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PRNCEG TGNCVKQP U[ODQNU KPENWFKPI

RNCEG QPGU QT UGPVGPEG U[ODQNU CPF PRNCEG HWPEVKQP U[ODQNU KPENWFKPI RNCEG QPGU

QT EQPUVCPVU #NUQ KPVTQFWEGF CTG TWNGU QH HQTOCVKQP CPF VJG PQVKQP QH C VGTO
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DWKNV WR HTQO CVQOKE

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PQVKQPU QH HTGG CPF DQWPF XCTKCDNGU CPF QRGP CPF ENQUGF HQTOWNCU
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HTGG CPF YKVJ CNN XCTKCDNGU DQWPF TGURGEVKXGN[

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CPF )GPV\GPUV[NG R Q
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VJG VJGQT[ VJCV CTG FGFWEKDNG HTQO EGTVCKP URGEKHKGF HQTOWNCU ECNNGF VJG PQPNQIKECN

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C ∃Zφ
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Z  ∀Z∀Z
φ
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Z → Z  Z

D ∃Zφ
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φ
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FGFWEGF CU C VJGQTGO UQOGVJKPI QH VJG HQTO ∃φ

Z +V OC[ VJGP DG EQPXGPKGPV VQ IKXG C Q
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C ∀Z
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D ∃Z
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E KU QH VJG HQTO `θ
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KPFKHHGTGPEG YJGVJGT QPG HKTUV WPRCEMU VJG CDDTGXKCVKQP KP θ

E CPF VJGP CRRNKGU PGICVKQP
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C `∀Z
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D ∀Z
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CDDTGXKCVQT[ EQPXGPVKQP LWUV FKUEWUUGF 9JGP QPG JCU CUUWOGF QT FGFWEGF ∀[∃Zψ
[ Z
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HWPEVKQPU[ODQN H CRRNKGU CNUQ VQ OCP[RNCEG HWPEVKQPU[ODQNU

O
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YJKEJ + YKNN YTKVG CU KQVC ι VJCV CVVCEJGU VQ C XCTKCDNG Z CPF C HQTOWNC JCXKPI Z CU C HTGG

XCTKCDNG VQ HQTO C VGTO VJCV DGJCXGU NKMG CP PRNCEG HWPEVKQP U[ODQN YJGTG P KU VJG

PWODGT QH HTGG XCTKCDNGU QVJGT VJCP Z +P VJKU PQVCVKQP QWT EQPUVCPV QT RNCEG HWPEVKQP

U[ODQN E CDQXG YQWNF DG ιZφ

Z YJKNG H
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[ Z +P DQVJ Z EQWPVU CU C
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%GTVCKP CDDTGXKCVQT[ EQPXGPVKQPU CRRN[ URGEKHKECNN[ VQ VJG FKURNC[KPI QH NCYU

CZKQOU CPF VJGQTGOU QH C VJGQT[ 6JGUG CICKP OC[ DG KNNWUVTCVGF D[ VJG ECUG QH KFGPVKV[

YJGTG YG JCXG VJG NQIKECN NCY QH KPFKUEGTPKDKNKV[ QH KFGPVKECNU YJKEJ KP OCP[ VGZVDQQM

RTGUGPVCVKQPU KU VCMGP CU C NQIKECN CZKQO CPF KP QVJGTU CRRGCTU CU C NQIKECN VJGQTGO

+PFKUEGTPKDKNKV[ DG UVCVGF CU HQNNQYU

 Z  [ →
φ(Z ↔ φ
[

1PG QH VJG EQPXGPVKQPU KNNWUVTCVGF D[ VJKU YC[ QH UVCVKPI VJG NCY KU VJCV VJQWIJ YG CNNQY

QWTUGNXGU VQ URGCM KP VJG UKPIWNCT QH Q R VJG CZKQO QT VJGQTGO QH KPFKUEGTPKDKNKV[ YJCV QPG

TGCNN[ JCU JGTG KU CP CZKQO UEJGOG OGCPKPI C TWNG VQ VJG GHHGEV VJCV CNN HQTOWNCU QH C

EGTVCKP HQTO CTG VQ DG EQWPVGF CU CZKQOU QT C VJGQTGO UEJGOG OGCPKPI C TGUWNV VQ VJG

GHHGEV VJCV CNN HQTOWNCU QH C EGTVCKP HQTO CTG VJGQTGOU 9JCV KU FKURNC[GF KP
 KU PQV

Q R
VJG NCY DWV VJG IGPGTCN HQTO QH CP KPUVCPEG QH VJG UEJGOG YJGTGKP φ OC[ DG CP[
HQTOWNC

#EVWCNN[
 FQGU PQV [GV HWNN[ FKURNC[ VJG IGPGTCN HQTO QH CP KPUVCPEG QH VJG NCY

UKPEG KV KU EQPXGPVKQPCN KP FKURNC[KPI NCYU VQ QOKV KPKVKCN WPKXGTUCN SWCPVKHKGTU 6JWU YJCV

CP KPUVCPEG TGCNN[ NQQMU NKMG KU VJKU

C ∀Z∀[(Z  [ →
φ(Z ↔ φ
[

#PF CEVWCNN[ GXGP

C UVKNN FQGU PQV [GV HWNN[ GZJKDKV VJG IGPGTCN HQTO QH CP KPUVCPEG QH

VJG NCY UKPEG KV KU EQPXGPVKQPCN KP FKURNC[KPI NCYU VQ QOKV RCTCOGVGTU QT CFFKVKQPCN HTGG

XCTKCDNGU VJCV OC[ DG RTGUGPV 6JWU YJCV CP KPUVCPEG TGCNN[ NQQMU NKMG KU VJKU

D ∀W W∀ WM ∀Z∀[(Z  [ →
φ(Z W W  WM ↔ φ
[ W W  WM
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FKURNC[KPI CZKQOU CPF VJGQTGOU QH HKTUVQTFGT NQIKE YKNN CRRN[ CNUQ VQ JKIJGTQTFGT NQIKE

6JGUG EQPXGPVKQPU JCXG DGGP DTKGHN[ FGUETKDGF JGTG + UC[ DGECWUG PQV CNN

VGZVDQQMU EQXGT VJGO 6JGTG KU QPG HWTVJGT KORQTVCPV VQRKE VJCV XGT[ HGY VGZVDQQMU EQXGT

VJCV QH OCP[UQTVGF HKTUVQTFGT NCPIWCIGU CPF VJGQTKGU # OCP[UQTVGF NCPIWCIG KU LWUV

NKMG CP QTFKPCT[ QPG GZEGRV VJCV VJGTG KU OQTG VJCP QPG UV[NG QH XCTKCDNGU (QT KPUVCPEG KP

C IGQOGVTKECN VJGQT[ CDQWV RQKPVU CPF NKPGU KV OC[ DG EQPXGPKGPV VQ JCXG QPG UV[NG QH

XCTKCDNG : ; < W HQT RQKPVU CPF CPQVJGT UV[NG QH XCTKCDNG ξ υ ζ W HQT NKPGU %GTVCKP

QDXKQWU EJCPIGU KP VJG TWNGU QH HQTOCVKQP CPF FGFWEVKQP VJGP JCXG VQ DG OCFG

#U VQ HQTOCVKQP TWNGU CPF HQTOWNCU VJG WUWCN TWNGU UC[ VJCV W  X KU CP CVQOKE

HQTOWNC HQT CP[ XCTKCDNGU W CPF X +P OCP[UQTVGF NQIKE QPG JCU C FKHHGTGPV KFGPVKV[

U[ODQN HQT GCEJ UQTV QH XCTKCDNG 5Q KP QWT IGQOGVTKECN GZCORNG YG YQWNF JCXG CVQOKE

HQTOWNCU QH VJG MKPFU : RQKPV ; CPF ξ NKPG υ CPF PQV CVQOKE HQTOWNCU KFGPVKH[KPI C RQKPV
CPF C NKPG 5KOKNCTN[ HQT PQPNQIKECN U[ODQNU VJGTG OC[ DG TGUVTKEVKQPU CU VQ YJKEJ UQTVU

QH XCTKCDNGU ECP IQ KPVQ YJKEJ RNCEGU 6JGUG EJCPIGU CHHGEV QPN[ VJG TWNGU HQT HQTOKPI

VGTOU CPF CVQOKE HQTOWNCU 6JG TWNGU HQT HQTOKPI OQTG EQORNGZ HQTOWNCU HTQO UKORNGT

QPGU D[ NQIKECN QRGTCVKQPU TGOCKP WPEJCPIGF +P RCTVKEWNCT ∀ CPF ∃ OC[ DG CRRNKGF VQ

CP[ UQTV QH XCTKCDNG

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QPG HQTOCV QT CPQVJGT M VJG KPHGTGPEG HTQO ∀Wφ

W VQ φ
X CPF HTQO φ
X VQ ∃Wφ
W HQT
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KPHGTGPEG HTQO ∀:φ

: VQ φ
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ξ VQ ψ
υ CPF PQV HTQO ∀:φ
: VQ φ
υ QT
HTQO ∀ξψ
ξ VQ ψ
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ECP DG UWDUVKVWVGF YJGTG 6JGUG EJCPIGU CHHGEV QPN[ VJG TWNGU QH FGFWEVKQP KPXQNXKPI

SWCPVKHKGTU 6JG TWNGU HQT `  ∨ → ↔ TGOCKP WPEJCPIGF

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YKVJ C UKPING UV[NG QH XCTKCDNGU Z [ \ W D[ KPVTQFWEKPI C QPGRNCEG TGNCVKQP U[ODQN 2

ECNNGF C UQTVCN RTGFKECVG CPF TGRNCEKPI SWCPVKHKECVKQPU ∀:

W  CPF W ∀ξ
 D[

∀Z
2Z → W  CPF ∀Z
`2Z → W  CPF ∃:
W
 CPF ∃ξ
W  D[ ∃Z
2Z W  CPF

∃Z
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VQ C QPGUQTVGF VJGQT[ CDQWV RQKPVUQTNKPGU Z D[ KPVTQFWEKPI C RTGFKECVG Q R

KU C RQKPV  CPF

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C RQKPV VJGP R Q
CPF HQT GXGT[ Z KH Z R
KU PQV C RQKPV VJGP  +H VJGTG KU UC[ C EQPUVCPV % QH

UQTV : KP VJG QTKIKPCN NCPIWCIG YG PGGF VQ CFF GZRNKEKVN[ CU CP CZKQO UKPEG KV KU PQ NQPIGT

KORNKEKV KP VJG PQVCVKQP VJCV % KU C RQKPV 2% +H VJGTG KU UC[ C HWPEVKQP U[ODQN T KP VJG
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CRRNKGF VQ C NKPG IKXGU C RQKPV `2Z →2 T
Z #PF UKOKNCTN[ HQT HWPEVKQPU[ODQNU QH OQTG

RNCEGU # UKOKNCT TGFWEVKQP ECP DG ECTTKGF QWV HQT VJTGGUQTVGF VJGQTKGU WUKPI VYQ UQTVCN

RTGFKECVGU 2 CPF 3
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`2Z  `3Z $WV TGVCKPKPI VJG OCP[UQTVGF HQTOWNCVKQP KU QHVGP KP RTCEVKEG OQTG

EQPXGPKGPV CPF OQTG KNNWOKPCVKPI

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XGTUKQP LWUV FGUETKDGF JKIJGTQTFGT NQIKE OC[ DG KPVTQFWEGF CU UKORN[ QPG URGEKCN

OCP[UQTVGF HKTUVQTFGT VJGQT[ YKVJ EGTVCKP FKUVKPEVKXG HQTOWNCU CU CZKQOU KP QPG URGEKCN

OCP[UQTVGF HKTUVQTFGT NCPIWCIG YKVJ EGTVCKP FKUVKPEVKXG TGNCVKQP U[ODQNU CU RTKOKVKXGU

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EQPUKFGTGF PQPNQIKECN HTQO VJG RGTURGEVKXG QH JKIJGTQTFGT NQIKE VJG[ CTG EQPUKFGTGF

NQIKECN 9JGVJGT VJG[ CTG QT CTG PQV Q

NQIKECN R KP C RJKNQUQRJKECNN[ KPVGTGUVKPI UGPUG KU

QDXKQWUN[ TGNGXCPV VQ CUUGUUKPI VJG RJKNQUQRJKECN UKIPKHKECPEG QH VJG FGXGNQROGPV QH

OCVJGOCVKEU YKVJKP C U[UVGO DCUGF QP JKIJGTQTFGT NQIKE $WV VJKU RJKNQUQRJKECN KUUWG KU

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FGFWEKDKNKV[ YJKEJ CU CNTGCF[ KPFKECVGF CTG VJG UCOG CU HQT OCP[UQTVGF HKTUVQTFGT NQIKE

YJKEJ KP VWTP CTG CRCTV HTQO UQOG QDXKQWU TGUVTKEVKQPU QP YJKEJ UQTVU QH XCTKCDNGU ECP

VWTP WR KP YJKEJ RQUKVKQPU VJG UCOG CU HQT QTFKPCT[ VGZVDQQM HKTUVQTFGT NQIKE YKVJ

YJKEJ KV KU CUUWOGF VJG TGCFGT KU HCOKNKCT

9JCV VJG FKUVKPEVKXG RTKOKVKXGU CPF CZKQOU QH JKIJGTQTFGT NQIKE CTG ECP CNOQUV DG

IWGUUGF HTQO VJG GCTNKGT FKUEWUUKQP QH (TGIGCP QPVQNQI[ #U VQ RTKOKVKXGU VJGTG CTG

XCTKCDNGU QH XCTKQWU V[RGU 6 YKVJ VJG EQTTGURQPFKPI KFGPVKV[ U[ODQNU 6 IKXKPI TKUG VQ

UWEJ CVQOKE HQTOWNCU CU VJG HQNNQYKPI

Z 0 [ : 50 ; 4 500 5 : 5
50 ;

$GUKFGU VJGUG YG YKNN YCPV HQT GCEJ V[RG 6  56 W 6M C

M RNCEG TGNCVKQPU[ODQN

∇6 VQ GZRTGUU VJCV C IKXGP EQPEGRV QH V[RG 6 JCU IKXGP KVGOU QH V[RGU 6 W  6M HCNNKPI

WPFGT KV 6JGUG U[ODQNU YKNN IKXG TKUG VQ UWEJ CVQOKE HQTOWNCU CU VJG HQNNQYKPI

∇50:Z ∇5004Z[ ∇5

50::
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UGEQPFNGXGN EQPEGRVU VJG TGUWNV KU VJG NCPIWCIG QH

RQN[CFKE VJKTFQTFGT NQIKE +H YG

FTQR GXGT[VJKPI CDQXG HKTUVNGXGN EQPEGRVU VJG TGUWNV KU VJG NCPIWCIG QH

RQN[CFKE

UGEQPFQTFGT NQIKE +H YG FTQR CNN TGNCVKQPCN EQPEGRVU QH OQTG VJCP VYQ RNCEGU VJG TGUWNV

KU VJG NCPIWCIG QH F[CFKE JKIJGTQTFGT NQIKE +H YG FTQR CNN TGNCVKQPCN EQPEGRVU

YJCVUQGXGT VJG TGUWNV KU VJG NCPIWCIG QH OQPCFKE JKIJGTQTFGT NQIKE

6JKU KU CNN VJCV PGGFU VQ DG UCKF CDQWV VJG QHHKEKCN PQVKQP QH HQTOWNC HQT JKIJGT

QTFGT NQIKE 7PQHHKEKCNN[ 0 KU EQPXGPVKQPCNN[ LWUV YTKVVGP CU  YJKNG CNN QVJGT 6 CTG

YTKVVGP CU ≡. #U HQT ∇ PQV QPN[ CTG UWDUETKRVU FTQRRGF DWV VJG XGT[ U[ODQN KVUGNH KU PQV
YTKVVGP UQ VJCV KP RTCEVKEG QZ HCNNU WPFGT : RQ  Z CPF [ KP VJCV QTFGT HCNN WPFGT 4 RQ
 : HCNNU

WPFGT :R CTG YTKVVGP LWUV :Z CPF 4Z[ CPF : : QT UQOGVKOGU HQT GZVTC GORJCUKU :
Z CPF

4
Z [  CPF :
:

6WTPKPI HTQO RTKOKVKXGU VQ CZKQOU VJGTG CTG LWUV VYQ QH VJGUG ECNNGF

EQORTGJGPUKQP CPF GZVGPUKQPCNKV[

 ∃:∀Z
:Z ↔ φ
Z

 : ≡ ; ↔ ∀\
:\ ↔ ;\

6JG WUWCN EQPXGPVKQPU HQT UVCVKPI CZKQOU CRRN[ JGTG TGCNN[

 KU CP CZKQO UEJGOG VJG

HQTOWNCU FKURNC[GF CTG VQ DG RTGHKZGF YKVJ WPKXGTUCN SWCPVKHKGTU CPF VJGTG OC[ DG

RCTCOGVGTU # HWTVJGT EQPXGPVKQP KU VJCV YJGP C HQTOWNC KU UVCVGF CU CP CZKQO QH

OQPCFKE UGEQPFQTFGT NQIKE WPNGUU GZRNKEKVN[ KPFKECVGF QVJGTYKUG VJG CPCNQIQWU RQN[CFKE

CPF JKIJGTQTFGT HQTOWNCU CTG CNUQ VQ DG VCMGP CU CZKQOU 6JWU KP CFFKVKQP VQ

 CPF


VJG HQNNQYKPI CTG CNUQ EQORTGJGPUKQP CPF GZVGPUKQPCNKV[ CZKQOU

C ∃4∀Z∀[
4Z[ ↔ ψ
Z [
D ∃:∀:
:: ↔ θ
:

C 4 ≡ 5 ↔ ∀Z∀[
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Z_ #NVGTPCVKXGN[ CPF GSWKXCNGPVN[ YG OC[
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EQTTGURQPFKPI NCYU HQT EQPLWPEVKQP CPF FKULWPEVKQP

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NGIKVKOCVGF D[ RTQXKPI GZKUVGPEG CPF WPKSWGPGUU CU NGOOCU VJG CUUQEKCVKXG CPF

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VJG KFGC VJG RTQFWEV QH Z CPF [ KU VJG PWODGT QH QTFGTGF RCKTU VJCV ECP DG HQTOGF KH GCEJ KU

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4Z\ ↔\Z 4Z[ \ ↔ ∃Y

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UWRGTGZRQPGPVKCVKQP CPF HWTVJGT QRGTCVKQPU CTG NKMGYKUG KORNKEKVN[ FGHKPGF D[ TGEWTUKQP

GSWCVKQPU YJKEJ IKXG VJG XCNWG QH VJG QRGTCVKQP HQT  QWVTKIJV CPF IKXG VJG XCNWG QH VJG

QRGTCVKQP HQT \ KP VGTOU QH VJG XCNWG HQT \ VJWU

⋅ Z ⋅
⋅  Z ⋅ [  Z Z ⋅ [

↑ Z ↑
↑  Z ↑ [  Z ⋅
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⇑ Z ⇑
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*GTG QPG JCU C HQTOCN EQWPVGTRCTV QH VJG KFGC QH OWNVKRNKECVKQP CU TGRGCVGF CFFKVKQP

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VJG FGHKPKVKQP QH CFFKVKQP CPF QH VJQUG QH VJGUG HWTVJGT QRGTCVKQPU ECP CEVWCNN[ DG

EQODKPGF KPVQ C UKPING ITCPF NGOOC NGIKVKOCVKPI FGHKPKVKQP D[ TGEWTUKQP 6JGP

OCVJGOCVKECN KPFWEVKQP KU WUGF VQ FGFWEG VJG TGNGXCPV NCYU QH CTKVJOGVKE HTQO VJG

TGEWTUKQP GSWCVKQPU (QT VJG PCVWTCN PWODGTU VJKU CRRTQCEJ KU GUUGPVKCNN[ &GFGMKPF U O
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VJG TGEWTUKQP GSWCVKQPU HQT CFFKVKQP OWNVKRNKECVKQP GZRQPGPVKCVKQP CPF UQ QP ECP DG

FGFWEGF KP F[CFKE UGEQPFQTFGT NQIKE HTQO VJG 2GCPQ RQUVWNCVGU

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1H EQWTUG CP GNGOGPVCT[ GFWECVQT YQWNF KPUKUV VJCV C EJKNF JCU PQV HWNN[ OCUVGTGF

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QP GKVJGT HQTOCN CRRTQCEJ YQWNF DG VQ RTQXG VJCV KV KU GSWKXCNGPV VQ VJG QVJGT

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VQ GUVCDNKUJ CP[VJKPI NKMG CP GHHKEKGPV OGCPU D[ YJKEJ UWOU CPF RTQFWEVU ECP DG

ECNEWNCVGF 1P VJG QTFKPCN CRRTQCEJ GSWKXCNGPEG YKVJ VJG ECTFKPCN CRRTQCEJ KU PGGFGF VQ

GUVCDNKUJ JQY CFFKVKQP CPF OWNVKRNKECVKQP ECP DG CRRNKGF

1PEG QPG JCU VJG U[UVGO QH PCVWTCN PWODGTU N YKVJ VJG WUWCN CTKVJOGVKE
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Z QH TCVKQPCN PWODGTU Q QH TGCN PWODGTU R QH EQORNGZ PWODGTU C CPF KH QPG KU TGCNN[

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QP VJGO CTG FGHKPGF KP VGTOU QH VJG PWODGTU QH VJG RTGXKQWU MKPF CPF VJG QRGTCVKQPU QP

VJGO CPF VJG CTKVJOGVKE QT CNIGDTCKE NCYU HQT VJG PGY MKPF CTG FGFWEGF HTQO VJQUG HQT VJG

RTGXKQWU MKPF VQIGVJGT YKVJ VJGUG FGHKPKVKQPU $WV KV KU PQV PGGFHWN VQ GPVGT KPVQ CP[

HWTVJGT FGVCKNU QH VJG EQPUVTWEVKQP CV VJKU UVCIG

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VTGCVOGPV QH C (QT LWUV CU JKU UGEQPF XQNWOG YCU CDQWV VQ UGG RTKPV (TGIG TGEGKXGF C
NGVVGT HTQO 4WUUGNN
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EQPEGRVU 1WT PGZV QTFGT QH DWUKPGUU OWUV DG VQ TGXKGY 4WUUGNNOU HCOQWU RCTCFQZ CU KV
CRRNKGU VQ (TGIGOU U[UVGO CPF (TGIGOU QYP KOOGFKCVG TGCEVKQP VQ VJG FKUEQXGT[ QH VJG
EQPVTCFKEVKQP
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FKUEQXGT[ UQOG FKHHGTGPEGU DGVYGGP (TGIGOU CRRTQCEJ CPF 4WUUGNNOU (QT QPG VJKPI
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PWODGT VYQ HQT KPUVCPEG UQ VJCV KV KU VJG GZVGPUKQP QH UWEJ C JKIJGTNGXGN EQPEGRV
PCOGN[ VJCV WPFGT YJKEJ HCNN CNN CPF QPN[ VJQUG HKTUVNGXGN EQPEGRVU WPFGT YJKEJ VJGTG HCNN
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C HKTUVNGXGN EQPEGRV VJCV WPFGT YJKEJ VJGTG HCNN CNN CPF QPN[ VJQUG QDLGEVU VJCV CTG
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6

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5 6

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5 5 5

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8 EQPUKUVKPI QH CNN UGVU M PCOGN[ VJG QPGVQQPG EQTTGURQPFGPEG KP YJKEJ GCEJ UGV
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5 5 5

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CPF GXGT[ QDLGEV DWV 8 KVUGNH KU CP GNGOGPV QH 8 5KPEG YG CTG CUUWOKPI VJGTG CTG CV
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Z KU

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Z

EQPEGRVU VQQ CPF EQPUKFGT QPN[ NKPIWKUVKE GZRTGUUKQPU CPF URGEKHKECNN[ HQTOWNCU φ
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YKVJ QPG HTGG XCTKCDNG +PUVGCF QH CUMKPI YJGVJGT CP QDLGEV DGNQPIU VQ VJG UGV ]  φ
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CPF KPUVGCF QH CUMKPI YJGVJGT CP QDLGEV HCNNU WPFGT VJG EQPEGRV n  φ

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Z Z

YJGVJGT VJG QDLGEV UCVKUHKGU VJG HQTOWNC φ

 6JGP YG IGV C EQPVTCFKEVKQP 1T CV NGCUV
Z UVKNN

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VJGP EQPUKFGT VJG C HQTOWNC φ
 U[ODQNK\KPI Q KU C HQTOWNC YKVJ QPG HTGG XCTKCDNG VJCV
Z Z
FQGU PQV UCVKUH[ KVUGNHR CPF CUM YJGVJGT VJKU HQTOWNC UCVKUHKGU KVUGNH # 4WUUGNNUV[NG
EQPVTCFKEVKQP YKNN DG HQTVJEQOKPI
6JG QTFKPCT[NCPIWCIG XGTUKQP QH VJKU EQPVTCFKEVKQP KU MPQYP CU VJG )TGNNKPI QT
JGVGTQNQIKECN RCTCFQZ +V KU OQUV UKORN[ HQTOWNCVGF HQT CFLGEVKXGU
QT CFLGEVKXCN RJTCUGU
%CNN CP CFLGEVKXG CWVQNQIKECN KH NKMG QUJQTVR CPF QRQN[U[NNCDKER CPF Q'PINKUJR KV KU VTWG QH
KVUGNH CPFJGVGTQNQIKECN KH NKMG QNQPIR CPF QOQPQU[NNCDKER CPF Q(TGPEJR KV KU PQV 9G
OC[ VJGP CUM YJGVJGT VJG CFLGEVKXG QJGVGTQNQIKECNR KU JGVGTQNQIKECN
1T KH VJG HCEV VJCV
QCWVQNQIKECNR CPF QJGVGTQNQIKECNR CTG PGQNQIKUOU KU FKUVTCEVKPI YG OC[ CUM YJGVJGT VJG
CFLGEVKXCN RJTCUG QPQV VTWG QH KVUGNHR KU VTWG QH KVUGNH 2CTCFQZ CTKUGU GXGP KH YG TGUVTKEV QWT
CVVGPVKQP LWUV VQ YQTFU CPF RJTCUGU VJCV JCXG CEVWCNN[ DGGP YTKVVGP FQYP M GXGP KH YG
TGUVTKEV QWT CVVGPVKQP VQ EQPETGVG KPUETKRVKQPU OCFG QH KPM QT EJCNM %QPVGORNCVKQP QH VJG
RCTCNNGN DGVYGGP 4WUUGNNOU UGVVJGQTGVKE RCTCFQZ CPF )TGNNKPIOU UGOCPVKE RCTCFQZ UWIIGUV
VJCV KV KU PQV QCDUVTCEV QPVQNQI[R DWV C MKPF QH QUGNHTGHGTGPVKCNKV[R QT QXKEKQWU EKTEWNCTKV[R
VJCV KU VQ DNCOG +P VJG EQWTUG QH VT[KPI VQ TGEQPUVTWEV VJG RTQITCO QH (TGIGOU
)TWPFIGUGV\G  CPF JKU QYP
 4WUUGNN YCU NGF VQ KPVTQFWEG C FKUVKPEVKQP DGVYGGP
RTGFKECVKXG CPFKORTGFKECVKXG URGEKHKECVKQPU CPF VQ DCP VJG NCVVGT CU XKEKQWUN[ EKTEWNCT
.GV OG PQY VT[ VQ EJCTCEVGTK\G CU UKORN[ CU RQUUKDNG 4WUUGNNOU GZVTCQTFKPCTKN[
EQORNGZ U[UVGO 6JG HKTUV VJKPI VJCV PGGFU VQ DG UCKF KU VJCV 4WUUGNN EJCTCEVGTK\GF JKU
VJGQT[ CU C QPQ ENCUUGUR VJGQT[ CPF KV YCU UQ KP C FQWDNG UGPUG (KTUV 4WUUGNN FTQRRGF
YJCV (TGIG ECNNGF QENCUUGUR PCOGN[ GZVGPUKQPU QH EQPEGRVU YJKEJ + JCXG DGGP ECNNKPI
QUGVUR $WV UGEQPF 4WUUGNN CNUQ FTQRRGF YJCV ECNNGF QENCUUGUR YJKEJ PGCTN[ GPQWIJ
JG

YGTG VJG EQPEGRVU VJGOUGNXGU (QT KH 4WUUGNN FKF PQV OGCP D[ QENCUUR GZCEVN[ YJCV (TGIG
OGCPV D[ QEQPEGRVR JG CV CP[ TCVG CUETKDGF VQ YJCV JG WPFGTUVQQF D[ QENCUUGUR GZCEVN[
VJG UCOG HGCVWTGU VJCV (TGIG CUETKDGF VQ YJCV JG WPFGTUVQQF D[ QEQPEGRVUR VJG[ CTG
UWRRQUGF VQ EQOG KP NGXGNU CPF VQ DG IQXGTPGF D[ VJG NCYU QH EQORTGJGPUKQP CPF
GZVGPUKQPCNKV[ (QT EQPEGRVU 4WUUGNN UWDUVKVWVGF GPVKVKGU QH C FKHHGTGPV UQTV CU VJG TCPIG QH
JKU JKIJGTQTFGT XCTKCDNGU GPVKVKGU JG ECNNGF QRTQRQUKVKQPCN HWPEVKQPUR 6JGUG YGTG CNUQ
UWRRQUGF VQ EQOG KP NGXGNU CPF DG IQXGTPGF D[ CP CZKQO QH EQORTGJGPUKQP 6Q DG UWTG
4WUUGNN VJQWIJV KV PGEGUUCT[ VQ UWDFKXKFG VJG NGXGNU CPF VQ TGUVTKEV VJG CZKQO M KV KU KP
VJKU EQPPGEVKQP VJCV VJG KUUWG QH RTGFKECVKXKV[ KORTGFKECVKXKV[ EQOGU VQ VJG HQTG M DWV C
XU

(TGIGCP OKIJV JCXG VJQWIJV UQ VQQ CHVGT VJG RCTCFQZGU 6JG ETWEKCN FKHHGTGPEG DGVYGGP
QRTQRQUKVKQPCN HWPEVKQPUR CPF QEQPEGRVUR NKGU PQV KP VJG UWDFKXKUKQP CPF TGUVTKEVKQP DWV KP
VJG HCEV VJCV VJG HQTOGT CTG PQV CU VJG NCVVGT CTG IQXGTPGF D[ CP CZKQO QH GZVGPUKQPCNKV[
6JWU VJGTG CTG KP CNNVJTGG TGUVTKEVKQPU KORQUGF QP (TGIGOU U[UVGO (KTUV VJG
GZVGPUKQP QRGTCVQT U EQPXGTVKPI C JKIJGTNGXGN GPVKV[ KPVQ C \GTQVJNGXGN GPVKV[  U 
: Z :

KU FTQRRGF 5GEQPF VJG EQORTGJGPUKQP CZKQO KU TGUVTKEVGF 6JKTF VJG CZKQO QH

GZVGPUKQPCNKV[ KU FTQRRGF 5Q HCT CU CXQKFKPI VJG RCTCFQZGU KU EQPEGTPGF VJKU VTKRNG
TGVTGPEJOGPV KU QXGTMKNN CPF YKVJ VJTGG JCPFU VKGF DGJKPF JKU DCEM 4WUUGNN WPUWTRTKUKPIN[
HQWPF JKOUGNH WPCDNG VQ FGXGNQR CTKVJOGVKE YKVJKP JKU U[UVGO YKVJQWV EGTVCKP CFFKVKQPCN
CU KV YGTG EQORGPUCVQT[ CUUWORVKQPU (QT VJKU CPF QVJGT TGCUQPU 4WUUGNNOU U[UVGO PQV
QPN[ KU OKUUKPI VJTGG EQORQPGPVU RTGUGPV KP (TGIGOU DWV JCU RTGUGPV VJTGG CUUWORVKQPU
YKVJ PQ EQWPVGTRCTV KP (TGIGOU U[UVGO ECNNGF VJG CZKQOU QH TGFWEKDKNKV[  QH
KPHKPKV[ CPF QH
EJQKEG 
6JG TGUWNVKPI VJGQT[ QH RTQRQUKVKQPCN HWPEVKQPU KU KPQTFKPCVGN[ EQORNKECVGF GXGP
EQORCTGF YKVJ (TGIGOU VJGQT[ QH EQPEGRVU /QTGQXGT 4WUUGNN YCU PQV PGCTN[ UQ ENGCT CPF
GZRNKEKV CU (TGIG JCF DGGP CDQWV LWUV YJCV CUUWORVKQPU JG YCU OCMKPI UQ VJCV VJGTG CTG
UEJQNCTN[ FGDCVGU VQ VJKU FC[ CDQWV GZCEVN[ YJCV 4WUUGNNOU VJGQT[ COQWPVGF VQ
(QTVWPCVGN[ PQ OQTG VJCP C DTKGH UWOOCT[ QH QPG RNCWUKDNG KPVGTRTGVCVKQP QH VJG
4WUUGNNKCP TCOKHKGF VJGQT[ QH V[RGU YKNN DG PGEGUUCT[ HQT RTGUGPV RWTRQUGU +P RTGUGPVKPI
VJG UWOOCT[ + YKNN EQPUKFGT HKTUV VJG FKHHKEWNVKGU 4WUUGNN IQV JKOUGNH KPVQ D[ FTQRRKPI
GZVGPUKQPCNKV[ VJGP VJQUG CTKUKPI HTQO JKU TGUVTKEVKPI EQORTGJGPUKQP CPF FTQRRKPI
GZVGPUKQPU KP GCEJ QH VJG VJTGG ECUGU KPFKECVKPI JQY 4WUUGNN RTQRQUGF VQ GZVTKECVG
JKOUGNH
6Q DGIKP YKVJ GZVGPUKQPCNKV[ HQT (TGIG VJG JKIJGTQTFGT XCTKCDNGU TCPIGF QXGT
EQPEGRVU YJKEJ YGTG UWRRQUGF VQ DG VJG UQTV QH VJKPIU VJCV VJG TGHGTGPV QH C RTGFKECVG
YQWNF DG PCOGN[ HWPEVKQPU VJCV YJGP HKNNGF KP RTQFWEGF VTWVJXCNWGU YJKEJ (TGIG VQQM
VQ DG VJG TGHGTGPVU QH UGPVGPEGU (QT 4WUUGNN VJG UCOG XCTKCDNGU TCPIGF QXGT RTQRQUKVKQPCN
HWPEVKQPU YJKEJ YGTG OQTG NKMG VJG UGPUGU QH RTGFKECVGU KP VJCV VJG[ YGTG HWPEVKQPU VJCV
YJGP HKNNGF KP RTQFWEGF RTQRQUKVKQPU YJKEJ CTG OWEJ NKMG YJCV (TGIG VQQM VQ DG VJG
UGPUGU QH UGPVGPEGU 5KPEG RTGFKECVGU OC[ JCXG FKHHGTGPV UGPUGU VJQWIJ CRRN[KPI VQ VJG
UCOG GPVKVKGU KV YCU GPVKTGN[ TGCUQPCDNG VQ TGRWFKCVG VJG CZKQO QH GZVGPUKQPCNKV[ YJGP
UYKVEJKPI HTQO EQPEGRVU VQ RTQRQUKVKQPCN HWPEVKQPU 9QTMKPI YKVJ RTQRQUKVKQPCN HWPEVKQPU
TCVJGT VJCP EQPEGRVU QT ENCUUGU KU KPEQPXGPKGPV JQYGXGT OCKPN[ DGECWUG YKVJQWV
GZVGPUKQPCNKV[ QPG KU JCTFN[ GXGT KP C RQUKVKQP VQ URGCM QH QVJGR KVGO HWNHKNNKPI C IKXGP
EQPFKVKQP
0QY CU KV JCRRGPU KH QPG KU PQV IQKPI VQ IQ DG[QPF VJG UGEQPFQTFGT NGXGN VJGP
QPG FQGU PQV PGGF VQ CUUWOG GZVGPUKQPCNKV[ CU CP CZKQO DGECWUG QPG CNTGCF[ JCU KV CU C
VJGQTGO /QTG RTGEKUGN[ KH QPG VCMGU ≡ PQV CU RTKOKVKXG DWV CU CP CDDTGXKCVKQP HQT
: ;

∀
↔  CU + JCXG DGGP FQKPI VJGP GCEJ KPUVCPEG QH GZVGPUKQPCNKV[ KP VJG HQNNQYKPI
Z :Z ;Z

HQTO YKNN DG FGFWEKDNG RTQXKFGF φ EQPVCKPU PQ UGEQPFNGXGN QT JKIJGT EQPEGRVXCTKCDNGU


 : ≡ ; →
φ
: ↔ φ
;

6JKU KU DGECWUG VJGP ECP CRRGCT KP φ

 QPN[ KP CVQOKE HQTOWNCU QH VJG HQTO  CPF
: : :X ;

QPN[ KP EQTTGURQPFKPI CVQOKE HQTOWNCU HQT VJG HQTO  CPF YG JCXG ↔ HQT CNN 
;X :X ;X X

'ZVGPUKQPCNKV[ KU UVKNN FGFWEKDNG KH QPG CFFU UC[ C HWPEVKQP U[ODQN T CRRN[KPI VQ

CTIWOGPVU QH UQTV CPF IKXKPI XCNWGU QH UQTV  RTQXKFGF QPG JCU ≡ → T  T  #PF
: Z : ; : ;

GZVGPUKQPCNKV[ KU FGFWEKDNG KH QPG CFFU C UGEQPFNGXGN EQPUVCPV # UQ NQPI CU QPG JCU

UVKNN

: ≡ → # ↔ #  +V KU HQT VJKU TGCUQP VJCV VJG CZKQO YCU PQV CEVWCNN[ TGSWKTGF CU CP
; : ;

CZKQO D[ (TGIG
9KVJ VJKTFQTFGT NQIKE CPF XCTKCDNGU HQT UGEQPFNGXGN EQPEGRVU JQYGXGT
GZVGPUKQPCNKV[ KU C VJGQTGO 6JCV KU QPG ECP FGFWEG VJG HQNNQYKPI
PQV PQV

 ∀<
: ≡ ; →
<: ↔ <;

#PF 4WUUGNN YCU QDNKIGF VQ OCMG OWEJ OQTG WUG QH VJKTF CPF GXGP HQWTVJQTFGT NQIKE
VJCP (TGIG GXGT FKF UQ HQT JKO VJG CDUGPEG QH CP GZVGPUKQPCNKV[ CZKQO YCU C IGPWKPG
KPEQPXGPKGPEG
$WV 4WUUGNN HQWPF C YC[ CTQWPF VJKU KPEQPXGPKGPEG *G UJQYGF VJCV JKU VJGQT[
YKVJ VJG CFFKVKQP QH GZVGPUKQPCNKV[ DGEQOGU VTWG KH VJG HQTOWNCU QH VJG NCPIWCIG CTG
UWKVCDN[ TGKPVGTRTGVGF 6JG TGKPVGTRTGVCVKQP KPXQNXGU YJCV KU MPQYP CU QH
TGNCVKXK\CVKQP

SWCPVKHKGTU +P IGPGTCN TGNCVKXK\KPI SWCPVKHKGTU VQ C EQPFKVKQP θ

 OGCPU TGRNCEKPI
W

SWCPVKHKECVKQPU ∀
W CPF ∃
W D[ ∀
θ
 → W CPF ∃
θ
  W +P VJG RTGUGPV
W W W W W W

KPUVCPEG VJGTG KU PQ PGGF VQ EJCPIG SWCPVKHKGTU KPXQNXKPI \GTQVJNGXGN QT HKTUVNGXGN

XCTKCDNGU    W QT    W $WV SWCPVKHKECVKQPU QXGT UGEQPFNGXGN EQPEGRVU CTG VQ
Z [ \ : ; <

DG TGNCVKXK\GF VQ VJG EQPFKVKQP QH DGKPI  OGCPKPI PQV OCMKPI FKUVKPEVKQPU

GZVGPUKQPCN

COQPI EQGZVGPUKXG HKTUVNGXGN EQPEGRVU

6JWU ∀<
W KU WPFGTUVQQF CU OGCPKPI VJG HQNNQYKPI

 ∀<
∀:∀;
: ≡ ; →
<: ↔ <; → W
1DXKQWUN[ YKVJ VJG SWCPVKHKGT KP
 VJWU TGKPVGTRTGVGF
 DGEQOGU FGFWEKDNG
6JG VTGCVOGPV QH VJKTF CPF JKIJGTNGXGN ECUGU CPF QH OCP[RNCEG ECUGU KU OQTG
EQORNKECVGF DWV VJG FGVCKNU CTG WPKORQTVCPV JGTG 6JG HKPCN TGUWNV KU VJCV UQ NQPI CU QPG KU
QPN[ KPVGTGUVGF KP GZVGPUKQPCN RTQRQUKVKQPCN HWPEVKQPU M CPF 4WUUGNN JGNF VJCV VJQUG YGTG
VJG QPN[ QPGU QH TGNGXCPEG VQ OCVJGOCVKEU M QPG OC[ CU YGNN CUUWOG VJG CZKQO QH
GZVGPUKQPCNKV[ 9JCV QPG VJGP UC[U YQPOV DG NKVGTCNN[ VTWG D[ 4WUUGNNOU NKIJVU DWV YKNN
DGEQOG VTWG KH SWCPVKHKGTU CTG VCEKVN[ WPFGTUVQQF CU CRRTQRTKCVGN[ TGNCVKXK\GF 6JKU DGKPI
WPFGTUVQQF HQT VJG TGOCKPFGT QH VJKU GZRQUKVKQP + YKNN TGXGTV VQ VJG (TGIGCP NCPIWCIG QH
EQPEGRVU YJGP URGCMKPI QH VJG 4WUUGNNKCP VJGQT[ QH RTQRQUKVKQPCN HWPEVKQPU #PF CHVGT YG
CTG FQPG YKVJ 4WUUGNN YG CTG JCTFN[ GXGT IQKPI VQ IQ CDQXG VJG NGXGN QH UGEQPFQTFGT
NQIKE UQ CNOQUV CNYC[U Q
GZVGPUKQPCNKV[ YKNN DG CXCKNCDNG R HQT VJG TGCUQP
HQT HTGG

GZRNCKPGF CDQXG
6WTPKPI PGZV VQ TGUVTKEVKQPU QP EQORTGJGPUKQP VJG KPUVCPEG VJCV NGCFU VQ 4WUUGNNOU
RCTCFQZ TGCFU CU HQNNQYU

 ∃;∀Z
;Z ↔ ∃:
Z  U:  ` 
:Z

*GTG VJG EQPEGRV DGKPI CUUGTVGF VQ GZKUV EQTTGURQPFU VQ C HQTOWNC KPXQNXKPI

;

SWCPVKHKECVKQP QXGT CNN EQPEGRVU  4WUUGNN EQPUKFGTGF VJKU MKPF QH

; KVUGNH KPENWFGF

URGEKHKECVKQP QH CP GPVKV[ D[ C EQPFKVKQP KPXQNXKPI SWCPVKHKECVKQP QXGT CNN GPVKVKGU QH VJG

UCOG MKPF CU KVUGNH VQ DG XKEKQWUN[ EKTEWNCT 6JG RCTVKEWNCT MKPF QH EKTEWNCTKV[ UWEJ C
URGEKHKECVKQP GZJKDKVU YJGVJGT QPG EQPUKFGTU KV XKEKQWU QT PQV KU ECNNGF 
KORTGFKECVKXKV[

4WUUGNN RTQRQUGF VQ DCP KV #EVWCNN[ HQT 4WUUGNN

 KU CNTGCF[ DCPPGF DGECWUG JG FQGU
PQV JCXG VJG QRGTCVQT U DWV PQY KV KU VQ DG DCPPGF CICKP D[ JKU RTGFKECVKXKV[ TGUVTKEVKQP QP
VJG CZKQO QH EQORTGJGPUKQP
6Q DG OQTG GZRNKEKV CDQWV YJCV 4WUUGNN CUUWOG JG KORQUGF C TGUVTKEVKQP QP φ
FKF

KP VJG CZKQO QH EQORTGJGPUKQP

 ∃:∀Z
:Z ↔ φ
Z

4WUUGNN CUUWOGU
 QPN[ HQT φ VJCV CTG RTGFKECVKXGKP VJG UGPUG QH EQPVCKPKPI PQ HKTUVNGXGN
EQPEGRV XCTKCDNGU    W QT TGNCVKQPCN EQPEGRV XCTKCDNGU    W VJCV CTG DQWPF D[
: ; < 4 5 6

