365 1.463 5.853 23.41 52.86 93.456 146.32 210.51 286.5 374.3
45 3.1 0.1 0.399 1.595 6.372 25.54 57.58 101.95 159.54 229.86 312.46 408.28
50 3.4 0.108 0.432 1.728 6.938 27.66 62.3 110.92 172.75 249.22 338.9 442.74
60 4.1 0.125 0.5 1.997 7.882 31.91 71.74 127.91 199.66 287.45 390.82 510.7
70 4.8 0.142 0.566 2.261 9.062 36.2 81.66 144.9 226.09 325.68 443.21 579.14
80 5.5 0.158 0.632 2.53 10.1 40.45 91.1 161.9 252.99 363.91 495.6 647.11
90 6.2 0.175 0.699 2.794 11.19 44.75 100.5 178.89 279.42 402.62 547.99 715.55
100 6.9 0.192 0.765 3.063 12.27 49.09 110.4 195.88 306.33 440.85 600.38 783.99
110 7.6 0.208 0.831 3.328 13.31 53.34 119.9 213.34 332.76 479.55 652.78 852.43
120 8.3 0.225 0.902 3.597 14.4 57.58 129.3 230.34 359.66 517.78 705.17 920.87
125 8.6 0.233 0.935 3.729 14.92 59.47 134 238.83 372.88 537.14 731.13 954.86
150 10.3 0.275 1.119 4.46 17.7 70.8 159.5 283.2 429.52 620.68 844.41 1103.5
200 13.8 0.359 1.463 5.829 23.13 92.51 208.2 370.05 578.2 832.61 1133.3 1480.2
250 17.2 0.441 1.794 7.165 28.46 113.8 255.8 455.01 711.78 1023.8 1393.3 1820
300 20.7 0.47 2.303 8.534 33.89 135.5 304.9 541.86 847.24 1219.2 1659.1 2167.4
400 27.6 0.576 2.823 11.24 44.6 178.4 274.2 713.66 1113.9 1605.7 2185.4 2854.7
500 34.5 0.717 3.498 13.95 55.37 221.4 498 885.47 1383 1992.3 2711.6 3541.9
750 51.7 1.057 5.183 20.7 82.13 328.5 739.2 1314 2053.2 2956.6 4023.8 5256.2
1000 69.0 1.409 6.891 27.48 109 436.1 981.3 1744.5 2732.9 3925.2 5342.1 6978
For well rounded orifices, multiply the values by 0.97, and for sharp-edged
orifices multiply the values by 0.71.
Used to highlight that the higher the pressure the greater the discharge of air

March 05
14.4 Ingersoll Rand Industrial users classifications.
Use the groupings to:
• Help classify your customer’s needs
• Leverage installed industry classification references
• Demonstrate experience in different industries
• Continue a common language across accounts
• Specify a packaged system performance

March 05
14.5 IntelliFlow workpad.

March 05
14.6 Connection Sizes
Filter selection by flow and connection sizes: Use with air flow for low pressure drop filter selection
Reciprocating compressors Dryers Cast filters