SWCPVKHKGTU #P CPCNQIQWU CUUWORVKQP KU OCFG HQT TGNCVKQPCN EQPEGRVU

QH JQYGXGT OCP[
RNCEGU 0QVG VJCV DQVJ HTGG CPF DQWPF \GTQVJNGXGN XCTKCDNGU    W CU YGNN CU HTGG
Z [ \

HKTUVNGXGN EQPEGRV CPFQT TGNCVKQPCN EQPEGRV XCTKCDNGU    W QT    W CTG

: ; < 4 5 6

CNNQYGF VQ CRRGCT KP VJG HQTOWNC φ KP


1PG ETWEKCN QDUGTXCVKQP KU VJCV VJG KPUVCPEGU QH EQORTGJGPUKQP HQT TGNCVKQPCN
EQPEGRVU PGGFGF VQ RTQXG VJCV ≈ KU CP GSWKXCNGPEG CTG RTGFKECVKXG 9JCV JCU VQ DG FQPG KU
VJG HQNNQYKPI HKTUV RTQXG HQT TGHNGZKXKV[ VJCV VJGTG GZKUVU CP UWEJ VJCV ≈4  UGEQPF
4 : :

RTQXG HQT U[OOGVT[ VJCV KH VJGTG GZKUVU CP UWEJ VJCV ≈4  VJGP VJGTG GZKUVU CP UWEJ
4 : ; 5

VJCV ≈5  CPF VJKTF RTQXG HQT VTCPUKVKXKV[ VJCV KH VJGTG GZKUVU CP UWEJ VJCV ≈4  CPF
; : 4 : ;
VJGTG GZKUVU CP UWEJ VJCV ≈5  VJGP VJGTG GZKUVU C UWEJ VJCV ≈6  1PG WUGU VJG
5 ; < 6 : <

KFGPVKV[QP VQ IGV VJG EQTTGURQPFGPEG PGGFGF HQT TGHNGZKXKV[ VJG

: 4 VQ VJG IKXGP KPXGTUG

EQTTGURQPFGPEG VQ IGV VJG EQTTGURQPFGPEG PGGFGF HQT U[OOGVT[ CPF VJG

5 QH EQORQUKVKQP

VJG VYQ IKXGP EQTTGURQPFGPEGU VQ IGV VJG PGGFGF HQT VTCPUKVKXKV[ #NN VJTGG KVGOU JCXG
6

RTGFKECVKXG FGHKPKVKQPU CU HQNNQYU

+FGPVKV[ + : n     €
Z [ :Z [ Z

+PXGTUG
CMC %QPXGTUG 4 n  €
Z [ 4[Z

%QORQUKVKQP 4 $ 5  n   ∃
 €
Z \ [ 4Z[ 5[\

6JG MKPF QH EQPEGRVU CFOKVVGF UQ HCT OC[ DG ECNNGF RTGFKECVKXG HKTUVTQWPF

EQPEGRVU DGECWUG 4WUUGNN IQGU QP VQ CFOKV RTGFKECVKXG EQPEGRVU CPF VJGP

UVKNN HWTVJGT TQWPFU .GV WU WUG    W CU XCTKCDNGU HQT HKTUVTQWPF RTGFKECVKXG
UGEQPFTQWPF

: ; <

EQPEGRVU CPF    W CU XCTKCDNGU HQT UGEQPFTQWPF RTGFKECVKXG EQPEGRVU CPF UQ

: ; <

QP .GV WU YTKVG φ HQT C HQTOWNC KPXQNXKPI PQ OQTG VJCP HTGG CPFQT DQWPF QDLGEV
XCTKCDNGU CPFQT HTGG HKTUVTQWPF EQPEGRV XCTKCDNGU CPF φ HQT C HQTOWNC KPXQNXKPI QPN[
VJGUG CPFQT DQWPF HKTUVTQWPF EQPEGRV XCTKCDNGU CPF HTGG UGEQPFTQWPF EQPEGRV XCTKCDNGU
CPF UQ QP 6JGP YJCV KU CUUWOGF KP VJG YC[ QH EQORTGJGPUKQP CZKQOU CTG VJG HQNNQYKPI

C ∃:∀Z
:Z ↔ φ
Z

D ∃:∀Z
:Z ↔ φ
Z

#PF UQ QP 9JGTG QPN[ HKTUVTQWPF RTGFKECVKXG EQPEGRVU CTG CFOKVVGF YG JCXG C UKORNG

RTGFKECVKXG VJGQT[ YJGTG HKTUV CPF UGEQPFTQWPF RTGFKECVKXG EQPEGRVU CTG CFOKVVGF C
FQWDNG RTGFKECVKXG VJGQT[ CPF YJGTG RTGFKECVKXG EQPEGRVU QH CNN TQWPFU CTG CFOKVVGF C
TCOKHKGF RTGFKECVKXG VJGQT[
9JGP KV EQOGU VQ FGXGNQRKPI OCVJGOCVKEU YKVJKP 4WUUGNNOU U[UVGO RTGFKECVKXKV[
TGUVTKEVKQPU ETGCVG FKHHKEWNVKGU QXGT OCVJGOCVKECN KPFWEVKQP (QT UWRRQUG VJCV YG JCXG M
PGXGT OKPF JQY M FGHKPGF \GTQ CPF UWEEGUUQT (TGIGOU CRRTQCEJ OQTG QT NGUU COQWPVU VQ
FGHKPKPI CP QDLGEV VQ DG C PCVWTCN PWODGT KH CPF QPN[ KH KV HCNNU WPFGT CNN KPFWEVKXG

EQPEGRVU YJGTG C EQPEGRV KU KPFWEVKXG KH \GTQ HCNNU WPFGT KV CPF VJG UWEEGUUQT QH CP[
QDLGEV HCNNKPI WPFGT KV HCNNU WPFGT KV 6JWU VJG HQTO QH VJG FGHKPKVKQP KU VJKU


↔∀
∀

00 Z : : [ :[ → :[  → :Z
6JGP HQT CP[ HQTOWNC φ
 YG IGV OCVJGOCVKECN KPFWEVKQP QP φ
 YJKEJ KU VQ UC[ VJG
Z Z

HQNNQYKPI

 φ
  ∀[
φ
[ → φ
[  → ∀Z
00
Z → φ
Z

HTQO VJG FGHKPKVKQP

 CPF VJG TGNGXCPV KPUVCPEG QH EQORTGJGPUKQP
 +P VJG RTGFKECVKXG
U[UVGO YG PGGF VQ RWV QP UWRGTUETKRVU +H YG WUG C FGHKPKVKQP QH PCVWTCN PWODGT NKMG

DWV DGIKPPKPI ∀  UC[ VJGP YG YKNN IGV OCVJGOCVKECN KPFWEVKQP
 PQV HQT CTDKVTCT[
:

HQTOWNCU DWV QPN[ HQT HQTOWNCU φ PQV KPXQNXKPI DQWPF XCTKCDNGU    W
: ; <

DGECWUG KV KU QPN[ HQT UWEJ HQTOWNCU VJCV VJG TGNGXCPV KPUVCPEGU QH EQORTGJGPUKQP NKMG

C CPF
D DWV DGIKPPKPI ∃  CTG CUUWOGF #PF WPHQTVWPCVGN[ CP[ HQTOWNC KPXQNXKPI
:

VJG PQVKQP QH PCVWTCN PWODGT YKNN KPXQNXG C HQTDKFFGP MKPF QH SWCPVKHKECVKQP CPF
OCVJGOCVKECN KPFWEVKQP YKNN DG KPCRRNKECDNG VQ KV M C XGT[ UGTKQWU FGHKEKGPE[ KP VJG
VJGQT[
6Q TGOGF[ VJKU FGHKEKGPE[ 4WUUGNN OCMGU C PGY CUUWORVKQP VJG CZKQO QH

TGFWEKDKNKV[ M CEVWCNN[ KV KU C UEJGOG YKVJ QPG CZKQO HQT GCEJ UWRGTUETKRV M CEEQTFKPI
VQ YJKEJ CP[ EQPEGRV QH YJCVGXGT TQWPF KU EQGZVGPUKXG YKVJ QPG QH VJG HKTUV TQWPF 5KPEG
GXGT[ HQTOWNC FGVGTOKPGU C EQPEGRV QH UQOG TQWPF QT QVJGT GXGT[ HQTOWNC KP HCEV
FGVGTOKPGU C EQPEGRV QH VJG TQWPF CPF YG VJGTGHQTG JCXG VJG HQNNQYKPI
HKTUV

 ∃:∀Z
:Z ↔ φ
Z

6JG UWDFKXKUKQP QH NGXGNU KPVQ V[RGU QT QTQWPFUR KU KP GHHGEV WPFQPG

4COUG[ VJGTGHQTG RTQRQUGF UKORN[ FTQRRKPI VJG RTGFKECVKXKV[ TGUVTKEVKQPU CPF
CUUWOKPI WPTGUVTKEVGF KORTGFKECVKXG EQORTGJGPUKQP HTQO VJG DGIKPPKPI 4WUUGNN JCF
VJQWIJV VJCV JKU KPFKTGEV RTQEGFWTG QH KORQUKPI RTGFKECVKXKV[ TGUVTKEVKQPU CPF VJGP
WPFQKPI VJGO D[ CUUWOKPI TGFWEKDKNKV[ YCU UQOGJQY PGGFGF VQ DNQEM VJG UGOCPVKE
RCTCFQZGU NKMG )TGNNKPIOU JGVGTQNQIKECN RCTCFQZ $WV 4COUG[ QDUGTXGF VJCV VJGUG
RCTCFQZGU FGRGPF QP DGKPI CDNG VQ GZRTGUU UGOCPVKECN PQVKQPU CPF VJCV 4WUUGNNOU
HQTOCNKUO RTQXKFGU PQ OGCPU QH FQKPI UQ
6JG CXCKNCDKNKV[ QH VJG 9GKPGT-WTCVQYUMK FGHKPKVKQP QH QTFGTGF RCKT RGTOKVVGF
CPQVJGT UKORNKHKECVKQP QH VJG U[UVGO PCOGN[ FTQRRKPI CNN TGNCVKQPCN EQPEGRVU 6JWU QPG
JCU KP VJG GPF C UKORNG JKGTCTEJ[ QH QPGRNCEG EQPEGRVU M WUWCNN[ ECNNGF QENCUUGUR M QH
NGXGNU QPG VYQ VJTGG CPF UQ QP KP YJCV KU IGPGTCNN[ WPFGTUVQQF D[ QVJG VJGQT[ QH V[RGUR
VQFC[
 (KPCNN[ VJGTG KU VJG OCVVGT QH KPHKPKV[ 5WRRQUG HQT C OQOGPV VJCV YG CFF VQ
4WUUGNNOU QTKIKPCN U[UVGO (TGIGOU CUUWORVKQP QH VJG GZKUVGPEG QH GZVGPUKQPU +V YKNN DG
KPUVTWEVKXG VQ EQPUKFGT JQY VJG RTGFKECVKXKV[ TGUVTKEVKQPU UCXG WU HTQO RCTCFQZ 9G FQ
KPFGGF JCXG VJG HQNNQYKPI KPUVCPEG QH EQORTGJGPUKQP

 ∃:∀Z
:Z ↔ ∃;
Z  U;
  `  
; Z

+H YG NGV  DG UWEJ CP  CU KP
 VJGP YJCV YG ECP EQPENWFG HTQO
 KU VJCV  ECPPQV
# : #

DG EQGZVGPUKXG YKVJ CP[ HKTUVTQWPF EQPEGRV (QT NGVVKPI  DG CP[ HKTUVTQWPF EQPEGRV CPF
#

C KVU GZVGPUKQP
 VGNNU WU VJCV HCNNU WPFGT  KH CPF QPN[ KH KV FQGU PQV HCNN WPFGT  $WV
C # #

VJKU EQPENWUKQP KU KP KVUGNH PQ EQPVTCFKEVKQP

6JKU EQPENWUKQP FQGU JQYGXGT EQPURKEWQWUN[ EQPVTCFKEV VJG CZKQO QH
TGFWEKDKNKV[ 9G JCXG VJGTGHQTG VQ EJQQUG DGVYGGP VJCV CZKQO CPF VJG CZKQO QH VJG
GZKUVGPEG QH GZVGPUKQPU 4WUUGNN OCFG JKU EJQKEG HQT VJG HQTOGT 9JCV YKNN DG GZRNQTGF KP
VJG PGZV EJCRVGT KU YJCV JCRRGPU KH QPG EJQQUGU VJG NCVVGT 6JG CPUYGT VJCV YKNN GXGPVWCNN[
GOGTIG KU VJCV QYKPI VQ RTQDNGOU QXGT OCVJGOCVKECN KPFWEVKQP OGPVKQPGF GCTNKGT KP VJKU
UGEVKQP QPG IGVU QPN[ C HTCIOGPV QH CTKVJOGVKE $WV CU C OCVVGT QH HCEV YKVJ 4WUUGNNOU
EJQKEG QPG IGVU PQ CTKVJOGVKE CV CNN YKVJQWV C UGEQPF GZVTC CUUWORVKQP DG[QPF
TGFWEKDKNKV[
6Q DGIKP YKVJ VJGTG ECP DG PQ SWGUVKQP QH QDVCKPKPI PWODGTU CU QDLGEVU M QT
KPFKXKFWCNU  CU 4WUUGNN ECNNU VJG GPVKVKGU CV VJG DQVVQO QH VJG JKGTCTEJ[ QH NGXGNU M CPF HQT
4WUUGNN C PWODGT YKNN JCXG VQ DG PQV CU YKVJ (TGIG VJG GZVGPUKQP QH C UGEQPFNGXGN
EQPEGRV DWV UKORN[ VJG UGEQPFNGXGN EQPEGRV KVUGNH 6JG PWODGT VYQ KU VJG UGEQPFNGXGN
EQPEGRV QH DGKPI C HKTUVNGXGN EQPEGRV WPFGT YJKEJ VJGTG HCNNU CP QDLGEV CPQVJGT FKUVKPEV
QDLGEV DWV PQ HWTVJGT QDLGEV FKUVKPEV HTQO DQVJ QH VJGUG
6JKU KU YJ[ CU OGPVKQPGF
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9KVJQWV VJG CUUWORVKQP QH GZVGPUKQPU VQ IKXG WU QNQIKECN QDLGEVUR KV YKNN DG
KORQUUKDNG VQ RTQXG VJG 2GCPQ RQUVWNCVGU HQT PWODGTU UQ EQPEGKXGF 6JG RTQDNGO KU PQV
QXGT KPFWEVKQP DWV QXGT VJG QVJGT 2GCPQ RQUVWNCVGU ,WUV YJKEJ QPG QH VJGO YKNN DG
WPRTQXCDNG FGRGPFU QP LWUV JQY VJG FGHKPKVKQP QH UWEEGUUQT KU HTCOGF DWV VJG[ EGTVCKPN[
ECPPQV DG RTQXGF DGECWUG VQIGVJGT VJG[ IWCTCPVGG VJG GZKUVGPEG QH KPHKPKVGN[ OCP[
CNN

PWODGTU CPF YKNN DG KORQUUKDNG VQ RTQXG (QT YKVJQWV QNQIKECN QDLGEVUR KV YKNN DG
VJCV

KORQUUKDNG HQT NQIKE VQ RTQXG VJG GZKUVGPEG QH KPHKPKVGN[ OCP[ M QT HQT VJCV OCVVGT QH CP[

M QDLGEVU CPF KH VJGTG CTG QPN[ QDLGEVU VJGTG YKNN DG CV OQUV P HKTUVNGXGN EQPEGRVU
P
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6Q IGV TQWPF VJKU RTQDNGO 4WUUGNN UKORN[ CUUWOGU CP VQ VJG
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GHHGEV VJCV VJGTG KPHKPKVGN[ OCP[ QDLGEVU # SWGUVKQP CTKUGU CU VQ LWUV JQY VJKU
CTG

CUUWORVKQP KU VQ DG HQTOWNCVGF YJKEJ KU VQ UC[ JQY KPHKPKV[ KU VQ DG FGHKPGF +H QPG JCU

VJG PCVWTCN PWODGTU QPG ECP FGHKPG VQ DG HKPKVG KH CPF QPN[ KH KU GSWKPWOGTQWU YKVJ
: :

VJG PCVWTCN PWODGTU NGUU VJCP UQOG PCVWTCN PWODGT  6JKU OC[ DG ECNNGF VJG QPCVWTCNR
P

FGHKPKVKQP 9KVJQWV RTGUWRRQUKPI VJG PCVWTCN PWODGTU VJGTG CTG QVJGT FGHKPKVKQPU VJCV ECP
DG IKXGP
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: :

YKVJ CP[ EQPVCKPGF KP DWV PQV EQGZVGPUKXG YKVJ

CP[ UWEJ VJCV GXGT[ QDLGEV HCNNKPI
; : ;

WPFGT HCNNU WPFGT  DWV PQV EQPXGTUGN[ 9G ECNN

; : YJGP VJKU EQPFKVKQP
: &GFGMKPFHKPKVG

KU OGV 0QVG VJCV KP C RTGFKECVKXG EQPVGZV VJGTG YQWNF DG PQ UWEJ VJKPI CU QVJGR EQPFKVKQP
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PQ HKTUVTQWPF
RTGFKECVKXG QPGVQQPG EQTTGURQPFGPEGW UGEQPFTQWPF &GFGMKPFHKPKVWFG
PQ
UGEQPFTQWPF RTGFKECVKXG QPGVQQPG EQTTGURQPFGPEGW CPF UQ QP
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VJQWIJ PQV CU KV JCRRGPU KP EQPPGEVKQP YKVJ VJG
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QTFGTU
VJG QDLGEVU HCNNKPI WPFGT KH HQT CNN QDLGEVU   HCNNKPI WPFGT YG JCXG VJG
: Z [ \ :

HQNNQYKPI
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6TCPUKVKXKV[ 4Z[  4[\ → 4Z\

6TKEJQVQO[ 4Z[ ∨ Z  [ ∨ 4[Z

)KXGP C PQPGORV[ EQPVCKPGF KP  CP NGCUV

TGURGEVKXGN[ ITGCVGUV QDLGEV HCNNKPI
; : 4 4

WPFGT YQWNF DG CP QDLGEV HCNNKPI WPFGT UWEJ VJCV HQT CP[ QVJGT QDLGEV HCNNKPI WPFGT
; Z ; [

; QPG JCU
TGURGEVKXGN[  KU C
4Z[ 4[Z 4
TGURGEVKXGN[
YGNNQTFGTKPI TGXGTUG

YGNNQTFGTKPI  QH KH KV KU C NKPGCT QTFGTKPI QH CPF HQT GXGT[ PQPGORV[ EQPVCKPGF KP

: : ;

: VJGTG GZKUVU CP NGCUV

TGURGEVKXGN[ ITGCVGUV GNGOGPV 9G OC[ ECNN
4 4 : 4WUUGNNHKPKVG

KH VJGTG KU CP VJCV KU DQVJ C YGNNQTFGTKPI CPF C TGXGTUG YGNNQTFGTKPI QH  6JKU PQVKQP

4 :

VQQ URNKVU WR KPVQ OCP[ PQVKQPU KP C RTGFKECVKXG EQPVGZV

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CZKQO QH EJQKEG

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VQ VJG NCVVGT ECP DG RTQXGF DWV PQV XKEG XGTUC 4WUUGNN KP HCEV UJQYGF VJCV C YGCM KPHKPKV[
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JKIJGT OCVJGOCVKEU
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EQPVTCFKEVKQP KP (TGIGOU U[UVGO KV YKNN DG UGGP VQ JCXG HGCVWTGU
VYQ GCEJQH YJKEJ
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Z Z Z

5GEQPF (TGIG KU XGT[ HTGG KP CUUWOKPI VJG GZKUVGPEG QH GZVGPUKQPU HQT EQPEGRVU CPF KP
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Z Z Z

VJGQTKGU HCNN KPVQ VYQ ECVGIQTKGU CEEQTFKPI CU VQ YJGVJGT VJG[ VT[ VQ DNQEM VJG RCTCFQZ CV
VJG HKTUV QT CV VJG UGEQPF UVGR
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Z

VJCV HQTOWNC KU LWUV CP CDDTGXKCVKQP QH `∃

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: Z : :Z

RTGFKECVKXG NCPIWCIG VJQWIJ EQORTGJGPUKQP KU PQV CUUWOGF HQT KV 0QY VJGTG KU PQ
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:
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OWUV : Z

4WUUGNN QH VJG XCTKCDNGU TCPIKPI QXGT UGPUGU VJGTG FQGU UGGO VQ DG C TGCUQP VQ FGOCPF
:

CP HQT GXGT[ φ
 6JKU VJG TCOKHKGF RTGFKECVKXG VJGQT[ UWRRNKGU +P VJCV VJGQT[ VJGTG KU
: Z

PQ NQPIGT C UKPING HQTOWNC `∃

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: Z : :Z

UWRGTUETKRV  VJCV FGVGTOKPGU CP YKVJ UWRGTUETKRV  C XGTUKQP YKVJ UWRGTUETKRV  VJCV

:

FGVGTOKPGU CP YKVJ UWRGTUETKRV  CPF UQ QP 6JGTG KU PQ HQTOWNC VJCV FQGU PQV
:

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#P CNVGTPCVKXG YQWNF DG VQ CNNQY HWNN KORTGFKECVKXG EQORTGJGPUKQP DWV DNQEM VJG

UVGR HTQO VJG 4WUUGNN EQPEGRV VQ VJG 4WUUGNN UGV D[ TGUVTKEVKPI VJG CUUWORVKQP VJCV VJGTG
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Z:

EJCTCEVGTK\KPI YJCV GZVGPUKQPU CTG NKMG YJGP VJG[ GZKUV PCOGN[

 ] Z: ] [; →
Z  [ ↔ : ≡ ;

$[ KVUGNH
 QPN[ KORNKGU VJCV GZVGPUKQPU CTG WPKSWG YJGP VJG[ GZKUV (TGIG IQV KPVQ
VTQWDNG D[ CUUWOKPI VJG CZKQO QH UGVEQORTGJGPUKQP ∃ ] CUUGTVKPI VJCV GZVGPUKQPU
Z Z:

CNYC[U FQ GZKUV 6JG QDXKQWU YC[ VQ TGUVTKEV VJKU WPCEEGRVCDNG CZKQO QH YQWNF DG VQ
TGRNCEG VJKU WPEQPFKVKQPCN GZKUVGPEG CZKQO D[ C EQPFKVKQPCN QT DKEQPFKVKQPCN XGTUKQP QH
QPG QH VJG HQNNQYKPI VYQ HQTOU

C σ(:) → ∃Z ] Z:
D ∃Z ] Z: ↔ σ(:)

*GTG σ
 YQWNF GZRTGUU C RTQXKUQ PQV OGV D[ VJG 4WUUGNN EQPEGRV VCMGP VQ DG UWHHKEKGPV
:

KP VJG EQPFKVKQPCN ECUG QT PGEGUUCT[ CPF UWHHKEKGPV

KP VJG DKEQPFKVKQPCN ECUG VQ OCMG KV
UCHG VQ CUUWOG VJG EQPEGRV JCU CP GZVGPUKQP
:

6JGTG KU CNUQ C NGUU QDXKQWU YC[ VQ VJKPM CDQWV TGUVTKEVKPI VJG CUUWORVKQP QH VJG
GZKUVGPEG QH GZVGPUKQPU (QT YG JCXG UGGP VJCV VJG CUUWORVKQP QH VJG GZKUVGPEG QH
GZVGPUKQPU KU GSWKXCNGPV VQ VJG CUUWORVKQP QH VJG GZKUVGPEG QH CDUVTCEVU HQT CNN
GSWKXCNGPEGU VJG ECUG QH EQGZVGPUKXGPGUU ≡ UWDUWOKPI VJG ECUG QH CP[ QVJGT GSWKXCNGPEG
'  #P CNVGTPCVKXG VQ CUUWOKPI UCHG GZVGPUKQPU YQWNF DG VQ CUUWOG PQ GZVGPUKQPU CV CNN
DWV QPN[ CDUVTCEVU HQT UQOG QVJGT GSWKXCNGPEG QT GSWKXCNGPEGU #EVWCNN[ VJKU
CDUVTCEVKQPKUV CRRTQCEJ OQTG QT NGUU UWDUWOGU VJG UCHGGZVGPUKQPU CRRTQCEJ CV NGCUV KP
VJG DKEQPFKVKQPCN XGTUKQP
D (QT EQTTGURQPFKPI VQ CP[ UCHGV[ EQPFKVKQP σ
 YG JCXG
:

CP GSWKXCNGPEG ≡σ QH UCHG EQGZVGPUKXGPGUU  FGHKPGF CU HQNNQYU

 : ≡σ ; ↔ : ≡ ; ∨
`σ
:  ` σ
;

6JKU ≡σ CITGGU YKVJ EQGZVGPUKXGPGUU HQT UCHG EQPEGRVU DWV NWORU CNN WPUCHG QPGU
VQIGVJGT #UUWOKPI CDUVTCEVU HQT ≡σ KU GSWKXCNGPV VQ CUUWOKPI
D RNWU VJG GZKUVGPEG QH
QPG CFFKVKQPCN PCOGCDNG QDLGEV ο FKUVKPEV HTQO CNN GZVGPUKQPU VJG CDUVTCEV QH YKVJ
:

TGURGEV VQ ≡σ COQWPVU VQ VJG GZVGPUKQP QH KH KU UCHG CPF VQ ο QVJGTYKUG

: :

4GEGPV PGQ(TGIGCPU JCXG EQPUKFGTGF DQVJ RTGFKECVKXG CRRTQCEJGU UKORNG CPF

TCOKHKGF CPF KORTGFKECVKXG CDUVTCEVKQPKUV CRRTQCEJGU KPENWFKPI UQOG VJCV FQ PQV CPF
UQOG VJCV FQ OQTG QT NGUU COQWPV VQ UCHG GZVGPUKQPU CRRTQCEJGU +P %JCRVGT  DGNQY +
YKNN FKUEWUU PGQ(TGIGCP RTGFKECVKXKUO CPF VJG YQTM QH 4KEJCTF *GEM # 2 *C\GP CPF
QVJGTU +P %JCRVGT  + YKNN VWTP HKTUV VQ VJG RCTVKEWNCT CDUVTCEVKQP VJGQTKGU QH %TKURKP
9TKIJV CPF JKU UEJQQN VJGP VJG IGPGTCN CDUVTCEVKQP VJGQT[ QH -KV (KPG CPF VQ
UCHGGZVGPUKQPU VJGQTKGU CU VJG[ JCXG DGGP RWTUWGF CNQPI EGTVCKP NKPGU D[ )GQTIG $QQNQU
CPF CU KV OKIJV DG RWTUWGF CNQPI QVJGT NKPGU +P VJG YQTM QH CNN VJG CWVJQTU PCOGF QPG
GPEQWPVGTU NKOKVU VQ JQY OWEJ QH ENCUUKECN OCVJGOCVKEU QPG ECP FGXGNQR
QT CV CP[ TCVG
VQ JQY OWEJ QPG ECP FGXGNQR YKVJQWV TGUQTV VQ CF JQE J[RQVJGUGU /[ OCKP IQCN YKNN DG
VQ OCMG ENGCT YJCV VJG NKOKVU GPEQWPVGTGF CTG QP GCEJ CRRTQCEJ
/CVJGOCVKECN6CTIGVUHQT0GQ(TGIGCPKUO

$WV HKTUV + OWUV UC[ UQOGVJKPI CDQWV VJG UECNG D[ YJKEJ QPG OGCUWTGU VJG UEQRG
CPF NKOKVU QH C IKXGP CRRTQCEJ 6JG FKUEWUUKQP QH VJKU UECNG YKNN VCMG VJG HQTO QH C UWTXG[
QH UVTQPIGT CPF UVTQPIGT VJGQTKGU QH CTKVJOGVKE CPCN[UKU CPF UGV VJGQT[ VJCV JCXG DGGP
FGXGNQRGF D[ OCVJGOCVKECN NQIKEKCPU KP VJG RGTKQF HTQO 4WUUGNN VQ VJG RTGUGPV $GHQTG
NCWPEJKPI KPVQ VJG UWTXG[ C YQTF PGGFU VQ DG UCKF CDQWV YJCV JKUVQTKECNN[ YCU VJG
UKVWCVKQP KP HQWPFCVKQPU QH OCVJGOCVKEU KP VJG RGTKQF DGVYGGP VJG RWDNKECVKQP QH
9JKVGJGCF CPF 4WUUGNN
 CPF VJG CRRGCTCPEG QH )ÑFGNOU KPEQORNGVGPGUU
VJGQTGOU
$TKGHN[ RWV VJG UKVWCVKQP YCU VJKU 6JGTG YGTG UGXGTCN RTQRQUCNU HQT EQFKH[KPI
ENCUUKECN OCVJGOCVKEU GKVJGT KP C U[UVGO QH CZKQOCVKE UGV VJGQT[ QT KP C U[UVGO NKMG
4WUUGNNOU $WV VJGTG YGTG CNUQ UGXGTCN RJKNQUQRJKECN RQKPVU QH XKGY HTQO YJKEJ VJGUG
U[UVGOU CPF YKVJ VJGO OWEJ QH ENCUUKECN OCVJGOCVKEU YGTG WPCEEGRVCDNG 5QOG QH VJGUG
TGUVTKEVKXG RJKNQUQRJKGU YGTG UVTKEVGT VJCP QVJGTU VJG UVTKEVGUV QH CNN DGKPI ECNNGF 
HKPKVKUO
DGECWUG KV VQVCNN[ TGRWFKCVGF VJG QCEVWCN KPHKPKVGR &CXKF *KNDGTV VJG NGCFKPI
OCVJGOCVKEKCP QH VJG RGTKQF RWV HQTYCTF C RTQITCO QH VT[KPI VQ RTQXKFG KPFKTGEV
LWUVKHKECVKQP HQT ENCUUKECN OCVJGOCVKEU HTQO C HKPKVKUV UVCPFRQKPV +V YCU C ENGXGT RTQITCO
CPF VJQWIJ FQQOGF VQ HCKNWTG KV YKNN DG YQTVJ TGXKGYKPI
1PG YC[ KP YJKEJ C VJGQT[ PQV FKTGEVN[ LWUVKHKCDNG HTQO C IKXGP RQKPV QH XKGY OC[
DG KPFKTGEVN[ LWUVKHKGF KU D[ QH VJG IKXGP VJGQT[ KP CPQVJGT VJCV FKTGEVN[
KPVGTRTGVCVKQP KU

LWUVKHKCDNG *GTG YJCV QPG OGCPU D[ CP QH C VJGQT[  KP C NCPIWCIG  KP C

KPVGTRTGVCVKQP 6 .

VJGQT[  KP C NCPIWCIG  KU TQWIJN[ URGCMKPI C OCRRKPI QH VJG HQTOWNCU QH  KPVQ

6 . .

HQTOWNCU QH  YKVJ VYQ RTQRGTVKGU HKTUV VJCV GXGT[ CZKQO QH  KU OCRRGF VQ CP CZKQO QT
. 6

VJGQTGO QH  UGEQPF VJCV VJG OCRRKPI RTGUGTXGU NQIKECN UVTWEVWTG 6QIGVJGT VJGUG
6

RTQRGTVKGU KORN[ YJCV YG TGCNN[ YCPV PCOGN[ VJCV GXGT[ FGFWEKDNG HTQO VJG
VJGQTGO

CZKQOU QH  KU OCRRGF VQ C VJGQTGO FGFWEKDNG HTQO VJG CZKQOU QH  (QT CZKQOU IQ VQ

6 6

CZKQOU CPF RTGUGTXCVKQP QH NQIKECN UVTWEVWTG KORNKGU RTGUGTXCVKQP QH NQIKECN FGFWEKDKNKV[

6JG QTQWIJ URGCMKPIR KP VJG HQTGIQKPI EJCTCEVGTK\CVKQP NKGU KP O[ JCXKPI PQV JCXKPI
IKXGP C RTGEKUG EJCTCEVGTK\CVKQP QH LWUV YJCV QRTGUGTXKPI UVTWEVWTGR TGSWKTGU
2JKNQUQRJKECNN[ KPVGTRTGVCVKQP KU C YC[ QH NGIKVKOK\KPI C VJGQT[ VJCV KU PQV
NGIKVKOCVG YJGP VCMGP NKVGTCNN[ +H  KU NGIKVKOCVG HTQO C EGTVCKP RJKNQUQRJKECN RQKPV QH
6

XKGY CPF  KU KPVGTRTGVCDNG KP  VJGP FGFWEKPI C TGUWNV KP  CPF VTCPUNCVKPI KV HTQO VJG
6 6 6

NCPIWCIG  VQ VJG NCPIWCIG  OC[ DG TGICTFGF CU C NGIKVKOCVG YC[ QH FGFWEKPI C

. .

EQPUGSWGPEG QH  RGTJCRU KP C OQTG GHHKEKGPV QT OQTG RGTURKEWQWU YC[ VJCP VJG[ EQWNF
6

DG FGFWEGF YQTMKPI YKVJ  FKTGEVN[ 6JWU VJTQWIJ KPVGTRTGVCVKQP  OC[ DG NGIKVKOK\GF

6 6

KPFKTGEVN[ YJGP VCMGP CU C HCÁQP FG RCTNGT  GXGP KH KV ECPPQV DG NGIKVKOK\GF FKTGEVN[ YJGP
VCMGP NKVGTCNN[
#P[ CDDTGXKCVGF PQVCVKQP RTQXKFGU C VTKXKCN GZCORNG QH KPVGTRTGVCVKQP + JCXG UCKF
VJCV XCTKQWU PQVCVKQPU DGIKPPKPI YKVJ l CTG QWPQHHKEKCN CDDTGXKCVKQPUR KPVTQFWEGF D[
EGTVCKP FGHKPKVKQPU KP VJKU ECUG VJG FGHKPKVKQP QH l CU `
  +P VJKU ECUG VJG
Z [ Z [

NCPIWCIG CPF VJGQT[ + CO KP RTCEVKEG WUKPI JCU KP KV VJG PQVCVKQP l CPF VJG CUUWORVKQP QH
VJG GSWKXCNGPEG QH l YKVJ `
  VJG NCPIWCIG + KP RTKPEKRNG TGICTF CU VJG QHHKEKCN
Z [ Z [

QPG FQGU PQV $WV VJG WPQHHKEKCN NCPIWCIG KU KPVGTRTGVCDNG KP VJG QHHKEKCN NCPIWCIG D[ IQKPI
VJTQWIJ CPF TGRNCEKPI GXGT[ QEEWTTGPEG QH l D[ `
  *GTG WPRCEMKPI VJG
Z [ Z [

FGHKPKVKQP EQWPVU CU CP KPVGTRTGVCVKQP QH VJG QPG VJGQT[ KP VJG QVJGT

# NGUU VTKXKCN GZCORNG KU RTQXKFGF D[ 4WUUGNNOU VTGCVOGPV QH GZVGPUKQPCNKV[ *G
IKXGU CP KPVGTRTGVCVKQP QH YJCV JG EQPUKFGTU VJG VJGQT[ QH QENCUUGUR QT V[RG VJGQT[ YKVJ

GZVGPUKQPCNKV[ KP JKU VJGQT[ QH QRTQRQUKVKQPCN HWPEVKQPUR QT V[RG VJGQT[ YKVJQWV

GZVGPUKQPCNKV[ +P VJKU ECUG VJG KPVGTRTGVCVKQP EQPUKUVU KP CRRTQRTKCVGN[ TGNCVKXK\KPI

SWCPVKHKGTU CU YG JCXG UGGP 6[RKECNN[ KPVGTRTGVCVKQPU KPXQNXG DQVJ FGXKEGU OGPVKQPGF UQ
HCT HKPFKPI FGHKPKVKQPU D[ YJKEJ VJG PQVKQPU QH VJG VJGQT[ DGKPI KPVGTRTGVGF EQWNF DG
KPVTQFWEGF CU CDDTGXKCVKQPU KPVQ VJG VJGQT[ KP YJKEJ KV KU DGKPI KPVGTRTGVGF CPF CNUQ
TGNCVKXK\KPI SWCPVKHKGTU
6JGTG KU CNUQ CPQVJGT MKPF QH KPFKTGEV LWUVKHKECVKQP DGUKFGU KPVGTRTGVCVKQP VJCV YCU
QH URGEKCN KORQTVCPEG VQ *KNDGTV 5WRRQUG YG JCXG C NCPIWCIG  C VJGQT[  KP VJCV
. 6

NCPIWCIG C NCPIWCIG  GZVGPFKPI  CPF C VJGQT[  KP VJCV NCPIWCIG GZVGPFKPI  +H Γ

. . 6 6

KU UQOG ENCUU QH HQTOWNCU QH  VJGP  KU ECNNGF

. 6 YKVJ TGURGEV VQ Γ QXGT 
EQPUGTXCVKXG 6

YJGP GXGT[ HQTOWNC QH ENCUU Γ VJCV KU C VJGQTGO QH  KU CNTGCF[ C VJGQTGO QH 

6 6

2JKNQUQRJKECNN[ EQPUGTXCVKXGPGUU KU C TGNCVKQPUJKR VJCV OC[ KPFKTGEVN[ NGIKVKOK\G C

VJGQT[ +H  KU NGIKVKOCVG HTQO C EGTVCKP RJKNQUQRJKECN RQKPV QH XKGY CPF  KU
6 6

EQPUGTXCVKXG YKVJ TGURGEV VQ Γ QXGT  VJGP FGFWEKPI C TGUWNV QH ENCUU Γ KP  OC[ DG

6 6

TGICTFGF CU C NGIKVKOCVG YC[ QH FGFWEKPI C EQPUGSWGPEG QH  RGTJCRU KP C OQTG GHHKEKGPV

6

QT OQTG RGTURKEWQWU YC[ VJCP VJG[ EQWNF DG FGFWEGF YQTMKPI YKVJ  FKTGEVN[ 6JWU 6

VJTQWIJ KPVGTRTGVCVKQP  OC[ DG NGIKVKOK\GF KPFKTGEVN[ YJGP VCMGP CU CP KPUVTWOGPV QH

6

FKUEQXGT[ GXGP KH KV ECPPQV DG NGIKVKOK\GF FKTGEVN[

*QY VJG KPUVTWOGPV KU YKNN
KORQTVCPV

FGRGPF QP JQY DTQCF VJG ENCUU Γ KU CPF JQY OWEJ UJQTVGT QT GCUKGT KPFKTGEV FGFWEVKQPU
CTG VJCP FKTGEV QPGU
6Q IKXG CV NGCUV QPG GZCORNG VQ KNNWUVTCVG VJG PQVKQP UWRRQUG YG JCXG C VJGQT[ 6

KP YJKEJ YG ECP RTQXG ∃ φ

 6JGP VJG VJGQT[ QDVCKPGF D[ CFFKPI C EQPUVCPV YKVJ
Z Z 6 E

VJG CZKQO φ
 KU C EQPUGTXCVKXG GZVGPUKQP (QT CP[ EQPENWUKQP ψ PQV OGPVKQPKPI VJCV KU
E E

FGFWEKDNG KP WUKPI VJG CZKQO φ

 YKNN DG M D[ QPG QH VJG WUWCN NCYU QH HKTUVQTFGT
6 E

NQIKE M FGFWEKDNG KP WUKPI QPN[ VJG VJGQTGO ∃ φ

 6JKU KU C TCVJGT VTKXKCN ECUG DWV
6 Z Z

GXGP KP VJKU ECUG OC[ PQV DG FKTGEVN[ KPVGTRTGVCDNG KP 

+V KU D[ YJCV JCU CNTGCF[ DGGP
6 6

UCKF KH RTQXGU PQV QPN[ ∃ φ

 DWV ∃ φ
 DWV VJKU PGGF PQV DG VJG UQ
6 Z Z Z Z

.GV WU CDDTGXKCVGQKPVGTRTGVCDNG KP C EQPUGTXCVKXG GZVGPUKQP QH

YKVJ TGURGEV VQ
UQOG UKIPKHKECPV ENCUU Γ QH HQTOWNCUR VQ QTGFWEKDNG VQR 6JGP KP IGPGTCN C VJGQT[

TGFWEKDNG VQ C VJGQT[ VJCV KU FKTGEVN[ CEEGRVCDNG HTQO C IKXGP RJKNQUQRJKECN UVCPFRQKPV

UJQWNF DG KPFKTGEVN[ CEEGRVCDNG HQT C EGTVCKP MKPF QH KPUVTWOGPVCN WUG VJCV JCU DGGP

TQWIJN[ FGUETKDGF HTQO VJCV UVCPFRQKPV 1T OQTG RTGEKUGN[ VJKU YKNN DG UQ RTQXKFGF VJG

HCEV QH TGFWEKDKNKV[ ECP KVUGNH DG GUVCDNKUJGF D[ CEEGRVCDNG OGCPU YJKEJ KU VQ UC[ D[

OGCPU VJCV CTG CEEGRVCDNG HTQO VJG UVCPFRQKPV QH VJG RJKNQUQRJKECN XKGY KP SWGUVKQP

O
*KNDGTV U KFGC HQT FGHWUKPI HKPKVKUV ETKVKEKUO QH ENCUUKECN OCVJGOCVKEU YCU VQ NQQM HQT C

RTQQH D[ HKPKVKUV OGCPU VJCV ENCUUKECN OCVJGOCVKEU KU TGFWEKDNG VQ HKPKVKUV OCVJGOCVKEU

1YKPI VQ EGTVCKP URGEKCN HGCVWTGU QH VJG UKVWCVKQP VJG FGVCKNU QH YJKEJ PGGF PQV EQPEGTP WU

JGTG RTQXKPI CNN VJKU VWTPU QWV VQ TGSWKTG QPN[ RTQXKPI D[ HKPKVKUV OGCPU VJCV UQOG HQTOCN
U[UVGO EQFKH[KPI ENCUUKECN OCVJGOCVKEU KU EQPUKUVGPV
 *KNDGTVOU RTQITCO YCU VQ NQQM HQT

C HKPKVKUV RTQQH QH VJG EQPUKUVGPE[ QH ENCUUKECN OCVJGOCVKEU KP VJKU UGPUG

)ÑFGN FGTCKNGF VJG RTQITCO D[ UJQYKPI VJCV IKXGP C VJGQT[ 6  RWV HQTYCTF CU C

HQTOCNK\CVKQP QH ENCUUKECN OCVJGOCVKEU KV ECPPQV DG RTQXGF D[ OGCPU HQTOCNK\CDNG KP 6 

NGV CNQPG CP[ YGCMGT VJGQT[ 6  VJCV 6  KU EQPUKUVGPV
WPNGUU 6  KU KPEQPUKUVGPV KP YJKEJ

ECUG CP[VJKPI ECP DG RTQXGF D[ OGCPU HQTOCNK\CDNG KP 6  6JKU KU PQV VQ FGP[ VJCV QPG

ECP KP OCP[ KPUVCPEGU UJQY D[ HKPKVKUV QT GXGP UVKNN OQTG TGUVTKEVGF OGCPU VJCV CP

QUVGPUKDN[ UVTQPIGT VJGQT[ KP CP QUVGPUKDN[ TKEJGT NCPIWCIG KU CEVWCNN[ TGFWEKDNG VQ CP

QUVGPUKDN[ YGCMGT KP CP QUVGPUKDN[ RQQTGT NCPIWCIG HQT KP HCEV OCP[ UWEJ TGFWEKDKNKV[

TGUWNVU FQ JQNF $WV KV KU VQ FGP[ VJCV VJG ICR DGVYGGP VJG VJGQT[ VQ DG TGFWEGF CPF VJG

VJGQT[ VQ YJKEJ KV KU TGFWEGF ECP GXGT DG CU YKFG CU VJCV DGVYGGP HKPKVKUV CPF ENCUUKECN

OCVJGOCVKEU

9JGP TGFWEKDKNKV[ KU RTQXCDNG QPG QDVCKPU YKVJ KV C RTQQH QH TGNCVKXG EQPUKUVGPE[

YJKEJ KU VQ UC[ C RTQQH VJCV KH 6  KU EQPUKUVGPV VJGP 6  KU EQPUKUVGPV 4CVJGT UWTRTKUKPIN[

*CTXG[ (TKGFOCP JCU UJQYP VJCV WPFGT OKNF J[RQVJGUGU VJG EQPXGTUG KU VTWG YJKEJ KU VQ

UC[ VJCV KH QPG JCU TGNCVKXG EQPUKUVGPE[ VJGP KP SWKVG IGPGTCN EKTEWOUVCPEGU KV HQNNQYU VJCV

QPG JCU TGFWEKDKNKV[ CU YGNN

CPF KH VJG VJGQTKGU KPXQNXGF CTG DQVJ HKPKVGN[ CZKQOCVK\CDNG

QWVTKIJV KPVGTRTGVCDKNKV[

4GNCVKXG VQ C IKXGP OGVCVJGQT[ M VJG YGCM VJGQT[ KP YJKEJ YG CTG RTQXKPI QWT
KPVGTRTGVCDKNKV[ CPF EQPUGTXCVKXGPGUU CPF TGNCVGF TGUWNVU CDQWV YJKEJ VJGTG KU PQ PGGF VQ

DG VQQ URGEKHKE JGTG M YG UC[ 6  KU QH PQ ITGCVGT EQPUKUVGPE[ UVTGPIVJ VJCP 6  KH VJG

EQPUKUVGPE[ QH 6  TGNCVKXG VQ 6 ECP DG RTQXGF +P VJKU ECUG CEEQTFKPI CU VJG EQPUKUVGPE[

QH 6  TGNCVKXG VQ 6 ECP QT ECPPQV CNUQ DG RTQXGF YG UC[ 6  KU QH GSWCN EQPUKUVGPE[

UVTGPIVJ VQ QT QH UVTKEVN[ NGUU EQPUKUVGPE[ UVTGPIVJ VJCP 6  5KOKNCT FGHKPKVKQPU EQWNF DG

O
OCFG HQT TGFWEKDKNKV[ DWV D[ (TKGFOCP U TGUWNVU TGFWEKDKNKV[ UVTGPIVJ CPF EQPUKUVGPE[

UVTGPIVJ YQWNF EQKPEKFG KP CNOQUV CNN ECUGU

0QY KV KU C XGT[ UVTKMKPI HCEV VJCV VJQWIJ KP RTKPEKRNG QPG EQWNF JCXG RCKTU QH

VJGQTKGU 6  CPF 6 VJCV CTG QH KPEQORCTCDNG EQPUKUVGPE[ UVTGPIVJ PGKVJGT DGKPI RTQXCDN[

EQPUKUVGPV TGNCVKXG VQ VJG QVJGT CPF VJQWIJ QPG ECP KPFGGF EQPVTKXG CTVKHKEKCN GZCORNGU QH

KPEQORCTCDKNKV[ KP RTCEVKEG XKTVWCNN[ CNN VJGQTKGU VJCV KV KU PCVWTCN VQ EQPUKFGT CPF VJCV

YQTMGTU KP HQWPFCVKQPU JCXG CEVWCNN[ EQPUKFGTGF VWTP QWV VQ DG EQORCTCDNG 6JGTG KU C

HWPFCOGPVCN UGTKGU QH VJGQTKGU QH ITGCVGT CPF ITGCVGT EQPUKUVGPE[ UVTGPIVJ CPF XKTVWCNN[

GXGT[ VJGQT[ QH KPVGTGUV KP HQWPFCVKQPU QH OCVJGOCVKEU VWTPU QWV VQ DG QH GSWCN

EQPUKUVGPE[ UVTGPIVJ YKVJ QPG QT CPQVJGT VJGQT[ KP VJKU UGTKGU

9JCV ECP DG FQPG KP VJG YC[ QH RCTVKCN TGCNK\CVKQP QH *KNDGTV U RTQITCO KU VQ UJQY O
KP OCP[ ECUGU VJCV VYQ VJGQTKGU QPG QUVGPUKDN[ OWEJ UVTQPIGT RGTJCRU KP C NCPIWCIG
QUVGPUKDNG OWEJ TKEJGT VJCP VJG QVJGT CTG PQPG VJG NGUU DQVJ QH GSWCN EQPUKUVGPE[

UVTGPIVJ YKVJ VJG UCOG VJGQT[ KP VJG HWPFCOGPVCN UGTKGU CPF UQ YKVJ GCEJ QVJGT 6JG

HWPFCOGPVCN UGTKGU RTQXKFGU C UECNG D[ YJKEJ VJG FGITGG QH UWEEGUU QH C PGQ(TGIGCP QT

QVJGT HQWPFCVKQPCN RTQITCO OC[ DG OGCUWTGF +H VJG RTQITCO RTQFWEGU C VJGQT[ 6 VQ

YJKEJ VJGQTKGU HCKTN[ JKIJ WR QP VJG HWPFCOGPVCN UGTKGU ECP DG TGFWEGF VJGP KV KU

EQTTGURQPFKPIN[ HCKTN[ UWEEGUUHWN CV NGCUV D[ QPG KORQTVCPV OGCUWTG QH UWEEGUU

# UWTXG[ QH VJKU HWPFCOGPVCN UGTKGU QT UECNG HQNNQYU 6JG HKTUV RCTV QH VJG UWTXG[

EQPEGTPGF YKVJ U[UVGOU QH CTKVJOGVKE KU TGNGXCPV VQ VJG RTQLGEVU EQPUKFGTGF KP %JCRVGT 

6JG UGEQPF RCTV EQPEGTPGF YKVJ U[UVGOU QH CPCN[UKU CPF UGV VJGQT[ KU TGNGXCPV VQ VJG

RTQLGEVU EQPUKFGTGF KP %JCRVGT  CPF TGCFKPI QH KV VJGTGHQTG OC[ DG RQUVRQPGF WPVKN CHVGT

%JCRVGT  +P CP[ ECUG VJG TGCFGT OC[ FQ YGNN VQ UMKO VJG OCVGTKCN QP HKTUV TGCFKPI CPF

TGHGT DCEM VQ KV CU PGGFGF

6JG CWVJQTKVCVKXG EQORGPFKWO QH TGUWNVU CDQWV VJG NQYGT RQTVKQP QH VJG

HWPFCOGPVCN UGTKGU KU VJG YQTM QH *CLGM CPF 2WFNCM

 (QT VJG OKFFNG RQTVKQP VJG

CWVJQTKVCVKXG UQWTEG KU 5KORUQP

 (QT VJG WRRGT TGCEJGU VJGTG KU -CPCOQTK


# PQPVGEJPKECN M QT CV CP[ TCVG QPN[ UGOKVGEJPKECN M CEEQWPV KPVGPFGF HQT CP

CWFKGPEG QH RJKNQUQRJGTU QH VJG YJQNG QH VJG UGTKGU HTQO DQVVQO VQ VQR JCU DGGP IKXGP KP

C NGEVWTG UGTKGU D[ (TKGFOCP DWV WPHQTVWPCVGN[ JCU PQV [GV DGGP TGFWEGF VQ RWDNKUJGF

HQTO /[ QYP CEEQWPV KU NCTIGN[ FGRGPFGPV QP VJG VJTGG DQQMU EKVGF

VQ YJKEJ VJG TGCFGT

KU TGHGTTGF HQT OQTG FGVCKNGF GZRNCPCVKQPU CPF DKDNKQITCRJKECN EKVCVKQPU CPF GURGEKCNN[ QP

(TKGFOCP 6JG WUWCN FKUENCKOGT CRRNKGU PQPG QH VJG CWVJQTU OGPVKQPGF KU TGURQPUKDNG HQT

CP[ GTTQTU VJCV OC[ JCXG ETGRV KP + YKNN FKXKFG VJG VQWT QH VJG HWPFCOGPVCN UGTKGU KPVQ C

HKXG UVCIGU VJG DQVVQO QH VJG UECNG U[UVGOU QH CTKVJOGVKE U[UVGOU QH CPCN[UKU V[RG

VJGQTKGU XU UGV VJGQTKGU CPF NCTIG ECTFKPCNU

C 6JG $QVVQO QH VJG 5ECNG

.GV WU DGIKP VJGQTKGU QH CTKVJOGVKE HKTUVQTFGT VJGQTKGU YJQUG XCTKCDNGU Z [ \ W

CTG KPVGPFGF VQ TCPIG QXGT PCVWTCN PWODGTU 6JG PQPNQIKECN U[ODQNU RTGUGPV YKNN DG C

EQPUVCPV  HQT \GTQ C QPGRNCEG HWPEVKQP U[ODQN HQT UWEEGUUQT WUWCNN[ C VYQRNCEG

TGNCVKQP U[ODQN  HQT QTFGT M VJQWIJ KP VJG NKVGTCVWTG VJKU U[ODQN KU QHVGP QOKVVGF HTQO
VJG QHHKEKCN NCPIWCIG CPF VCMGP VQ DG CP WPQHHKEKCN CDDTGXKCVKQP M VYQRNCEG HWPEVKQP

U[ODQNU CPF ⋅ HQT CFFKVKQP CPF OWNVKRNKECVKQP CPF UQOGVKOGU DG CFFKVKQPCN UWEJ
U[ODQNU ↑ ⇑ W HQT GZRQPGPVKCVKQP UWRGTGZRQPGPVKCVKQP CPF UQ QP 6JGTG YKNN DG VJG
WUWCN NQIKECN QRGTCVQTU DWV YG CNUQ KPVTQFWEG CU CDDTGXKCVKQPU DQWPFGF SWCPVKHKGTU

YTKVKPI
 ∀[  Z
W HQT ∀[
[  Z → W
∃[  Z
W HQT ∃[
[  Z  W

#PF NGVVKPI [ m Z CDDTGXKCVG [  Z ∨ [  Z YG UKOKNCTN[ WUG ∀[ m Z CPF ∃[ m Z 6GTOU

DWKNV WR WUKPI HWPEVKQP U[ODQNU OC[ CNUQ CRRGCT CU DQWPFU # HQTOWNC φ KU ECNNGF
DQWPFGF QT ∆ QT Σ QT Π KH CNN SWCPVKHKGTU
KH CP[ KP φ CTG DQWPFGF
6JG YGCMGUV U[UVGO YG YKNN EQPUKFGT KU IGPGTCNN[ ECNNGF 4QDKPUQP CTKVJOGVKE QT

3 +V CZKQOU CTG CU HQNNQYU

3 ` Z 

3 Z  →Z[
[

3 [   ∨ ∃Z
[  Z 

3 Z  Z

3 Z [ 
Z [

3 Z ⋅Z

3 Z ⋅ [ 
Z ⋅ [ Z

(QT EGTVCKP RWTRQUGU KV KU WUGHWN EQPUKFGT C XCTKCPV VJGQT[ QUVGPUKDN[ UVTQPIGT DWV TGCNN[

GSWKXCNGPV VJCV CFFU QPG OQTG RTKOKVKXG VJG QTFGT U[ODQN  VQ VJG NCPIWCIG CFFU VYQ

OQTG CZKQOU VQ VJG VJGQT[ CPF TGRNCEGU

3 D[ CP QUVGPUKDN[ UVTQPIGT XGTUKQP

3 ` Z 

3 Z ↔Z [∨Z[
[

3 [   ∨ ∃Z
Z  [  [  Z 

.GV WU ECNN VJKU XCTKCPV 3

0QPG QH VJG WUWCN CUUQEKCVKXG EQOOWVCVKXG QT FKUVTKDWVKXG NCYU HQT CFFKVKQP CPF

OWNVKRNKECVKQP ECP DG RTQXGF KP 3

QT 3 PQT ECP GXGP VJG NCY Z l Z #U VQ VJKU NCUV

RQKPV C PCVWTCN OQFGN QH 3 KU RTQXKFGF

CU 5CWN -TKRMG RQKPVGF QWV VQ VJG CWVJQT D[ VJG

ECTFKPCN PWODGTU YKVJ Z FGHKPGF CU Z  (QT KPHKPKVG ECTFKPCNU YG VJGP JCXG Z  Z 9KVJ

GXGP VJG NCY Z l Z OKUUKPI XKTVWCNN[ PQ OCVJGOCVKEU ECP DG FQPG KP VJG U[UVGO 3 6JG

U[UVGO YCU KPFGGF KPVTQFWEGF D[ 4QDKPUQP PQV KP QTFGT VQ FQ OCVJGOCVKEU KP KV DWV

TCVJGT KP CP GHHQTV VQ FGVGTOKPG VJG UEQRG QH )ÑFGN U HKTUV KPEQORNGVGPGUU VJGQTGO O

9JCV KU RTQXGF KP VJG ENCUUKE OQPQITCRJ 6CTUMK /QUVQYUMK CPF 4QDKPUQP


KU VJCV VJG VJGQTGO KP SWGUVKQP CRRNKGU VQ CP[ VJGQT[ KP YJKEJ 3 ECP DG KPVGTRTGVGF C HCEV
PQY QHVGP HQWPF KPEQTRQTCVGF KP VGZVDQQM RTGUGPVCVKQPU QH VJG )ÑFGN VJGQTGOU # NCTIG

RCTV QH VJG VCUM KP VJG DQQM YCU VQ IKXG C FGHKPKVKQP QH KPVGTRTGVCVKQP VJCV KU CV QPEG VQVCNN[

TKIQTQWU CPF OCZKOCNN[ IGPGTCN /CZKOCN IGPGTCNKV[ PGGF PQV EQPEGTP WU JGTG DWV YG

YKNN DG PGGFKPI C NGUU TQWIJ KFGC VJCP JCU DGGP IKXGP UQ HCT QH LWUV YJCV JCU VQ DG FQPG VQ

UJQY 3 KU KPVGTRTGVCDNG KP C IKXGP VJGQT[ 6

(QT RTGUGPV RWTRQUGU YG OC[ VJKPM QH IKXKPI CP KPVGTRTGVCVKQP QH QPG VJGQT[ 6  KP

CPQVJGT VJGQT[ 6  KP VJG HQNNQYKPI YC[ (KTUV QH CNN YG YCPV VQ KPVGTRTGV VJG QDLGEVU QH 6 
CU DGKPI QT DGKPI TGRTGUGPVGF D[ EGTVCKP QH VJG QDLGEVU QH 6  PCOGN[ VJQUG HQT YJKEJ C

URGEKHKE HQTOWNC δ
Z JQNFU 5VCVGOGPVU QH 6 CDQWV QCNN ZR YKNN DG KPVGTRTGVGF KP 6 CU
UVCVGOGPVU CDQWV QCNN Z UWEJ VJCV δ
ZR
5GEQPF GCEJ TGNCVKQPU[ODQN 2 KP VJG NCPIWCIG QH 6  OWUV DG IKXGP C FGHKPKVKQP KP
6  (QT KPUVCPEG KH 2 JCU VYQ RNCEGU YG VCMG UQOG URGEKHKE HQTOWNC YKVJ VYQ HTGG

XCTKCDNGU K
Z [ CPF KPVTQFWEG 2Z[ CU CP CDDTGXKCVKQP HQT KV CPF UKOKNCTN[ HQT

TGNCVKQPU[ODQNU QH CP[ PWODGT QH RNCEGU #PF VJG FGHKPKVKQPU CTG UWRRQUGF VQ DG UWEJ CU

VQ OCMG VJG KPVGTRTGVCVKQP QH CP[ CZKQO QH 6  EQOG QWV C VJGQTGO QH 6  (QT KPUVCPEG KH KV

KU CP CZKQO QH 6  VJCV ∀Z∃[2Z[ VJGP VJG HQNNQYKPI OWUV DG C VJGQTGO QH 6 

∀Z
δ
Z → ∃[
δ
[  K
Z [

6JKTF KH VJGTG CTG HWPEVKQP U[ODQNU VJGUG CNUQ JCXG VQ DG FGHKPGF CPF KP UWEJ C

YC[ VJCV VJG KPVGTRTGVCVKQP QH CP[ CZKQO QH  EQOGU QWV C VJGQTGO

6 QH 6  9G JCXG UGGP

JQY C \GTQRNCEG HWPEVKQP U[ODQN QT EQPUVCPV E ECP DG KPVTQFWEGF CU CP CDDTGXKCVKQP 9G

VCMG UQOG URGEKHKE HQTOWNC γ

Z HQT YJKEJ ∃Zγ
Z ECP DG RTQXGF CPF IKXG VJCV Z VJG PCOG
E 5KOKNCTN[ HQT C QPGRNCEG HWPEVKQP U[ODQN H YG VCMG UQOG URGEKHKE HQTOWNC φ
Z [ HQT
YJKEJ ∀Z∃[φ
Z [ ECP DG RTQXGF CPF IKXG VJCV [ VJG PCOG H
Z $WV UQOG ECWVKQP KU
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KP 6  E UJQWNF DG COQPI VJG QDLGEVU VJQUG QDLGEVU VJCV CTG TGRTGUGPVKPI QDLGEVU QH 6  QT

KP QVJGT YQTFU VJQUG QDLGEVU HQT YJKEJ δ

Z JQNFU +P QVJGT YQTFU YG PGGF KV VQ DG VJG
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E JQNFU 5KOKNCTN[ YG PGGF KV VQ DG VJG ECUG VJCV ∀Z
δ
Z → δ
H
Z JQNFU #U

KU UCKF VJG QDLGEVU HQT YJKEJ δ

Z JQNFU OWUV DG ENQUGF WPFGT H # UKOKNCT ENQUWTG
EQPFKVKQP OWUV JQNF HQT CNN HWPEVKQPU[ODQNU QH CNN PWODGTU QH RNCEGU

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% δ


%  δ
Z → δ
Z 

% δ
Z  [  Z → δ
[

%  δ
Z  δ
[ → δ
Z [

%⋅ δ
Z  δ
[ → δ
Z ⋅ [

4 δ
Z →  l Z

4 δ
Z  δ
[ →
Z  [ → Z  [

4 δ
Z → ` Z  

4 δ
Z  δ
[ →
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4 δ
Z →
Z   ∨ ∃[
[  Z  Z  [ 

4 δ
Z → Z   Z

4 δ
Z  δ
[ → Z [ 
Z [

4 δ
Z → Z ⋅   Z

4 δ
Z  δ
[ → Z ⋅ [ 
Z ⋅ [ Z

.GV WU ECNN C HQTOWNC δ

Z KPFWEVKXG KH
% CPF
% JQNF QTFGTN[ KH CNUQ
% JQNFU
CFFKVKXG KH CNUQ
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%⋅ JQNFU 9KVJ VJKU LCTIQP YJCV

YG JCXG VQ FQ VQ KPVGTRTGV 3 CPF JGPEG 3 KP C VJGQT[ KU KPVTQFWEG VJG CTKVJOGVKECN

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Z UWEJ VJCV
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TGUWNVU KP VJG PGZV EJCRVGT

# UKOKNCT FGHKPKVKQP EQWNF DG OCFG HQT KPVGTRTGVCVKQP QH CP[ QVJGT CTKVJOGVKE

VJGQT[ +V VWTPU QWV VJCV OCP[ QUVGPUKDN[ UVTQPIGT CTKVJOGVKE VJGQTKGU VJCP 3 CTG

KPVGTRTGVCDNG KP 3 YKVJQWV CP[ PGGF VQ EJCPIG VJG FGHKPKVKQPU QH VJG CTKVJOGVKECN PQVKQPU

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HQTOWNC δ
Z 4QDGTV 5QNQXC[ KP WPRWDNKUJGF YQTM UJQYGF JQY VJG GZVGPUKQP QH 3
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KPVGTRTGVGF KP 3 0GNUQP
 CRRNKGF VJG UCOG OGVJQF VQ OCP[ HWTVJGT NCYU

O
6Q FGUETKDG OQTG RTGEKUGN[ VJG UEQRG QH 0GNUQP U YQTM UQOG FGHKPKVKQPU YKNN DG

TGSWKTGF 6Q DGIKP YKVJ VJG TGCUQP XCTKQWU NCYU ECPPQV DG FKTGEVN[ RTQXGF KP 3 KU VJCV

VJGKT RTQQHU TGSWKTG OCVJGOCVKECN KPFWEVKQP 6JG VJGQT[ 2# QT 2 QH HKTUVQTFGT 2GCPQ

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+
φ
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φ
Z → φ
Z  → ∀Zφ
Z
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RTQXGF KP 2 0GNUQP UJQYGF VJCV HQT CP[ HKPKVG PWODGT QH NCYU QH C EGTVCKP MKPF VJCV

EQWNF DG RTQXGF D[ OCVJGOCVKECN KPFWEVKQP HTQO VJG CZKQOU QH 3 YG ECP IGV CP

KPVGTRTGVCVKQP KP 3 QH 3 RNWU VJQUG NCYU 6JG MKPF QH NCYU KP SWGUVKQP CTG VJQUG HQT

YJKEJ VJG HQTOWNC φ

Z QP YJKEJ YG CTG FQKPI KPFWEVKQP KU PQV VQQ EQORNKECVGF
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%QPUKFGT JQY QPG OKIJV VT[ VQ FGFWEG VJG VTCPUKVKXKV[ QH VJG QTFGT TGNCVKQP  YJKEJ KU VQ

UC[ VJG HQNNQYKPI NCY

6 \  [  [  Z →\Z

6JG RTQQH YQWNF IQ D[ KPFWEVKQP QP Z #V VJG DCUG QT \GTQ UVGR

6 HQT Z   KU XCEWQWUN[

VTWG D[
3 #V VJG KPFWEVKQP QT UWEEGUUQT UVGR CUUWOKPI CU KPFWEVKQP J[RQVJGUKU
6

HQT Z YG ECP RTQXG

6 HQT Z CU HQNNQYU +H \  [ CPF [  Z  VJGP D[
3 VJGTG CTG QPN[

VYQ ECUGU 'KVJGT [  Z KP YJKEJ ECUG \  Z D[ VJG KPFWEVKQP J[RQVJGUKU QT GNUG [  Z CPF

\  Z FKTGEVN[ +P GKVJGT ECUG UKPEG \  Z YG JCXG \  Z HTQO

3 VQ EQORNGVG VJG RTQQH

*GTG VJG HQTOWNC QP YJKEJ QPG KU FQKPI KPFWEVKQP M VJG φ HQT YJKEJ QPG YQWNF PGGF VJG
KPFWEVKQP CZKQO
+ CDQXG M KU VJG SWCPVKHKGTHTGG HQTOWNC τ
Z [ \ FKURNC[GF KP
6 +V KU

KORQTVCPV VQ PQVG VJCV GXGP VJQWIJ KP VJG GPF QPG KU RTQXKPI C WPKXGTUCN IGPGTCNK\CVKQP

∀Z∀[∀\τ
Z [ \ QPG KU PQV FQKPI KPFWEVKQP QP ∀[∀\τ
Z [ \ 6JCV KU VQ UC[ KP UJQYKPI
HQT RCTVKEWNCT XCNWGU QH VJG RCTCOGVGTU [ CPF \ VJCV
6 JQNFU HQT Z KH KV JQNFU HQT Z QPG

FQGU PQV WUG VJG CUUWORVKQP VJCV

6 JQNFU HQT Z HQT CP[ QVJGT XCNWGU QH VJG RCTCOGVGTU [

CPF \ 6JG RTQQH QH

6 KU C RTQQH D[ SWCPVKHKGTHTGG KPFWEVKQP 9JCV 0GNUQP UJQYGF KU

VJCV CP[ NCYU α W  αP VJCV EQWNF DG RTQXGF D[ SWCPVKHKGTHTGG KPFWEVKQP VJG RTQQH HQT
αK RGTJCRU WUKPI αL HQT L  K 3 RNWU VJG αK ECP DG KPVGTRTGVGF KP 3 +P HCEV JG RWUJGF VJKU
HWTVJGT VQ CNNQY C OQTG IGPGTCN MKPF QH KPFWEVKQP PCOGN[ HQT DQWPFGF QT ∆ HQTOWNCU
6JG VJGQT[ EQPUKUVKPI QH 3 QT GSWKXCNGPVN[ 3 RNWU CNN ∆KPFWEVKQP CZKQOU KU
ECNNGF KP VJG NKVGTCVWTG +∆ QT +Σ  QT +Π D[ UQOG CPF 2(# HQT RQN[PQOKCN HWPEVKQPCN

CTKVJOGVKE D[ QVJGTU *GTG + YKNN ECNN KV 3 QT 0GNUQP9KNMKG CTKVJOGVKE

 0GNUQPOU TGUWNV

LWUV FGUETKDGF KU UQOGVKOGU ECNNGF VJG NQECN KPVGTRTGVCDKNKV[ QH VJKU VJGQT[ KP 3 #NGZ

9KNMKG RTQXGF VJG INQDCN KPVGTRTGVCDKNKV[ QH VJKU VJGQT[ KP 3 6JCV KU JG UJQYGF VJCV QPG

ECP IGV CP KPVGTRTGVCVKQP KP 3 KP VJG IGPGTCN UGPUG QH KPVGTRTGVCVKQP + JCXG FKUEWUUGF

CDQXG PCOGN[ QPG VJCV YKNN IKXG CNN KPUVCPEGU QH

+ HQT ∆ HQTOWNCU M CNN ∆KPFWEVKQP
CZKQOU M CV QPEG CPF JGPEG CNN NCYU RTQXCDNG D[ ∆KPFWEVKQP KP C UKPING KPVGTRTGVCVKQP
 6JG TGUWNVU + JCXG FGUETKDGF CDQWV KPVGTRTGVCDKNKV[ KP 3 UJQY VJCV 3 CPF 3 CTG CV

VJG UCOG NGXGN KP VJG UECNG QH VJGQTKGU CNNWFGF VQ GCTNKGT C NGXGN VJCV HQT QWT RWTRQUGU YKNN

DG VJG DQVVQO NGXGN #NTGCF[ CV VJKU NGXGN OWEJ OQTG ECP DG FQPG VJCP JCU DGGP FGUETKDGF

M 0GNUQP CPF 9KNMKG CNTGCF[ DQVJ IQV QVJGT NCYU DGUKFGU QPGU VJCV CTG VJGQTGOU QH 3
CPF OQTG JCU DGGP FQPG UKPEG M CPF C UKIPKHKECPV COQWPV PQV LWUV QH CTKVJOGVKE DWV QH

CNIGDTC CPF CPCN[UKU ECP DG FQPG 5Q GUVCDNKUJKPI VJCV 3 KU KPVGTRTGVCDNG KP C IKXGP VJGQT[

6 KU UJQYKPI VJCV C UKIPKHKECPV COQWPV QH OCVJGOCVKEU KU KPVGTRTGVCDNG KP 6 0QPGVJGNGUU

KV KU UVKNN C NQPI YC[ WR HTQO VJKU DQVVQO NGXGN GXGP VQ VJG NGXGN QH HKTUVQTFGT 2GCPQ

CTKVJOGVKE

D 5[UVGOU QH #TKVJOGVKE

/QTG ECP DG FQPG KH YG CFF OQTG QRGTCVKQPU HTQO VJG UGTKGU   ⋅ ↑ ⇑ W KP

YJKEJ GCEJ QRGTCVKQP KU QDVCKPGF D[ TGEWTUKQP HTQO VJG QPG DGHQTG
CFFKVKQP KU TGRGCVGF

VCMKPI QH UWEEGUUQTU OWNVKRNKECVKQP KU TGRGCVGF CFFKVKQP CPF UQ QP 9G IGV VJG U[UVGO +

YKNN ECNN 3 D[ CFFKPI ↑ YKVJ VJG TGEWTUKQP GSWCVKQPU HQT GZRQPGPVKCVKQP PCOGN[

3 Z ↑   

3 Z ↑ [ 
Z ↑ [ ⋅ Z

3 KU C XGTUKQP QH YJCV JCU DGGP ECNNGF -CNOCT CTKVJOGVKE PQYCFC[U WUWCNN[ ECNNGF

+∆
GZR QT UQOGVKOGU '(# HQT GZRQPGPVKCN HWPEVKQPCN CTKVJOGVKE 0QVG VJCV QP CFFKPI

VJG U[ODQN ↑ VQ VJG NCPIWCIG YG IGV PGY HQTOWNCU KPENWFKPI PGY DQWPFGF HQTOWNCU
CPF JGPEG PGY KPUVCPEGU QH ∆KPFWEVKQP 7UKPI VJGUG KPUVCPEGU VJG WUWCN NCYU QH

GZRQPGPVU ECP DG RTQXGF

#EVWCNN[ KPVTQFWEKPI VJG U[ODQN ↑ KU KP C UGPUG QRVKQPCN +P VJG NGOOCU NGCFKPI

O
WR VQ )ÑFGN U VJGQTGOU KP OQFGTP VGZVDQQM RTGUGPVCVKQPU KV KU UJQYP VJCV GXGP YKVJQWV

CFFKPI CP[ PGY U[ODQNU VJGTG KU CNTGCF[ C HQTOWNC θ↑

Z [ \ VJCV QTGRTGUGPVUR
GZRQPGPVKCVKQP KP 3 KP C UGPUG KORN[KPI VJCV KH C ↑ D  E VJGP 3 ECP RTQXG VJG HQNNQYKPI

∀[
θ↑
C D [ ↔ [  E

*GTG C CPF D CPF E CTG VJG HQTOCN PWOGTCNU HQT C CPF D CPF E
PCOGN[  KU   KU    KU
  CPF UQ QP 9JCV 3 ECPPQV RTQXG KU VJG HQNNQYKPI GZKUVGPEG CPF WPKSWGPGUU NGOOC HQT

GZRQPGPVKCVKQP

GZR ∀Z∀[∃!\ θ↑
Z [ \

'ZKUVGPEG ECWUGU OQTG VTQWDNG VJCP WPKSWGPGUU +V KU PQV UVTKEVN[ PGEGUUCT[ VQ CFF VJG

U[ODQN ↑ CPF KVU FGHKPKPI GSWCVKQPU

3 CPF
3 VQ VTGCV GZRQPGPVKCVKQP UKPEG KV VWTPU
QWV VJCV LWUV CFFKPI KPUVGCF
GZR CU C PGY CZKQO RTQFWEGU C U[UVGO KP YJKEJ 3 KU

KPVGTRTGVCDNG +PXGTUGN[ VJGTG KU VJG QRVKQP QH KPVTQFWEKPI OQTG U[ODQNU UWEJ CU  HQT VJG

HCEVQTKCN HWPEVKQP CNQPI YKVJ VJG CRRTQRTKCVG TGEWTUKQP GSWCVKQPU

   
  [   [ ⋅ [

(QT KV VWTPU QWV VJCV VJG CPCNQIWG QH

GZR HQT VJG HCEVQTKCN ECP DG RTQXGF KP 3 RGTOKVVKPI

 VQ DG FGHKPGF CU CP CDDTGXKCVKQP CPF VJG TGEWTUKQP GSWCVKQPU VQ DG FGFWEGF CU VJGQTGOU

6JG U[UVGO YKVJ VJG PGY U[ODQN CPF CZKQOU KU KPVGTRTGVCDNG KP VJG U[UVGO 3 YKVJQWV

#FFKPI UWRGTGZRQPGPVKCVKQP YKVJ VJG U[ODQN ⇑ CPF VJG TGEWTUKQP GSWCVKQPU HQT KV
RTQFWEGU 3 6JKU OKIJV DG ECNNGF )GPV\GP CTKVJOGVKE PQV DGECWUG VJG RTQQH VJGQTKUV

)GTJCTF )GPV\GP OCFG C URGEKCN UVWF[ QH KV DWV HQT CPQVJGT TGCUQP + UJQWNF RCWUG VQ

GZRNCKP #U KU IGPGTCNN[ KPFKECVGF KP VGZVDQQM VTGCVOGPVU C RTQQH QH )ÑFGN U UGEQPF O

KPEQORNGVGPGUU VJGQTGO KU QDVCKPGF D[ HQTOCNK\KPI VJG RTQQH QH VJG HKTUV KPEQORNGVGPGUU

O
VJGQTGO KP C VJGQT[ QH CTKVJOGVKE 0GNUQP U URGEKCN KPVGTGUV YCU KP HQTOCNK\KPI TGUWNVU

CDQWV RTQXCDKNKV[ KP U[UVGOU YGCM GPQWIJ VQ DG KPVGTRTGVCDNG KP 3 6JCV KU TCVJGT VTKEM[

YJGTGCU HQTOCNK\KPI VJG RTQQH QH VJG HKTUV KPEQORNGVGPGUU VJGQTGO KP 3 KU OGTGN[

VGFKQWU
.CU\NQ -CNOCT KPVTQFWEGF C U[UVGO NKMG 3 RTGEKUGN[ KP QTFGT VQ C JCXG YGCM

EQPVGZV KP YJKEJ VJG )ÑFGN RTQQH EQWNF DG HQTOCNK\GF /CP[ QVJGT RTQQHVJGQTGVKE

TGUWNVU DGUKFGU VJG )ÑFGN KPEQORNGVGPGUU VJGQTGO ECP DG HQTOCNK\GF KP 3 CU YGNN

O
*QYGXGT )GPV\GP U MG[ TGUWNV VJG EWVGNKOKPCVKQP VJGQTGO YJKEJ KU VJG EQTPGTUVQPG QH

JKIJGT RTQQH VJGQT[ VWTPU QWV VQ TGSWKTG 3 1VJGT PCOGU HQT 3 CTG +∆
UWRGTGZR QT

5'(# HQT UWRGTGZRQPGPVKCN HWPEVKQPCN CTKVJOGVKE #ICKP QPG JCU VJG QRVKQP QH QOKVVKPI

VJG U[ODQN ⇑ CPF KPXGTUGN[ VJG QRVKQP QH CFFKPI EGTVCKP QVJGT U[ODQNU HQT EGTVCKP QVJGT
TGEWTUKXG HWPEVKQPU

%QPVKPWKPI QP KP VJKU YC[ YG IGV 3 3 3 CPF UQ QP CPF VJGKT WPKQP 3ω

YJKEJ HQT TGCUQPU VJCV YKNN DGEQOG CRRCTGPV KP C OQOGPV + YKNN ECNN )T\GIQTE\[M

CTKVJOGVKE #ICKP QPG JCU VJG QRVKQP QH QOKVVKPI VJG U[ODQNU ↑ ⇑ W  QT KPXGTUGN[ QH
CFFKPI U[ODQNU HQT EGTVCKP QVJGT TGEWTUKXG HWPEVKQPU PCOGN[ VJQUG HQT YJKEJ VJG

CPCNQIWG QH
GZR ECP DG RTQXGF 6JGUG CTG D[ C TGUWNV GUUGPVKCNN[ FWG VQ #PFT\GL

)T\GIQTE\[M RTGEKUGN[ VJG RTKOKVKXG TGEWTUKXG HWPEVKQPU

 # FKHHGTGPV YC[ QH UVTGPIVJGPKPI 3 YQWNF DG PQV VQ CNNQY CFFKVKQPCN QRGTCVKQPU

DWV VQ CNNQY KPFWEVKQP HQT C NCTIGT ENCUU QH HQTOWNCU +V KU C NCY QH IGPGTCN NQIKE VJCV GXGT[

HQTOWNC KU GSWKXCNGPV VQ QPG EQPUKUVKPI QH UVTKPI QH SWCPVKHKGTU CV VJG DGIKPPKPI HQNNQYGF

D[ C SWCPVKHKGTHTGG HQTOWNC +P HQTOCN U[UVGOU QH CTKVJOGVKE C HQTVKQTK GXGT[ HQTOWNC KU

GSWKXCNGPV VQ QPG YKVJ C UVTKPI QH SWCPVKHKGTU CV VJG DGIKPPKPI HQNNQYGF D[ C DQWPFGF QT

∆ HQTOWNC +H KP UWEJ C HQTOWNC CNN VJG SWCPVKHKGTU CTG GZKUVGPVKCN

TGURGEVKXGN[ WPKXGTUCN
VJG HQTOWNC KU ECNNGF Σ
TGURGEVKXGN[ Π # UVTKPI QH GZKUVGPVKCN
TGURGEVKXGN[ WPKXGTUCN
SWCPVKHKGTU KP HTQPV QH C Π
TGURGEVKXGN[ Σ HQTOWNC RTQFWEGU C Σ
TGURGEVKXGN[ Π
HQTOWNC #PF UQ QP

+PUVGCF QH CNNQYKPI KPFWEVKQP QPN[ HQT ∆ HQTOWNCU QPG OC[ EQPUKFGT CNNQYKPI
KPFWEVKQP HQT Σ HQTOWNCU VJWU RTQFWEKPI 2CTUQPU CTKVJOGVKE CU + ECNN KV QT +Σ 7UKPI
ΣKPFWEVKQP KV KU RQUUKDNG VQ RTQXG VJG GZKUVGPEG CPF WPKSWGPGUU CUUWORVKQP HQT
GZRQPGPVKCVKQP CPF KPFGGF VJG CPCNQIQWU CUUWORVKQP HQT UWRGTGZRQPGPVKCVKQP

UWRGTFWRGTGZRQPGPVKCVKQP CPF UQ QP CPF OQTG IGPGTCNN[ HQT CNN RTKOKVKXG TGEWTUKXG

HWPEVKQPU 6JWU 3ω KU KPVGTRTGVCDNG KP +Σ $WV KPXGTUGN[ +Σ  KU TGFWEKDNG VQ 3ω CU YCU

RTQXGF D[ %JCTNGU 2CTUQPU +P RCTVKEWNCT QPG FQGU PQV IGV CP[ TGEWTUKXG HWPEVKQPU

DG[QPF VJG RTKOKVKXG TGEWTUKXG

0GZV +Σ  KU FGHKPGF KP VJG QDXKQWU YC[ +V OC[ DG ECNNGF #EMGTOCPP CTKVJOGVKE

CHVGT 9KNJGNO #EMGTOCPP YJQ RTQFWEGF C OGOQTCDNG GZCORNG QH C TGEWTUKXG HWPEVKQP

VJCV KU PQV RTKOKVKXG TGEWTUKXG +V JCU XCTKCPV RTGUGPVCVKQPU QPG QH YJKEJ CU HQNNQYU 9TKVG

=[? HQT VJG [VJ QRGTCVKQP KP VJG UGTKGU  ⋅ ↑ ⇑ W CPF EQPUKFGT VJG HWPEVKQP C
Z [ \ 
Z =[? \ 6JKU HWPEVKQP KU TGEWTUKXG DWV PQV RTKOKVKXG TGEWTUKXG +H QPG VTKGU VQ HQTOCNK\G VJG

RTQQH QH VJG GZKUVGPEG CPF WPKSWGPGUU CUUWORVKQP HQT VJKU #EMGTOCPP HWPEVKQP QPG HKPFU

QPGUGNH PGGFKPI VQ IQ DG[QPF ΣKPFWEVKQP 6JG RTQQH KU PCVWTCNN[ HQTOCNK\GF KP +Σ

6JG UGTKGU EQPVKPWGU KP VJG QDXKQWU YC[ YKVJ +Σ +Σ +Σ CPF UQ QP WPVKN M

GXGT[ HQTOWNC DGKPI NQIKECNN[ GSWKXCNGPV VQ C Σ PHQTOWNC HQT UQOG P M QPG IGVU VJG

GZVGPUKQP QH 3 YKVJ KPFWEVKQP

+ CNNQYGF HQT CNN HQTOWNCU QH VJG NCPIWCIG 6JKU TGUWNVKPI

VJGQT[ KU C XGTUKQP QH HKTUVQTFGT 2GCPQ CTKVJOGVKE 2# QT 2 CNTGCF[ OGPVKQPGF QWV QH

VWTP CDQXG YJKEJ WUWCNN[ RNC[U C RTQOKPGPV TQNG KP VGZVDQQM RTGUGPVCVKQPU QH VJG )ÑFGN

VJGQTGOU # ITGCV FGCN QH OCVJGOCVKEU ECP DG FQPG KP 2

+P RCTVKEWNCT VJQWIJ KV KU QUVGPUKDN[ CDQWV PCVWTCN PWODGTU QPN[ VJG VJGQT[ QH VJG

O
KPVGIGTU CPF TCVKQPCN PWODGTU ECP DG FGXGNQRGF KP 2 +P %CPVQT U VJGQT[ QH VTCPUHKPKVG

ECTFKPCNU VJG UOCNNGUV ℵ FGHKPGF CU VJG PWODGT QH PCVWTCN PWODGTU KU UJQYP VQ DG CNUQ
VJG PWODGT QH KPVGIGTU QH TCVKQPCN PWODGTU CPF QH HKPKVG UVTKPIU HTQO C HKPKVG CNRJCDGV QH

U[ODQNU COQPI QVJGT GZCORNGU +P GCEJ ECUG VJG RTQQH RTQEGGFU D[ GZRNKEKVN[ GZJKDKVKPI

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VJGQTGO QH <(% )%* ;GV D[ GCTNKGT TGUWNVU QH )ÑFGN <(% 8  . KU KPVGTRTGVCDNG KP

<( CPF OQTGQXGT KORNKGU )%* JGPEG %* CU YGNN CU #% 6JGUG TGUWNVU CNUQ CRRN[

OWVCVKU OWVCPFKU VQ VJG UWDVJGQTKGU QH < CPF <( EQPUKFGTGF KP VJG RTGEGFKPI RCTCITCRJ

G .CTIG %CTFKPCNU

6JG UKORNG RTGFKECVKXG UGEQPFQTFGT XGTUKQP QH <(% KU MPQYP CU 0$) QT XQP

0GWOCPP  $GTPC[U  )ÑFGN UGV VJGQT[ +V KU C EQPUGTXCVKXG GZVGPUKQP D[ 5JQGPHKGNF U O

VJGQTGO 6JG UGEQPFQTFGT VJGQT[ <(% KU IGPGTCNN[ MPQYP CU /- QT /QTUG -GNN[ UGV

VJGQT[ +P DQVJ VJG RTGFKECVKXG CPF HWNN UGEQPFQTFGT XGTUKQPU VJG UEJGOG QH UGRCTCVKQP KU

TGRNCEGF D[ C UKPING CZKQO VJWU

5GRCTCVKQP ∃Z∀[
[ ∈ Z ↔ [ ∈ W  7[

#PF UKOKNCTN[ HQT TGRNCEGOGPV /- KU UVTQPIGT VJCP <(% DWV QPN[ UNKIJVN[ UQ

/QTG UKIPKHKECPVN[ UVTQPIGT VJGQTKGU CTKUG YJGP QPG CFFU VQ <(% EGTVCKP JKIJGT

KPHKPKV[ QT NCTIG ECTFKPCN CZKQOU 6JGUG CUUGTV VJG GZKUVGPEG QH UQOG XGT[ NCTIG UGVU

VJGTGD[ KORN[KPI VJG GZKUVGPEG QH UQOG XGT[ NCTIG ECTFKPCN PWODGTU 6JG HQTOWNCVKQP QH

VJGUG ECPFKFCVG CZKQOU KU KP CNN ECUGU TCVJGT VGEJPKECN VJQWIJ KV KU NGCUV UQ KP VJG ECUG QH

UQOG QH VJG YGCMGT QPGU COQPI VJGO

# UGV / KU ECNNGF VTCPUKVKXG KH [ ∈ / YJGPGXGT Z ∈ / CPF [ ∈ Z # PCVWTCN

ECPFKFCVG OQFGN HQT <(% JCU C VTCPUKVKXG UGV / CU KVU FQOCKP CPF VJG CEVWCN GNGOGPVJQQF

TGNCVKQP ∈ COQPI GNGOGPVU QH / CU VJG FGPQVCVKQP CUUKIPGF VQ VJG GNGOGPVJQQF U[ODQN ∈

UQ VJCV C D ∈ / UCVKUH[ Z ∈ [ KH CPF QPN[ KH C ∈ D 6TCPUKVKXKV[ IWCTCPVGGU VJCV
GZVGPUKQPCNKV[ YKNN DG VTWG KP UWEJ C ECPFKFCVG OQFGN KH GNGOGPVU C CPF D QH / CTG

FKUVKPEV VJGTG KU UQOG E VJCV KU CP GNGOGPV QH QPG DWV PQV VJG QVJGT QH VJGO CPF VJKU E YKNN

D[ VTCPUKVKXKV[ KVUGNH DG CP GNGOGPV QH / CPF C CPF D CPF E YKNN UCVKUH[ `

\ ∈ Z ↔ \ ∈ [
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UQOG CFFKVKQPCN ENQUWTG EQPFKVKQPU

EQPVCKPU VJG PWNN UGV EQPVCKPU VJG WPQTFGTGF RCKT QH

CP[ UGVU KV EQPVCKPU CPF UQ QP

# UGV / KU ECNNGF UWRGTVTCPUKVKXG KH / KU VTCPUKVKXG CPF KH [ ∈ / YJGPGXGT Z ∈ /

CPF [ ⊆ Z # PCVWTCN ECPFKFCVG OQFGN HQT <(%
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FQOCKP QH KVU HKTUVQTFGT XCTKCDNGU CPF VJG RQYGT UGV ℘