Model: applies to A/C only Air: BSP" Model (applies to A/C & W/C): Air: BSP" Model Max flow at 7 bar g Air: BSP"
Merlin: BD 2, 3 & 4 Quick conn. DS002 to DS006 3/8 19 0.53 1/4
Merlin: BD 5, 7 & 10 3/4 DS009 & DS012 1/2 40 1.1 3/8
AE3E40 1/2 DS018 to DS030 3/4 64 1.8 1/2
AE3F40 & AE3F55 1/2 TS040 to TS080 1 1/2 123 3.5 3/4
AE3H75 to AE3H300 1 TS110 to TS180 2 216 6.1 1
E3E30 to E3F55 1/2 TS220 to TS370 DN80-PN16 275 7.7 1 1/4
E3H75 3/4 TS450 to TS770 DN100-PN16 350 9.8 1 1/2
E3H100 TO E3H300 1 TS900 to TS1100 DN150-PN16 481 13.5 1 1/2
E3X30 TO E3X55 1/2 TMS4 to TMS14 1/2 563 15.8 2
E3X75 & E3X100 3/4 TMS20 to TMS38 1 706 19.8 2
E3X150 TO E3X400 1 TMS55 to TMS105 1 1/2 850 23.8 2.5
H15TX250 1 1/4 TMS150 to TMS250 2 1100 30.8 3
231X30 & 255X55 1/4 TMS300 & TMS350 80MM DIN2633 1380 38.6 3
7T4X55 & 7T2X100 3/8 TMS480 to TMS640 100MM DIN2633
15T2X150 & 15T2X200 1/2 TMS780 125MM DIN2633 Fabricated filters
15T4X150 to 15T4X200 1/4 TMS1100 150MM DIN2633 Model Max flow at 7 bar g Air: BSP"
H15T4X150 to H15T4X200 1/4 TSL130 DN150-PN10 424 12 DN40
V235X20 & V235TX20 1 TSL170 & TSL225 DN200-PN10 699 19.8 DN50
V244X30 & V244TX30 1 1/4 TSL280 DN250-PN10 1314 37.2 DN80
V255X55 & V255TX55 1 1/2 TSL350 DN300-PN10 2119 60 DN100
7VX75 & 7VTX75 2 TZM001 to TZM004 1/4 2755 78 DN100
15VX100 & 15VTX100 2 TZM007 to TZM015 1/2 4132 117 DN150
23ANLE20 1/2 TZM018 to TZM050 3/4 6886 195 DN200
235HNLE30 & 235HNLF40 (W/C) 1/2 TZ022 to TZ050: (HE216 & DP216 fitted) 1 11018 312 DN250
5T2NLH100 1 TZ061 & TZ087: (HE350 & DP350 fitted) 1 1/2 16527 468 DN300
10T3NLH150 & 10T3NLH200 1 TZ117: (HE481 & DP481 fitted) 1 1/2
23ANLX20 1/2 TZ142: (HE563 & DP563 fitted) 2 Compressor flow correction to 7 bar g for filter
235HNLX30 & 235HNLX40 (W/C) 1/2 TZ192 DN50 selection
5T2NLX100 1 TZ250 & TZ325 DN65 Pressure Correction factor: Comp Pressure psi
10T3NLX150 & 10T3NLX200 1 TZ392 & TZ500 DN80 bar g flow x: g
OL5F55 & OL5F75 1/2 TZ633 & TZ767 DN100 5 0.85 72.5
OL10H100, OL15H200 & OL25VH300 1 TZ933 DN125 5.5 0.89 79.75
OL5X55 & OL5X75 3/4 TZV070 & TZV085 DN40 6 0.924 87
OL10X100 & OL15X200 3/4 TZV107 & TZV142 DN50 6.5 0.96 94.25
OL25VX300 1 TZV197 to TZV330 DN80 7 1 101.5
TZV392 to TZV592 DN100 7.5 1.03 108.75
Rotary compressors TZV683 to TZV1183 DN150 8 1.065 116
Model (applies to A/C & W/C): Air: BSP" TZV1333 to TZV1800 DN200 8.5 1.1 123.25
Unigy 3/4 TZV2050 & TZV2417 DN250 9 1.13 130.5
M4 to M11: base mounted 3/4 9.5 1.16 137.75
M4 to M11: receiver mounted 2 ABC 10 1.19 145
UP5-11 to UP5-22: base, receiver & HA 1 Model Air: BSP" 10.5 1.22 152.25
UP5-22E & UP5-37 standard & HA 1 1/2 ABC6 & ABC12 3/4 11 1.25 159.5
37-PE 1 1/2 ABC25 to ABC60 + ABC 25A & ABC 35A 1 1/2 11.5 1.277 166.75
M45 1 1/2 ABC90 & ABC 140 2 12 1.302 174
M55 2 ABC180 DN80 12.5 1.335 181.25
M75 to M160: single & 2S 2 ABC280 & ABC360 DN100 13 1.36 188.5
M200 & M250: single & 2S 3 ABC400 & ABC 480 DN150 13.5 1.385 195.75
M300 to M350 2S 4 ABC640 & ABC750 DN200 14 1.41 203
N37 & N45 1 1/2 14.5 1.43 210.25
N55 & N75 2 WBC 15 1.46 217.5
N75-2S 2 1/2 Model Air: BSP" 15.5 1.485 224.75
N90 to N160: single & 2S 2 1/2 WBC-12FH 3/4 16 1.55 232
S37 & S45 1 1/2 WBC-35FH, 65FH, 43RH & 65RH 1 1/2
S55 to S150 2 WBC-135FH, 180FH, 90RH & 140RH 2
S200 & S300 4" Ansi flange WBC-180FH DN80
NOF55 to NOF75 1 1/2 WBC-270FH, 360FH, 200RH & 255RH DN100
NOF90 to NOF160 2 WBC-420FH, 330-RH & 420RH DN125
WBC-510FH & 510RH DN150
WBC-790FH & 790RH DN200
WBC-11005RH DN250 / 200
WBC-1500RH DN300 / 200
WBC-1800RH & 2400RH DN350 / 200
WBC-3600RH DN450 / 250
WBC-4800RH DN500 / 300
WBC-6000RH DN600 / 300