/ CU VJG FQOCKP QH KVU
UGEQPFQTFGT XCTKCDNGU YKVJ C D ∈ / UCVKUH[KPI Z ∈ [ KH CPF QPN[ KH C ∈ D CPF C ∈ / CPF
# ⊆ / UCVKUH[KPI :Z KH CPF QPN[ KH C ∈ # 5WRGTVTCPUKVKXKV[ IWCTCPVGGU VJCV VJG UKPING
CZKQO XGTUKQP QH UGRCTCVKQP CDQXG YKNN DG VTWG KP UWEJ C ECPFKFCVG OQFGN

<(%
KH EQPUKUVGPV ECPPQV RTQXG VJCV CP[ PCVWTCN ECPFKFCVG OQFGN KU KPFGGF C

OQFGN QH <(% HQT VJCV YQWNF RTQXG VJCV <(% JCU C OQFGN CPF VJGTGHQTG YQWNF RTQXG

VJCV <(% EQPUKUVGPV CPF PQ EQPUKUVGPV VJGQT[ ECP RTQXG KVU QYP EQPUKUVGPE[ 5KOKNCTN[

YJKNG <(% ECP RTQXG VJCV VJGTG KU C PCVWTCN OQFGN QH <(% KV ECPPQV RTQXG VJCV CP[

PCVWTCN ECPFKFCVG OQFGN QH <(% KU KPFGGF C OQFGN QH <(% 6JG J[RQVJGUKU QH VJG

GZKUVGPEG QH CP KPCEEGUUKDNG ECTFKPCN KU GSWKXCNGPV VQ CPF HQT RTGUGPV RWTRQUGU OC[

UKORN[ DG VCMGP VQ DG VJG J[RQVJGUKU VJCV VJGTG GZKUVU C PCVWTCN OQFGN QH <(% 6JG

ECTFKPCN PWODGT QH UWEJ C UGV KU ECNNGF CP KPCEEGUUKDNG ECTFKPCN 6JG J[RQVJGUKU QH VJG

GZKUVGPEG QH EQHKPCNN[ OCP[ KPCEEGUUKDNG ECTFKPCNU OC[ DG VCMGP VQ DG VJG J[RQVJGUKU VJCV

GXGT[ UGV KU CP GNGOGPV QH UQOG PCVWTCN OQFGN QH <(% 6JG J[RQVJGUKU QH VJG GZKUVGPEG QH

C J[RGTKPCEEGUUKDNG ECTFKPCN OC[ DG VCMGP VQ DG VJG J[RQVJGUKU VJCV VJGTG GZKUVU C PCVWTCN

OQFGN QH <(%
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ECNNGF C J[RGTKPCEEGUUKDNG ECTFKPCN #NN VJGUG J[RQVJGUGU ECP DG HQTOWNCVGF KP VJG

NCPIWCIG QH <(% M VJG UGEQPFQTFGT XCTKCDNGU QH <(% CTG PQV PGGFGF UKORN[ VQ VCNM
CDQWV OQFGNU QH UGEQPFQTFGT VJGQTKGU

+PCEEGUUKDNGU J[RGTKPCEEGUUKDNGU UWRGTJ[RGTKPCEEGUUKDNGU CPF UQ QP CTG QPN[ VJG

HKTUV CPF UOCNNGUV QH NCTIG ECTFKPCNU 6JGTG CTG OCP[ NCTIGT NCTIG ECTFKPCNU M UWEJ CU VJG
UQECNNGF KPFGUETKDCDNG ECTFKPCNU QH YJKEJ VJGTG KU C JKGTCTEJ[ QH MKPFU M GXGP COQPI

VJG UQECNNGF UOCNN NCTIG ECTFKPCNU VJQUG YJQUG GZKUVGPEG KU EQPUKUVGPV YKVJ
QT RGTJCRU +

UJQWNF UC[ PQV MPQYP VQ DG KPEQPUKUVGPV YKVJ 8  . 1PG UGEQPFQTFGT UGV VJGQT[ YJQUG

UVTGPIVJ QEEWRKGU C RQUKVKQP KP VJG JKGTCTEJ[ QH KPFGUETKDCDNGU $GTPC[U UGV VJGQT[ $ YKNN

RNC[ C URGEKCN TQNG VQYCTFU VJG GPF QH VJKU OQPQITCRJ DWV + YKNN FGHGT FGUETKRVKQP QH KV

WPVKN VJGP

$G[QPF VJGUG CTG VJG NCTIG NCTIG ECTFKPCNU VJGOUGNXGU FKXKFGF KPVQ VJG OGFKWO

NCTIG NCTIG ECTFKPCNU

EQPUKUVGPV YKVJ C OQFKHKGF XGTUKQP QH 8  . CPF VJG GZVTC NCTIG

NCTIG ECTFKPCNU 6JG UVTQPIGUV NCTIG ECTFKPCN J[RQVJGUKU QH CNN VJG GZKUVGPEG QH C

4GKPJCTFV ECTFKPCN JCU DGGP UJQYP VQ DG KPEQPUKUVGPV CNN VJG TGUV CTG RTGUWOGF EQPUKUVGPV

D[ UGV VJGQTKUVU VJQWIJ YKVJ FGETGCUKPI EQPHKFGPEG CU QPG IQGU WR VJG UECNG 'CEJ PGY

J[RQVJGUKU KORNKGU PGY VJGQTGOU GZRTGUUKDNG KP VJG NCPIWCIG QH HKTUVQTFGT CTKVJOGVKE CPF
KPFGGF VJGQTGOU GZRTGUUKDNG D[ Π HQTOWNCU

6JG UECNG HTQO 4QDKPUQP VQ 4GKPJCTFV KU UWOOCTK\GF KP 6#$.' ' YJGTGKP ≈

KPFKECVGU OWVWCN KPVGTRTGVCDKNKV[ QT GSWCN EQPUKUVGPE[ UVTGPIVJ 9G YKNN GPEQWPVGT

PGQ(TGIGCP U[UVGOU CV VJG NGXGNU QH 3 QT 3  +∆ QH 3  +∆

GZR QH (  Π %#
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NKOKVGF VJCP QVJGTU CU VQ JQY OWEJ QH ENCUUKECN OCVJGOCVKEU ECP DG FGXGNQRGF YKVJKP

VJGO


2JKNQUQRJKECN6CTIGVUHQT0GQ(TGIGCPKUO

#ICKPUV CP[ NKOKVCVKQPU QP JQY OWEJ OCVJGOCVKEU QPG ECP IGV QP C IKXGP

PGQ(TGIGCP CRRTQCEJ OWUV DG YGKIJGF CP[ RJKNQUQRJKECN DGPGHKVU CVVCEJKPI VQ QDVCKPKPI

UC[ VJG PCVWTCN PWODGTU KP VJG YC[ VJCV RCTVKEWNCT PGQ(TGIGCP CRRTQCEJ FQGU 9JCV

DGPGHKVU KH CP[ VJGTG CTG YKNN FGRGPF QP VJG FGVCKNU QH VJG RCTVKEWNCT PGQ(TGIGCP UVTCVGI[

KP SWGUVKQP DWV UQOG IGPGTCN TGOCTMU OC[ DG KP QTFGT KP CFXCPEG DGHQTG WPFGTVCMKPI VJG

RTQOKUGF UWTXG[ QH UVTCVGIKGU 6Q DGIKP YKVJ QPG OWUV FKUVKPIWKUJ VYQ MKPFU QH

CFXCPVCIGU VJCV OKIJV DG ENCKOGF HQT C IKXGP PGQ(TGIGCP CRRTQCEJ QT VYQ RTQDNGOU VQ

YJQUG UQNWVKQP VJCV CRRTQCEJ OKIJV DG ENCKOGF VQ EQPVTKDWVG

6JG HKTUV KU VJG KFGPVKV[ RTQDNGO 9JCV CTG PCVWTCN PWODGTU! 6JG UGEQPF KU VJG

KPHQTOCVKQP RTQDNGO *QY ECP YG JCXG MPQYNGFIG QH PCVWTCN PWODGTU! (TGIG CNTGCF[

JKOUGNH JCF DGGP EQPEGTPGF KP JKU QYP YC[ YKVJ DQVJ RTQDNGOU
*KU HCOQWU SWGUVKQP

Q*QY FQ YG MPQY VJG PWODGT VYQ KU PQV ,WNKWU %CGUCT!R EQODKPGU DQVJ RTQDNGOU #PF
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CIGPFC HQT OWEJ QH RJKNQUQRJ[ QH OCVJGOCVKEU QXGT VJG RCUV UGXGTCN FGECFGU YKVJ VJG

KFGPVKV[ RTQDNGO DGKPI CFFTGUUGF KP $GPCEGTTCH

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UVTGUUGF KP $GPCEGTTCH


5WRRQUG C PGQ(TGIGCP FGHKPKVKQP QT EQPUVTWEVKQP JCU DGGP IKXGP HTQO YJKEJ CNN

RTQRGTVKGU QH PCVWTCN PWODGTU PGGFGF HQT RWTRQUGU QH RWTG CPF CRRNKGF OCVJGOCVKEU ECP

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6JG GZGIGVKECN CPF GRKUVGOQNQIKECN KUUWGU CTG NCTIGN[ KPFGRGPFGPV QH GCEJ QVJGT

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GZGIGVKECN KUUWGU KU KNNWUVTCVGF D[ VJG JKUVQT[ QH FGHKPKVKQPU QH KOCIKPCT[ QT EQORNGZ

PWODGTU )TQUUN[ QXGTUKORNKH[KPI HQT VJG UCMG QH GZCORNG YG OC[ TGFWEG VJCV JKUVQT[ VQ
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%CTFCPQ CPF *COKNVQP

1WT ECTVQQP %CTFCPQ DGIKPU YKVJ VJG CNIGDTC QH TGCN PWODGTU JCXKPI U[ODQNU HQT

VJG CFFKVKQP CPF OWNVKRNKECVKQP CPF OCP[ NCYU CDQWV VJGO *G CUUWOGU VJCV CFFKVKQP CPF

OWNVKRNKECVKQP
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UVKNN QDG[ VJG UCOG NCYU KH C PGY QDLGEV K VQ DG ECNNGF VJG KOCIKPCT[ WPKV KU CFLQKPGF

CPF CUUWOGF VQ HWNHKNNGF VJG EQPFKVKQP K ⋅ K   VJWU QDVCKPKPI C YJQNG U[UVGO QH PGY
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OCVJGOCVKECNN[ WUGHWN KP VJCV CTIWOGPVU KPXQNXKPI KOCIKPCT[ PWODGTU [KGNF EQPENWUKQPU

CDQWV TGCN PWODGTU VJCV ECP DG XGTKHKGF

VJQWIJ UKPEG PQ LWUVKHKECVKQP HQT VJG QTKIKPCN

CUUWORVKQPU KU QHHGTGF QPG JCU QPN[ KPFWEVKXG GXKFGPEG VJCV VJG EQPENWUKQPU CDQWV TGCN

PWODGTU VJWU QDVCKPGF YKNN CNYC[U DG EQTTGEV

1WT ECTVQQP *COKNVQP DGIKPU YJGTG %CTFCPQ NGCXGU QHH DWV CVVCEJGU C URGEKCN

KORQTVCPEG VQ VJTGG QH VJG OCP[ NCYU QH EQORNGZ PWODGTU

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\ EQORNGZ → ∃Z∃[
Z TGCN  [ TGCN  \  Z [K


Z [K
W XK 
Z W
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Z [K ⋅
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CFFKVKQP CPF OWNVKRNKECVKQP QH TGCN PWODGTU VJWU

  \ EQORNGZ ↔ ∃Z∃[
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  〈Z [〉 〈W X〉  〈Z [ W X〉

  〈Z [〉 ⋅ 〈W X〉  〈ZW  [X ZX [W 〉

6JGP
 CPF
 HQNNQY CPF OQTGQXGT JG KU CDNG VQ UJQY VJCV HTQO VJGO HQNNQY IKXGP

VJG NCYU QH TGCN PWODGTU

CPF QTFGTGF RCKTU CNN VJG NCYU QH EQORNGZ PWODGTU QH CP[

KORQTVCPEG KP OCVJGOCVKEU RWTG QT CRRNKGF

+V KU ENGCT VJCV *COKNVQP JCU OCFG CP GRKUVGOQNQIKECN CFXCPEG QXGT %CTFCPQ

FKURQUKPI QH CP[ KPHQTOCVKQP RTQDNGO CDQWV EQORNGZ PWODGTU QXGT CPF CDQXG VJG

KPHQTOCVKQP RTQDNGO HQT TGCN PWODGTU

CPF VJCV HQT QTFGTGF RCKTU $WV CTG *COKNVQP U O
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CRRCTGPV YJGP QPG EQPUKFGTU QVJGT YC[U KP YJKEJ *COKNVQP EQWNF JCXG RTQEGGFGF *G

EQWNF JCXG KFGPVKHKGF VJG EQORNGZ PWODGT Z [K  [K Z YKVJ VJG QTFGTGF RCKT 〈[ Z〉
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T
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 CPF
 CPF VJGPEG CNN QVJGT NCYU QH CP[ KORQTVCPEG

6JG KFGPVKHKECVKQP YKVJ 〈T θ〉 QT 〈θ T〉 KU UQ CTVKHKEKCN VJCV YG OC[ DG UWTG VJCV
O
%CTFCPQ FKF PQV JCXG KV KORNKEKVN[ KP OKPF *COKNVQP U KFGPVKHKECVKQP YKVJ 〈Z [〉 ECPPQV DG
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KFGPVKHKECVKQP YKVJ 〈[ Z〉 5KPEG DQVJ KFGPVKHKECVKQPU [KGNF CNN NCYU QH CP[ KORQTVCPEG VQ C
OCVJGOCVKEKCP NKMG %CTFCPQ GXGP DGHQTG TGCFKPI JKU YQTMU YG ECP RTGFKEV VJCV YG YKNN

HKPF YJCV YG FQ HKPF YJGP YG NQQM CV VJGO PCOGN[ VJCV VJGTG KU C EQORNGVG NCEM QH

GXKFGPEG KP VJGO VQ UJQY YJKEJ QH VJG VYQ QTFGTGF RCKTU JG WPFGTUVQQF Z [K  [K Z VQ

DG ETGCVKPI C UVTQPI FQWDV YJGVJGT JG OGCPV EQORNGZ PWODGTU VQ DG CP[ UQTV QH QTFGTGF

RCKTU CV CNN /QTGQXGT VJGTG KU C UKOKNCT NCEM QH GXKFGPEG VJCV JG TGICTFGF


 JCU

JCXKPI CP[ URGEKCN QFGHKPKVKQPCNR UVCVWU COQPI VJG \KNNKQP NCYU QH EQORNGZ PWODGTU VJCV
HQNNQY HTQO JKU KPKVKCN CUUWORVKQPU

QPCVWTCNR HQT QEQORNGZR UWDUVKVWVG (TGIGOU CPF 4WUUGNNOU CPF

5WDUVKVWVG

<GTOGNQOU CPF XQP 0GWOCPPOU FGHKPKVKQPU QH PWODGT HQT VJG FGHKPKVKQPU 〈  〉 CPF 〈 Z [ [ Z 〉
CPF 〈T θ〉 CPF 〈θ T〉 UWDUVKVWVG VJG 2GCPQ RQUVWNCVGU HQT
 CPF
 CPF [QW JCXG VJG EQTG
O
QH VJG CPVKGZGIGVKECN CTIWOGPV KP $GPCEGTTCH
 +H $GPCEGTTCH U CTIWOGPVU CTG

CEEGRVGF QPN[ VYQ QRVKQPU TGOCKP VQ VCMG PCVWTCN PWODGTU CU QDLGEVU UWK IGPGTKU QT VQ

CFQRV VJG UVTWEVWTCNKUV XKGY VQYCTFU YJKEJ $GPCEGTTCH JKOUGNH UGGOU VQ KPENKPG VJCV

CUUGTVKQPU CDQWV QVJGR PCVWTCN PWODGTU CTG TGCNN[ IGPGTCNK\CVKQPU CDQWV CP[ U[UVGO HQT

YJKEJ VJG 2GCPQ RQUVWNCVGU JQNF

$GPCEGTTCH FQGU PQV EQPVTCFKEV CP[VJKPI <GTOGNQ ENCKOGF KP FGHKPKPI VJG PWODGT

VYQ VQ DG ]]∅ __ QT CP[VJKPI XQP 0GWOCPP ENCKOGF KP FGHKPKPI VJG PWODGT VYQ VQ DG

]∅ ]∅__ UKPEG PGKVJGT UGV VJGQTKUV GXGT RTGVGPFGF VQ DG FQKPI OQTG VJCP FGHKPKPI

UWTTQICVGU HQT VJG PCVWTCN PWODGTU YKVJ CNN VJG KORQTVCPV RTQRGTVKGU VTCFKVKQPCNN[ CUETKDGF

VQ VJG PCVWTCN PWODGTU $[ EQPVTCUV (TGIG CPF UQOG PGQ(TGIGCPU FQ UQOGVKOGU YTKVG CU

KH VJG[ YGTG CFXCPEKPI GZGIGVKECN ENCKOU CDQWV YJCV PWODGTU TGCNN[ YGTG CNN CNQPI

O
(TGIG U CVVKVWFG KP VJKU TGICTF KU RW\\NKPI 1P VJG QPG JCPF KV YQWNF UGGO VJCV JG

EQWNF JCTFN[ DG FKUCITGGKPI YKVJ .GKDPK\ QT -CPV QT /KNN QXGT VJG PCVWTG QH MPQYNGFIG QH

PWODGTU TCVJGT VJCP LWUV VCNMKPI RCUV VJGO WPNGUU JG OGCPU D[ QPWODGTR YJCV VJG[ FKF
1P VJG QVJGT JCPF JG KU KPFKHHGTGPV QT QWVTKIJV JQUVKNG VQ RU[EJQNQIKECN CPF JKUVQTKECN

KPXGUVKICVKQPU QH PWODGTPQVKQPU VJQWIJ KV KU LWUV UWEJ KPXGUVKICVKQPU VJCV YQWNF UGGO VQ

DG ETWEKCN VQ CP[ FGVGTOKPCVKQP QH YJCV CP[QPG OGCPV QT OGCPU D[ QPWODGTR

 6JGTG KU PQ QDXKQWU TGCUQP YJ[ C *COKNVQP QT C )CWUU UJQWNF ECTG CDQWV

TGRTQFWEKPI CNN CURGEVU QH VJG EQPHWUGF PQVKQP QH EQORNGZ PWODGTU QH C %CTFCPQ QT C

$QODGNNK +P VJG ECUG QH PCVWTCN PWODGTU KV KU WPENGCT YJCV PCOGU UJQWNF DG RWV KP VJG

RNCEG QH VJQUG QH VJG 4GPCKUUCPEG HKIWTGU LWUV OGPVKQPGF +V KU WPENGCT YJQ HKTUV VJQWIJV QH

PWODGTU CU QDLGEVU QH UQOG MKPF CPF WUGF PWOGTCNU CU PQWPU CPF PQV LWUV CU CFLGEVKXGU

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ECTG CDQWV TGRTQFWEKPI CNN CURGEVU QH VJG O[UVKECN PQVKQP QH PCVWTCN PWODGT M QT TCVJGT
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CFOKVVGF VJCV VJG EQOOQPUGPUG GXGT[FC[ PQVKQP QH PCVWTCN PWODGT RTGXCKNKPI D[ VJG

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QP C HKTOGT HQWPFCVKQP #V VJG QPG GZVTGOG VJGTG CTG VJG PQOKPCNKUVU YJQ JCXG DGGP

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VJQUG QDLGEVU ECP DG UGGP KH PQV CU EJCKTU CPF VCDNGU ECP DG UGGP VJGP CV NGCUV CU RCTVKENGU

KP C ENQWF EJCODGT ECP DG UGGP VJTQWIJ VJGKT GHHGEVU (QT VJGO PQVJKPI VJG PGQ(TGIGCPU
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EQPXGPKGPEG WUCIG CPF WVKNKV[ CTG CNYC[U LWUVKHKECVKQP GPQWIJ (QT VJGO VJG VJGQT[ QH

EQORNGZ PWODGTU YCU CNTGCF[ LWUVKHKGF DGHQTG *COKNVQP D[ KVU UWEEGUUHWN CRRNKECVKQPU

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QT CPQVJGT NQIKECN HGCVWTG QH VJG OCPPGT KP YJKEJ C RCTVKEWNCT CRRTQCEJ KPVTQFWEGU

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CFXCPVCIGU QT FKUCFXCPVCIGU QH VJG CRRTQCEJ HQT VJGOUGNXGU

 
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YJGTG GCEJ EQPLWPEVKQP KU QH VJG HQNNQYKPI URGEKCN MKPF (KTUV GCEJ QH KVU EQPLWPEVU KPENWFGU HQT

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QPG QH 2LWK QT `2LWK 6JKTF GCEJ KPENWFGU HQT GCEJ QH VJG U RQUUKDNG EQODKPCVKQPU


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UVCVGOGPV GKVJGT UC[U VJCV VJGTG CTG GZCEVN[ M UWEJ X HQT UQOG M  P QT VJCV VJGTG CTG CV NGCUV P UWEJ

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X  X l X   X l X   X l X

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Z W9   YKVJ PQ DQWPF UGEQPFQTFGT

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Z W9  _ HQT IKXGP XCNWGU QH

VJG RCTCOGVGTU W CPF 9  6JG VJGQTGO VGNNU WU VJCV φ KU GSWKXCNGPV VQ C EQORQWPF QDVCKPGF D[
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U
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HQT YJCVGXGT φ CPF YJCVGXGT XCNWGU QH VJG RCTCOGVGTU KU QDVCKPCDNG HTQO VJG PWNN UGV UKPINGVQPU
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VJGOUGNXGU D[ WPKQP CPF EQORNGOGPVCVKQP #NN VJG UGVGZKUVGPEG CZKQOU YG IGV CTG KORNKGF D[

PWNN UGV UKPINGVQP WPKQP CPF EQORNGOGPV # UKOKNCT CPCN[UKU UJQYU VJCV KH YG EQPUKFGTGF CP

WNVTCRTGFKECVKXG VJGQT[ 728 YJGTG EQPEGRVRCTCOGVGTU YGTG PQV CNNQYGF KP

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YG YQWNF IGV EQWNF DG CZKQOCVK\GF YKVJ PWNN UGV UKPINGVQP RCKT VTKRNG W  CPF EQORNGOGPV

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28 CPF 728 CU LWUV FGUETKDGF 56 HQT 5\OKGNGY6CTUMK UGV VJGQT[ KU C UWDU[UVGO QH 2(

CFLWPEVKQP DGKPI C EQPUGSWGPEG QH WPKQP CPF UKPINGVQPU CPF 756 C U[UVGO TGNCVGF VQ 72( CU

56 KU TGNCVGF VQ 2( 6JG UVKNN YGCMGT U[UVGO 7756 KU QH KPVGTGUV DGECWUG KH YG CFQRV <GTOGNQ U O
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3
3 QH 3 CPF 3 +PXGTUGN[ KH

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HQTOWNC Z  ∨ ∃[
Z  [  CPF FGHKPKPI Z ∈ [ VQ CDDTGXKCVG Z  [ #FFKPI OQPCFKE QT F[CFKE
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HQT YJKEJ YG JCXG RCKTKPI UKPEG F[CFKE 4 ECP DG UKOWNCVGF D[ OQPCFKE : WUKPI QTFGTGF RCKTU

YJKEJ YG IGV KP VJG WUWCN YC[ HTQO WPQTFGTGF RCKTU .CVGT YG YKNN EQPUKFGT VJG TGUWNV QH CFFKPI

O
<GTOGNQ U CZKQO QH UGRCTCVKQP VQ 56 IKXKPI 56<

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UGV VJGQTKGU 56 CPF 2756 CPF 27756

6JG TGUWNV HQT 56 KU FWG VQ 9CPFC 5\OKGNGY CPF 6CTUMK CPF KU OGPVKQPGF YKVJQWV RTQQH KP VJG

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GZVGPUKQPCNKV[ KU PQV PGGFGF YJKEJ KU UKIPKHKECPV HTQO UQOG RGTURGEVKXGU DWV PQV HTQO VJG

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KPVGTRTGVCDNG KP 3 VQ RTQXG 3 KPVGTRTGVCDNG KP QVJGT VJGQTKGU 6JG OGVJQF + WUG KP VJG PGZV UGEVKQP

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3 CPF
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4 ∃ ∀Z∀[ ` Z[
4 4

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4 5 5Z[ ↔ 4Z[ ∨
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3

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4
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VJCV GCEJ QH VJG CZKQOU QH 3 JQNFU HQT CNN QDLGEVU HQT YJKEJ φ JQNFU 6JG HKTUV VCUM YKNN DG VQ
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CPF QPN[ KH HQT CP[ :  KH : KU TGITGUUKXG CPF UWEJ VJCV :[ JQNFU KH [  \ VJGP :Z JQNFU 9G SWKEMN[

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5WRRQUG PQY KPUVGCF Z  \ CPF NGV : DG TGITGUUKXG CPF UWEJ VJCV :[ JQNFU KH [  \  UQ :\ JQNFU

6JGP KH W  \ YG JCXG :W D[ FGHKPKVKQP QH TGITGUUKXG UQ UKPEG Z  \ YG JCXG :Z  UJQYKPI VJCV

Z  \ 

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 Z m [ ↔ Z  [ ∨ Z  [

6JGP
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CTKVJOGVKE KP VJG RTGEGFKPI EJCRVGT 9JCV VJKU RTQQH RTQXGU HTQO VJG RTGUGPV RGTURGEVKXG KU VJCV

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Z KU KPFWEVKXG

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0QY NGV φ
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CPF UKOKNCTN[ HQT QTFGTN[ CFFKVKXG CPF OWNVKRNKECVKXG 5Q KH YG NGV ψ
Z DG
VJG EQPLWPEVKQP QH φ
Z CPF φ
Z VJGP ψ
Z KU KPFWEVKXG .GV WU WUG KP VJG WUWCN YC[ VJG DQWPFGF
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Z 0QY NGV φ
Z DG VJG HQTOWNC ∀\ m m Z ψ
\
6TKXKCNN[ φ
Z KORNKGU ψ
Z CPF JGPEG KORNKGU DQVJ φ
Z CPF φ
Z

+ OCMG VJTGG HWTVJGT ENCKOU + HKTUV ENCKO φ

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ψ
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Z JQNFU VJGP φ
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Z  KU GSWKXCNGPV D[
 VQ φ
Z  ψ
Z  CPF YG CTG CUUWOKPI
φ
Z YJKEJ KORNKGU ψ
Z YJKEJ KP VWTP KORNKGU ψ
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φ
Z JQNFU CPF [  Z VJGP φ
[ JQNFU OCMKPI φ QTFGTN[ +PFGGF UKPEG YG CTG CUUWOKPI φ
Z
YJKEJ KORNKGU φ
Z
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CPF VJGTGHQTG JCXG ψ
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Z YKNN DG ECNNGF VJG QTFGTN[ MGTPGN QH φ .GV φ  φ 6JGP φ
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3
3
3
3 VJG CWZKNKCT[ NCY QH VTCPUKVKXKV[
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3 Z  ∨ ∃[
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1DXKQWUN[
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3 JQNFU HQT Z
3 JQNFU HQT Z 

VCMKPI Z CU [ UKPEG Z  Z D[
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3

JQNF HQT QDLGEVU HQT YJKEJ φ JQNFU

9G OC[ ECNN UWEJ QDLGEVU QTFGTN[ 0QVG VJCV YJGTGCU D[
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QTFGTN[ QDLGEVU 6JG 'PINKUJ Q CNN QDLGEVU R KU VQ DG WPFGTUVQQF CU GNNKRVKECN HQT QCNN QTFGTN[

R
QDLGEVU  VJG HQTOCN ∀Z
W  KU VQ DG WPFGTUVQQF CU CP CDDTGXKCVKQP HQT ∀Z
φ
Z → W 

9G CTG PQY TGCF[ VQ VCEMNG CFFKVKQP (QT Z FGHKPG C TGNCVKQP 4 VQ DG C EQORWVCVKQP QH UWOU

YKVJ [ KH YG JCXG VJG HQNNQYKPI

C ∃X 4 X

D ∀X
4 X → X  [

C ∀W
∃Y W Y → ∃X 4 4WX 

D ∀W∀Y∀X
W Y  4 4WX → Y  X 

&GHKPG 4 DG C EQORWVCVKQP QH C UWO QH [ YKVJ Z KH HWTVJGT ∃X 4ZX  &GHKPG 4 VQ DG C EQORWVCVKQP QH C

UWO QH [ YKVJ Z CU X KH HWTVJGT 4ZX  &GHKPG Y VQ DG C UWO QH [ YKVJ Z CPF YTKVG Σ[ZY KH VJGTG
GZKUVU C EQORWVCVKQP QH C UWO QH [ YKVJ Z CU Y +H ∃YΣ[ZY YG ECNN VJKU Y VJG UWO [ Z QH [ CPF
Z QVJGTYKUG VJG UWO [ Z KU WPFGHKPGF %CNN Z UWOOCDNG KH ∀[∃YΣ[ZY QT KP QVJGT YQTFU KH HQT
CNN [ VJG UWO [ Z KU FGHKPGF CPF HWTVJGT VJKU UWO KU YJCV KV QWIJV VQ DG D[ YJKEJ + OGCP VJCV YG

JCXG VJG HQNNQYKPI

C Z  →[ Z[

D Z  Y → [ Y KU FGHKPGF  [ Z 
[ Y

+H YG JCF OCVJGOCVKECN KPFWEVKQP CXCKNCDNG YG EQWNF RTQXG D[ C OQTG QT NGUU UVCPFCTF

UGVVJGQTGVKE CTIWOGPV VJCV GXGT[ Z KU UWOOCDNG WUKPI VJG CTKVJOGVKECN TGUWNVU YG CNTGCF[ JCXG +
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.GV Z DG CP[ QDLGEV CTDKVTCT[ DWV HKZGF VJTQWIJQWV VJG RTQQH

(QT Z   YG JCXG D[
4 CP GORV[ TGNCVKQP ' CPF D[
4 VJG TGUWNV 4  ' [ QH CFLQKPKPI
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C CPF
D HQNNQY

KOOGFKCVGN[ CPF
C CPF
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5Q KU C EQORWVCVKQP QH C UWO YKVJ [ QH  CU [ CPF YG JCXG Σ[[ /QTGQXGT YG ECPPQV JCXG

l
4

Σ[Y HQT CP[ Y [ D[ ENCWUG

D KP VJG FGHKPKVKQP QH EQORWVCVKQP 5Q [ KU VJG WPKSWG Y UWEJ

VJCV Σ[Y CPF [   [ KP CITGGOGPV YKVJ

C
D JQNFU XCEWQWUN[ 5Q \GTQ KU UWOOCDNG
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3 YG FQ PQV CNUQ JCXG Z  W HQT CP[ W l Z VJG

RTGFGEGUUQT Z QH Z KU WPKSWG #UUWOKPI Z KU UWOOCDNG YG OC[ RTQXG Z KU UWOOCDNG CU HQNNQYU

.GV [ Z  Y 6JGP VJGTG KU C EQORWVCVKQP 5 QH VJG UWO YKVJ [ QH Z CU Y 9G JCXG D[

4 VJG

TGUWNV 4  5
Z Y
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W  Z CPF X  Y  #PF D[ VJG GZENWUKXGPGUU QH VJG \GTQ CPF UWEEGUUQT ECUGU CPF VJG WPKSWGPGUU

QH RTGFGEGUUQTU KP VJG QPG PGY ECUG W  Z CPF X  Y  VJG HKTUV EQORQPGPV Z KU PQV \GTQ CPF KU PQV

VJG UWEEGUUQT QH CP[VJKPI DWV Z 6JKU PQVGF CPF TGECNNKPI VJCV

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 JQNF HQT 5  KV GCUKN[

HQNNQYU VJCV
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4 [ Z

CPF YG JCXG Σ[Z Y  /QTGQXGT YG ECPPQV JCXG Σ[Z X HQT CP[ X Y  DGECWUG KH 6 KU C

EQORWVCVKQP QH C UWO YKVJ [ QH Z CU X VJGP D[ ENCWUG

C KP VJG FGHKPKVKQP QH EQORWVCVKQP 6 KU

CNUQ C EQORWVCVKQP QH C UWO YKVJ Z QH [ CU UQOGVJKPI W YJKEJ ECP QPN[ DG Y D[ VJG UWOOCDKNKV[

QH Z %NCWUG
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6JG TGCUQPKPI JGTG KU NCTIGN[ &GFGMKPF U O

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JQNFU
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0QY HQT C ETWEKCN RQKPV YG CTG PQV KP C RQUKVKQP VQ CUUGTV VJCV φ KU CFFKVKXG (QT VJKU
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 [ m Z →\ [ m \ Z

 \
[ Z KU FGHKPGF  \
[ Z 
\ [ Z

0QVG VJCV KH φ
Z CPF [ m Z VJGP φ
[ CPF VJGTGHQTG PQV LWUV Z DWV [ CNUQ KU UWOOCDNG CPF VJG
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Z CPF φ
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RQUKVKQP VQ CUUGTV VJCV

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YJCV KU VQ DG RTQXGF

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 CPF
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OCVJGOCVKECN KPFWEVKQP (QT

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 HQT

Z CPF EQPUKFGTKPI CP[ [ m Z  YG GKVJGT JCXG [ m Z KP YJKEJ ECUG \ [ m \ Z D[ KPFWEVKQP

J[RQVJGUKU CPF VJGTGHQTG \ [ m

\ Z  \ Z  QT GNUG [  Z CPF \ [  \ Z  CPF YG CTG FQPG

(QT
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C
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D
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\ [ Z 
\
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+P VJG D[PQY WUWCN OCPPGT VJGUG RTQQHU ECP DG CFCRVGF VQ IKXG WU CP QTFGTN[ φ KORN[KPI φ CPF
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FQYP VJTQWIJ
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0QY HQT CP[ KPFWEVKXG HQTOWNC φ

Z NGV ψ
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φ
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ψ
Z  ∀\
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Z JQNFU VJGP UQ FQGU φ
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Z (QT VJG
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6JKTF + ENCKO VJCV KH φ
Z JQNFU CPF [  Z VJGP φ
[ JQNFU OCMKPI φ QTFGTN[ 6JG HKTUV
EQPLWPEVψ
[ HQNNQYU UKPEG ψ KU QTFGTN[ HTQO ψ
Z YJKEJ KP VWTP HQNNQYU HTQO φ
Z (QT VJG
UGEQPF EQPLWPEV UWRRQUG VJCV ψ
\ CPF EQPUKFGT \ [ 9G JCXG ψ
\ Z D[ φ
Z CPF YG JCXG

ψ
Y HQT CP[ Y m \ Z UKPEG ψ KU QTFGTN[ CPF UQ YG JCXG ψ
\ [ UKPEG \ [ m \ Z D[


YJKEJ YG JCXG UKPEG φ

Z KORNKGU ψ
Z YJKEJ KORNKGU φ
Z YJKEJ KORNKGU φ
Z
 (QWTVJ + ENCKO VJCV KH φ
Z CPF φ
[ JQNF VJGP φ
[ Z JQNFU OCMKPI φ CFFKVKXG 6JG
HKTUV EQPLWPEV ψ
[ Z HQNNQYU HTQO φ
Z CPF ψ
[ YJKEJ NCVVGT HQNNQYU KP VWTP HTQO φ
[ (QT
VJG UGEQPF EQPLWPEV UWRRQUG VJCV ψ
\ CPF EQPUKFGT \
[ Z 9G JCXG φ
\ [ HTQO φ
[ CPF
VJGPφ

\ [ Z HTQO φ
Z CPF UQ YG JCXG φ
\
[ Z UKPEG \
[ Z 
\ [ Z D[

YJKEJ YG JCXG UKPEG φ
Z KORNKGU φ
Z

6JG CFFKVKXG HQTOWNC φ

Z YKNN DG ECNNGF VJG CFFKVKXG MGTPGN QH φ .GV φ  φ  6JGP φ

KORNKGU φ φ KU CFFKVKXG CPF

3
3 JQNF HQT CNN QDLGEVU HQT YJKEJ φ JQNFU 9G OC[ ECNN UWEJ
QDLGEVU CFFKVKXG (QT VJG TGOCKPFGT QH VJG RTQQH YG TGUVTKEV QWT CVVGPVKQP VQ CFFKVKXG QDLGEVU

6JG VTGCVOGPV QH OWNVKRNKECVKQP YKNN DG IKXGP QPN[ KP QWVNKPG 9G DGIKP D[ FGHKPKPI VJG

PQVKQP C PQVKQP Π[ZY QH VJGTG DGKPI C EQORWVCVKQP QH VJG RTQFWEV YKVJ [ QH Z CU Y CPF YJGP
∃Y Π[ZY FGHKPKPI VJCV Y VQ DG VJG RTQFWEV [ ⋅ Z 9G VJGP ECNN Z RTQFWEVKXG KH HQT CP[ [ VJG
RTQFWEV [ ⋅ Z KU FGHKPGF # OQTG QT NGUU UVCPFCTF UGVVJGQTGVKE CTIWOGPV UJQYU VJCV VJG HQTOWNC

GZRTGUUKPI VJCV Z KU RTQFWEVKXG KU KPFWEVKXG CPF VCMKPI KVU CFFKVKXG MGTPGN YG QDVCKP CP CFFKVKXG φ
KORN[KPI φ UWEJ VJCV CNN VJG CZKQOU QH 3 JQNF HQT QDLGEVU UCVKUH[KPI φ
9G CTG PQV KP C RQUKVKQP VQ CUUGTV φ KU OWNVKRNKECVKXG $GHQTG YG ECP IGV OWNVKRNKECVKXKV[
YG YKNN PGGF VQ GUVCDNKUJ VJTGG CWZKNKCT[ NCYU VJG NCY VJCV OWNVKRNKECVKQP RTGUGTXGU QTFGT CPF VJG

NCY VJCV OWNVKRNKECVKQP KU FKUVTKDWVKXG QXGT CFFKVKQP CPF VJG NCY VJCV OWNVKRNKECVKQP KU CUUQEKCVKXG

 [ m Z →\⋅\ m⋅Z \

 \ ⋅
[ Z  \ ⋅ Z \ ⋅ [

 \ ⋅
[ ⋅ Z 
\ ⋅ [ ⋅ Z

#U KP UQ OCP[ RTGXKQWU ECUGU VJGUG YQWNF PQV DG JCTF VQ RTQXG WUKPI OCVJGOCVKECN KPFWEVKQP +P

VJG WUWCN YC[ M DWV PQY VCMKPI CFFKVKXG TCVJGT VJCP LWUV QTFGT MGTPGNU M YG IGV UWEEGUUKXG

CFFKVKXG HQTOWNCU φ KORN[KPI φ φ KORN[KPI φ CPF φ KORN[KPI φ UWEJ VJCV HQT QDLGEVU
UCVKUH[KPI φ YG JCXG CNN VJG NCYU FGTKXGF UQ HCT FQYP VJTQWIJ


0QY HQT CP[ KPFWEVKXG HQTOWNC φ
Z NGV ψ
Z DG VJG EQPLWPEVKQP QH φ
Z YKVJ φ
Z CPF
NGV φ⋅
Z DG VJG HQTOWNC

ψ
Z  ∀\
ψ
\ → ψ
\ ⋅ Z

6TKXKCNN[ φ⋅
Z KORNKGU φ
Z + OCMG HKXG HWTVJGT ENCKOU (KTUV UGEQPF CPF VJKTF + ENCKO VJCV

φ⋅
 JQNFU VJCV φ⋅
Z  JQNFU KH φ⋅
Z JQNFU CPF VJCV KH φ⋅
Z JQNFU CPF [  Z VJGP φ⋅
[ JQNFU
OCMKPI φ⋅ KPFWEVKXG CPF QTFGTN[ 6JG RTQQHU CTG LWUV NKMG VJQUG WUGF KP VJG CFFKVKXG ECUG OQFWNQ
TGRNCEGOGPV QH CFFKVKQP D[ OWNVKRNKECVKQP CPF CRRGCNU VQ
3
3 CPF
 D[ CRRGCNU VQ
3

3 CPF
(QWTVJ + ENCKO VJCV KH φ⋅
Z CPF φ⋅
[ JQNF VJGP φ⋅
[ Z JQNFU OCMKPI φ⋅ CFFKVKXG
.GCXKPI VJG HKTUV EQPLWPEV VQ VJG TGCFGT CU VQ VJG UGEQPF EQPLWPEV VJG MG[ UVGR KU LWUV VJKU

#UUWOKPI φ
\ CPF φ⋅
[ CPF φ⋅
Z VJG HKTUV CPF UGEQPF IKXG ψ
\ ⋅ [ YJKNG VJG HKTUV CPF VJKTF IKXG
ψ
\ ⋅ Z 9G VJGP IGV ψ
\ ⋅ [ \ ⋅ Z UKPEG ψ KU CFFKVKXG CPF JGPEG ψ
\ ⋅
[ Z D[
 YJKEJ YG
JCXG UKPEG φ
Z KORNKGU φ
Z (KHVJ + ENCKO VJCV KH φ⋅
Z CPF φ⋅
[ JQNF VJGP φ⋅
[ ⋅ Z JQNFU

OCMKPI φ⋅ OWNVKRNKECVKXG .GCXKPI VJG HKTUV EQPLWPEV VQ VJG TGCFGT CU VQ VJG UGEQPF EQPLWPEV VJG
MG[ UVGR KU LWUV VJKU #UUWOKPI φ
\ CPF φ⋅
[ CPF φ⋅
Z VJG HKTUV CPF UGEQPF IKXG φ
\ ⋅ [ CPF VJG

VJKTF VJGP IKXGU φ

\ ⋅ [ ⋅ Z CPF JGPEG φ
\ ⋅
Z ⋅ [ D[
 YJKEJ YG JCXG UKPEG φ
Z KORNKGU
φ
Z 6JG HQTOWNC φ⋅ YKNN DG ECNNGF VJG OWNVKRNKECVKXG MGTPGN QH φ .GV φ  φ⋅ 6JGP φ KU

OWNVKRNKECVKXG CPF CNN VJG CZKQOU QH 3 JQNF HQT CNN QDLGEVU HQT YJKEJ φ JQNFU CPF YG ECP
TGUVTKEV QWT CVVGPVKQP VQ OWNVKRNKECVKXG QDLGEVU FGHKPGF KP VJG QDXKQWU YC[ CPF YG CTG FQPG YKVJ

VJG RTQQH 7PFGTUVCPFKPI QH VJG RTQQH LWUV EQPENWFGF ECP DG GPJCPEGF D[ EQPUKFGTKPI YJCV

GZVGPUKQPU YG ECP CPF ECPPQV IGV D[ VJG UCOG OGVJQFU (QT YG ECP D[ VJG UCOG OGVJQFU IGV

KPVGTRTGVCVKQPU QH UQOG GZVGPUKQPU QH 3 YKVJ OQTG CZKQOU VJQWIJ PQV QH QVJGTU +V UJQWNF DG

ENGCT VJCV HQT CP[ NCY χ VJCV EQWNF DG RTQXGF D[ SWCPVKHKGTHTGG KPFWEVKQP YG IGV CP KPFWEVKXG
HQTOWNC YJQUG OWNVKRNKECVKXG ENQUWTG YKNN IKXG WU CP KPVGTRTGVCVKQP QH 3 χ # UKORNG GZCORNG
YQWNF DG CP[ QH VJG UGTKGU QH NCYU VJCV NGCF WR VQ VJG EQOOWVCVKXG NCY HQT CFFKVKQP DGIKPPKPI

YKVJ VJG HKTUV KP VJG UGTKGU

  Z  Z6JG HQTOWNC
 KU GCU[ VQ RTQXG KPFWEVKXG CPF KVU

OWNVKRNKECVKXG MGTPGN KU C OWNVKRNKECVKXG HQTOWNC φ

Z UWEJ VJCV CNN CZKQOU QH 3
 JQNF HQT
QDLGEVU HQT YJKEJ φ
Z JQNFU CPF VJKU COQWPVU VQ UC[KPI VJCV CNN CZKQOU QH 3
 JQNF YJGP
SWCPVKHKGTU CTG TGNCVKXK\GF VQ φ
Z YJKEJ KU YJCV KU PGGFGF VQ IGV CP KPVGTRTGVCVKQP +V KU PQV KP

IGPGTCN VJG ECUG VJCV QPG ECP IGV CP KPVGTRTGVCVKQP QH 3 χ HQT C NCY χ VJCV JCU VQ DG RTQXGF D[
ΣKPFWEVKQP YJKEJ KU VQ UC[ KPFWEVKQP QP C EQPFKVKQP KPXQNXKPI CP GZKUVGPVKCN SWCPVKHKGT 6JKU KU
PQV VJG ECUG KP IGPGTCN DGECWUG QH VJG ICR DGVYGGP UC[KPI CP GZKUVGPVKCN HQTOWNC JQNFU HQT CNN

QDLGEVU HQT YJKEJ φ

Z JQNFU CPF UC[KPI VJCV VJG GZKUVGPVKCN HQTOWNC JQNFU YKVJ SWCPVKHKGTU
TGNCVKXK\GF VQ φ
Z 6JG QPG OGTGN[ TGSWKTGU VJCV UQOGVJKPI GZKUV CRRTQRTKCVGN[ TGNCVGF VQ Z VJG
QVJGT VJCV VJKU UQOGVJKPI KVUGNH UCVKUH[ φ 6JG ICRU DGVYGGP UWOOCDKNKV[ CPF CFFKVKXKV[ CPF

DGVYGGP RTQFWEVKXKV[ CPF OWNVKRNKECVKXKV[ YGTG KPUVCPEGU *QYGXGT VJGTG CTG UQOG ECUGU QH

NCYU χ YKVJ GZKUVGPVKCN SWCPVKHKGTU YJGTG YG ECP IGV CP KPVGTRTGVCVKQP QH 3 χ D[ VJG OGVJQFU
YG JCXG DGGP WUKPI # UKORNG GZCORNG YQWNF DG VJG RCTKV[ NCY
 ∃[ m Z
Z  [ ⋅∨Z

[ ⋅  6JG HQTOWNC KU PQV VQQ JCTF VQ RTQXG KPFWEVKXG IKXKPI C OWNVKRNKECVKXG φ

Z UWEJ VJCV CNN
CZKQOU QH 3
 JQNF HQT QDLGEVU HQT YJKEJ φ
Z JQNFU 0QY VQ DG UWTG VJGTG KU C ICR DGVYGGP
UC[KPI VJKU CPF CNN CZKQOU QH 3
 JQNF YJGP SWCPVKHKGTU CTG TGNCVKXK\GF VQ φ
Z YJKEJ KU
YJCV KU PGGFGF VQ IGV CP KPVGTRTGVCVKQP +V KU VJG ICR DGVYGGP VJG HQNNQYKPI
C ∀Z
φ
Z
→ ∃[ m Z
Z  [⋅ ∨ Z 
[⋅ 
D ∀Z
φ
Z → ∃[ m Z
φ
[ 
Z  [⋅ ∨ Z 
[⋅ $WV VJKU
ICR KU DTKFIGCDNG DGECWUG VJG SWCPVKHKGT KU DQWPFGF
D CEVWCNN[ HQNNQYU HTQO
C CPF VJG

QH φ
Z YJKEJ PGCTN[ GPQWIJ KU YJCV KU GZRTGUUGF D[ VJG HQNNQYKPI HQTOWNC

m
QTFGTNKPGUU

∀Z
φ
Z → ∀[ Z φ
[$[
 VJG KPUGTVKQP QH φ
Z KP
C VQ RTQFWEG
D KU
TGFWPFCPV 6JG ICR KU KP HCEV CNYC[U DTKFIGCDNG KP VJG ECUG QH ∆KPFWEVKQP YJKEJ KU VQ UC[
KPFWEVKQP QP C HQTOWNC KP YJKEJ CNN SWCPVKHKGTU
KH CP[ CTG DQWPFGF 6JKU KU QYKPI VQ YJCV KU

ECNNGF VJG CDUQNWVGPGUU QH UWEJ HQTOWNCU #DUQNWVGPGUU OGCPU VJCV VJG HQTOWNC YKVJ SWCPVKHKGTU

TGNCVKXK\GF VQ CP[ UWKVCDNG HQTOWNC φ

Z KU GSWKXCNGPV VQ VJG HQTOWNC YKVJ SWCPVKHKGTU WPTGNCVKXK\GF
+H VJG DQWPFU CTG XCTKCDNGU CU KP
 Q
UWKVCDNG R OC[ DG WPFGTUVQQF UKORN[ CU QTFGTN[ +H VJG

DQWPFU CTG XCTKCDNGU CPFQT VGTOU DWKNV WR WUKPI  UWKVCDKNKV[ OC[ DG WPFGTUVQQF CU CFFKVKXKV[ +H

VJG DQWPFU CTG XCTKCDNGU CPFQT VGTOU DWKNV WR WUKPI CPFQT ⋅ UWKVCDKNKV[ OC[ DG WPFGTUVQQF CU

OWNVKRNKECVKXKV[

(QT KPUVCPEG UWRRQUG YG JCXG UQOGVJKPI QH VJG HQNNQYKPI HQTO

C ∃[
[ mZ Z  ∀\
\ W ⋅ W → m  W

D ∃[
φ
[  [ m
Z Z  ∀\
φ
\  \ m W ⋅W→ W 

+H φ KU OWNVKRNKECVKXG VJGP HQT Z CPF W HQT YJKEJ φ JQNFU

C CPF
D YKNN DG GSWKXCNGPV (QT
m
φ
Z KORNKGU φ
Z Z YJKEJ YKVJ [ Z Z KORNKGU φ
[ YJKNG φ
W KORNKGU φ
W ⋅ W YJKEJ YKVJ
mW ⋅ W KORNKGU φ
\ #PF VJKU OCMGU VJG KPUGTVKQP QH φ
[ CPF φ
\ TGFWPFCPV

W
\

7UKPI VJG UCOG OGVJQF QXGT CPF QXGT YG ECP IGV CP KPVGTRTGVCVKQP QH 3 χ χ P

HQT CP[ NCYU χ VJCV ECP DG RTQXGF D[ SWCPVKHKGTHTGG QT OQTG IGPGTCNN[ ∆KPFWEVKQP 5WEJ KU VJG
O Q R
K

RTQQH QH 0GNUQP U TGUWNV VJCV +∆ KU NQECNN[ KPVGTRTGVCDNG KP C VJGQT[ QPEG 3 KU KPVGTRTGVCDNG KP

VJCV VJGQT[ 9G FQ JQYGXGT YJGP WUKPI VJKU OGVJQF JCXG VQ EJCPIG VJG KPVGTRTGVCVKQP GCEJ VKOG

YG YCPV C PGY NCY 5QOGVJKPI OQTG VJCP VJKU KU VTWG PCOGN[ 9KNMKG U TGUWNV VJCV +∆ KU O
Q INQDCNN[ KPVGTRTGVCDNG R KP C VJGQT[ QPEG 3 KU KPVGTRTGVCDNG KP VJCV VJGQT[ $WV 9KNMKG U RTQQH KUO
DG[QPF VJG UEQRG QH VJG RTGUGPV YQTM

1PG VJKPI YG ECPPQV IGV KU GZRQPGPVKCVKQP +V YKNN DG KPUVTWEVKXG VQ EQPUKFGT JQY VJG

CVVGORV VQ IGV KV D[ VJG OGVJQFU WUGF HQT OWNVKRNKECVKQP CPF CFFKVKQP DTGCMU FQYP 9G ECP DGIKP

ϒ[ZY QH VJGTG DGKPI C EQORWVCVKQP QH VJG RQYGT QH [ VQ VJG Z CU Y

D[ FGHKPKPI VJG PQVKQP C PQVKQP

CPF YJGP ∃Yϒ[ZY FGHKPKPI VJCV Y VQ DG VJG RQYGT [ ↑ Z 9G ECP VJGP ECNN Z RQYGTHWN KH HQT CP[

[ VJG RQYGT [ ↑ Z KU FGHKPGF # OQTG QT NGUU UVCPFCTF UGVVJGQTGVKE CTIWOGPV UJQYU VJCV VJG
HQTOWNC GZRTGUUKPI VJCV Z KU RQYGTHWN KU KPFWEVKXG CPF VCMKPI KVU OWNVKRNKECVKXG MGTPGN YG QDVCKP C

OWNVKRNKECVKXG HQTOWNC UWEJ VJCV CNN VJG CZKQOU QH 3 JQNF HQT QDLGEVU HQT YJKEJ VJG HQTOWNC

JQNFU CU DGUKFGU VQ VJG HQNNQYKPI HWTVJGT CZKQOU HQT GZRQPGPVKCVKQP

3 Z ↑   

3 Z ↑ [ 
Z ↑ [ ⋅ Z
 9G CTG PQV JQYGXGT KP C RQUKVKQP VQ UC[ VJCV Z ↑ [ KU RQYGTHWN YJGPGXGT Z CPF [ CTG CP[
OQTG VJCP YG YGTG KP C RQUKVKQP VQ UC[ VJCV Z ⋅ [ KU RTQFWEVKXG YJGP Z CPF [ CTG QT VJCV Z [ KU
UWOOCDNG YJGP Z CPF [ CTG +V KU OQTG QT NGUU ENGCT D[ CPCNQI[ YJCV CWZKNKCT[ NCYU YG YQWNF

YCPV VQ DG CDNG VQ IQ QP CPF IGV C HQTOWNC ENQUGF WPFGT GZRQPGPVKCVKQP KP VJG YC[ VJCV

OWNVKRNKECVKXG HQTOWNCU CTG ENQUGF WPFGT OWNVKRNKECVKQP QT CFFKVKXG HQTOWNCU ENQUGF WPFGT

CFFKVKQP 9G YQWNF YCPV C NCY VJCV GZRQPGPVKCVKQP RTGUGTXGU QTFGT CPF NCYU UVCVKPI JQY

GZRQPGPVKCVKQP FKUVTKDWVGU QXGT CFFKVKQP CPF QXGT OWNVKRNKECVKQP CPF HKPCNN[ CP CUUQEKCVKXG NCY QH

GZRQPGPVKCVKQP #PF VJGTG KU PQ FKHHKEWNV[ QXGT VJG HKTUV VJTGG QH VJGUG

 Y m Z →[↑Y m [ ↑Z

 \ ↑
[ Z 
\ ↑ [ ⋅
\ ↑ Z

 \ ↑
[ ⋅ Z 
\ ↑ [ ↑ Z

$WV GZRQPGPVKCVKQP UKORN[ KUPOV CUUQEKCVKXG

5WRRQUG YG KIPQTG VJKU HCEV CPF IQ QP VQ FGHKPG CP GZRQPGPVKCN MGTPGN φ↑ WUKPI C

FGHKPKVKQP QH VJG HQNNQYKPI HQTO

ψ
Z & ∀[
ψ
[ → ψ
[ ↑ Z

6JGP YG YKNN YCPV VQ OCMG UKZ ENCKOU YJQUG EQPVGPV VJG TGCFGT ECP IWGUU 6JG HKTUV HKXG QH VJGUG

YG YKNN DG CDNG VQ RTQXG WUKPI

3
3 CPF

 6JG NCUV YG YKNN DG WPCDNG VQ RTQXG

DGECWUG VJG CUUQEKCVKXG NCY KU OKUUKPI #NN YG YKNN IGV KU C OWNVKRNKECVKXG HQTOWNC φ↑ KORN[KPI φ
UWEJ VJCV YJGPGXGT φ↑
Z CPF φ↑
[ YG JCXG φ
Z ↑ [ M DWV PQV PGEGUUCTKN[ φ↑
Z ↑ [

/KUEGNNCP[

+P VJKU UGEVKQP + YKNN EQPUKFGT C XCTKGV[ QH U[UVGOU KP VJG IGPGTCN PGKIJDQTJQQF QH VJG
UKORNGUV RTGFKECVKXG U[UVGO 28 KVU FQWDNG RTGFKECVKXG EQORCPKQP 28 CP WP(TGIGCP U[UVGO
VJCV QEJGCVUR D[ JGNRKPI KVUGNH VQ CP KPVWKVKXG PQVKQP QH HKPKVWFG C RTGFKECVKXG U[UVGO 2*2 DCUGF
QP *2 TCVJGT VJCP .CY 8 CPF UQOG EWTKQWU UGEQPFQTFGT UGVVJGQTKGU KP YJKEJ VJG UGVU CTG PQV
QDVCKPGF HTQO EQPEGRVU CU VJGKT GZVGPUKQPU DWV OGTGN[ JCXG EQPEGRVU QHNQCVKPIR QXGT VJGO
C # &QWDNG 2TGFKECVKXG 6JGQT[

.GV WU VWTP HKTUV VQ VJG UGEQPF UKORNGUV MKPF QH RTGFKECVKXG (TGIGCP U[UVGO 28 9G YTKVG
VJG HKTUVTQWPF EQPEGRV XCTKCDNGU    W QH 28 PQY CU    W CPF VJG HWPEVKQP U[ODQN
: ; < : ; <
U CU U  9G CFF UGEQPFTQWPF EQPEGRV XCTKCDNGU
    W CPF C HWPEVKQP U[ODQN U VCMKPI
:
 ; <

VJGO CU CTIWOGPVU YKVJ VJG HQNNQYKPI CFFKVKQPCN XGTUKQPU QH EQORTGJGPUKQP CPF .CY 8

 ∃:∀Z
:Z ↔ φ
Z
RTQXKFGF φ
Z EQPVCKPU PQ DQWPF UGEQPFTQWPF XCTKCDNGU

C U: U ; ↔ ∀\
:\ ↔ ;\

D U:   U ;
 ↔ ∀\
:\ ↔ ;\

+V YKNN DG TGECNNGF VJCV KP 28 YG JCF TCPM\GTQ UGV VGTOU UWEJ CU ] _ DWV PQ TCPMQPG UGV
W

VGTOU UWEJ CU ]  ∃
 ] __ QP CEEQWPV QH VJG TCPM\GTQ VGTOU KPXQNXKPI KORNKEKV
Z W Z W

SWCPVKHKECVKQP QXGT HKTUVTQWPF EQPEGRVU OCMKPI VJG EQORTGJGPUKQP CZKQO QH 28 KPCRRNKECDNG VQ

VJGO 6JG EQORTGJGPUKQP CZKQO QH 28 D[ EQPVTCUV CRRNKECDNG VQ VJGO UQ KP 28 YG FQ IGV
KU

TCPMQPG UGV VGTOU YKVJ VJG HQNNQYKPI XGTUKQP QH

 HQT VJGO

  ]  φ
_  ]  ψ
_ ↔ ∀
φ
 ↔ ψ

Z Z Z Z Z Z Z

*QYGXGT YG FQ PQV IGV TCPMVYQ UGV VGTOU KP 28 DGECWUG HQTOWNCU KPXQNXKPI TCPMQPG UGV
VGTOU KPXQNXG KORNKEKV SWCPVKHKECVKQP QXGT TQWPF EQPEGRVU
UGEQPF

+V VWTPU QWV VJCV CNNQYKPI C UGEQPF TQWPF QH RTGFKECVKXG EQPEGRVU ECP IGV WU QXGT VJG
KORCUUG YG TGCEJGF KP VT[KPI VQ IGV GZRQPGPVKCVKQP +P HCEV HQT VJKU RWTRQUG VJGTG KU PQ PGGF VQ
WUG
 HQT UGEQPFTQWPF EQPEGRVU CV CNN CPF PQ PGGF VQ FQ CP[VJKPI OQTG YKVJ VJG HKTUVTQWPF
EQPEGRVU DG[QPF IGVVKPI VJG UGV VJGQT[ 56 HTQO VJGO 6JG VJGQT[ 256 EQPUKUVKPI QH 56 RNWU
OQPCFKE RTGFKECVKXG UGEQPFQTFGT NQIKE KU KPVGTRTGVCDNG KP 28 WUKPI VJG HKTUV TQWPF EQPEGRVU LWUV
VQ IGV 56 CPF VJGP HQTIGVVKPI CDQWV VJGO CPF OCMKPI PQ WUG QH U #PF + ENCKO 3 KU
KPVGTRTGVCDNG KP 256
+H YG JCXG OQPCFKE RTGFKECVKXG UGEQPFQTFGT NQIKE VJG YJQNG FGXGNQROGPV QH VJG
RTGEGFKPI UGEVKQP ECP DG TGFQPG HQT EQPEGRVU KP RNCEG QH HQTOWNCU # EQPEGRV KU ECNNGF KH KPFWEVKXG

 HCNNU WPFGT KV CPF HCNNU WPFGT KV YJGPGXGT FQGU CPF VJG PQVKQPU
Z Z CPF CPF
QTFGTN[ CFFKVKXG

OWNVKRNKECVKXG CTG UKOKNCTN[ FGHKPGF 6JGP VJG RTQQHU CNTGCF[ QWVNKPGF UJQY VJCV GXGT[ KPFWEVKXG
EQPEGRV  EQPVCKPU C OWNVKRNKECVKXG EQPEGRV   ↑ UWEJ VJCV VJG QDLGEVU HCNNKPI WPFGT 
: ; : ;

UCVKUH[ CNN VJG CZKQOU

3
3 CPF YJGPGXGT  CPF   VJGP 
↑  6JG QPG VJKPI YG
; W ; X : W X

ECP ENCKO KU VJCV  KU

PQV ; KP VJG UGPUG VJCV DGUKFGU DGKPI OWNVKRNKECVKXG  JCU VJG
GZRQPGPVKCN ;

RTQRGTV[ VJCV KH  CPF   VJGP 

↑ 
; W ; X ; W X

*QYGXGT YG CTG KP C RQUKVKQP PQY VQ OCMG QPG FGHKPKVKQP VJCV YG EQWNF PQV OCMG
RTGXKQWUN[ YJGP YG JCF QPN[ 56 CPF HKTUVQTFGT NQIKE 9G ECNN CP QDLGEV C Z KH KV
PCVWTCN PWODGT

HCNNU WPFGT GXGT[ KPFWEVKXG EQPEGRV  6JKU PQVKQP KU GZRTGUUKDNG D[ C HQTOWNC ν

 DWV VJG
: Z

HQTOWNC KU QDXKQWUN[ CP KORTGFKECVKXG QPG KPXQNXKPI SWCPVKHKECVKQP QXGT EQPEGRVU  CPF UQ :

FQGU PQV FGVGTOKPG C EQPEGRV  (QT RWTRQUGU QH HKPFKPI CP KPVGTRTGVCVKQP QH VJG VJGQT[ YKVJ
:

CZKQOU
3
3 VJKU FQGU PQV OCVVGT + ENCKO VJCV VJG HQTOWNC ν
 KU GZRQPGPVKCN Z

6JG XGTKHKECVKQP VJCV  KU C PCVWTCN PWODGT CPF VJCV KH KU C PCVWTCN PWODGT VJGP UQ KU
Z Z

YKNN DG NGHV VQ VJG TGCFGT #U HQT QTFGTNKPGUU NGV DG C PCVWTCN PWODGT CPF   9G YCPV VQ UJQY
Z [ Z

VJCV KU C PCVWTCN PWODGT 9JCV YG PGGF VQ FQ KU EQPUKFGT CP[ KPFWEVKXG  CPF UJQY VJCV HCNNU
[ : [

WPFGT  6Q VJKU GPF EQPUKFGT CP[ QTFGTN[  EQPVCKPGF KP 

9G EQWNF JCXG    QT
: ; : ; :

;
  ↑ HQT KPUVCPEG 5KPEG KU C PCVWTCN PWODGT CPF  KU KPFWEVKXG HCNNU WPFGT  CPF UKPEG
: Z ; Z ;

;
 KU QTFGTN[ CPF   HCNNU WPFGT  CPF UKPEG  KU EQPVCKPGF KP  HCNNU WPFGT  CU
[ Z [ ; ; : [ :

TGSWKTGF #FFKVKXG CPF OWNVKRNKECVKXG ENQUWTG YKNN DG NGHV VQ VJG TGCFGT #U HQT GZRQPGPVKCN ENQUWTG
NGV CPF DG PCVWTCN PWODGTU 9G YCPV VQ UJQY VJCV ↑
KU FGHKPGF CPF KU C PCVWTCN PWODGT
W X W X

9JCV YG PGGF VQ FQ KU EQPUKFGT CP[ KPFWEVKXG  CPF UJQY VJCV ↑ HCNNU WPFGT  6Q VJKU GPF
: W X :

EQPUKFGT   ↑ 5KPEG CPF CTG PCVWTCN PWODGTU CPF  KU KPFWEVKXG CPF DQVJ HCNN WPFGT
; : W X ; W X

;
 $WV VJGP D[ FGHKPKVKQP QH   ↑ KV HQNNQYU VJCV ↑ HCNNU WPFGT  CU TGSWKTGF VQ EQORNGVG
; : W X :

VJG RTQQH
6JG VJGQT[ 3 CFFU ∆KPFWEVKQP VQ
3
3 *C\GP QDUGTXGF
KP C UNKIJVN[ FKHHGTGPV
EQPVGZV VJCV CNNQYKPI C UGEQPF TQWPF QH RTGFKECVKXG EQPEGRVU CU YG JCXG FQPG RGTOKVU C
EQORCTCVKXGN[ GCU[ FGTKXCVKQP QH ∆KPFWEVKQP M C GCU[ FGTKXCVKQP EQORCTGF VQ 9KNMKGOU
XGT[

RTQQH
.GV WU HKTUV IGV ENGCT YJCV YG CTG VT[KPI VQ RTQXG # ∆KPFWEVKQP CZKQO KP IGPGTCN NQQMU
NKMG VJKU

 ∀W
φ
 W  ∀Z
φ
Z W → φ
Z  W → ∀Zφ
Z W

YJGTG φ KU C ∆ HQTOWNC 6JG HQTOWNC φ KU DWKNV WR HTQO GSWCVKQPU CPF KPGSWCNKVKGU  CPF  V U V U

DGVYGGP VGTOU VJGOUGNXGU DWKNV WR HTQO XCTKCDNGU WUKPI  CPF CPF CPF ⋅ CPF ↑ WUKPI PGICVKQP

EQPLWPEVKQP FKULWPEVKQP EQPFKVKQPCN DKEQPFKVKQPCN CPF SWCPVKHKECVKQPU

DQWPFGF

9JCV
 NQQMU NKMG YJGP TGNCVKXK\GF KU VJKU

  ∀W
ν
W →
φν
 W  ∀Z
ν
Z →
φν
Z W → φν
Z  W →
∀Z
ν
Z → φν
Z W

YJGTGKP VJG UWRGTUETKRV ν KPFKECVGU TGNCVKXK\CVKQP QH VJG SWCPVKHKGTU KP φ 6JG ETWEKCN QDUGTXCVKQP KU
VJG QH ∆ HQTOWNCU CNTGCF[ FKUEWUUGF KP VJG RTGEGFKPI UGEVKQP CEEQTFKPI VQ YJKEJ
CDUQNWVGPGUU

YG CEVWCNN[ FQPOV JCXG VQ YQTT[ CDQWV TGNCVKXK\KPI VJG SWCPVKHKGTU KP φ DGECWUG YG JCXG VJG
HQNNQYKPI

 ν
[  ν
\ →
φν
[ \ ↔ φ
[ \

)KXGP VJG RTKPEKRNG QH CDUQNWVGPGUU YJCV YG PGGF VQ RTQXG KU VJGP PQV

  DWV LWUV VJG
HQNNQYKPI


∀
ν
W →
φ
 W  ∀
ν
 →
φ
 W → φ
 W →
W Z Z Z Z

∀
ν
 → φ
 W
Z Z Z

QT TGXGTVKPI VQ VJG RTCEVKEG QH UWRRTGUUKPI RCTCOGVGTU VJG HQNNQYKPI

  φ
  ∀Z
ν
Z →
φ
Z → φ
Z  → ∀Z
ν
Z → φ
Z

5Q CUUWOG φ JQNFU HQT \GTQ CPF HQT VJG UWEEGUUQT QH CP[ PCVWTCN PWODGT HQT YJKEJ KV JQNFU
CPF NGV DG CP[ PCVWTCN PWODGT 9G PGGF VQ RTQXG φ JQNFU HQT  6Q VJKU GPF NGV ψ
 DG VJG
Z Z Y

HQNNQYKPI HQTOWNC

 Y m Z → φ
Y

+V YKNN UWHHKEG VQ RTQXG VJCV ψ

 JQNFU HQT CNN PCVWTCN PWODGTU  CPF HQT VJKU KV YKNN UWHHKEG VQ
Y Y

UJQY VJCV ψ
 KU CP KPFWEVKXG HQTOWNC UKPEG VJKU HQTOWNC ψ
 M WPNKMG HQT KPUVCPEG VJG
Y Y

HQTOWNC ν
 → φ
 YJKEJ KPXQNXGU VJG PQVKQP QH PCVWTCN PWODGT M KPXQNXGU PQ SWCPVKHKECVKQP
Z Z

QXGT UGEQPFTQWPF EQPEGRVU CPF VJGTGHQTG FGVGTOKPGU C UGEQPFTQWPF EQPEGRV YJKEJ YKNN DG CP
KPFWEVKXG EQPEGRV KH VJG HQTOWNC KU CP KPFWEVKXG HQTOWNC CPF YJKEJ KP VJCV ECUG YKNN JCXG GXGT[
PCVWTCN PWODGT HCNNKPI WPFGT KV
0QY ψ
 JQNFU UKPEG YG CTG CUUWOKPI φ
 5Q UWRRQUG ψ
 JQNFU VQ RTQXG ψ

Y Y

JQNFU 6JGTG KU PQVJKPI VQ RTQXG WPNGUU m  KP YJKEJ ECUG m CPF KU VJGTGHQTG C PCVWTCN
Y Z Y Z

PWODGT CPF OQTGQXGT C PCVWTCN PWODGT HQT YJKEJ φ

 JQNFU UKPEG ψ
 FQGU $WV VJGP φ

Y Y Y

JQNFU CPF JGPEG ψ

 JQNFU UKPEG YG CTG CUUWOKPI φ JQNFU HQT VJG UWEEGUUQT QH CP[ PCVWTCN
Y

PWODGT HQT YJKEJ KV JQNFU 6JKU EQORNGVGU VJG RTQQH

#U VQ VJG RTQQH RTQXGU KV OC[ DG UVCVGF CU HQNNQYU YTKVKPI 256 HQT OQPCFKE
YJCV

RTGFKECVKXG UGEQPFQTFGT NQIKE YKVJ 56

&QWDN[ 'ZVGPFGF 5\OKGNGY6CTUMK 6JGQTGO -CNOCT CTKVJOGVKE KU KPVGTRTGVCDNG KP 256
D #P 7P(TGIGCP &KITGUUKQP
 .GV OG PQY FKITGUU C OQOGPV .QIKEKCPU JCXG UQOGVKOGU EQPUKFGTGF GPTKEJKPI HKTUVQTFGT
NQIKE YKVJ C PGY SWCPVKHKGT # KPVGPFGF VQ OGCP QVJGTG GZKUV QPN[ HKPKVGN[ OCP[ R 6JG HQNNQYKPI
Z Z

VJTGG RTKPEKRNGU UGGO GXKFGPV QP UWEJ CP WPFGTUVCPFKPI QH VJG PQVCVKQP

( `∃ φ
 → # φ

Z Z Z Z

( # φ
 → #
φ
 ∨  
Z Z Z Z Z [

( # φ
  ∀
ψ
 → φ
 → # ψ

Z Z Z Z Z Z Z

+H QPG JCU PQ VJKPIU QPG JCU QPN[ HKPKVGN[ OCP[ VJKPIU +H QPG JCU HKPKVGN[ OCP[ VJKPIU CPF QPG
OQTG QPG JCU QPN[ HKPKVGN[ OCP[ VJKPIU +H QPG JCU UQOG VJKPIU HTQO COQPI HKPKVGN[ OCP[ VJKPIU
QPG JCU QPN[ HKPKVGN[ OCP[ VJKPIU
+H QPG YCPVGF VQ FGXGNQR C VJGQT[ QH
CNN CPF QPN[ HKPKVG UGVU WUKPI VJG PGY SWCPVKHKGT VJG
QDXKQWU YC[ VQ RTQEGGF YQWNF DG VQ KPVTQFWEG U[ODQNU ² CPF ∈ HQT UGV CPF GNGOGPV CPF KP
CFFKVKQP VQ VJG CZKQO QH GZVGPUKQPCNKV[ C UKPING UGVGZKUVGPEG CZKQO
UEJGOG CU HQNNQYU

 ∃[
²[  ∀Z
Z ∈ [ ↔ φ
Z ↔ #Z φ
Z

6JG VJKPIU HQT YJKEJ φ JQNFU HQTO C UGV KH CPF QPN[ KH VJGTG CTG QPN[ HKPKVGN[ OCP[ QH VJGO
6JTGG UGV GZKUVGPEG CZKQOU HQNNQY KOOGFKCVGN[ EQTTGURQPFKPI VQ VJG VJTGG NCYU
(
(
6YQ QH VJGUG YG JCXG CNTGCF[ UGGP VJG PWNN UGV CPF CFLWPEVKQP CZKQOU QH 56 EQTTGURQPFKPI VQ

( CPF
( 6JG QVJGT KU VJG CZKQO UEJGOG QH <GTOGNQOU CZKQO QH UGRCTCVKQP KP VJG HQNNQYKPI
HQTO

 ∀[(²[ → ∃\
²\  ∀Z
Z ∈ \ ↔ Z ∈ [  ψ
Z

6CMKPI FQYP VJG UECHHQNFKPI QH VJG PGY SWCPVKHKGT NGV WU LWUV EQPUKFGT VJG HKTUVQTFGT UGV VJGQT[
56< EQPUKUVKPI QH 56 RNWU

6JG PGZV TGUWNV KU YGNNMPQYP VQ URGEKCNKUVU 6JGTG KU JQYGXGT PQ IGPGTCNN[ CITGGF
CVVTKDWVKQP HQT VJG TGUWNV KP SWGUVKQP YJKEJ RNCEGU KV KP VJG ECVGIQT[ ECNNGF OCVJGOCVKECN
QHQNMNQTGR
(QNM 6JGQTGO (KTUVQTFGT 2GCPQ CTKVJOGVKE KU KPVGTRTGVCDNG KP 56<
6JG OCEJKPGT[ FGXGNQRGF CV VJG DGIKPPKPI QH VJG RTQQH QH VJG VJGQTGO CDQWV VJG KPVGTRTGVCDKNKV[
QH 3 RGTOKVU C RTQQH QH VJKU HCEV TGSWKTKPI NKVVNG CFFKVKQPCN YQTM .GV WU VJKPM QH VJCV RTQQH
GURGEKCNN[ CU KV CRRNKGU VQ 56 UQ VJG 4 CPF : CTG LWUV EGTVCKP UGVU (QNNQY VJG RTQQH FQYP VQ VJG
KPVTQFWEVKQP QH VJG PQVKQP QH QTFGTN[ MGTPGN
 m
0GZV YG PGGF UQOG CWZKNKCTKGU (KTUV + ENCKO VJG HQTOWNC  Z KU KPFWEVKXG 6JG GCU[
RTQQH KU NGHV VQ VJG TGCFGT 5GEQPF + ENCKO VJG HQNNQYKPI HQTOWNC KU CNUQ KPFWEVKXG

 ∃W∀[
[ ∈ W ↔ [ m 
Z

0QVG VJCV KH UWEJ C W GZKUVU KV KU WPKSWG D[ GZVGPUKQPCNKV[ YG OC[ VJGP ECNN KV KP YQTFU VJG
UGIOGPV WR VQ Z CPF KP U[ODQNU =Z? 6Q UJQY VJCV =Z? GZKUVU YJKEJ KU VQ UC[ VJCV
 JQNFU HQT

Z   PQVG VJCV D[
3 YG JCXG =?  ]_ 6Q UJQY =Z ? GZKUVU KH =Z? GZKUVU PQVG VJCV D[
3

YG JCXG =Z ?  =Z? @ Z 
6JKTF HQT C IKXGP Z YG OC[ UC[ VJCV C UGV W KU KPFWEVKXG WR VQ Z KH  ∈ W CPF Y ∈ W
m
YJGPGXGT Y ∈ W CPF Y Z %CNN Z KPFWEVKDNG KH Z ∈ W HQT GXGT[ W VJCV KU KPFWEVKXG WR VQ Z + ENCKO
VJG HQTOWNC GZRTGUUKPI KPFWEVKDKNKV[ KU KPFWEVKXG 6JCV  KU KPFWEVKDNG KU KOOGFKCVG HTQO VJG
FGHKPKVKQP QH KPFWEVKXG WR VQ Z 5WRRQUKPI Z KU KPFWEVKDNG KV OC[ DG UJQYP VJCV Z KU KPFWEVKDNG CU
HQNNQYU .GV W DG CP[ UGV VJCV KU KPFWEVKXG WR VQ Z  9G HKTUV UJQY W KU CNUQ KPFWEVKDNG WR VQ Z #PF
m m
KPFGGF YG JCXG  ∈ W CPF OQTGQXGT KH Y ∈ W CPF Y Z VJGP D[
3 YG JCXG Y Z  CPF UQ
Y ∈ W UKPEG W YCU KPFWEVKXG WR VQ Z  5KPEG W KU VJWU KPFWEVKXG WR VQ Z CPF Z KU KPFWEVKDNG YG JCXG

m
Z ∈ W $WV VJGP UKPEG W KU KPFWEVKXG WR VQ Z CPF Z Z  YG JCXG Z ∈ W VQ EQORNGVG VJG RTQQH

.GV PQY δ
Z DG VJG QTFGTN[ MGTPGN QH VJG EQPLWPEVKQP QH VJG VJTGG CWZKNKCT[ HQTOWNCU LWUV
UJQYP VQ DG KPFWEVKXG CPF ECNN VJG QDLGEVU HQT YJKEJ δ
Z JQNFU PCVWTCN PWODGTU 5KPEG δ
Z KU
QTFGTN[  KU C PCVWTCN PWODGT Z KU C PCVWTCN PWODGT YJGPGXGT Z KU CPF Y KU C PCVWTCN PWODGT
m m
YJGPGXGT Z KU CPF Y Z #NUQ HQT CP[ PCVWTCN PWODGT YG JCXG  Z =Z? GZKUVU CPF Z KU
KPFWEVKDNG
0QY NGV φ
Z DG CP[ HQTOWNC UWEJ VJCV φ
 JQNFU CPF UWEJ VJCV KH φ
Z JQNFU CPF Z KU C
PCVWTCN PWODGT VJGP φ
Z  JQNFU + ENCKO VJCV φ
Z JQNFU HQT GXGT[ PCVWTCN PWODGT Z 6JG TGCUQPKPI
KU PQV FKUUKOKNCT VQ VJCV KP VJG RTQQH QH ∆KPFWEVKQP KP VJG RTGEGFKPI UWDUGEVKQP 6Q UGG φ
Z JQNFU
HQT GXGT[ PCVWTCN PWODGT Z NGV Z DG CP[ PCVWTCN PWODGT CPF CRRN[ UGRCTCVKQP VQ =Z? VQ QDVCKP C UGV
W UWEJ VJCV HQT CNN Y YG JCXG

 Y ∈W↔Y m Z  φ
Y

m
+ ENCKO W KU KPFWEVKXG WR VQ Z 9G JCXG  ∈ W UKPEG Z KU C PCVWTCN PWODGT CPF VJGTGHQTG  Z CPF
m
UKPEG φ
 D[ QWT J[RQVJGUKU CDQWV φ 5WRRQUG YG JCXG Y ∈ W CPF Y Z 6Q RTQXG Y ∈ W HKTUV
m m
PQVG VJCV UKPEG Y ∈ W YG JCXG φ
Y 6JGP PQVG VJCV UKPEG Y Y Z CPF Z KU C PCVWTCN PWODGT
UQ CTG Y CPF Y 6JGTGHQTG φ
Y  JQNFU D[ QWT J[RQVJGUKU CDQWV φ CPF JGPEG Y ∈ W CU TGSWKTGF VQ
UJQY W KPFWEVKXG WR VQ Z 5KPEG Z KU KPFWEVKDNG YG JCXG Z ∈ W CPF VJGTGHQTG φ
Z
6JWU VJG HWNN WPTGUVTKEVGF RTKPEKRNG QH OCVJGOCVKECN KPFWEVKQP HQT CNN HQTOWNCU QH VJG
NCPIWCIG CRRNKGU VQ PCVWTCN PWODGTU 9JCV YGTG KP VJG RTQQH QH VJG KPVGTRTGVCDKNKV[ QH 3 OGTGN[
RTQQHU VJCV EGTVCKP HQTOWNCU CTG KPFWEVKXG PQY DGEQOG RTQQHU VJCV EGTVCKP NCYU JQNF HQT PCVWTCN
PWODGTU 6JGUG NCYU KPENWFG DGUKFGU VJG HCEVU HTQO YJKEJ YG UVCTVGF VJCV \GTQ KU PQV C UWEEGUUQT
CPF VJCV VJG UWEEGUUQT HWPEVKQP KU QPGVQQPG VJG HCEV VJCV UWOU CPF RTQFWEVU QDG[KPI VJG
TGEWTUKQP GSWCVKQPU
3
3 GZKUV $WV VJQUG NCYU VQIGVJGT YKVJ KPFWEVKQP CTG CNN VJG CZKQOU QH
2
6JG KFGC QH UQOGJQY WUKPI CP KPVWKVKXG PQVKQP HKPKVWFG CU C HQWPFCVKQP HQT HKTUVQTFGT
CTKVJOGVKE
CPF KP RCTVKEWNCT VQ GXCFG VJG MKPF QH NKOKVCVKQPU QH RTGFKECVKXG CRRTQCEJGU VJCV YKNN
DG GUVCDNKUJGF KP VJG PGZV UGEVKQPU VWTPU WR KP UGXGTCN FKHHGTGPV IWKUGU KP VJG TGEGPV NKVGTCVWTG QP
HQWPFCVKQPU QH OCVJGOCVKEU + HGGN KV YQWNF DG QWV QH RNCEG JQYGXGT KP VJG RTGUGPV OQPQITCRJ
QP PGQ(TGIGCPKUO VQ UWTXG[ VJKU NKVGTCVWTG QT GNCDQTCVG HWTVJGT VJCP + JCXG CNTGCF[ FQPG (QT KV
UGGOU ENGCT VQ OG VJCV PQ KFGC EQWNF DG OQTG PQP WP CPF CPVK(TGIGCP VJCP VJCV QH JGNRKPI
QPGUGNH VQ KPVWKVKQPU CDQWV HKPKVWFG CU CZKQOU PQV RTQXGF CU VJGQTGOU HTQO NQIKECN CZKQOU CPF C
UWKVCDNG FGHKPKVKQP QH HKPKVWFG

E 2TGFKECVKXKV[ CPF *WOGOU 2TKPEKRNG

.GV WU PGZV RGGM CJGCF DTKGHN[ CV C UWDLGEV VJCV YKNN DG VTGCVGF OQTG HWNN[ KP VJG PGZV
EJCRVGT 0GQ(TGIGCP VJGQTKGU VJCV FKURGPUG YKVJ GZVGPUKQPU CPF VCMG VJGKT UVCTV HTQO *WOG U O
RTKPEKRNG CTG RTKOCTKN[ C VQRKE HQT VJCV EJCRVGT JQYGXGT KV KU PCVWTCN VQ EQPUKFGT RTGFKECVKXG
XGTUKQPU QT XCTKCPVU QH UWEJ CP CRRTQCEJ JGTG
#EVWCNN[ + YKNN EQPUKFGT QPN[ VJG UKORNGUV KOCIKPCDNG CRRTQCEJ QH VJKU MKPF 9G JCXG
W W
VJTGG UV[NGU QH XCTKCDNGU Z [ \ HQT QDLGEVU CPF : ; < HQT HKTUVTQWPF RTGFKECVKXG
Q R W
EQPEGRVU JGPEGHQTVJ LWUV ECNNGF EQPEGRVU  CPF 4 5 6 HQT HKTUVTQWPF RTGFKECVKXG VYQRNCEG
Q R
TGNCVKQPCN EQPEGRVU JGPEGHQTVJ LWUV ECNNGF TGNCVKQPU  9G JCXG VJG KFGPVKV[ U[ODQN  HQT QDLGEVU
CPF VJG PWODGT U[ODQN  YJKEJ CRRNKGU VQ CP[ XCTKCDNG QH V[RG : VQ HQTO C VGTO : VJCV ECP DG
UWDUVKVWVGF HQT XCTKCDNGU QH V[RG Z
6JGTG CTG LWUV VJTGG CZKQOU RTGFKECVKXG EQORTGJGPUKQP HQT EQPEGRVU CPF TGNCVKQPU CPF
O
*WOG U RTKPEKRNG CU HQNNQYU

 ∃:∀Z
:Z ↔ φ
Z
YJGTG φ
Z EQPVCKPU PQ DQWPF EQPEGRV XCTKCDNGU

 ∃4∀Z∀[
4Z[ ↔ ψ
Z [
YJGTG ψ
Z [ EQPVCKPU PQ DQWPF EQPEGRV XCTKCDNGU

 :  ; ↔ : ≈ ;
 O
.GV OG ECNN VJKU UKORNG RTGFKECVKXG U[UVGO YKVJ *WOG U RTKPEKRNG 2*2 D[ CPCNQI[ YKVJ
28 + ENCKO VJCV VJG VYQUQTVGF U[UVGO YKVJ CZKQOU
3
3
4
4 ECP DG KPVGTRTGVGF KP
2*2 CPF JGPEG VJCV 3 ECP DG
#U C RTGNKOKPCT[ UGXGTCN PQVKQPU CPF PQVCVKQPU RGTVCKPKPI VQ EQPEGRVU CPF TGNCVKQPU VJCV
YKNN DG WUGF DGNQY CTG EQNNGEVGF KP 6#$.'5 * CPF +
0QVG VJCV VJG GORV[ TGNCVKQP CPF CFLWPEVKQP HQT TGNCVKQPU KOOGFKCVGN[ IKXG WU CZKQOU
4
CPF
4 5Q KV QPN[ TGOCKPU VQ IKXG FGHKPKVKQPU QH  CPF CPF HKPF UQOG HQTOWNC φ(Z UWEJ VJCV
CZKQOU
3 CPF
3 JQNF HQT CNN QDLGEVU HQT YJKEJ φ JQNFU
6JKU COQWPVU VQ KPVGTRTGVKPI 7756
KP 2*2 /WEJ QH VJG YQTM JCU DGGP FQPG HQT WU D[ (TGIG 9G OC[ HQNNQY JKO KP FGHKPKPI \GTQ
CPF KOOGFKCVG UWEEGUUKQP DWV OWUV FGRCTV HTQO JKO KP FGHKPKPI QTFGT

   «

 Z[ ↔ ∃:∃Y
Z  :  `:Y  [  
: @ Y

 Z  [ ↔ ∃:∃;
Z  :  : ⊂ ;  [  ;

+ YTKVG  HQT VJG CWZKNKCT[ PQVKQP QH QTFGT PGGFGF HQT VJG HQNNQYKPI EQPUVTWEVKQP VQ NGCXG QRGP VJG
EQPPGEVKQP QH VJKU CWZKNKCT[ TGNCVKQP  VQ CP[ QTFGT TGNCVKQP  QPG OC[ KPVTQFWEG NCVGT QPEG YG
JCXG HQWPF CP KPVGTRTGVCVKQP QH 3
O
9G ECP WUG (TGIG U RTQQH HQT VJG HQNNQYKPI HCEV

 Z[  Z\ → [  \

6JG RTQQH TWPU CU HQNNQYU )KXGP Z  :  : CPF Y CPF Y YKVJ `:Y CPF `:Y CPF [ 

: @ Y CPF \ 
: @ Y VJGP UKPEG :  : VJGTG KU C QPGVQQPG EQTTGURQPFGPEG 4 UWEJ
VJCV : ≈4 : CPF YJCV YG PGGF VQ UJQY KU VJCV VJGTG KU C QPGVQQPG EQTTGURQPFGPEG 5 UWEJ VJCV
: @ Y ≈5 : @ Y YJKEJ YKNN UJQY [  \ 5WEJ CP 5 KU RTQXKFGF D[ 4 @ 〈 Y Y〉  6JG FGVCKNU +

CO NGCXKPI VQ VJG TGCFGT JGTG

CPF CV EQTTGURQPFKPI RNCEGU DGNQY CTG VJQUG QH VJG XGTKHKECVKQP
VJCV 5 KU KPFGGF C QPGVQQPG EQTTGURQPFGPEG KH 4 KU
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OQFGN KPENWFG CNN UWDUGVU QH VJG FQOCKP QH VJG QDLGEV XCTKCDNGU #P ∈OQFGN QH VJKU MKPF YJGTG

VJG FQOCKP QH VJG :XCTKCDNGU DG VJG HWNN RQYGT UGV QT UGV QH CNN UWDUGVU QH VJG FQOCKP QH VJG QDLGEV

XCTKCDNGU KU ECNNGF C UVCPFCTF OQFGN CPF KU C OQFGN QH HWNN KORTGFKECVKXG EQORTGJGPUKQP

6Q TGVWTP PQY VQ VJG EQPUGTXCVKXGPGUU ENCKO UVCVGF CDQXG NGV 6 DG C HKTUVQTFGT VJGQT[ +

HKTUV ENCKO VJCV KH 6 KU EQPUKUVGPV VJGP VJG TGUWNV 6 QH CFFKPI HWNN KORTGFKECVKXG UGEQPFQTFGT

NQIKE VQ 6 KU CNUQ EQPUKUVGPV (QT KH 6 KU EQPUKUVGPV D[ VJG )ÑFGN EQORNGVGPGUU VJGQTGO KV JCU C

OQFGN #U LWUV GZRNCKPGF VJKU OQFGN ECP DG VWTPGF KPVQ C OQFGN QH 6 M C UVCPFCTF OQFGN 5KPEG
6 VJWU JCU C OQFGN KV KU EQPUKUVGPV CU ENCKOGF 6JG EQPUGTXCVKXGPGUU TGUWNV HQNNQYU KOOGFKCVGN[

HTQO VJG EQPUKUVGPE[ TGUWNV (QT KH φ KU C HQTOWNC QH VJG NCPIWCIG QH 6 VJCV KU PQV RTQXCDNG KP 6
VJGP 6 `φ KU EQPUKUVGPV CPF CRRN[KPI VJG EQPUKUVGPE[ TGUWNV VQ KV KV HQNNQYU VJCV 6 `φ KU

EQPUKUVGPV CPF φ KU PQV RTQXCDNG KP 6 

6JG HQTGIQKPI CTIWOGPV OC[ HKTUV JCXG DGGP OCFG D[ *CQ 9CPI YJQ EQPUKFGTGF UGXGTCN

GZCORNGU QH C VJGQT[ 6 EQPUKUVKPI QH HWNN KORTGFKECVKXG OQPCFKE UGEQPFQTFGT NQIKE QHNQCVKPIR

QXGT C HKTUVQTFGT UGV VJGQT[ 6

+PFGGF YG OC[ ECNN UWEJ VJGQTKGU CU 6 9CPIUV[NG UGV VJGQTKGU

YKVJ CV NGCUV CU OWEJ LWUVKEG CU YG ECP ECNN VJGO \KI\CI VJGQTKGU

6JG DGUVMPQYP 9CPIUV[NG UGV VJGQT[ KU KPFGGF QPG DCUGF QP C EQPUKFGTCDN[ UVTQPIGT

WPFGTN[KPI HKTUVQTFGT UGV VJGQT[ VJCP CP[ QH VJG YGCM QPGU YG JCXG EQPUKFGTGF JGTG +V KU

UGEQPFQTFGT UGV VJGQT[ VJCV 9CPI RTQRQUGF CU C TGRNCEGOGPV HQT VJG KPEQPUKUVGPV U[UVGO /.