March 05
Seeing the same problems as others but coming
up with a different solution.
Ingersoll Rand European Sales Ltd

Air Solutions – Business Centre
Swan Lane
Hindley Green
Wigan WN2 4EZ
United Kingdom
Conrad Hunt, Manager Controls & Audits

March 05

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Compressed Air Science – issue 2 Page 1 of 6

Compressed Air Science – issue 2 Page 2 of 6

Compressed Air Science – issue 2 Page 3 of 6

Compressed Air Science – issue 2 Page 4 of 6

Compressed Air Science – issue 2 Page 5 of 6

Compressed Air Science – issue 2 Page 6 of 6

1.0 Where did it start?

An example is a balloon. How hard do we have to blow to inflate a

Compressed Air Science – issue 2 Page 1 of 5

Today we consider the most simplest air compressor as the bicycle

1.1 Units and formula symbols.

Basic unit Formula Symbol Symbol Name

Compressed air units.

Unit Formula Symbol Symbol Name

Compressed Air Science – issue 2 Page 2 of 5

1.2 What is compressed air?

Compressed Air Pressure energy

The behaviour of compressed air.

1.3 Physical fundamentals

Compressed air condition is determined by the 3 measures of thermal state:

Compressed Air Science – issue 2 Page 3 of 5

Vcyl = Volume (m3)

Normal volume Vnorm (Nl, Nm3)

Operating volume Voperat (Bl, Bm3)

Compressed Air Science – issue 2 Page 4 of 5

Atmospheric pressure pamb (bar)

The atmosphere decreases the higher the measuring location.

Over pressure p (barg)

Absolute pressure Pabs (bara)

Pabs = pamb + barg

1 barg = 14.5 psig

1.3.4 Volume flow

Volume flow V (l/min, m3/ min, m3/ h)

Output volume flow

Compressed Air Science – issue 2 Page 5 of 5

2.1 Why use compressed air?

Versatile & transportable

Compressed Air Science – issue 2 Page 1 of 5

2.2 Keep the pressure on.

• Single or two stage reciprocating compressors

Medium pressure to 14 bar (200 psig)

• Two stage reciprocating compressors

High pressure to 40 bar (580 psig)

• Two and three stage reciprocating compressors. Pet Star range.

Compressed Air Science – issue 2 Page 2 of 5

2.3 Uses of compressed air

2.3.1 Clamping or tensioning using compressed air.

2.3.2 Pneumatic drive systems/tools

2.3.3 Conveying / pneumatic transportation

Pneumatic transportation of powders and bulk solids through pipelines has

One type of technology used to pneumatically transport these materials is

Compressed Air Science – issue 2 Page 3 of 5

2.3.5 Blowing and flushing with air

2.3.6 Testing and inspection

2.3.7 Process control with air

2.4 Other applications

Compressed Air Science – issue 2 Page 4 of 5

Write a brief description and include a sketch of an application not detailed

Compressed Air Science – issue 2 Page 5 of 5

3.1 The language of compressed air.

Adiabatic – Expansion or compression of a gas without loss or gain of heat content.

Compressed Air Science – issue 2 Page 1 of 3