KPVTQFWEGF KP VJG HKTUV GFKVKQP QH 3WKPGOU /CVJGOCVKECN .QIKE +P VJKU ECUG VJG HKTUVQTFGT UGV

VJGQT[ KU 3WKPGOU U[UVGO 0( QT Q0GY (QWPFCVKQPUR 

0( JCU KPVGTGUVGF C PWODGT QH YTKVGTU DGECWUG KV CNNQYU HQT C WPKXGTUCN UGV M KP VJKU
TGURGEV KV KU C \KI\CI TCVJGT VJCP C NKOKVCVKQP QH UK\G VJGQT[ M VJQWIJ YG JCXG UGGP C EQWRNG QH
QVJGT UKORNGT UGV VJGQTKGU 2( CPF 72( VJCV FQ UQ CU YGNN CPF YKNN UGG CPQVJGT KP VJG PGZV EJCRVGT

6JG KFGC WPFGTN[KPI VJG EJQKEG QH GZKUVGPEG CZKQOU KP 0( KU WP(TGIGCP /QTGQXGT HQT 0( VJG

EQPUKUVGPE[ QH VJG U[UVGO TGOCKPU KP UGTKQWU FQWDV VQ VJKU FC[

+V JCU PQV DGGP RTQXGF EQPUKUVGPV

TGNCVKXG VQ CP[ VJGQT[ KP YJQUG EQPUKUVGPE[ VJGTG KU CP[ XGT[ IGPGTCN EQPHKFGPEG COQPI

URGEKCNKUVU (QT VJGUG TGCUQPU + YKNN NGCXG 0( CPF OQTG IGPGTCNN[ 9CPIUV[NG UGV VJGQTKGU CPF

VJG \KI\CI KFGC CUKFG JGTG CPF TGVWTP VQ VJG RTQRGT UWDLGEV QH VJKU EJCRVGT RTGFKECVKXG VJGQTKGU

%QPUKUVGPE[/QFGN6JGQTGVKE2TQQHU

1PG OKIJV YGNN JQRG VJCV KH QPG TQWPF QH RTGFKECVKXG EQPEGRVU IGVU WU 0GNUQP9KNMKG

CTKVJOGVKE 3 YKVJ CFFKVKQP CPF OWNVKRNKECVKQP CPF KH VYQ TQWPFU IGVU WU -CNOCT CTKVJOGVKE 3
YKVJ GZRQPGPVKCVKQP VJGP VJTGG TQWPFU YQWNF IGV WU )GPV\GP CTKVJOGVKE 3 YKVJ

UWRGTGZRQPGPVKCVKQP CPF VJCV KH YG EQPVKPWGF VJTQWIJ VJG YJQNG JKGTCTEJ[ QH C TCOKHKGF

RTGFKECVKXG VJGQT[ YG YQWNF IGV CNN RTKOKVKXG TGEWTUKXG HWPEVKQPU 0QVJKPI QH VJG UQTV KU VJG ECUG

HQT C TGCUQP
RQKPVGF QWV VQ VJG CWVJQT KP C FKHHGTGPV EQPVGZV D[ 5CWN -TKRMG VJCV KU ENQUGN[

EQPPGEVGF YKVJ VJG TGCUQP YJ[ + JCXG CVVCEJGF )GPV\GPOU PCOG VQ 3

6JG TGCUQP KU UKORN[ VJKU VJCV VJG EQPUKUVGPE[ QH VJG VJGQTKGU 28 CPF 28 CPF VJG

CPCNQIQWU 28 28 W CU YGNN CU VJCV QH VJG VJGQTKGU KP VJG RCTCNNGN UGTKGU DGIKPPKPI YKVJ 2*2
ECP DG RTQXGF WUKPI QHKPKVKUVKER RTQQHVJGQTGVKE OGVJQFU RKQPGGTGF D[ )GPV\GP YJKEJ CTG MPQYP

VQ DG HQTOCNK\CDNG KP 3  $WV )ÑFGNOU UGEQPF EQORNGVGPGUU VJGQTGO UC[U TQWIJN[ URGCMKPI VJCV


PQ EQPUKUVGPV VJGQT[ 6 ECP RTQXG KVU QYP EQPUKUVGPE[ CPF KORNKGU VJCV PQ VJGQT[ VJCV KU

KPVGTRTGVCDNG KP 6 ECP RTQXG VJG EQPUKUVGPE[ QH 6 +V HQNNQYU VJCV KH VJG EQPUKUVGPE[ QH C VJGQT[ 6

ECP DG RTQXGF KP 3M VJGP VJG 3O HQT O n M ECPPQV DG KPVGTRTGVGF KP 6 +P VJKU YC[ YG IGV WRRGT
DQWPFU QP JQY NCTIG C HTCIOGPV QH CTKVJOGVKE ECP DG KPVGTRTGVGF KP QWT RTGFKECVKXG (TGIGCP

U[UVGOU

+P VJKU UGEVKQP + YKNN FGUETKDG QKPHKPKUVKER OQFGNVJGQTGVKE EQPUKUVGPE[ RTQQHU HQT VJG
XCTKQWU RTGFKECVKXG (TGIGCP U[UVGOU KP VJG PGZV + YKNN FGUETKDG YJCV PGGFU VQ DG FQPG VQ EQPXGTV

VJGUG KPVQ QHKPKVKUVKER RTQQHVJGQTGVKE EQPUKUVGPE[ RTQQHU /[ IQCN KP VJKU UGEVKQP YKNN DG VQ
FGUETKDG OQFGNU HQT VJG UGEQPFQTFGT VJGQTKGU 28 CPF 28 D[ C OGVJQF VJCV QDXKQWUN[ ECP DG

GZVGPFGF VQ 28 CPF DG[QPF #U HQT 2*2 KV KU C UWDVJGQT[ QH HWNN KORTGFKECVKXG UGEQPFQTFGT

NQIKE RNWU *2 M C U[UVGO QHVGP ECNNGF (TGIG CTKVJOGVKE M HQT YJKEJ C UKORNG OQFGNVJGQTGVKE
EQPUKUVGPE[ RTQQH YKNN DG FKUEWUUGF KP VJG PGZV EJCRVGT

6JG EQPUKUVGPE[ QH 28 CPF 28 YKNN DG RTQXGF KP VJKU UGEVKQP D[ RTQXKPI VJG EQPUKUVGPE[

QH EGTVCKP CUUQEKCVGF KORTGFKECVKXG VJGQTKGU ℘8 CPF ℘ 

8 YJKEJ + OWUV PQY KPVTQFWEG +V KU

EQPXGPKGPV VQ VJKPM QH ℘8 CU DGKPI QDVCKPGF KP VYQ UVCIGU (KTUV NGV .  DG VJG NCPIWCIG YKVJ

QDLGEV XCTKCDNGU Z [ \ W CPF HKTUVTQWPF EQPEGRVXCTKCDNGU : 

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W CPF LWUV VJG KFGPVKV[
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KORTGFKECVKXG EQORTGJGPUKQP UEJGOG

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: Z ↔ φ
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Z KU C HQTOWNC QH . 

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Z KU RGTOKVVGF VQ EQPVCKP DQWPF HKTUVTQWPF EQPEGRV XCTKCDNGU
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HQNNQYU HTQO CP KPUVCPEG VJCV FQGU PQV (QT KH VJGTG CTG PQ DQWPF

EQPEGRVXCTKCDNGU KP φ
Z W 9  YJGTG

W UVCPFU HQT C UVTKPI QH QDLGEV RCTCOGVGTU WK CPF 9 
HQT C

UVTKPI QH EQPEGRV RCTCOGVGTU 9 K


VJG QPN[ YC[ U 
ECP CRRGCT KU CVVCEJGF VQ VJG 9 K

6CMG OQTG

QDLGEV XCTKCDNGU XK CPF TGRNCEG GCEJ QEEWTTGPEG QH U

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D[ XK VQ QDVCKP C HQTOWNC ψ
Z WX9
  


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UVTGPIVJGPGF XGTUKQP QH


  ∃: ∀Z
: Z ↔ φ
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Z KU C HQTOWNC QH .  VJCV

GKVJGT EQPVCKPU PQ DQWPF EQPEGRVXCTKCDNGU : 


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QT FQGU PQV EQPVCKP VJG U[ODQN U 

6JKU UVTGPIVJGPGF XGTUKQP

  KPENWFGU VJG EQORTGJGPUKQP UEJGOG HQT 28 YJKEJ CNNQYU PQ

DQWPF EQPEGRV XCTKCDNGU

6JG KPUVCPEG QH EQORTGJGPUKQP VJCV IQV (TGIG KPVQ VTQWDNG KV YKNN DG TGECNNGF YCU HQT

∃:
Z  U:  `:Z 6JKU VTQWDNGUQOG KPUVCPEG KPXQNXGU DQVJ C DQWPF EQPEGRVXCTKCDNG CPF CP
QEEWTTGPEG QH U +PUKUVKPI VJCV VJG UCOG HQTOWNC OC[ PQV KPXQNXG DQVJ VWTPU QWV VQ DG GPQWIJ VQ

DNQEM VJG RCTCFQZ

+V KU EQPXGPKGPV VQ VJKPM QH ℘ 8 CU DGKPI QDVCKPGF KP VYQ OQTG UVCIGU (KTUV NGV


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UGEQPFTQWPF EQPEGRVXCTKCDNGU : 

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0QY NGV . CFF VJG GZVGPUKQP U[ODQN U 

CPF NGV 6  ℘ 
8 CFF VJG VYQ PGY HQTOU .CY 8

C U  
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9G IGV C UVTGPIVJGPGF XGTUKQP

  QH
 TGNCVGF VQ KV CU
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XGTUKQP
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# OQFGN HQT ℘ 8 YKNN DG QDVCKPGF KP HQWT UVCIGU (KTUV NGV


/ DG CP[ EQWPVCDN[ KPHKPKVG

UGV CPF VCMG / CU VJG FQOCKP HQT VJG QDLGEV XCTKCDNGU +H YG VCMG VJG HWNN RQYGT UGV ℘
/ QT UGV
QH CNN UWDUGVU QH / CU VJG FQOCKP HQT VJG HKTUVTQWPF EQPEGRV XCTKCDNGU YG YKNN IGV C OQFGN QH VJG

EQORTGJGPUKQP CZKQOU
 $WV VJGTG KU PQ YC[ YKVJ VJKU U
OQFGN VQ CUUKIP C FGPQVCVKQP VQ 
VJCV

YKNN IKXG WU C OQFGN QH 6  ℘8 (QT CZKQO

 YKNN JQNF KH CPF QPN[ KH VJG FGPQVCVKQP QH U 
OCRU

VJG FQOCKP QH VJG HKTUVTQWPF EQPEGRV XCTKCDNGU QPGVQQPG KPVQ VJG FQOCKP QH VJG QDLGEV XCTKCDNGU

CPF ℘
/ ECPPQV DG OCRRGF QPGVQQPG KPVQ / D[ %CPVQTOU VJGQTGO
5Q KPUVGCF YG CRRN[ VJG .ÑYGPJGKO5MQNGO VJGQTGO YJKEJ CRRNKGF VQ VJKU UKVWCVKQP VGNNU

WU VJCV VJGTG KU C EQWPVCDNG UWDUGV /


QH ℘
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CU VJG FQOCKP QH VJG

HKTUVTQWPF EQPEGRV XCTKCDNGU UVKNN IKXGU C OQFGN QH 6 5KPEG /


CPF / CTG DQVJ EQWPVCDN[

KPHKPKVG VJGTG YKNN DG C QPGVQQPG HWPEVKQP HTQO VJG HQTOGT KPVQ VJG NCVVGT 9KVJ CP G[G VQ HWTVJGT

FGXGNQROGPVU EJQQUG UWEJ C QPGVQQPG HWPEVKQP A 

HQT YJKEJ KPHKPKVGN[ OCP[ GNGOGPVU QH / CTG

PQV KP VJG TCPIG QH A 


(QT KPUVCPEG HKZ GPWOGTCVKQPU QH /

CPF / CPF OCR VJG HKTUV UGEQPF

W GNGOGPVU QH VJG HQTOGT VQ VJG HKTUV VJKTF HKHVJ W GNGOGPVU QH VJG NCVVGT 6CMKPI A
VJKTF 
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FGPQVCVKQP QH U VJGP YKNN UWHHKEG VQ IKXG WU C OQFGN QH 6  ℘8





9G PQY TGRGCV VJG RTQEGUU 6Q IGV C OQFGN QH 6 HKTUV VCMG CU VJG FQOCKP QH VJG

UGEQPFTQWPF EQPEGRV XCTKCDNGU VJG HWNN RQYGT UGV ℘

/ 1H EQWTUG VJKU OGCPU VJCV VJG UGVU KP / 

YKNN DG FQKPI FQWDNGFWV[ CU RQUUKDNG XCNWGU QH HKTUVTQWPF EQPEGRV XCTKCDNGU CPF CU RQUUKDNG

XCNWGU QH UGEQPFTQWPF EQPEGRV XCTKCDNGU DWV VJCV FQGU PQV OCVVGT

0QY CRRN[ VJG .ÑYGPJGKO5MQNGO VJGQTGO CICKP VQ IGV C EQWPVCDNG UWDUGV /


QH ℘
/
VJCV VCMGP CU VJG FQOCKP QH VJG UGEQPFTQWPF EQPEGRV XCTKCDNGU UVKNN IKXGU C OQFGN QH 6 5KPEG

VJGTG CTG KPHKPKVGN[ OCP[ GNGOGPVU QH / VJCV CTG PQV KP VJG TCPIG QH A  VJGTG YKNN DG C QPGVQQPG


EQTTGURQPFGPEG I DGVYGGP /

CPF UWEJ GNGOGPVU QH / 9G ECPPQV LWUV VCMG I CU VJG FGPQVCVKQP QH

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C TGSWKTGU CP[ GNGOGPV QH /

VJCV YCU CNTGCF[ RTGUGPV KP /

VQ DG CUUKIPGF VJG

UCOG QDLGEV D[ VJG HWPEVKQPU UGTXKPI CU FGPQVCVKQPU QH U CPF U  5Q KPUVGCF VCMG CU VJG FGPQVCVKQP
 

QH U
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VJCV UGPFU CP GNGOGPV # QH /

VQ A
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IKXGU C OQFGN QH 6  ℘ 8


0QVG VJCV VJGTG CWVQOCVKECNN[ YKNN DG KPHKPKVGN[ OCP[ GNGOGPVU QH / VJCV CTG KP VJG TCPIG

PGKVJGT QH A 
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I
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VJCV YGTG CNTGCF[

KP /

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UGEQPFQTFGT NQIKE CPF KU CFCRVCDNG VQ VJGQTKGU YKVJ *WOGOU RTKPEKRNG KP RNCEG QH .CY 8 UQ YG

JCXG VJG HQNNQYKPI TGUWNV

4GUVTKEVGF *GEM %QPUKUVGPE[ 6JGQTGO 4COKHKGF RTGFKECVKXG UGEQPFQTFGT NQIKE YKVJ .CY 8

QT *WOGOU RTKPEKRNG CU CP CZKQO KU EQPUKUVGPV

6JG SWCNKHKGT Q4GUVTKEVGFR CRRGCTU KP VJG PCOG QH VJG VJGQTGO DGECWUG VJG U[UVGOU HQT YJKEJ
*GEM RTQXGF EQPUKUVGPE[ CTG UVTQPIGT VJCP VJQUG KP VJG 28UGTKGU CPF JGPEG JKU EQPUKUVGPE[
TGUWNV KU UVTQPIGT VJCP YJCV JCU LWUV DGGP UVCVGF /QTG YKNN DG UCKF QP VJKU VQRKE VQYCTFU VJG GPF QH

VJKU EJCRVGT


%QPUKUVGPE[2TQQH6JGQTGVKE2TQQHU
 
.GV . DG VJG NCPIWCIG YKVJ QPN[ QDLGEV XCTKCDNGU Z [ \ W CPF YKVJ PQ PQPNQIKECN
TGNCVKQP QT HWPEVKQPU[ODQNU DWV LWUV VJG KFGPVKV[ U[ODQN  .GV 6 DG VJG VJGQT[ YJQUG CZKQOU

CTG LWUV VJG HQTOWNCU ∃MZ

Z  Z CUUGTVKPI VJCV VJGTG GZKUV CV NGCUV M QDLGEVU HQT CNN M n  *QY FQ
YG MPQY VJCV 6 KU EQPUKUVGPV VJCV PQ EQPVTCFKEVKQP ECP DG FGFWEGF HTQO KV!

Q#P[ KPHKPKVG UGV HQT KPUVCPEG VJG UGV ]   W_ QH CNN

6JG OQFGN VJGQTKUV YKNN UC[

PCVWTCN PWODGTU YKNN DG C OQFGN QH 6 R NGCXKPI VCEKV QCPF UQ D[ VJG UQWPFPGUU VJGQTGO 6 KU
 

EQPUKUVGPVR 6JG RTQQH VJGQTKUV OKIJV UC[ Q$GECWUG CP[ FGFWEVKQP QH C EQPVTCFKEVKQP HTQO 6 

YQWNF WUG QPN[ HKPKVGN[ OCP[ QH KVU CZKQOU $WV HQT GCEJ P YG ECP GZRNKEKVN[ GZJKDKV C HKPKVG

OQFGN ] W  P_ QH CNN VJG ∃MZ

Z  Z HQT M m PR *GTG YG JCXG KP OKPKCVWTG VJG FKHHGTGPEG
DGVYGGP VJG QKPHKPKVKUVKER OGVJQFU QH OQFGN VJGQT[ YJKEJ TGUKUV HQTOCNK\CVKQP KP CP[ QH VJG
CTKVJOGVKECN VJGQTKGU FKUEWUUGF KP QWT UWTXG[ KP VJG RTGEGFKPI EJCRVGT CPF VJG QHKPKVKUVKER OGVJQFU

QH RTQQHVJGQT[ YJKEJ IGPGTCNN[ FQ PQV TGSWKTG HQT VJGKT HQTOCNK\CVKQP CP[VJKPI DG[QPF 3M HQT

M   QT PQV OWEJ NCTIGT

CPF KP VJKU KPUVCPEG FQ PQV GXGP TGSWKTG UQ OWEJ

+P VJKU UGEVKQP + YKNN HKTUV WUG VJTGG RTKPEKRNGU MPQYP VQ JCXG HKPKVKUVKE RTQQHU VQ GUVCDNKUJ C

PWODGT QH NGOOCU YJKEJ NGOOCU YKNN VJGP DG WUGF VQ IKXG RTQQHVJGQTGVKE HKPKVKUVKE RTQQHU QH

VJG EQPUKUVGPE[ QH 28 28 CPF 2*2 + JCXG CNTGCF[ GZRNCKPGF JQY VJG GZKUVGPEG QH UWEJ RTQQHU

KORNKGU
D[ EQPUKFGTCVKQPU TGNCVGF VQ )ÑFGNOU UGEQPF KPEQORNGVGPGUU VJGQTGO VJCV YG CTG PQV

IQKPI VQ DG CDNG VQ IQ HCT WR VJG UECNG QH VJGQTKGU 3 3 3 W KP KPVGTRTGVKPI YGCM CTKVJOGVKEU
KP RTGFKECVKXG (TGIGCP VJGQTKGU

6JG VJTGG RTKPEKRNGU VJCV YKNN DG VJG OCKP KPITGFKGPVU QH VJG YQTM KP VJKU UGEVKQP CTG

5JQGPHKGNFOU VJGQTGO YJKEJ YG OGV OQUV TGEGPVN[ KP VJG FKUEWUUKQP QH \KI\CI QT 9CPIUV[NG UGV

VJGQTKGU VJG .ÑYGPJGKO$GJOCPP VJGQTGO YJKEJ YG OGV GCTN[ KP VJKU EJCRVGT YJGP FKUEWUUKPI

JQY OWEJ UGV VJGQT[ YG IGV HTQO UKORNG RTGFKECVKXG UGEQPFQTFGT NQIKE RNWU .CY 8 CPF %TCKIOU

KPVGTRQNCVKQP VJGQTGO ψ KU NQIKECNN[ FGFWEKDNG

HQT HKTUVQTFGT NQIKE %TCKIOU VJGQTGO VGNNU WU VJCV KH

HTQO φ VJGP VJGTG KU C HQTOWNC θ ECNNGF CP KPVGTRQNCPV UWEJ VJCV ψ KU NQIKECNN[ FGFWEKDNG HTQO θ

CPF θ KU NQIKECNN[ FGFWEKDNG HTQO φ CPF θ KPXQNXGU QPN[ XQECDWNCT[ EQOOQP VQ φ CPF ψ YJKEJ KU
θ KPXQNXGU PQ PQPNQIKECN U[ODQNU QVJGT VJCP QPGU VJCV QEEWT DQVJ KP φ CPF KP ψ
VQ UC[ VJCV

6GZVDQQM RTGUGPVCVKQPU QH VJKU CPF VJG QVJGT VYQ TGUWNVU M YJGP VGZVDQQMU RTGUGPV VJGO CV CNN M

VGPF VQ IKXG KPHKPKVKUVKE OQFGNVJGQTGVKE RTQQHU HQT VJGO DGECWUG VJGUG CTG VJG GCUKGUV RTQQHU VQ

IKXG $WV KP GCEJ ECUG VJGTG KU CP JKUVQTKECNN[ GCTN[ VJQWIJ OQTG FKHHKEWNV HKPKVKUVKE RTQQH
 6JG %TCKI CPF .ÑYGPJGKO$GJOCPP VJGQTGOU CTG WUGF VQIGVJGT VQ IKXG C HKPKVKUVKE RTQQH

VJGQTGVKE RTQQH QH YJCV + YKNN ECNN VJG URNKVVKPI NGOOC CPF VJG GSWKPWOGTCVKQP NGOOC YJKEJ +

OWUV PQY UVCVG #NN VJGQTKGU KP VJKU UGTKGU QH NGOOCU CTG HKTUVQTFGT

.GV 6 DG C VJGQT[ KP C NCPIWCIG . %CNN C HQTOWNC φ

Z QH . C URNKVVKPI HQTOWNC HQT 6 KH HQT
GCEJ M n  VJG HQTOWNC ∃Mφ
M KU C VJGQTGO QH 6 .GV . CFF C QPGRNCEG TGNCVKQP U[ODQN 2  CPF

NGV 6 CFF VJG CZKQOU

 `∃Z
2Z  `φ
Z

 ∃MZ 2

 Z ∃M
`2

 Z φ
Z HQT GCEJ M n 

6JGP 6 KU ECNNGF VJG URNKVVKPI GZVGPUKQP QH 6 HQT φ 6JG URNKVVKPI NGOOC UC[U VJCV C URNKVVKPI

GZVGPUKQP QH C EQPUKUVGPV VJGQT[ KU EQPUKUVGPV

/QFGNVJGQTGVKECNN[ VJKU KU VTKXKCN 5KPEG 6 KU EQPUKUVGPV KV JCU C OQFGN HQT YJKEJ D[ VJG

CZKQOU ∃Mφ
M VJG UGV QH QDLGEVU UCVKUH[KPI φ
Z OWUV DG KPHKPKVG #P[ KPHKPKVG UGV OC[ DG FKXKFGF
KPVQ C RCKT QH FKULQKPV KPHKPKVG UWDUGVU CPF VCMKPI QPG QH VJG RCKT CU VJG FGPQVCVKQP QH 2 YG IGV C

OQFGN QH VJG CZKQOU

 CPF
 QH 6

2TQQHVJGQTGVKECNN[ QPG RTQEGGFU CU HQNNQYU 9G OC[ YKVJQWV NQUU QH IGPGTCNKV[ CUUWOG

VJCVφ
Z JCU VJG HQTO 2Z HQT UQOG QPGRNCEG TGNCVKQP U[ODQN QH . UKPEG QVJGTYKUG YG ECP TGRNCEG
. D[ VJG NCPIWCIG LWUV NKMG KV GZEGRV HQT CFFKPI C 2 CDDTGXKCVKQP φ (QT UJQTV NGV WU YTKVG ∃M2 HQT

∃MZ2Z CPF UKOKNCTN[ KP QVJGT UKORNG ECUGU 6JWU VJG CZKQO

 OC[ DG YTKVVGP `∃
2 `2 CPF VJG

CZKQO
 OC[ DG YTKVVGP ∃M2   ∃M
`2 2 0QY UWRRQUG VJCV EQPVTCT[ VQ VJG EQPENWUKQP QH VJG


NGOOC 6 KU KPEQPUKUVGPV 6JGP C EQPVTCFKEVKQP ECP DG NQIKECNN[ FGFWEGF HTQO UQOG HKPKVGN[

OCP[ QH KVU CZKQOU 5KPEG ∃M2  KU FGFWEKDNG HTQO ∃O2  HQT O n M CPF UKOKNCTN[ HQT `2 2 YG


OC[ CUUWOG ∃O2  CPF ∃O

`2  2 CTG WUGF HQT LWUV QPG O 9G VJGP IGV C EQPVTCFKEVKQP HTQO VJG

EQPLWPEVKQP τ QH UQOG HKPKVGN[ OCP[ CZKQOU QH 6 VQIGVJGT YKVJ VJG HQNNQYKPI HQTOWNC ψO

 `∃
2`2  ∃O2   ∃O
`2 2

'SWKXCNGPVN[ `ψO KU FGFWEKDNG HTQO τ 6JG %TCKI KPVGTRQNCVKQP VJGQTGO KORNKGU VJCV VJGTG KU CP
KPVGTRQNCPVθ UWEJ VJCV QPG VJG QPG JCPF θ KU NQIKECNN[ FGFWEKDNG HTQO τ CPF JGPEG HTQO 6 YJKNG
QP VJG QVJGT JCPF `ψO KU NQIKECNN[ FGFWEKDNG HTQO θ /QTGQXGT VJG KPVGTRQNCPV EQPVCKPU PQ

TGNCVKQP QT HWPEVKQP U[ODQNU QVJGT VJCP VJG NQIKECN QPG  CPF QPGU VJCV CTG CRRGCT KP DQVJ τ CPF
`ψO #PF VJG QPN[ U[ODQN QH VJG NCVVGT MKPF KU 2

.GV P DG CP[ PWODGT ITGCVGT VJCP QT GSWCN VQ VJG OCZKOWO QH O CPF VJG PWODGT QH DQWPF

XCTKCDNGU KP θ 5KPEG ψO KU FGFWEKDNG HTQO ψP KV HQNNQYU VJCV `ψP KU FGFWEKDNG HTQO θ $[ VJG
.ÑYGPJGKO$GJOCPP VJGQTGO θ KU NQIKECNN[ GSWKXCNGPV VQ C FKULWPEVKQP QH EQPLWPEVKQPU GCEJ
EQPUKUVKPI QH VYQ EQPLWPEVU VJG HKTUV DGKPI GKVJGT ∃M2 HQT UQOG M  P QT ∃P2 CPF VJG UGEQPF
DGKPI GKVJGT ∃M`2 HQT UQOG M  P QT ∃P`2 5KPEG 6 KU EQPUKUVGPV θ KU FGFWEKDNG HTQO 6 CPF ∃P2
CPF VJGTGHQTG `∃M2 KU FGFWEKDNG HTQO 6 VJGTG OWUV DG CV NGCUV QPG FKULWPEV YKVJ ∃P2 CU KVU HKTUV
EQPLWPEV 5KPEGθ KU NQIKECNN[ FGFWEKDNG HTQO CP[ QH KVU FKULWPEVU CPF UKPEG ∃P`2 KU NQIKECNN[
FGFWEKDNG HTQO ∃P`2 VJGTG KU UQOG M m P UWEJ VJCV `ψP KU NQIKECNN[ FGFWEKDNG HTQO ∃P2 

∃M`2 #PF UKPEG VJG VJKTF EQPLWPEV QH ψP KORNKGU ∃P2 CEVWCNN[ `ψP KU NQIKECNN[ FGFWEKDNG HTQO
∃M`2 CNQPG $WV VJKU KU CDUWTF UKPEG HQT CP[ P CPF M YG ECP GZRNKEKVN[ GZJKDKV C OQFGN QH
∃M`2  ψP YKVJ P M QDLGEVU QH YJKEJ P UCVKUH[ 2 Z
 2Z P UCVKUH[ `2Z  2Z PQPG UCVKUH[

2Z  `2Z CPF M UCVKUH[ `2Z  `2Z 6JG UWRRQUKVKQP VJCV 6 KU KPEQPUKUVGPV JCU DGGP TGFWEGF VQ

CDUWTFKV[

#ICKP NGV 6 φ
Z CPF ψ
Z CTG ECNNGF GSWKPWOGTCVKQP
DG C VJGQT[ KP C NCPIWCIG . (QTOWNCU

HQTOWNCU HQT 6 KH `∃
φψ KU FGFWEKDNG HTQO 6 CPF ∃Mφ CPF ∃Mψ CTG FGFWEKDNG HTQO 6 HQT GCEJ M

0QVG VJCV ∃M
φ`ψ CPF ∃M
`φψ HQNNQY KOOGFKCVGN[ .GV . CFF C QPGRNCEG HWPEVKQP U[ODQN
H CPF NGV 6 CFF CU CP CZKQO VJG EQPLWPEVKQP χ
φ ψ QH VJG HQNNQYKPI

 ∀Z
φ
Z → ψ
H
Z

 ∀Z ∀Z
φ
Z   φ
Z  →
H
Z
      H
Z ↔Z   Z

 ∀[
ψ
[ → ∃Z
φ
Z  H
Z  [

5Q χ
φ ψ UC[U VJCV H GUVCDNKUJGU C QPGVQQPG EQTTGURQPFGPEG DGVYGGP VJG Z UWEJ VJCV φ
Z CPF
VJG Z UWEJ VJCV ψ
Z 6JKU 6 KU ECNNGF VJG GSWKPWOGTCVKQP GZVGPUKQP QH 6 HQT φ CPF ψ 6JG
GSWKPWOGTCVKQP NGOOC UC[U VJCV CP GSWKPWOGTCVKQP GZVGPUKQP QH C EQPUKUVGPV VJGQT[ KU EQPUKUVGPV

/QFGNVJGQTGVKECNN[ VJKU KU CICKP CP GCU[ EQPUGSWGPEG QH VJG .ÑYGPJGKO5MQNGO

VJGQTGO 2TQQHVJGQTGVKECNN[ QPG DGIKPU D[ CUUWOKPI φ CPF ψ CTG QPGRNCEG RTGFKECVGU 2  CPF 2

CPF CRRN[KPI VJG %TCKI KPVGTRQNCVKQP VJGQTGO VQ IGV C θ UWEJ VJCV θ KU FGFWEKDNG HTQO 6
`χ
2 2 KU FGFWEKDNG HTQO θ CPF θ KPXQNXGU QPN[  CPF 2  CPF 2 6JG .ÑYGPJGKO$GJOCPP

VJGQTGO KORNKGU VJCV θ OC[ DG VCMGP VQ DG C FKULWPEVKQP QH EQPLWPEVKQPU QH UVCVGOGPVU CDQWV VJG
PWODGTU QH QDLGEVU UCVKUH[KPI GCEJ QH VJG HQWT EQODKPCVKQPU QH 2 CPF 2 7UKPI VJG HCEV 6 KORNKGU

`∃
22 CPF ∃P
2 `2 CPF
 ∃P
`2 2 KV HQNNQYU VJCV HQT UQOG
 P CPF M m P VJG VJTGG
HQTOWNCU LWUV OGPVKQPGF VQIGVJGT YKVJ ∃M
`2 `2 CTG KPEQPUKUVGPV YKVJ χ
2  2 $WV VJKU KU

CDUWTF UKPEG KV KU RQUUKDNG VQ GZJKDKV GZRNKEKVN[ C HKPKVG OQFGN YKVJ P M QDLGEVU PQPG UCVKUH[KPI

22 P UCVKUH[KPI 2`2 P UCVKUH[KPI `22 CPF M UCVKUH[KPI `2`2 YKVJ C HWPEVKQP VJCV

KU VJG KFGPVKV[ QP VJGUG NCUV M QDLGEVU CPF UYKVEJGU VJG VYQ ENCUUGU QH P QDLGEVU
 6JGUG VYQ DCUKE NGOOCU KORN[ C PWODGT QH QVJGTU #ICKP NGV 6 DG C VJGQT[ KP C NCPIWCIG

. .GV φ
Z DG C URNKVVKPI HQTOWNC HQT 6 .GV . CFF C QPGRNCEG TGNCVKQP U[ODQN H CPF NGV 6 CFF CU
CP CZKQO VJG EQPLWPEVKQP QH VJG HQNNQYKPI

 ∀Zφ
HZ

 ∀Z∀[
H
Z  H
[ ↔ Z  [

 ∃M[
φ
[  `∃Z
H
Z  [ HQT CNN M n 

5Q 6 UC[U CNN φ JQNFU YKVJ

QDLGEVU ECP DG OCRRGF QPGVQQPG KPVQ VJG QDLGEVU HQT YJKEJ

KPHKPKVGN[ OCP[ UWEJ QDLGEVU NGHV QXGT 6JKU 6 KU ECNNGF VJG KPLGEVKQP GZVGPUKQP QH 6 HQT φ 6JG

KPLGEVKQP NGOOC UC[U VJCV CP KPLGEVKQP GZVGPUKQP QH C EQPUKUVGPV VJGQT[ KU EQPUKUVGPV

6Q UGG VJKU YG OC[ CUUWOG φ KU C RTGFKECVG 2 #RRN[ URNKVVKPI VQ 2 VQ IGV 2   CPF URNKVVKPI

VQ 2 VQ IGV 2 #RRN[ GSWKPWOGTQUKV[ VYKEG VQ IGV C QPGVQQPG EQTTGURQPFGPEG I DGVYGGP `2

CPF 2 CPF C QPGVQQPG EQTTGURQPFGPEG J DGVYGGP 2 CPF 2`2 &GHKPG H
Z VQ DG VJG

WPKSWG [ UWEJ VJCV GKVJGT `2Z CPF [  I

Z QT 2Z CPF [  J
Z CPF YG CTG FQPG

4GECNNKPI VJCV OCP[UQTVGF VJGQTKGU CTG TGFWEKDNG VQ QPGUQTVGF VJGQTKGU D[ KPVTQFWEKPI

CRRTQRTKCVG QPGRNCEG TGNCVKQP U[ODQNU CNN VJTGG NGOOCU OGPVKQPGF UQ HCT JCXG OCP[UQTVGF

XGTUKQPU

#ICKP NGV 6 DG C EQPUKUVGPV KP C NCPIWCIG . .GV φ

Z DG C URNKVVKPI HQTOWNC HQT 6 CPF NGV
ψ
Z CPF θ
Z [ DG HQTOWNCU UWEJ VJCV KV KU FGFWEKDNG HTQO 6 VJCV ∃Zψ
Z CPF VJCV θ FGHKPGU CP
GSWKXCNGPEG TGNCVKXG VQ ψ +P QVJGT YQTFU 6 JCU VJG HQNNQYKPI CU VJGQTGOU

 ∀Z
ψ
Z → θ
Z Z

 ∀Z∀[
ψ
Z  ψ
[ →
θ
Z [ → θ
[ Z

 ∀Z∀[∀\
ψ
Z  ψ
[  ψ
\ →
θ
Z [  θ
[ \ → θ
Z \

.GV . DG CU KP VJG KPLGEVKQP NGOOC CPF NGV 6 CFF CU CZKQOU VJG HQNNQYKPI

 ∀Z
ψ
Z → φ
H
Z

 ∀Z∀[
ψ
Z  ψ
[ →
H
Z  H
[ ↔ θ
Z [

CPF
 CU CDQXG HQT CNN M n  5Q 6 UC[U VJCV H OCRU VJG QDLGEVU HQT YJKEJ ψ JQNFU VQ VJQUG HQT
YJKEJ φ JQNFU UGPFKPI GSWKXCNGPV CPF QPN[ GSWKXCNGPV CTIWOGPVU VQ VJG UCOG XCNWGU YKVJ
KPHKPKVGN[ OCP[ QDLGEVU HQT YJKEJ φ JQNFU NGHV QXGT 6JKU 6 KU ECNNGF VJG TGRTGUGPVCVKXG GZVGPUKQP

QH 6 HQT φ CPF ψ CPF θ 6JG TGRTGUGPVCVKXGU NGOOC UC[U VJCV C TGRTGUGPVCVKXG GZVGPUKQP QH C
EQPUKUVGPV VJGQT[ KU EQPUKUVGPV
 9G OC[ UWRRQUG . JCU CV NGCUV QPG EQPUVCPV C HQT YJKEJ 6 RTQXGU ψ
C HQT KH PQV QPG ECP
DG EQPUKUVGPVN[
KP HCEV EQPUGTXCVKXGN[ CFFGF UKPEG 6 RTQXGU ∃Zψ
Z 9G OC[ VJGP KPVTQFWEG CP
CWZKNKCT[ NCPIWCIG YJKEJ CFFU CP GZVTC UQTV ξ υ ζ W QH XCTKCDNGU CPF PGY QPGRNCEG
.
T

HWPEVKQP U[ODQN T VCMKPI CTIWOGPVU QH UQTV CPF IKXKPI XCNWGU QH UQTV ξ CPF CP CWZKNKCT[ VJGQT[
H Z

6
T YJKEJ CFFU VJG HQNNQYKPI CU CZKQOU

 ∀Z
`ψ
Z → HT
Z  HT
C

 ∀Z∀[
ψ
Z  ψ
[ →
HT
Z  HT
[ ↔ θ
Z [

+V KU HCKTN[ GCUKN[ UGGP VJCV T KU EQPUKUVGPV /QFGNVJGQTGVKECNN[ CU VJG FQOCKP QH VJG PGY UQTV QH
6

XCTKCDNGU YG OC[ VCMG GSWKXCNGPEG ENCUUGU QH QDLGEVU HQT YJKEJ ψ JQNFU WPFGT VJG GSWKXCNGPEG
IKXGP D[ θ YKVJ T FGPQVKPI VJG HWPEVKQP VCMKPI GCEJ QDLGEV HQT YJKEJ ψ JQNFU VQ KVU UGV QH
H

GSWKXCNGPVU CPF VQ CNN QVJGTU VJG UGV QH GSWKXCNGPVU QH VJG QDLGEV FGPQVGF D[  2TQQHVJGQTGVKECNN[ C

VJGTG KU C FKTGEV KPVGTRTGVCVKQP QH T KP  CUUQEKCVKPI CP XCTKCDNG VQ GCEJ ξ XCTKCDNG KPVGTRTGVKPI

6 6 Z

∀ξ
W CU ∀
ψ
 → W KPVGTRTGVKPI T

 CU VJG WPKSWG UWEJ VJCV GKVJGT `ψ

 CPF  QT
Z Z H Z [ Z [ C

ψ
 CPF   CPF KPVGTRTGVKPI ξ  υ CU θ
  YJGTG CPF CTG VJG XCTKCDNGU CUUQEKCVGF VQ VJG
Z [ Z Z [ Z [ Z

ξXCTKCDNGU ξ CPF υ
.GV TT CFF C QPGRNCEG HWPEVKQP U[ODQN TT VCMKPI CTIWOGPVU QH UQTV ξ CPF IKXKPI XCNWGU
. H

QH UQTV  CPF NGV TT CFF VJG HQNNQYKPI CZKQOU

Z 6

 ∀ξφ
HTT
ξ

 ∀ξ∀υ
HTT
ξ  HTT
υ ↔ ξ  W

 ∃M[
φ
[  `∃ξ
HTT
ξ  [ HQT CNN M n
6JGP TT KU EQPUKUVGPV D[ CP CRRTQRTKCVG OCP[UQTVGF XGTUKQP QH VJG KPLGEVKQP NGOOC 6JGP 
6 6

ECP DG KPVGTRTGVGF KP TT UKORN[ D[ FGHKPKPI

 CU TT
T

6 H Z H H Z

# HQNF
P KU C  RNCEG TGNCVKQP YKVJ VJG RTQRGTVKGU CPCNQIQWU VQ VJQUG QH CP
GSWKXCNGPEG P '

GSWKXCNGPEG (QT GZCORNG C VTKRNG GSWKXCNGPEG YQWNF DG C RNCEG TGNCVKQP YKVJ VJG HQNNQYKPI
RTQRGTVKGU

      
4Z Z Z Z Z Z

      
4Z Z Z [ [ [ → 4[[[ZZZ

      [
4Z Z Z [ [       →
4[ [ [ \ \ \      
4Z Z Z \ \ \

*GTG


 CTG LWUV TGHNGZKXKV[ U[OOGVT[ CPF VTCPUKVKXKV[ KP VTKRNKECVG 6JG
TGRTGUGPVCVKXGU NGOOC JQNFU CNUQ HQT HQNF GSWKXCNGPEGU /QFGNVJGQTGVKECNN[ VJG FQOCKP QH VJG
P

CWZKNKCT[ XCTKCDNGU ξ YQWNF DG VJG UGV QH UGVU QH GSWKXCNGPVU QH VWRNGU WPFGT VJG GSWKXCNGPEG QP P
P VWRNGU QH QDLGEVU CUUQEKCVGF KP VJG QDXKQWU YC[ YKVJ VJG HQNF GSWKXCNGPEG QP QDLGEVU 2TQQH
P

VJGQTGVKECNN[ VJG KPVGTRTGVCVKQP YQWNF DG QPG KP YJKEJ C UKPING SWCPVKHKGT ∀ξ KU TGRNCEGF D[ C

VTKRNG QH SWCPVKHKGTU ∀ ∀ ∀  CPF VJGP CRRTQRTKCVGN[ TGNCVKXK\KPI
6JKU KU C OQTG IGPGTCN PQVKQP
Z Z Z

QH KPVGTRTGVCVKQP VJCP YG JCXG EQPUKFGTGF UQ HCT (WTVJGT DGNNU CPF YJKUVNGU EQWNF DG CFFGF DWV
YG JCXG PQY GPQWIJ OCEJKPGT[ HQT C PWODGT QH EQPUKUVGPE[ RTQQHU
# HKPKVKUVKE RTQQHVJGQTGVKE RTQQH QH EQPUKUVGPE[ RTQQH HQT 28 ECP PQY DG QDVCKPGF HTQO
VJG KPHKPKVKUVKE OQFGNVJGQTGVKE RTQQH QH EQPUKUVGPE[ HQT ℘8 KP VJG RTGEGFKPI UGEVKQP D[
UWDUVKVWVKPI CRRGCN VQ 5JQGPHKGNFOU VJGQTGO HQT CRRGCN VQ VJG GZKUVGPEG QH VJG RQYGT UGV CPF
CRRGCN VQ %TCKIOU VJGQTGO CPF VJG .ÑYGPJGKO$GJOCPP VJGQTGOU VJG NGOOCU CDQXG HQT XKC

CRRGCN VQ VJG .ÑYGPJGKO5MQNGO VJGQTGO

6Q DGIKP NGV  CPF  DG CU CV VJG DGIKPPKPI QH VJKU UGEVKQP 5Q  CU PQ PQPNQIKECN
. 6 .

U[ODQNU CPF  JCU CU CZKQOU ∃M

  HQT CNN  .GV  CFF HKTUVTQWPF EQPEGRVXCTKCDNGU
6 Z Z Z M .

   W VQ
 CPF YKVJ VJGO CVQOKE HQTOWNCU QH VJG V[RG
  CPF NGV
: ; < .  CFF RTGFKECVKXG
: Z 6

EQORTGJGPUKQP CZKQOU VQ  6JGP  KU EQPUKUVGPV D[ 5JQGPHKGNFOU VJGQTGO .GV  D[ CFF VJG

6 6 .

U[ODQN U CPF NGV  CFF VJG HQNNQYKPI CZKQO

6

 U  U  ↔  ≡ 
:

∃M `∃ 
 U  HQT CNN n
; : ;

 Z : Z : M

6JGP  KU EQPUKUVGPV D[ CP CRRTQRTKCVG VYQUQTVGF XGTUKQP QH VJG KPLGEVKQP NGOOC

VJG TQNGU QH ψ
6

CPF φ DGKPI VCMGP UKORN[ D[ VJG UQTVCN RTGFKECVG HQT UQTV CPF KVU PGICVKQP TGURGEVKXGN[ 9G
Z

JCXG UGGP VJCV KPUVCPEGU QH EQORTGJGPUKQP HQT HQTOWNCU YKVJQWV DQWPF XCTKCDNGU DWV YKVJ VJG :

U[ODQN U HQNNQY HTQO VJG KPUVCPEGU YKVJQWV DQWPF XCTKCDNGU CPF YKVJ VJG U[ODQN U 5Q YG
:

JCXG 28 RNWU VJG GZVTC CZKQOU


0QY YG TGRGCV VJG RTQEGUU YKVJ C UNKIJV OQFKHKECVKQP .GV  CFF UGEQPFTQWPF EQPEGRV .

XCTKCDNGU    W CPF NGV  CFF RTGFKECVKXG EQORTGJGPUKQP 6JGP  KU EQPUKUVGPV D[

: ; < 6 6

5JQGPHKGNFOU VJGQTGO .GV  CFF C PGY HWPEVKQP U[ODQN T CPF NGV  CFF VJG HQNNQYKPI CZKQOU
. 6

 T T: ; ↔ : ≡ ;

 T lU:
 :

6JGP  KU EQPUKUVGPV D[ CP CRRTQRTKCVG XGTUKQP QH VJG KPLGEVKQP NGOOC

YKVJ VJG TQNG QH ψ DGKPI
6

VCMGP VJKU VKOG D[ `∃ 

 U  WUKPI VJG CZKQOU
 CDQXG 0QY T KU QPN[ CP CWZKNKCT[ CPF
: Z :

PQV [GV SWKVG YJCV YG YCPV $WV KV YKNN DG RTQXCDNG KP  VJCV HQT GXGT[  VJGTG GZKUVU C WPKSWG
6 : Z

HQT YJKEJ VJG HQNNQYKPI FKULWPEVKQP JQNFU



∃ ∀
 ↔     U  ∨
: \ : \ : \ Z :

`∃ ∀
 ↔     T 
: \ : \ : \ Z :

6JKU OC[ DG ECNNGF U  CPF VJGP YG YKNN JCXG CNN VJG CZKQOU QH 28
Z :

6JG RTQQH HQT 2*2 2*2 KU GUUGPVKCNN[ VJG UCOG YKVJ CP CRRGCN VQ VJG TGRTGUGPVCVKXGU
NGOOC
QH YJKEJ VJG KPLGEVKQP NGOOC KU VJG URGEKCN ECUG YJGTG VJG GSWKXCNGPEG KPXQNXGF KU
KFGPVKV[ KP RNCEG QH VJG KPLGEVKQP NGOOC $QVJ YKVJ .CY 8 CU CZKQO CPF YKVJ *2 CU CZKQO VJG
RTQEGUU ECP DG KVGTCVGF KPFGHKPKVGN[ VJTQWIJ VJG UKPING FQWDNG VTKRNG RTGFKECVKXG VJGQTKGU CPF QP
VQ VJGKT WPKQP VJG HWNN TCOKHKGF RTGFKECVKXG VJGQT[
#U OGPVKQPGF GCTNKGT VJG RTQQH QH )GPV\GPOU EWVGNKOKPCVKQP VJGQTGO HTQO YJKEJ CNN QWT
QVJGT NGOOCU YGTG FGTKXGF KP C HCKTN[ GNGOGPVCT[ YC[ TGSWKTGU VJG UWRGTGZRQPGPVKCN HWPEVKQP
CPF KU MPQYP VQ DG HQTOCNK\CDNG KP 3  +∆
UWRGTGZR  UWRGTGZRQPGPVKCN HWPEVKQPCN CTKVJOGVKE
+V HQNNQYU M VJQWIJ + JCXG JCTFN[ FQVVGF GXGT[ QT ETQUUGF GXGT[ KP VJG RTQQH M VJCV VJG
EQPUKUVGPE[ QH 2P8 KU RTQXCDNG HQT GCEJ     W KP 3 6JG RTQQH QH VJG EQPUKUVGPE[ QH VJGKT
K V

WPKQP 2ω8 YJKEJ KU VQ UC[ VJG RTQQH VJCV HQT GXGT[ VJG VJGQT[ 2P8 KU EQPUKUVGPV TGSWKTGU VJG
P

CUUWORVKQP VJCV HQT GXGT[ VJG UWRGTGZRQPGPVKCN HWPEVKQP ECP DG KVGTCVGF VKOGU YJKEJ KU VQ UC[
P P

TGSWKTGU VJG UWRGTFWRGTGZRQPGPVKCN QT UWRGTGZRQPGPVKCN HWPEVKQP CPF 3  +∆

UWRGTGZR 
UWRGTGZRQPGPVKCN HWPEVKQPCN CTKVJOGVKE 6JWU VJG TGUWNVU QH VJKU UGEVKQP OC[ DG UWOOGF WR CU
HQNNQYU
(KPKVKUV 4GHKPGOGPV QH VJG 4GUVTKEVGF *GEM %QPUKUVGPE[ 6JGQTGO 6JG EQPUKUVGPE[ QH UKORNG
FQWDNG VTKRNG CPF UQ QP OQPCFKE RTGFKECVKXG UGEQPFQTFGT NQIKE YKVJ .CY 8
QT *WOGOU
2TKPEKRNG CU CP CZKQO KU RTQXCDNG KP UWRGTGZRQPGPVKCN HWPEVKQPCN CTKVJOGVKE 6JG EQPUKUVGPE[ QH
TCOKHKGF OQPCFKE RTGFKECVKXG UGEQPFQTFGT NQIKE YKVJ .CY 8
QT *WOGOU 2TKPEKRNG CU CZKQO KU
RTQXCDNG KP UWRGTGZRQPGPVKCN HWPEVKQPCN CTKVJOGVKE

8CTKCDNG$KPFKPI6GTO(QTOKPI1RGTCVQTU

+V TGOCKPU VQ EQOOGPV QP UQOG RTGFKECVKXG (TGIGCP VJGQTKGU YJGTG VJG VGEJPKECN KUUWGU
JCXG PQV [GV DGGP YJQNN[ TGUQNXGF +V KU QPN[ C UNKIJV GZCIIGTCVKQP VQ UC[ VJCV CNN VJG YQTM
TGRQTVGF VJWU HCT KP VJKU EJCRVGT YCU KPURKTGF D[ C UKPING RCRGT QH *GEM
 YJKEJ DQVJ RTQXGF
VJG EQPUKUVGPE[ QH C TCOKHKGF RTGFKECVKXG (TGIGCP VJGQT[ CPF RTQXGF VJG KPVGTRTGVCDKNKV[ QH 3 KP
VJG UKORNG RTGFKECVKXG RCTV VJGTGQH *GEMOU U[UVGOU CTG OQTG EQORNKECVGF VJCP CP[ EQPUKFGTGF WR
VQ VJKU RQKPV 1YKPI VQ VJGKT GZVTC UVTGPIVJ EQPUKUVGPE[ KU JCTFGT VQ RTQXG HQT VJGO CPF UQ HCT PQ
QPG JCU RTQFWEGF HWNN[ YQTMGFQWV HKPKVKUVKE EQPUKUVGPE[ RTQQH HQT VJGO
/[ HKTUV VCUM OWUV DG VQ FGUETKDG VJG MG[ HGCVWTG VJCV FKUVKPIWKUJGU *GEMOU CPF TGNCVGF
U[UVGOU HTQO CNN VJQUG EQPUKFGTGF UQ HCT )GPGTCNN[ VJG U[UVGOU KP SWGUVKQP ECP DG EQPUVTWGF
PQV
CU OCP[UQTVGF HKTUVQTFGT VJGQTKGU UKPEG VJG[ CNNQY FKTGEVN[ KP VJGKT RTKOKVKXG PQVCVKQP CP
QRGTCVQT ]  _ VJCV ECP DG CRRNKGF VQ C HQTOWNC φ
 VQ DKPF VJG QDLGEV XCTKCDNG CPF HQTO C VGTO
Z Z

]  φ
_ VJCV ECP DG UWDUVKVWVGF HQT QDLGEV XCTKCDNGU 6JG QRGTCVQT OC[ KVUGNH QEEWT KP VJG HQTOWNC
Z Z

φ
 UQ YG JCXG UGV VGTOU QH CNN TCPMU
+P VJKU TGURGEV *GEMOU CPF TGNCVGF VJGQTKGU CTG ENQUGT VQ VJG NGVVGT QH (TGIG VJCP VJG VJGQTKGU
Z

EQPUKFGTGF UQ HCT UKPEG (TGIG WUGF YJCV COQWPV VQ XCTKCDNGDKPFKPI VGTOHQTOKPI QRGTCVQTU +P
CPQVJGT TGURGEV VJG[ CTG CTIWCDN[ HCTVJGT HTQO VJG URKTKV QH (TGIG CEEQTFKPI VQ YJQUG
UWDQTFKPCVKQP RTKPEKRNG EQPEGRVU CTG RTKOCT[ CPF VJG UGVU VJCV CTG VJGKT GZVGPUKQPU FGTKXCVKXG (QT
VJGUG U[UVGOU CNNQY C UGV VGTO ]  φ
_ GXGP YJGP VJG[ FQ PQV CNNQY VJG EQTTGURQPFKPI EQPEGRV
Z Z

YJKEJ KU VQ UC[ GXGP YJGP VJG[ FQ PQV CNNQY VJG EQTTGURQPFKPI KPUVCPEG QH EQORTGJGPUKQP
∃ ∀
↔ φ

: Z :Z Z

+PVGTRTGVCDKNKV[ KP C YGCMGT U[UVGO KU C UVTQPIGT TGUWNV VJCP KPVGTRTGVCDKNKV[ KP C UVTQPIGT

U[UVGO CPF KP VJKU UGPUG QWT TGUWNVU QP KPVGTRTGVCDKNKV[ QH 3 KP RTGFKECVKXG U[UVGOU CTG
UJCTRGPKPIU QH *GEMOU TGUWNV QP VJG KPVGTRTGVCDKNKV[ QH 3 *GEMOU TGUWNV TGOCKPU QH KPVGTGUV CRCTV
HTQO VJGKT TQNG KP KPURKTKPI NCVGT YQTM OCKPN[ DGECWUG *GEM YCU PQV UKORN[ NQQMKPI VQ UGG
YJGVJGT UQOG U[UVGO QH CTKVJOGVKE EQWNF KP QPG YC[ QT CPQVJGT DG KPVGTRTGVGF KP JKU RTGFKECVKXG
VJGQT[ DWV TCVJGT YCU NQQMKPI VQ UGG KH KV EQWNF DG KPVGTRTGVGF O
WUKPI (TGIG U FGHKPKVKQPU QH \GTQ

UWEEGUUQT CPF PCVWTCN PWODGT  0QV VQ RWV VQQ HKPG C RQKPV QP KV *GEM HQWPF VJCV YG OC[ HQNNQY
(TGIGOU CEVWCN EJCKP QH FGFWEVKQPU GZEGRV KP JKU RTQQH QH VJG GZKUVGPEG QH UWEEGUUQTU 6JGTG
TGEQWTUG JCU VQ DG JCF VQ UQOG PQP(TGIGCP YC[ QH RTQEGGFKPI KH YG CTG VQ IGV 3
%QPUKUVGPE[ HQT C UVTQPIGT U[UVGO KU C UVTQPIGT TGUWNV VJCP EQPUKUVGPE[ HQT C YGCMGT
U[UVGO CPF QWT TGUWNVU KP VJG RTGEGFKPI UGEVKQP CTG QH KPVGTGUV QPN[ DGECWUG VJG[ YGTG RTQXGF
RTQQHVJGQTGVKECNN[ CPF HKPKVKUVKECNN[ YJKNG *GEMOU EQPUKUVGPE[ RTQQH KU OQFGNVJGQTGVKE CPF
KPHKPKVKUVKE 5Q OWEJ HQT VJG TGNCVKQPUJKR DGVYGGP *GEMOU TGUWNVU CPF VJQUG GZRQWPFGF UQ HCT KP
VJKU EJCRVGT
0QY VQ FGUETKDG VJG U[UVGO *GEM RTQXGU EQPUKUVGPV $GIKP YKVJ  VJG HKTUVQTFGT
.

NCPIWCIG YKVJ KFGPVKV[  DWV PQ PQPNQIKECN U[ODQNU CPF  VJG VJGQT[ YKVJ PQ PQPNQIKECN
6

CZKQOU .GV  CFF C XCTKCDNGDKPFKPI VGTOHQTOKPI QRGTCVQT ]_ YJKEJ CVVCEJGU VQ CP[ HQTOWNC
.

φ
 W YKVJ CV NGCUV QPG HTGG XCTKCDNG CPF RQUUKDN[ C YJQNG UVTKPI QH QVJGT HTGG XCTKCDNGU W VQ
Z Z

HQTO C VGTO ]  φ
 W_ VJCV ECP DG UWDUVKVWVGF HQT QDLGEV XCTKCDNGU
+P HQTOWNCU EQPVCKPKPI VJKU
Z Z

VGTO EQWPVU CU DQWPF CP[ CPF CNN RCTCOGVGTU CU UVKNN HTGG .GV  CFF CU CZKQOU VJG
Z W 6

HQNNQYKPI

 ∀W∀X
]Z φ
Z W_  ]Z ψ
Z X_ ↔ ∀Z
φ
Z W ↔ ψ
Z X

QT UWRRTGUUKPI RCTCOGVGTU CU WUWCN VJG HQNNQYKPI


  ]  φ
_  ]  ψ
_ ↔ ∀
φ
 ↔ ψ

Z Z Z Z Z Z Z

6JKU  KU GUUGPVKCNN[ YJCV 2CTUQPU

 KU RNGCUGF VQ ECNN VJG QHKTUVQTFGT RQTVKQP QH VJG
6

)TWPFIGUGV\G R VJQWIJ KV KU PQV NKVGTCNN[ C HKTUVQTFGT VJGQT[ QYKPI VQ VJG RTGUGPEG QH VJG QRGTCVQT
]_ +V KU HQT VJKU VJGQT[ VJCV 2CTUQPU UWRRNKGF C OQFGNVJGQTGVKE EQPUKUVGPE[ RTQQH
# HKPKVKUVKE RTQQH QH VJG EQPUKUVGPE[ QH  KU KORNKEKV KP QWT GCTNKGT TGUWNVU UKPEG YG JCXG
6

KP GHHGEV UGGP VJCV VJG RCTV QH  KPXQNXKPI QPN[ UGV VGTOU QH TCPM KU KPVGTRTGVCDNG KP 2P 8 CPF
6 P

VJCV VJG EQPUKUVGPE[ QH CNN 2P8 KU RTQXCDNG HKPKVKUVKECNN[ 5KPEG CP[ FGFWEVKQP QH C EQPVTCFKEVKQP KP
6  YQWNF KPXQNXG QPN[ HKPKVGN[ OCP[ HQTOWNCU CPF VJGTGHQTG QPN[ VGTOU WR VQ UQOG HKPKVG TCPM  P

VJG EQPUKUVGPE[ QH  HQNNQYU 6

$GHQTG IQKPI CP[ HWTVJGT KV OC[ DG TGOCTMGF VJCV VJG UGV VJGQT[ 756 YKVJ GZVGPUKQPCNKV[
PWNN UGV CPF RCKTKPI ECP DG KPVGTRTGVGF KP  4GNCVKXK\G SWCPVKHKGTU VQ VJG HQNNQYKPI HQTOWNC
6

 [ ]   _∨∃ ∃
]  
Z Z Z W X [ Z Z W ∨ Z  X_

+PVGTRTGV \ ∈ [ D[ VJG HQNNQYKPI HQTOWNC

 ∃W∃X
[  ]Z Z  W ∨ Z  X_ 
\  W ∨ \  X

6JG KPVGTRTGVCDKNKV[ QH 756 OGCPU VJCV CU UQQP CU YG CFF HKTUVTQWPF EQPEGRVXCTKCDNGU CPF
RTGFKECVKXG EQORTGJGPUKQP HQT VJGO GXGP YKVJQWV CNNQYKPI CP[ OQTG UGV VGTOU 3 CPF JGPEG 3
YKNN DG KPVGTRTGVCDNG D[ VJG TGUWNVU QH VJKU EJCRVGT
CPF UKOKNCTN[ HQT 3 KH YG IQ QP VQ C UGEQPF
TQWPF
.GV PQY  CFF HKTUVTQWPF EQPEGRV XCTKCDNGU    W CPF CNNQY VJG HQTOCVKQP QH UGV
. : ; <

VGTOU ]  φ
_ HQT φ VJCV OC[ EQPVCKP HTGG HKTUVTQWPF EQPEGRV XCTKCDNGU DWV FQ PQV EQPVCKP DQWPF
Z Z

HKTUVTQWPF EQPEGRV XCTKCDNGU .GV  CFF RTGFKECVKXG EQORTGJGPUKQP

6

 ∃:∀Z
:Z ↔ φ
Z
RTQXKFGF φ
Z EQPVCKPU PQ DQWPF EQPEGRV XCTKCDNGU

CNQPI YKVJ VJG PGY KPUVCPEGU QH

 HQT VJG PGY UGV VGTOU CNNQYGF D[  .GV  CNNQY UGV VGTOU . .

]  φ
_ CNUQ HQT φ VJCV OC[ EQPVCKP DQWPF HKTUVTQWPF EQPEGRV XCTKCDNGU CPF NGV  CFF VJG PGY
Z Z 6

KPUVCPEGU QH
 HQT VJG PGY UGV VGTOU CNNQYGF D[  .

6JKU  KU YJCV *GEM VCMGU CU JKU QUKORNG RTGFKECVKXGR VJGQT[ 1DXKQWUN[ KPVTQFWEKPI
6

UGEQPFTQWPF EQPEGRV XCTKCDNGU    W YG ECP IQ QP VQ HQTO  CPF   CPF  CPF

: ; < . 6 . 6
VJGP EQPVKPWG VJG UGTKGU *GEM IKXGU C OQFGNVJGQTGVKE EQPUKUVGPE[ RTQQH HQT  VJCV IGPGTCNK\GU
6

VQ VJG QVJGT VJGQTKGU KP VJG UGTKGU

6JGTG CTG VYQ KPITGFKGPVU VQ VJG RTQQH 6JG HKTUV KPITGFKGPV KU CP KORTQXGF XGTUKQP QH VJG
2CTUQPU RTQQH QH VJG EQPUKUVGPE[ QH  YJKEJ PQV QPN[ KU WUGF VQ IGV VJG EQPUKUVGPE[ QH  DWV
6 6

CNUQ KU WUGF VQ IGV VJG EQPUKUVGPE[ QH P QPEG VJG EQPUKUVGPE[ QH P KU GUVCDNKUJGF 6JG UGEQPF
6 6

KPITGFKGPV YJKEJ IKXGU VJG EQPUKUVGPE[ QH P  QPEG VJG EQPUKUVGPE[ QH P KU GUVCDNKUJGF KU CP

6 6

GZVGPFGF XGTUKQP QH 5JQGPHKGNFOU VJGQTGO

6JKU TGUWNV OC[ DG UVCVGF CU HQNNQYU 5WRRQUG YG JCXG C NCPIWCIG VJCV KU HKTUVQTFGT
.

GZEGRV HQT CNNQYKPI XCTKCDNGDKPFKPI VGTOHQTOKPI QRGTCVQT =? CPF JCXG C VJGQT[ VJCV JCU CP 6

CZKQO UEJGOG

 Mφ
Mψ
M
Z Z

YJGTG φ
 CPF ψ
 OC[ DG CP[ HQTOWNCU QH  RGTJCRU EQPVCKPKPI HTGG XCTKCDNGU DGUKFGU  CPF
Z Z . Z

OC[ QEEWT KP
 =  φ
? =  ψ
?
VJTQWIJ VGTOU Z Z CPF Z Z  .GV CFF
CU YGNN CU FKTGEVN[ .

EQPEGRVXCTKCDNGU    CPF NGV CFF RTGFKECVKXG EQORTGJGPUKQP

: ; < 6

 ∃:∀Z
:Z ↔ φ
Z
RTQXKFGF φ EQPVCKPU PQ DQWPF EQPEGRV XCTKCDNGU

CPF NGV CFF CNUQ CNN KPUVCPEGU QH

 HQT φ CPF ψ EQPVCKPKPI PQ DQWPF EQPEGRV XCTKCDNGU 6JGP
6

VJG GZVGPFGF 5JQGPHKGNF VJGQTGO UC[U VJCV KU EQPUKUVGPV 5JQGPHKGNFOU QTKIKPCN VJGQTGO KU VJG
6

UCOG  *GEM UJQYU VJCV VJG WUWCN OQFGNVJGQTGVKE RTQQH QH

YKVJQWV VJG KVCNKEK\GF RCTVU

5JQGPHKGNFOU QTKIKPCN VJGQTGO ECP DG GNCDQTCVGF VQ JCPFNG XCTKCDNGDKPFKPI VGTOHQTOKPI

QRGTCVQTU
# UQOGYJCV UVTQPIGT EQPUKUVGPE[ TGUWNV VJCP QWTU QP VJG EQPUKUVGPE[ QH 28 YCU QDVCKPGF
D[ 9GJOGKGT
 *KU U[UVGO KU GUUGPVKCNN[ QWT 28 M COQPI GCTN[ YTKVGTU QP VJGUG OCVVGTU
9GJOGKGT YCU VJG QPN[ JQNFQWV CICKPUV VJG VTCFKVKQP QH CNNQYKPI C XCTKCDNGDKPFKPI
VGTOHQTOKPI QRGTCVQT ]  _ M DWV YKVJ VJG HQNNQYKPI UVTGPIVJGPGF HQTO QH VJG EQORTGJGPUKQP
CZKQO ECNNGF ∆ EQORTGJGPUKQP

 ∀Z
∃7φ
Z 7 ↔ ∀7ψ
Z 7 → ∃:∀Z
:Z ↔ ∃7φ
Z 7
RTQXKFGF φ CPF ψ EQPVCKP PQ DQWPF EQPEGRVXCTKCDNGU

6JKU UC[U VJCV KH C HQTOWNC ∃ φ JCXKPI C UKPING KPKVKCN GZKUVGPVKCN SWCPVKHKGT CPF C HQTOWNC ∀ ψ
JCXKPI C UKPING KPKVKCN WPKXGTUCN EQPEGRVSWCPVKHKGT M Σ CPF Π HQTOWNCU M JQNF QH VJG
7 7
UCOG QDLGEVU VJGP VJG[ FGVGTOKPG C EQPEGRV +H φ FQGU PQV EQPVCKP VJG XCTKCDNG  VJG CPVGEGFGPV
7

QH
 KU WPFGTUVQQF VQ JQNF XCEWQWUN[ HQT φ  ψ 6JWU ∆ EQORTGJGPUKQP UWDUWOGU RTGFKECVKXG
EQORTGJGPUKQP CU C URGEKCN ECUG
#P CPCNQIQWU UVTGPIVJGPKPI QH *GEMOU EQPUKUVGPE[ TGUWNV HQT  YCU UWDUGSWGPVN[
QDVCKPGF D[ (GTTGKTC CPF 9GJOGKGT
 6JGKT U[UVGO KU GUUGPVKCNN[ *GEMOU  YKVJ ∆
6

EQORTGJGPUKQP +P EQPPGEVKQP YKVJ ∆ EQORTGJGPUKQP KV UJQWNF DG PQVGF VJCV VJG UGV QH CNN
UGVU VJCV CTG PQV GNGOGPVU QH VJGOUGNXGU JCU C Σ FGHKPKVKQP YJKEJ YG JCXG UGGP KP UGXGTCN
Z

XCTKCPV PQVCVKQPU DGHQTG

 ∃:
Z  ][ :[_  `:[

5KOKNCTN[ VJG UGV QH CNN QDLGEVU VJCV CTG PQV GNGOGPVU QH VJGOUGNXGU JCU C Π FGHKPKVKQP CU
HQNNQYU

 ∀:
Z  ][ :[_ → `:[

5Q GKVJGT Σ EQORTGJGPUKQP QT Π EQORTGJGPUKQP YQWNF NGCF VQ KPEQPUKUVGPE[ #PF UQ

YQWNF ∆ EQORTGJGPUKQP KH
 CPF
 YGTG GSWKXCNGPV CPF KP RCTVKEWNCT KH GXGT[ QDLGEV YGTG C
UGV
6Q RWV VJG OCVVGT CPQVJGT YC[ ∆ EQORTGJGPUKQP HQT HKTUVTQWPF EQPEGRVU KORNKGU VJCV
PQV GXGT[ QDLGEV KU C VJG GZVGPUKQP QH C HKTUVTQWPF EQPEGRV +P HCEV 9GJOGKGT YJQ PQVGF VJKU
RQKPV YGPV QP VQ UJQY D[ CP GZVGPUKQP QH VJG CTIWOGPV VJCV HQT GXGT[  ∆ EQORTGJGPUKQP
O

KORNKGU VJG GZKUVGPEG QH CV NGCUV QDLGEVU VJCV CTG PQV UWEJ GZVGPUKQPU *G FGUETKDGU VJG VJGQT[ CU
KORN[KPI VJG GZKUVGPEG QH CP KPHKPKV[ QH QPQPNQIKECNR QDLGEVU
O

+H KV YGTG VJG ECUG CU VJKU FGUETKRVKQP UWIIGUVU VJCV ∆ EQORTGJGPUKQP KU UQOGVJKPI QPG
ECPOV EQPUKUVGPVN[ CUUWOG YKVJQWV CUUWOKPI HQT GCEJ VJCV VJGTG GZKUV CV NGCUV QPQPNQIKECNR
O O

QDLGEVU VJGP KPFGGF VJG VJGQT[ YQWNF KPXQNXG CP CUUWORVKQP WPEQOHQTVCDN[ ENQUG VQ 4WUUGNNOU
CZKQO QH KPHKPKV[ CPF EQORNGVGN[ EQPVTCT[ VQ VJG (TGIGCP KFGC VJCV NQIKECN FGFWEVKQP  PQV
 UJQWNF IKXG WU CP KPHKPKV[ QH QDLGEVU
,WUVKHKGF VJQWIJ 9GJOGKGTOU EQPENWUKQP OC[ DG YJGP VJG UKORNG ∆ EQORTGJGPUKQP
CTDKVTCT[ RQUVWNCVKQP

VJGQT[ KU XKGYGF KP KUQNCVKQP HTQO VJG TCOKHKGF RGTURGEVKXG YJGTG VJG VJGQT[ KU QPN[ VJG HKTUV QH
YJCV KU VQ DG CP GPFNGUU UGTKGU KPXQNXKPI OQTG CPF OQTG TQWPFU QH EQPEGRVU KV UGGOU RTGOCVWTG

NKMG VJG EQPENWUKQP QPG OKIJV FTCY HTQO C UKORNG RTGFKECVKXG VJGQT[ EQPUKFGTGF KP KUQNCVKQP VJCV
EGTVCKP HQTOWNCU CTG DGKPI CNNQYGF KPVQ VJG NCPIWCIG VJCV FQ PQV FGVGTOKPG EQPEGRVU 6JG QDLGEVU
UVKIOCVK\GF CU QPQPNQIKECNR VJQWIJ KPFGGF PQV VJG GZVGPUKQPU QH HKTUVTQWPF EQPEGRVU OC[
PQPGVJGNGUU DG QNQIKECNR KP VJCV PQVJKPI GZENWFGU VJGKT DGKPI GZVGPUKQPU QH UGEQPFTQWPF
EQPEGRVU
9G MPQY VJGTG YKNN DG GZVGPUKQPU QH UGEQPFTQWPF EQWPEGRVU VJCV CTG PQV VJG
GZVGPUKQPU QH CP[ HKTUVTQWPF EQPEGRVU +PFGGF KP C HWNN[ TCOKHKGF VJGQT[ YKVJ KPHKPKVGN[ OCP[
TQWPFU QH EQPEGRVU KV KU PQV GXGP RQUUKDNG VQUVCVG VJCV CP QDLGEV KU QPQPNQIKECNR KP VJG UGPUG QH
PQV DGKPI VJG GZVGPUKQP QH C EQPEGRV QH CP[ TQWPF OWEJ NGUU RTQXG VJCV VJGTG CTG CP[
QPQPNQIKECNR QDLGEVU UKPEG VJGTG KU PQ SWCPVKHKECVKQP QXGT QDLGEVU QH CNN TQWPFU
$G CNN VJCV CU KV OC[ VJG (GTTGKTC9GJOGKGT RTQQH WUGU TCVJGT OQTG UQRJKUVKECVGF
OQFGNVJGQTGVKE VGEJPKSWGU VJCP VJG *GEM RTQQH CPF KU EQTTGURQPFKPIN[ HWTVJGT CYC[ HTQO DGKPI
HKPKVKUVKE 9G FQ PQV [GV JCXG C FGHKPKVG WRRGT DQWPF QP JQY NCTIG C HTCIOGPV QH CTKVJOGVKE VJG
(GTTGKTC9GJOGKGT U[UVGO ECP KPVGTRTGV 6JWU EGTVCKPN[ JCU PQV [GV DGGP TKIQTQWUN[ RTQXGF VJCV
QPG ECPPQV IGV 3 KP C RTGFKECVKXG (TGIGCP U[UVGO HQT KPUVCPEG &GURKVG UWEJ NQQUG GPFU
JQYGXGT + DGNKGXG PQ QPG YQTMKPI KP VJG CTGC UGTKQWUN[ GZRGEVU VQ DG CDNG VQ IGV XGT[ OWEJ
HWTVJGT KP VJG UGSWGPEG 3O YJKNG YQTMKPI KP RTGFKECVKXG (TGIGCP VJGQTKGU QH YJCVGXGT MKPF +V KU
VKOG VJGTGHQTG VQ JCXG C NQQM CV VJG KORTGFKECVKXG QRVKQP
 
+ORTGFKECVKXG6JGQTKGU

6*' 24'%'&+0) EJCRVGT YCU FGXQVGF VQ U[UVGOU VJCV CUUWOG VJG GZKUVGPEG QH GZVGPUKQPU
HQT YJCVGXGT EQPEGRVU CTG CNNQYGF VQ GZKUV DWV VJCV FQ PQV CNNQY HQTOWNCU KPXQNXKPI

SWCPVKHKECVKQP QXGT CDUQNWVGN[ CNN EQPEGRVU VQ FGVGTOKPG EQPEGRVU QT VJCV UKORN[ FQ PQV

CNNQY HQTOWNCU KPXQNXKPI SWCPVKHKECVKQP QXGT CDUQNWVGN[ CNN EQPEGRVU 6JG RTGUGPV EJCRVGT

KU FGXQVGF VQ VJGQTKGU VJCV VCMG VJG QRRQUKVG VCEM CPF CEEGRV HWNN UGEQPFQTFGT NQIKE YKVJ

SWCPVKHKECVKQP QXGT CNN EQPEGRVU HTGGN[ CFOKVVGF KP HQTOWNCU CPF YKVJ CNN HQTOWNCU

CUUWOGF VQ FGVGTOKPG EQPEGRVU DWV VJCV TGUVTKEV VJG CUUWORVKQP QH VJG GZKUVGPEG QH

GZVGPUKQPU QT TGRNCEG KV D[ VJG CUUWORVKQP QH VJG GZKUVGPEG QH CDUVTCEVU HQT UQOG

GSWKXCNGPEG QVJGT VJCP EQGZVGPUKXGPGUU

6JG YQTM VQ DG PQVGF KPENWFGU EQPVTKDWVKQPU D[ %TKURKP 9TKIJV

 0GKN

6GPPCPV
 , . $GNN
 $QD *CNG
 -KV (KPG
 «[UVGKP .KPPGDQ

! CPF CICKP CU KP VJG RTGEGFKPI EJCRVGT *GEM CPF $QQNQU

(TGIG#TKVJOGVKECPF.GUU

6JGQTKGU QH VJG MKPF VQ DG EQPUKFGTGF KP VJKU EJCRVGT IGPGTCNN[ RGTOKV VJG

KPVGTRTGVCVKQP QH OWEJ NCTIGT HTCIOGPVU QH ENCUUKECN OCVJGOCVKEU VJCP FKF VJG RTGFKECVKXG

VJGQTKGU EQPUKFGTGF KP VJG RTGEGFKPI EJCRVGT YJKEJ KU YJ[ + JCXG FGHGTTGF EQPUKFGTCVKQP

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X
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ν
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ν
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 ∀7∃;∀Z
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 ∃7∀Z
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 ∃;∀Z
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∃:∀Z
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DQQVUVTCRRKPI KFGC HQT RTQXKPI VJG UWEEGUUQT VJGQTGO +V KU VJGTGHQTG PQV UWTRTKUKPI VJCV
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ξ QHH VQ VJG UKFG CU KV YGTG HTQO VJG QDLGEVU Z CPF VJG EQPEGRVU : VJGP YG ECPPQV RTQXG
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JCTFGT VQ ENCKO RJKNQUQRJKECN CPF GURGEKCNN[ GRKUVGOQNQIKECN KORQTVCPEG HQT (TGIGOU
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6JG IGQOGVGTU QH (NCVNCPF JCF C HKPG IGQOGVT[ QH VJG RNCPG VJCV YCU VJGKT YQTNF
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YJKEJ VJG[ DQVJ NKG PQV GXGT[ VYQ NKPGU FGVGTOKPG C WPKSWG RQKPV N[KPI QP DQVJ UKPEG

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RTQENCKOGF VJCV CNN RCKTU QH NKPGU FQ OGGV KP C EQOOQP RQKPV DWV YKVJ VJKU FKUVKPEVKQP VJCV
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0QT FQGU VJG TGEQIPKVKQP QH VJGUG RQKPVU CV KPHKPKV[ EQORTQOKUG VJG RTKPEKRNG VJCV

CP[ VYQ RQKPVU FGVGTOKPG C WPKSWG NKPG 6YQ QTFKPCT[ RQKPVU UVKNN FGVGTOKPG C NKPG KP VJG

QTFKPCT[ YC[ #P QTFKPCT[ RQKPV CPF C RQKPV CV KPHKPKV[ FGVGTOKPG C NKPG CU YGNN (QT VCMKPI

CP[ NKPG VJTQWIJ VJG RQKPV CV KPHKPKV[ KV YCU CNTGCF[ C RTKPEKRNG QH VJG QNF IGQOGVT[ VJCV

VJGTG KU WPKSWG NKPG VJTQWIJ VJG IKXGP QTFKPCT[ RQKPV VJCV KU RCTCNNGN VQ VJG IKXGP NKPG CPF

KP VJG PGY IGQOGVT[ VJKU OGCPU VJCV KV RCUUGU VJTQWIJ VJG IKXGP RQKPV CV KPHKPKV[ #U HQT

VYQ RQKPVU CV KPHKPKV[ CNN UWEJ RQKPVU NKG QP C EQOOQP NKPG CV KPHKPKV[
6JG PGY KPHKPKVKUVKE IGQOGVT[ UQQP RTQXGF VQ JCXG VJG RQYGT VQ WPKH[ OCP[

FKURCTCVG TGUWNVU QH VJG QNF IGQOGVT[ CPF VQ UWIIGUV PGY TGUWNVU CU YGNN KP C YC[ VJCV YKNN

DG HCOKNKCT VQ VJQUG CESWCKPVGF YKVJ RTQLGEVKXG IGQOGVT[ KP QWT QYP YQTNF

*KNDGTVOU

HCXQTKVG GZCORNG QH VJG WVKNKV[ QH QKFGCN GNGOGPVUR ;GV FGURKVG KVU WVKNKV[ VJG PGY

IGQOGVT[ YCU TGICTFGF YKVJ UWURKEKQP D[ UQOG IGQOGVGTU CPF OQTG RJKNQUQRJGTU #HVGT

CNN PQ QPGOU G[GUKIJV KU MGGP GPQWIJ VQ GPCDNG VJGO VQ UGG VJG KPHKPKVGN[ FKUVCPV NKPG YKVJ

KVU KPHKPKVGN[ FKUVCPV RQKPVU HTQO CP[ RNCEG KP VJG QTFKPCT[ RNCPG PQT CTG CP[QPGOU HGGV

UYKHV GPQWIJ VQ GPCDNG VJGO VQ IQ VQ VJGUG KPHKPKVGN[ FKUVCPV RNCEGU CPF UGG VJGO WR ENQUG

#HVGT EQPVTQXGTU[ DGVYGGP VJQUG YJQ CEEGRVGF VJG XKUKQP QH C PGY IGQOGVT[ CPF

VJQUG YJQ TGLGEVGF KV JCF IQPG QP HQT UQOG VKOG C NQIKEKCP CTQUG YJQ YKVJ VYQ NGEVWTGU

YCU CDNG VQ RWV CP GPF VQ VJG FGDCVG &WTKPI VJG HKTUV NGEVWTG VJG NQIKEKCP TGXGCNGF JQY VJG

RQKPVU CV KPHKPKV[ CPF GXGP VJG NKPG CV KPHKPKV[ EQWNF DG TGICTF CU GPVKVKGU QH C PGY UQTV

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KVU FKTGEVKQP #PF CV VJG EQUV QH C NKVVNG CTVKHKEKCNKV[ OC[ KFGPVKH[ VJG NKPG CV KPHKPKV[ YKVJ VJG
QPG TGOCKPKPI CDUVTCEV ξ EQOOQP VQ CNN RQKPVU :
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UVCVGOGPV LWUV CDQWV GPVKVKGU QH VJG QNF UQTV
6JKU KU C RQKPV YG JCXG UGGP KP VJG RTQQH QH

VJG TGRTGUGPVCVKXGU NGOOC KP VJG RTGEGFKPI EJCRVGT CPF QPG QP YJKEJ + PGGF PQV GPNCTIG
JGTG #U C TGUWNV D[ VJG GPF QH VJG UGEQPF NGEVWTG GXGP VJQUG YJQ JCF PQV VJG NGCUV

KPENKPCVKQP VQ DGNKGXG KP VJG NKVGTCN VTWVJ QH XKUKQPCT[ VJGQT[ QH VJG KPHKPKVGN[ FKUVCPV NKPG

CPF KVU KPHKPKVGN[ FKUVCPV RQKPVU YGTG GSWKRRGF YKVJ C OGVJQF D[ YJKEJ VJG[ EQWNF

TGKPVGTRTGV GXGT[VJKPI UCKF D[ DGNKGXGTU KP UWEJ C YC[ CU VQ OCMG KV EQOG QWV VTWG #PF

VJKU YCU GPQWIJ VQ RWV CP GPF VQ VJG EQPVTQXGTU[

6JG NQIKEKCPU QH (NCVNCPF JCF C VJGQT[ QH EQPEGRVU VQQ DWV VJGTG YCU C ICR KP

VJGKT VJGQT[ (QT VJG[ HQWPF VJGOUGNXGU WPCDNG VQ RTQXG VJCV HQT GCEJ HKPKVG EQPEGRV VJGTG

KU CPQVJGT HKPKVG EQPEGRV UWEJ VJCV CNN JG QDLGEVU HCNNKPI WPFGT VJG NCVVGT DCT QPG CTG

GSWKPWOGTQWU YKVJ CNN VJG QDLGEVU HCNNKPI WPFGT VJG HQTOGT 1PG FC[ JQYGXGT C XKUKQPCT[
CPPQWPEGF VJCV VJGTG YGTG QDLGEVU ECNNGF PWODGTU CPF WUKPI EGTVCKP CUUWORVKQPU CDQWV
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6JG NQIKEKCP YJQ JCF UGVVNGF VJG IGQOGVTKECN EQPVTQXGTU[ YCU KPXKVGF VQ NGEVWTG QP VJG

CTKVJOGVKECN SWGUVKQP #V C HKTUV NGEVWTG VJG NQIKEKCP TGXGCNGF JQY VJG PWODGTU EQWNF DG

TGICTF QDVCKPGF HTQO EQPEGRVU CU CDUVTCEVU YKVJ TGURGEV VQ GSWKPWOGTQUKV[ $WV VJGTG YCU
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+V KU QH EQWTUG VJG QUGEQPF FKOGPUKQP QH KORTGFKECVKXKV[R VJCV KU OQUV FKTGEVN[

TGURQPUKDNG HQT VJG KORQUUKDKNKV[ QH IKXKPI C QUGEQPF NGEVWTGR KP VJG HQTGIQKPI RCTCDNG
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HQT IQQF VQ U[UVGOU YKVJ HWNN EQORTGJGPUKQP


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6JG U[UVGO 2 FQGU PQV DGCT VJG CNVGTPCVKXG PCOG CPCN[UKU YKVJQWV TGCUQP +V TGCNN[
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WUCDNG HQTOWNCVKQP ECP DG IKXGP CU HQNNQYU

 ∃4∀:∃Z4:4=Z?

*GTG 4=Z? KU VJG UGEVKQP QH 4 CV Z n[ 4Z[€ 4GSWKXCNGPV VQ VJG

5KPEG
 UC[U GXGT[ : KU

UGEVKQP CV UQOG QDLGEV Z

 KORNKGU VJGTG ECPPQV DG OQTG UGVU QH GSWKXCNGPVU HQT 4 VJCP

QDLGEVU

0QY VJGTG CTG VYQ FKHHKEWNVKGU YKVJ TGSWKTKPI PQPKPHNCVKQP VQ DG RTQXGF DGHQTG VJG

GZKUVGPEG QH CDUVTCEVU HQT CP GSWKXCNGPEG KU CNNQYGF VQ DG CUUWOGF 6JG HKTUV FKHHKEWNV[ KU

VJCV TGSWKTKPI RTQQH QH PQPKPHNCVKQP OCMGU KV KORQUUKDNG VQ CUUWOG *2 WPVKN KV JCU DGGP

UQOGJQY RTQXGF VJCV VJGTG CTG KPHKPKVGN[ OCP[ QDLGEVU YJGTGCU (TGIG U KFGC YCU VQ IGV O
KPHKPKVGN[ OCP[ QDLGEVU HTQO *2 6JG UGEQPF FKHHKEWNV[ KU QPG CNNWFGF VQ KP O[ TGXKGY QH

9TKIJV DWV GURGEKCNN[ FGXGNQRGF D[ -KV (KPG

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J[RGTKPHNCVKQP 6JG RTQDNGO KU VJCV QPG ECPPQV CUUWOG GXGP HQT GSWKXCNGPEGU QP QDLGEVU

CPF GXGP HQT VJQUG VJCV JCXG QPN[ VYQ UGVU QH GSWKXCNGPVU CPF UQ CTG CDQWV CU HCT CU

RQUUKDNG HTQO DGKPI KPHNCVKQPCT[ VJCV CDUVTCEVU CNYC[U GZKUV

(QT VJG KPEQPUKUVGPV PCKXG VJGQT[ QH UGVU ECP DG KPVGTRTGVGF KP C VJGQT[ VJCV CNNQYU

WPNKOKVGF QDLGEVCDUVTCEVKQP D[ KFGPVKH[KPI ]Z φ

Z_ CPF KVU EQORNGOGPV YKVJ VJG VYQ
CDUVTCEVU HQT VJG GSWKXCNGPEG 4Z[ IKXGP D[

φ
Z  φ
[ ∨
`φ
Z  `φ
[

#PF C RCTCNNGN FKHHKEWNV[ CTKUGU HQT EQPEGRVCDUVTCEVKQP KFGPVKH[KPI U : CPF KVU EQORNGOGPV

YKVJ VJG VYQ CDUVTCEVU HQT VJG GSWKXCNGPEG 4 IKXGP D[

: ≡ <  ; ≡ < ∨
`: ≡ <  `; ≡ <
*GTG YG JCXG C RTQDNGO PQV UQ OWEJ QH DCF EQORCP[ DWV QH VQQ OWEJ EQORCP[ 'XGP KH

VJG EQORCP[ KU IQQF YG JCXG VQQ OWEJ QH C IQQF VJKPI 6Q DG UWTG VJG RTQDNGO QPN[

CTKUGU KH KV KU CUUWOGF VJCV YJGP FGCNKPI YKVJ OQTG VJCP QPG GSWKXCNGPEG VJG CDUVTCEVU

YKVJ TGURGEV VQ FKUVKPEV GSWKXCNGPEGU CTG FKUVKPEV CV NGCUV KH VJG EQTTGURQPFKPI UGVU QH

GSWKXCNGPVU CTG DWV VJCV KU CP GOKPGPVN[ TGCUQPCDNG CPF KPVWKVKXG CUUWORVKQP

6JG)GPGTCN6JGQT[QH#DUVTCEVKQP+VU5EQRG

6JG OCKP FKHHGTGPEG DGVYGGP VJG 5EQVVKUJ 5EJQQN CPF (KPG KU VJCV VJG HQTOGT CTG

EQPVGPV VQ RTQEGGF RKGEGOGCN CFFKPI URGEKHKE CDUVTCEVKQP RTKPEKRNGU QPG D[ QPG YJKNG VJG

NCVVGT YKUJGU VQ FGXGNQR C IGPGTCN VJGQT[ VJCV YKNN UQ VQ URGCM CFOKV CNN CFOKUUKDNG

CDUVTCEVKQP RTKPEKRNGU CV QPEG 6JG FGXGNQROGPV QH UWEJ C VJGQT[ KU VJG CKO QH

VJG OQTG

VGEJPKECN UGEQPF JCNH QH VJG OQPQITCRJ (KPG

 YJKEJ KU GUUGPVKCNN[ FGXQVGF VQ

GZCOKPKPI VJQTQWIJN[ VJG QPN[ MPQYP UKORNG CPF PCVWTCN TGUVTKEVKQP VJCV ECP RTGXGPV

J[RGTKPHNCVKQP

6JG MG[ PQVKQP HQT (KPG KU KPXCTKCPEG YJKEJ KU FGHKPGF CU HQNNQYU # RGTOWVCVKQP

QH QDLGEVU KU C QPGVQQPG EQTTGURQPFGPEG 2 DGVYGGP VJG WPKXGTUCN EQPEGRV 7 CPF KVUGNH +P

EQPPGEVKQP YKVJ RGTOWVCVKQPU YG YTKVG 2

Z HQT VJG WPKSWG [ UWEJ VJCV 2Z[ # RGTOWVCVKQP

2 QH QDLGEVU KPFWEGU C RGTOWVCVKQP 2 QH EQPEGRVU FGHKPGF CU HQNNQYU

2:; ↔ ∀Z∀[
2Z[ →
:Z ↔ ;[

$[ CDWUG QH NCPIWCIG YG YTKVG 2

: HQT 2
: # RGTOWVCVKQP 2 QH QDLGEVU UKOKNCTN[
KPFWEGU C RGTOWVCVKQP QH TGNCVKQPCN EQPEGRVU 9G VJGP FGHKPG C EQPEGRV : QT TGNCVKQPCN

EQPEGRV 4 VQ DG KPXCTKCPV KH : KU EQGZVGPUKXG YKVJ 2

: QT 4 KU EQGZVGPUKXG YKVJ 2
4 HQT

GXGT[ RGTOWVCVKQP 2 QH QDLGEVU # NKVVNG VJQWIJV UJQYU VJCV VJGTG CTG QPN[ VYQ KPXCTKCPV

EQPEGRVU
VJG WPKXGTUCN CPF PWNN EQPEGRVU CPF HQWT KPXCTKCPV TGNCVKQPCN EQPEGRVU
VJG

WPKXGTUCN KFGPVKV[ FKUVKPEVPGUU CPF PWNN TGNCVKQPU +P IGPGTCN YTKVKPI GZR

P HQT   VJG P
PWODGT QH KPXCTKCPV PRNCEG TGNCVKQPCN EQPEGRVU HQT P n  KU GZR
GZR
P    6JG RTQQH

KU NGHV CU CP GZGTEKUG HQT VJG TGCFGT

6JKPIU YKNN VWTP QWV VQ DG OWEJ OQTG KPVGTGUVKPI QPG NGXGN WR UQ NGV OG UGV FQYP

VJG TGNGXCPV FGHKPKVKQPU # JKIJGTNGXGN : KU KPXCTKCPV KH HQT GXGT[ RGTOWVCVKQP 2 QH

QDLGEVU 2
: HCNNU WPFGT : YJGPGXGT : FQGU
0QVG VJCV KV KU QPN[ VJQUG RGTOWVCVKQPU QP
EQPEGRVU VJCV CTG KPFWEGF D[ RGTOWVCVKQPU QP QDLGEVU VJCV CTG DGKPI EQPUKFGTGF +H QPG

CNNQYGF CTDKVTCT[ RGTOWVCVKQPU QH EQPEGRVU VJG UKVWCVKQP YQWNF DG VJG UCOG CU KV YCU QPG

NGXGN FQYP # JKIJGTNGXGN 4 KU KPXCTKCPV KH HQT GXGT[ RGTOWVCVKQP 2 QH QDLGEVU 2

: CPF
2
; 4 YJGPGXGT : CPF ; FQ # JKIJGTNGXGN 4 KU FQWDN[ KPXCTKCPV KH HQT GXGT[
HCNN WPFGT

RCKT QH RGTOWVCVKQPU 2 CPF 3 QH QDLGEVU 2

: CPF 3
; HCNN WPFGT 4 YJGPGXGT : CPF ;

FQ 6JGUG NCUV VYQ PQVKQPU CTG QH OQUV KPVGTGUV YJGP 4 KU CP GSWKXCNGPEG &QWDNG

KPXCTKCPEG HQT CP GSWKXCNGPEG COQWPVU VQ VJG QUVGPUKDN[ YGCMGT TGSWKTGOGPV VJCV : KU

CNYC[U 4GSWKXCNGPV VQ 2
:
+P IGPGTCN C EQPEGRV TGNCVKQPCN EQPEGRV JKIJGTNGXGN EQPEGRV QT JKIJGTNGXGN

TGNCVKQPCN EQPEGRV VJCV KU GZRNKEKVN[ FGHKPCDNG KP RWTGN[ NQIKECN VGTOU

YKVJQWV RCTCOGVGTU

YKNN DG KPXCTKCPV 6JGTG YKNN DG OQTG KPXCTKCPV UGEQPFNGXGN EQPEGRVU VJCP LWUV VJQUG

GZRNKEKVN[ FGHKPCDNG KP RWTGN[ NQIKECN VGTOU DWV CNN KPXCTKCPV UGEQPFNGXGN EQPEGRVU CTG

TGICTFGF CU QNQIKECN R KP C IGPGTCNK\GF UGPUG KP UWEJ DTCPEJGU QH OCVJGOCVKECN NQIKE CU

CDUVTCEV OQFGN VJGQT[ RTKOCTKN[ DGECWUG URGEKCNKUVU KP UWEJ DTCPEJGU HKPF VJCV OWEJ QH

VJG VJGQT[ VJCV CRRNKGU VQ QNQIKECN R EQPEGRVU KP C PCTTQY UGPUG CRRNKGU VQ VJGUG CU YGNN #V

CP[ TCVG TGSWKTKPI KPXCTKCPEG HQT VJG GSWKXCNGPEG KPXQNXGF KU CTIWCDN[ C RTKPEKRNGF CPF

PQV CP CF JQE TGUVTKEVKQP QP CDUVTCEVKQP RTKPEKRNGU +V KU VJG EGPVTCN TGUVTKEVKQP KORQUGF KP

O
(KPG U IGPGTCN VJGQT[ QH CDUVTCEVU KP QTFGT VQ CXQKF J[RGTKPHNCVKQP

O
9G ECP PQY KPVTQFWEG C RTGNKOKPCT[ XGTUKQP QH (KPG U IGPGTCN VJGQT[ QH

CDUVTCEVKQP +V KU OQUV UVTCKIJVHQTYCTFN[ RTGUGPVGF CU C F[CFKE VJKTFQTFGT VJGQT[ +V

EQPVCKPU C VYQRNCEG HWPEVKQPU[ODQN h VJCV VCMGU XCTKCDNGU QH V[RG 4 KP KVU HKTUV RNCEG
CPF XCTKCDNGU QH V[RG : KP KVU UGEQPF RNCEG CPF RTQFWEGU C TGUWNV VJCV ECP DG UWDUVKVWVGF

HQT XCTKCDNGU QH V[RG Z +V VJWU TGRTGUGPVU CP QRGTCVKQP VCMKPI C UGEQPFNGXGN VYQRNCEG

TGNCVKQPCN EQPEGRV CPF C HKTUVNGXGN QPGRNCEG EQPEGRV CU CTIWOGPVU VQ UQOG QDLGEV CU

XCNWG )GPGTCNN[ h 4: YKNN DG YTKVVGP OQTG UWIIGUVKXGN[ h4: CPF ECNNGF VJG CDUVTCEV QH :
YKVJ TGURGEV VQ 4 9G CUUWOG GZVGPUKQPCNKV[ UQ VJCV 4 ≡ 5 KORNKGU h4:  h5:

# PQVKQP QH UWKVCDKNKV[ YKNN DG FGHKPGF CPF VJG QVJGT CZKQOU YKNN DG HQTOWNCVGF KP

VGTOU QH VJKU PQVKQP +P QTFGT VQ CXQKF VTKXKCNKVKGU KV KU EQPXGPVKQPCNN[ CUUWOGF KP OQFGTP

NQIKE VJCV VJGTG KU CV NGCUV QPG QDLGEV +P VJG RTGUGPV EQPVGZV KV YKNN DG EQPXGPKGPV VQ

CUUWOG VJCV VJGTG CTG CV NGCUV VYQ QDLGEVU CPF VJCV YG JCXG C PCOG HQT QPG QH VJGO UC[

ο +P QTFGT VJCV h4: OC[ CNYC[U DG FGHKPGF GXGP YJGP 4 KU WPUWKVCDNG YG

EQPXGPVKQPCNN[ NGV KV DG ο KP VJCV ECUG CPF KP PQ QVJGT 6JG CZKQOU YKNN VJGP TGCF CU
HQNNQYU YJGTG VJG HKTUV OGTGN[ GZRTGUUGU VJG EQPXGPVKQP LWUV CFQRVGF KP QTFGT VQ JCXG

h4: CNYC[U FGHKPGF

# 4 UWKVCDNG ↔ h4: ο l

# 4 UWKVCDNG  5 UWKVCDNG  h4:  h5; → ∀<

4:< ↔ 5;<

# 4 UWKVCDNG →
h4:  h4; ↔ 4:;

# GZRTGUUGU VJG CUUWORVKQP PQVGF GCTNKGT VJCV CDUVTCEVU YKVJ TGURGEV VQ FKUVKPEV

GSWKXCNGPEGU CTG FKUVKPEV CV NGCUV WPNGUU VJG EQTTGURQPFKPI UGVU QH GSWKXCNGPVU CTG VJG

UCOG 6YQ TKXCN UVTGPIVJGPKPIU UWIIGUV VJGOUGNXGU QPG DGKPI VJG RTKPEKRNG VJCV CDUVTCEVU

YKVJ TGURGEV VQ FKUVKPEV GSWKXCNGPEGU CTG PGXGT VJG UCOG VJG QVJGT VJCV VJG[ CTG VJG UCOG

LWUV KP ECUG VJG EQTTGURQPFKPI UGVU QH GSWKXCNGPVU CTG 6JGUG OC[ DG GZRTGUUGF CU HQNNQYU

VJQWIJ PGKVJGT YKNN DG CFQRVGF CU CP CZKQO HQT VJG OQOGPV

#C 4 UWKVCDNG  5 UWKVCDNG  `4 ≡ 5 → h4: h5; l

#D 4 UWKVCDNG  5 UWKVCDNG  h4:  h5; ↔ ∀<

4:< ↔ 5;<

O

# GZRTGUUGU VJG WUWCN NCY HQT CDUVTCEVU QH YJKEJ .CY 8 CPF *WOG U RTKPEKRNG

CTG VJG URGEKCN ECUGU HQT EQGZVGPUKXGPGUU CPF GSWKPWOGTQUKV[

+V YKNN VWTP QWV VJCV KP VJG

IGPGTCN VJGQT[ EQGZVGPUKXGPGUU KU WPUWKVCDNG CPF GSWKPWOGTQUKV[ UWKVCDNG UQ YG JCXG

O O
*WOG U RTKPEKRNG YJKEJ YG YCPV CPF FQP V JCXG .CY 8 YJKEJ YG FQP V # NKVVNGO
VJQWIJV UJQYU VJCV
# KORNKGU VJCV CP[ UWKVCDNG 4 KU CP GSWKXCNGPEG
6JG YGCMGT YG OCMG VJG PQVKQP QH UWKVCDKNKV[ VJG UVTQPIGT YG YKNN OCMG VJG

IGPGTCN VJGQT[ QH CDUVTCEVU .GV WU DGIKP YKVJ C TCVJGT UVTQPI PQVKQP QH UWKVCDKNKV[ CPF C

EQTTGURQPFKPIN[ YGCM VJGQT[ .GV WU ECNN 4 UVTQPIN[ UWKVCDNG KH VJG HQNNQYKPI JQNF

 4 KU CP GSWKXCNGPEG

 4 KU FQWDN[ KPXCTKCPV

 4 KU C FKEJQVQO[

6JKU NCUV OGCPU VJCV 4 JCU CV OQUV VYQ UGVU QH GSWKXCNGPVU QT KP QVJGT YQTFU VJCV VJGTG
GZKUV : CPF ; UWEJ VJCV GXGT[ < KU 4GSWKXCNGPV VQ QPG QT VJG QVJGT QH VJGO 6JKU

FGHKPKVKQP IKXGU VJG VJKTFQTFGT YGCM IGPGTCN VJGQT[ QH CDUVTCEVKQPU 9(6#

.GV OG OGPVKQP KP RCUUKPI CP CNVGTPCVKXG HQTOWNCVKQP VJCV KU RQUUKDNG )KXGP CP[

: KV KU GCUKN[ UGGP VJCV VJG HQNNQYKPI EQPFKVKQP FGHKPGU C FQWDN[ KPXCTKCPV

KPXCTKCPV

FKEJQVQO[ 4:

4::; ↔
::  :; ∨
`::  `:;

1DXKQWUN[ VJG EQORNGOGPV QH : YQWNF IKXG TKUG VQ VJG UCOG GSWKXCNGPEG 4: +PXGTUGN[
IKXGP CP[ FQWDN[ KPXCTKCPV FKEJQVQO[ 4 KV KU GSWCNN[ GCUKN[ UGGP VJCV VJG HQNNQYKPI

EQPFKVKQPU YJGTGKP 7 KU VJG WPKXGTUCN EQPEGRV FGHKPG EQORNGOGPVCT[ KPXCTKCPV :

 :4 : ↔ 47: :4
: ↔ `47:

#UUWOKPI VJG GZKUVGPEG QH CDUVTCEVU HQT FQWDN[ KPXCTKCPV FKEJQVQOKGU KU KP GHHGEV

GSWKXCNGPV VQ CUUWOKPI VJG GZKUVGPEG QH GZVGPUKQPU HQT KPXCTKCPV UGEQPFNGXGN EQPEGRVU

0QY KPXCTKCPV UGEQPFNGXGN EQPEGRVU COQWPV VQ YJCV KP CDUVTCEV OQFGN VJGQT[ CTG

ECNNGF IGPGTCNK\GF SWCPVKHKGTU 6JGUG KPENWFG HQT KPUVCPEG PQPG UQOG CNN CV OQUV QPG

GZCEVN[ QPG CV NGCUV QPG CV OQUV VYQ GZCEVN[ VYQ CV NGCUV VYQ HKPKVGN[ OCP[ KPHKPKVGN[

OCP[ OQUV GXGPN[ OCP[ QFFN[ OCP[ CPF UQ QP 6JG CUUWORVKQP QH VJG GZKUVGPEG QH

NQIKECN QDLGEVU EQTTGURQPFKPI VQ VJGUG SWCPVKHKGTU CV QPEG IKXGU WU UWTTQICVGU HQT PCVWTCN

PWODGTU KP VJG HQTO QH VJG QDLGEVU EQTTGURQPFKPI VQ GZCEVN[ \GTQ GZCEVN[ QPG GZCEVN[

VYQ CPF UQ QP 4GEQIPK\KPI VJGUG QDLGEVU EQTTGURQPFU VQ VJG JKUVQTKECN UVGR QH UYKVEJKPI

HTQO VJG CFLGEVKXCN WUG QH PWOGTCNU CU KP Q(QWT JQTUGU RWNNGF VJG EJCTKQV R VQ VJG PQOKPCN

WUG QH PWOGTCNU CU KP Q R

(QWT KU C RGTHGEV USWCTG  *CXKPI UWTTQICVGU HQT PWODGTU COQPI

QWT QDLGEVU EQPEGRVU WPFGT YJKEJ VJG[ HCNN IKXG WU UWTTQICVGU HQT UGVU QH PCVWTCN PWODGTU

CPF YG ECP VJGTGHQTG KPVGTRTGV UGEQPFQTFGT 2GCPQ CTKVJOGVKE 2 KP QWT VJGQT[

$WV CEVWCNN[ YG ECP FQ DGVVGT UKPEG VJG SWCPVKHKGTQDLGEVU VJGOUGNXGU CNTGCF[

KPENWFG UWTTQICVGU HQT UGVU QH PCVWTCN PWODGTU (QT KPUVCPEG VJG QDLGEVU EQTTGURQPFKPI VQ

GXGPN[ OCP[ CPF QFFN[ OCP[ ECP UGTXG CU UWTTQICVGU HQT VJG UGVU QH GXGP CPF QH QFF

O
PWODGTU 5WEJ KU VJG KFGC QH (KPG U KPVGTRTGVCVKQP QH CPCN[UKU YKVJ TGCN PWODGTU CU QDLGEVU

KP JKU VJGQT[ C UQOGYJCV OQTG TKIQTQWU VTGCVOGPV YKNN DG IKXGP UJQTVN[

6JGTG KU CNUQ C UGEQPFQTFGT XGTUKQP 9)6# +P VJKU VJGQT[ YG JCXG C TWNG

RGTOKVVKPI WU HQT CP[ HQTOWNC θ

: ; VQ KPVTQFWEG C PGY U[ODQN h CPF CUUWOG
#
#
YKVJ θ KP RNCEG QH 4 6JG HQTOWNC θ OC[ EQPVCKP RCTCOGVGTU VJCV KU KV OC[ NQQM NKMG
θ
7 W : ; KP YJKEJ ECUG h YKNN JCXG GZVTC CTIWOGPV RNCEGU HQT VJGUG RCTCOGVGTU CPF
YG YKNN YTKVG h 7W: HQT h:7W %QTTGURQPFKPI VQ GZVGPUKQPCNKV[ KP VJG VJKTFQTFGT ECUG YG
CUUWOG HQT HQTOWNCU θ CPF χ CPF CUUQEKCVGF U[ODQNU h CPF { VJG HQNNQYKPI

∀:∀;
θ
7 W : ; ↔ χ
8 X : ; → h7W:  {8X;

1HHKEKCNN[ NCPIWCIGU CTG PQV UWRRQUGF VQ JCXG TWNGU RGTOKVVKPI VJG KPVTQFWEVKQP

QH PGY U[ODQNU DWV CTG UWRRQUGF VQ JCXG CNN VJGKT U[ODQNU IKXGP KP CFXCPEG +P ECUG VJG

TGCFGT KU VTQWDNGF D[ VJKU RQKPV C NCPIWCIG QH VJG V[RG TGSWKTGF ECP DG EQPUVTWEVGF CU

HQNNQYU (KTUV GPWOGTCVG CNN VJG HQTOWNCU YG JCXG DGHQTG KPVTQFWEKPI CP[ URGEKCN U[ODQNU

CU θ θ θ W  VJGP KPVTQFWEG h CUUQEKCVGF YKVJ θ VJGP GPWOGTCVG CNN VJG PGY
HQTOWNCU YG IGV YKVJ VJKU U[ODQN CU θ θ θ W
 VJGP KPVTQFWEG h CUUQEKCVGF YKVJ θ
VJGP GPWOGTCVG VJG PGY HQTOWNCU YG IGV YKVJ VJKU U[ODQN CU θ θ θ W
 CPF

EQPVKPWG KP VJKU YC[ GCEJ VKOG WUKPI WR JCNH VJG TGOCKPKPI RNCEGU 6JG TGUWNV KU C

K
NCPIWCIG YKVJ C U[ODQN h HQT GXGT[ HQTOWNC θK CPF YKVJ GCEJ θK EQPVCKPKPI QPN[ hL HQT
L  K

# TKIQTQWU VTGCVOGPV QH VJG KPVGTRTGVCVKQP QH CPCN[UKU UJQYU VJCV 2 KU KPVGTRTGVCDNG

KP 9)6# WUKPI QPN[ VYQ URGEKCN U[ODQNU 9G HKTUV PQVG VJCV HQT CP[ 7 VJG HQNNQYKPI

HQTOWNC φ
7 : ; FGVGTOKPGU CP GSWKXCNGPEG


: ≈ 7  ; ≈ 7 ∨
`: ≈ 7  `; ≈ 7

0QVG VJCV HQT CP[ RGTOWVCVKQP 2 CPF CP[ : YG JCXG 2

: ≈ : 6JGP C NKVVNG VJQWIJV UJQYU
VJCV φ
7 : ; FGVGTOKPGU C FQWDN[ KPXCTKCPV GSWKXCNGPEG CPF VJG UCOG QPG HQT VYQ M
FKHHGTGPV RCTCOGVGTU 7 CPF 7 KH CPF QPN[ KH 7 ≈ 7 1DXKQWUN[ KV KU C FKEJQVQO[ 5Q

φ
7 : ; KU UWKVCDNG CPF YG OC[ KPVTQFWEG C U[ODQN T CPF CUUWOG VJG HQNNQYKPI

 T7 T7:  ; ↔
: ≈ 7  ; ≈ 7 ∨
`: ≈ 7  `; ≈ 7

# NKVVNG VJQWIJV UJQYU VJCV FGHKPKPI 7  T7 7 O

IKXGU WU *WOG U RTKPEKRNG

9G PGZV PQVG VJCV HQT CP[ 7 VJG HQNNQYKPI HQTOWNC ψ

7 : ; FGVGTOKPGU CP
GSWKXCNGPEG


7
:  7
; ∨
`7
:  `7
;

0QY HQT CP[ RGTOWVCVKQP 2 CPF CP[ : YG JCXG 2

:  : CPF VJKU HCEV UJQYU VJCV ψ
FGVGTOKPGU C FQWDN[ KPXCTKCPV GSWKXCNGPEG /QTGQXGT KPURGEVKQP QH
 UJQYU VJCV KV KU C

FKEJQVQO[ 5Q ψ KU UWKVCDNG CPF YG OC[ KPVTQFWEG C U[ODQN { CPF CUUWOG VJG HQNNQYKPI

 {7:  {7; ↔
7
:  7
; ∨
`7
:  `7
;

# NKVVNG VJQWIJV UJQYU VJCV

 KORNKGU VJCV HQT CP[ 7 VJGTG GZKUVU C WPKSWG W HQT YJKEJ

VJG HQNNQYKPI JQNFU


`∃:
7
:  W  ο∨ ∃:(7
:  W  {7:

#PF NGVVKPI U0 7 DG VJKU W IKXGU WU PWOGTKECN .CY 8 6JKU CTIWOGPV GUUGPVKCNN[ (KPG U O
YKVJ C DKV QH DQQMMGGRKPI CFFGF GUVCDNKUJGU VJG HQNNQYKPI TGUWNV
4GHKPGF (TGIG(KPG 6JGQTGO (QT CNN P n 
P UVQTFGT 2GCPQ CTKVJOGVKE ECP DG
KPVGTRTGVGF KP VJG PVJ QTFGT YGCM IGPGTCN VJGQT[ QH CDUVTCEVKQP


6JG)GPGTCN6JGQT[QH#DUVTCEVKQP+VU.KOKVU

+V KU RQUUKDNG VQ FGXGNQR C UVTQPIGT IGPGTCN VJGQT[ QH CDUVTCEVKQP D[ CFQRVKPI C

YGCMGT PQVKQP QH UWKVCDKNKV[ .GV WU EJCPIG VJG FGHKPKVKQP UQ VJCV YG PQY EQPUKFGT 4

YGCMN[ UWKVCDNG KH CPF QPN[ KH YG JCXG VJG HQNNQYKPI

 4 KU CP GSWKXCNGPEG

 4 KU XGT[ PGCTN[ KPXCTKCPV

 4 KU PQPKPHNCVKPI

6JG PQVKQP QH PQPKPHNCVKPI KP

 JCU CNTGCF[ DGGP FKUEWUUGF

6JG PQVKQP KP
 PGGFU VQ DG FGHKPGF %CNN : UOCNN KH : KU PQV GSWKPWOGTQWU YKVJ

VJG WPKXGTUCN EQPEGRV 7 CPF XGT[ UOCNN KH VJGTG KU UQOG UOCNN ; UWEJ VJCV : KU

GSWKPWOGTQWU YKVJ C RTQRGT RCTV QH ; DWV PQV YKVJ CNN QH ; %CNN 4 PGCTN[ KPXCTKCPV KH

VJGTG KU C UOCNN 9 UWEJ VJCV 4 KU 9KPXCTKCPV KP VJG UGPUG VJCV HQT CP[ RGTOWVCVKQP 2 VJCV

NGCXGU 9 HKZGF KP VJG UGPUG VJCV 2

Y  Y HQT CNN Y UWEJ VJCV 9Y YG JCXG 4:; KH CPF

QPN[ KH 42
:2
; HQT CNN : CPF ; &GHKPG XGT[ PGCTN[ KPXCTKCPV UKOKNCTN[ YKVJ QXGT[
UOCNN R KP RNCEG QH QUOCNNR 9KVJ VJKU YGCMGPGF FGHKPKVKQP

 QH UWKVCDKNKV[ YG IGV VJG
UVTQPI IGPGTCN VJGQT[ QH CDUVTCEVKQP 5(6# VJGTG KU CNUQ C UGEQPFQTFGT XCTKCPV 5(6#

(KPG FGXQVGU EQPUKFGTCDNG URCEG VQ C VJQTQWIJ UVWF[ QH UVCPFCTF OQFGNU QH 5(6#

YKVJ FQOCKPU QH QDLGEVU QH XCTKQWU VTCPUHKPKVG ECTFKPCNKVKGU EQPUKFGTKPI DQVJ JQY UWEJ

OQFGNU ECP DG FGHKPGF QHTQO VJG VQR FQYPR CPF JQY VJG[ ECP DG EQPUVTWEVGF QHTQO VJG
DQVVQO WRR (QT RWTRQUGU QH RTQXKPI VJG EQPUKUVGPE[ QH VJG VJGQT[ M VJG QPN[ SWGUVKQP VQ

DG VCMGP WR JGTG M VJG GZKUVGPEG QH LWUV QPG OQFGN YJKEJ PGGF PQV DG UVCPFCTF KU QH

EQWTUG GPQWIJ #PF UQ HQT RTGUGPV RWTRQUGU KV YKNN DG GPQWIJ VQ GZVTCEV CPF EQPFGPUG LWUV

O
GPQWIJ QWV QH (KPG U GZVGPFGF FKUEWUUKQP VQ IKXG WU QPG OQFGN 7PHQTVWPCVGN[ HTQO VJKU

RQKPV QP KV YKNN DG PGEGUUCT[ VQ CUUWOG OQTG HCOKNKCTKV[ YKVJ CZKQOCVKE UGV VJGQT[ VJCP +

JCXG DGGP CUUWOKPI UQ HCT VJQWIJ VJG KPHQTOCVKQP VJCV ECP DG QDVCKPGF HTQO VJG GCTNKGT

RCTVU QH CP[ KPVTQFWEVQT[ VGZV DQQM UJQWNF DG OQTG VJCP GPQWIJ

+P EQPUVTWEVKPI C OQFGN VQ RTQXG EQPUKUVGPE[ HQT VJG UVTQPI IGPGTCN VJGQT[ QH

CDUVTCEVKQP + YKNN CNUQ CUUWOG VJG CZKQO QH EQPUVTWEVKDKNKV[ 8  . #NN VJCV QPG PGGFU VQ

MPQY CDQWV VJKU CZKQO KU VJCV KV KORNKGU VJG EQPVKPWWO J[RQVJGUKU %* CPF KORNKGU VJCV C
EGTVCKP TGNCVKQP . FGHKPCDNG D[ C EGTVCKP HQTOWNC λ
Z [ QH VJG NCPIWCIG QH UGV VJGQT[
IKXGU C YGNNQTFGT QH CNN UGVU 6JKU HGCVWTG ECP DG WUGF YJGPGXGT YG PGGF VQ OCMG C

EJQKEG QH C UGV YKVJ C EGTVCKP RTQRGTV[ CPF YCPV VQ DG GZRNKEKV CDQWV YJKEJ EJQKEG YG CTG

OCMKPI YG VJGP EJQQUG VJG .NGCUV UGV YKVJ VJG RTQRGTV[ $WV VJKU HGCVWTG YKNN DG WUGF

QPN[ CV VJG XGT[ GPF QH VJG RTQQH 6JG CUUWORVKQP QH 8  . KU JCTONGUU (QT )ÑFGN

UJQYGF VJCV <( 8  . KU C EQPUGTXCVKXG GZVGPUKQP QH <( HQT CTKVJOGVKECN UVCVGOGPVU

YJKEJ KU VQ UC[ VJCV CP[ EQPENWUKQP VJCV EQWNF DG UVCVGF KP VJG NCPIWCIG QH HKTUVQTFGT

CTKVJOGVKE VJCV KU RTQXGF YKVJ VJG CKF QH VJKU J[RQVJGUKU EQWNF DG RTQXGF YKVJQWV KV CPF

EQPUKUVGPE[ UVCVGOGPVU ECP DG EQFGF KP VJG NCPIWCIG QH HKTUVQTFGT CTKVJOGVKE

CU VJG[ CTG

KP VGZVDQQMU EQPPGEVKQP YKVJ VJG UGEQPF KPEQORNGVGPGUU VJGQTGO

+P VJG OQFGN VQ DG EQPUVTWEVGF VJG FQOCKP QH VJG QDLGEV XCTKCDNGU YKNN DG ω VJG
HKTUV WPEQWPVCDNG QTFKPCN KFGPVKHKGF YKVJ VJG UGV QH CNN EQWPVCDNG QTFKPCNU 6JG OQFGN YKNN

DG UVCPFCTF UQ VJG FQOCKP QH VJG QPGRNCEG EQPEGRV XCTKCDNGU YKNN DG RQYGT UGV ℘
ω QT
ω CPF VJG FQOCKP QH VJG VYQRNCEG TGNCVKQPCN EQPEGRV XCTKCDNGU YKNN
UGV QH CNN UWDUGVU QH

DG VJG RQYGT UGV ℘

ω ⊗ ω QH VJG %CTVGUKCP RTQFWEV ω ⊗ ω QT UGV QH CNN QTFGTGF RCKTU

QH GNGOGPVU QH ω VJCV KU VJG UGV QH CNN VYQRNCEG TGNCVKQPU QP ω +P VJG VJKTFQTFGT
XGTUKQP QH VJG VJGQT[ VJG UGEQPFNGXGN QPGRNCEG EQPEGRV XCTKCDNGU CPF VYQRNCEG

TGNCVKQPCN EQPEGRV XCTKCDNGU YKNN TCPIG QXGT UWDUGVU QH ℘

ω CPF QH ℘
ω ⊗ ℘
ω
5KPEG VJG OQFGN KU UVCPFCTF CNN EQORTGJGPUKQP CZKQOU QH JKIJGTQTFGT NQIKE YKNN JQNF CU

YKNN GZVGPUKQPCNKV[

+V TGOCKPU VQ EQPUKFGT VJG CZKQOU QH CDQWV CDUVTCEVU 9JCV YG PGGF VQ FQ VQ IGV C

OQFGN KU VQ CUUQEKCVG VQ CP[ UWKVCDNG GSWKXCNGPEG 4 CPF CP[ : ⊆ ω CP QTFKPCN h4:  ω

KP UWEJ CU YC[ VJCV YG JCXG

 4:; ↔ h4:  h4;

 4
h :h ; 5 → ∀<
4:< ↔ 5;<

6JG EQPUVTWEVKQP ECP CEVWCNN[ DG UQ CTTCPIGF CU VQ IKXG YJKEJGXGT QH VJG HQNNQYKPI

KPEQORCVKDNG UVTGPIVJGPKPIU QH
 QPG RTGHGTU

C 4 l 5 → h4: l h5;

D h4:  h5; ↔ ∀<

4:< ↔ 5;<

(QT VJG EQPUVTWEVKQP YG YKNN QH EQWTUG DG WUKPI VJG UWKVCDKNKV[ J[RQVJGUKU QP VJG

GSWKXCNGPEG 4 .GV WU HKTUV EQPUKFGT YJCV QXGT[ PGCTN[ KPXCTKCPVR COQWPVU VQ KP QWT
RTGUGPV EQPVGZV 5KPEG VJG FQOCKP QH VJG QDLGEV XCTKCDNGU JCU UK\G ℵ QUOCNNR YKNN OGCP
 ℵ YJKEJ KU VQ UC[ m ℵ QT EQWPVCDNG CPF QXGT[ UOCNNR YKNN OGCP  ℵ QT HKPKVG 5Q
KH 4 KU XGT[ PGCTN[ KPXCTKCPV VJGTG YKNN DG C HKPKVG UWDUGV U QH ω UWEJ VJCV 4 KU UKPXCTKCPV
6JG FGHKPKVKQP QHQPQPKPHNCVKPIR YCU C VGEJPKECN EQPFKVKQP UWHHKEKGPV
CPF CEVWCNN[
PGEGUUCT[ VJQWIJ YG YKNN PQV PGGF VJCV HCEV VQ KORN[ JCXKPI m ℵ UGVU QH GSWKXCNGPVU

9JCV KU ETWEKCN VQ VJG EQPUVTWEVKQP VQ GUVCDNKUJ VJCV VJGTG CTG QPN[ ℵ RCKTU
EQPUKUVKPI QH C UWKVCDNG GSWKXCNGPEG 4 CPF QPG QH KVU UGVU QH GSWKXCNGPVU 4=:? 6JG

PQPKPHNCVKPI EQPFKVKQP VGNNU WU VJGTG YKNN PQV DG VQQ OCP[ UGVU QH GSWKXCNGPVU HQT CP[

IKXGP UWKVCDNG GSWKXCNGPEG UQ YJCV KU ETWEKCN YKNN DG VQ GUVCDNKUJ VJCV VJGTG CTG PQV VQQ

OCP[ XGT[ PGCTN[ KPXCTKCPV GSWKXCNGPEGU 6JG MG[ VQ FQKPI UQ YKNN DG NQECVKPI C EQPFKVKQP

⊆ ω CPF : ; : ; ⊆ ω YKNN DG UWHHKEKGPV VQ KORN[ VJCV VJGTG

VJCV HQT CP[ HKPKVG U

GZKUVU C RGTOWVCVKQP 2 QH ω VJCV HKZGU U CPF JCU 2

:  : CPF 2
;  ;

6JG MG[ VQ NQECVKPI UWEJ C EQPFKVKQP YKNN DG VJG HQNNQYKPI VGEJPKECN PQVKQP %CNN R

C RTQHKNG KH R KU CP QEVWRNG YJQUG HKTUV HQWT EQORQPGPVU CTG HKPKVG UWDUGVU QH ω CPF YJQUG
NCUV HQWT EQORQPGPVU CTG ECTFKPCNUm ℵ CPF ECNN R CP URTQHKNG KH VJG WPKQP QH KVU HKTUV
HQWT EQORQPGPVU KU U (QT IKXGP : CPF ; FGHKPG VJGKT URTQHKNG KU
: ; VQ DG VJG QPG YKVJ

VJG HQNNQYKPI GKIJV EQORQPGPVU

: ∩ ; ∩ U
:  ; ∩ U
;  : ∩U
ω  :  ; ∩ U

^^
: ∩ ;  U^^ ^^
:  ;  U^^ ^^
;  :  U^^ ^^
ω  :  ;  U^^

6JGP + ENCKO VJCV KH KU

: ;  KU
: ; VJGP VJGTG KU C RGTOWVCVKQP 2 QH ω VJCV HKZGU
U CPF JCU 2
:  : CPF 2
;  ; 6Q RTQXG VJKU ENCKO DGIKP D[ PQVKPI VJCV VJG

UCOGPGUU QH VJG HKTUV HQWT EQORQPGPVU QH VJG URTQHKNGU KORNKGU VJCV VJG KFGPVKV[ +U

UCVKUHKGU +U
: ∩ U  : ∩ U CPF +U
; ∩ U  ; ∩ U 6Q QDVCKP VJG FGUKTGF 2 KV YKNN DG

GPQWIJ VQ HKPF C RGTOWVCVKQP 3 QH ω  U YKVJ 3

:  U  :  U CPF 3
;  U  ;  U HQT
VJGP +U CPF 3 ECP DG EQODKPGF KP VJG QDXKQWU YC[ VQ IKXG 2 #PF VJG FGUKTGF 3 ECP DG

QDVCKPGF D[ EQODKPKPI HQWT QPGVQQPG EQTTGURQPFGPEGU QPG DGVYGGP

: ∩ ;  U CPF

: ∩ ;  U CPQVJGT DGVYGGP
:  ;  U CPF
:  ;  U CPQVJGT DGVYGGP
;  :  U

CPF
;  :  U CPF CPQVJGT DGVYGGP
ω  :  ;  U CPF
ω  :  ;  U 6JGUG HQWT

GZKUV D[ VJG UCOGPGUU QH VJG NCUV HQWT EQORQPGPVU QH VJG URTQHKNGU

0QY ECNN C UGV 5 HCKT KH HQT UQOG HKPKVG U ⊆ ω 5 KU C PQPGORV[ UGV QH URTQHKNGU
6JG U KP SWGUVKQP YKNN DG WPKSWG CPF ECP DG TGEQXGTGF HTQO 5 CU VJG WPKQP QH VJG HKTUV HQWT

EQORQPGPVU QH CP[ RTQHKNG R KP 5 .GV WU FGHKPG VJG 5RTQHKNG K5

: ; VQ DG UKORN[
KU
: ; HQT VJKU U #PF NGV WU FGHKPG : CPF ; VQ DG 5TGNCVGF KH K5
: ; ∈ 5 + ENCKO VJCV
GXGT[ XGT[ PGCTN[ KPXCTKCPV GSWKXCNGPEG 4 EQKPEKFGU YKVJ 5TGNCVGFPGUU HQT UQOG HCKT 5
6Q RTQXG VJG ENCKO NGV 4 DG IKXGP 6JGP UKPEG 4 KU XGT[ PGCTN[ KPXCTKCPV VJGTG KU C HKPKVG

U ⊆ ω UWEJ VJCV 4 KU UKPXCTKCPV OGCPKPI VJCV HQT CP[ RGTOWVCVKQP 2 HKZKPI U YG JCXG
4:; KH CPF QPN[ KH 42
:2
; HQT CNN : CPF ; .GV 5 DG VJG UGV QH URTQHKNGU KU
: ; HQT :
CPF ; UWEJ VJCV 4:; 4GXKGYKPI VJG FGHKPKVKQPU KV KU KOOGFKCVG VJCV 4:; KORNKGU VJCV :

CPF ; CTG 5TGNCVGF 6Q EQORNGVG VJG RTQQH QH VJG ENCKO KV YKNN DG GPQWIJ VQ UJQY VJCV VJG

EQPXGTUG JQNFU 5Q UWRRQUG : CPF ; CTG 5TGNCVGF OGCPKPI VJCV KU

: ;  K5
: ; ∈ 5
CPF VJGTGHQTG D[ VJG FGHKPKVKQP QH 5 KORN[KPI VJCV KU
: ;  KU
: ; HQT UQOG : CPF
; UWEJ VJCV 4:; $WV UKPEG KU
: ;  KU
: ; VJGTG GZKUVU C RGTOWVCVKQP 2 VJCV HKZGU
U CPF JCU 2
:  : CPF 2
;  ; HTQO YJKEJ KV HQNNQYU D[ VJG UKPXCTKCPEG QH 4 VJCV YG

JCXG 4:; CU TGSWKTGF VQ EQORNGVG VJG RTQQH QH VJG ENCKO

%CNN C UGV 5 IQQF KH 5 KU HCKT CPF 5TGNCVGFPGUU KU C UWKVCDNG GSWKXCNGPEG 6JGP YJCV

JCU LWUV DGGP UJQYP KU VJCV HQT GXGT[ UWKVCDNG GSWKXCNGPEG 4 VJGTG KU C IQQF 5 UWEJ VJCV 4

EQKPEKFGU YKVJ 5TGNCVGFPGUU #PF YJCV YG JCXG CEEQORNKUJGF UQ HCT KU VQ UJQY VJCV VJGTG

CTG PQ OQTG UWKVCDNG GSWKXCNGPEGU 4 VJCP VJGTG CTG IQQF 5 9G PGGF PGZV C DQWPF QP VJG

PWODGT QH UWEJ 5 + ENCKO VJGTG CTG QPN[ ℵ HCKT 5 CPF C HQTVKQTK QPN[ ℵ IQQF 5
5KPEG GCEJ HCKT 5 KU C UGV QH URTQHKNGU HQT UQOG HKPKVG U ⊆ ω CPF VJGTG CTG QPN[ ℵ
UWEJ U VQ RTQXG VJG ENCKO KV YKNN DG GPQWIJ VQ UJQY VJCV HQT CP[ IKXGP U VJG PWODGT QH

UGVU 5 QH URTQHKNGU KU PQ OQTG VJCP ℵ 0QY GXGT[ UWEJ 5 KU C UWDUGV QH VJG UGV QH CNN
URTQHKNGU R CPF VJG UGV QH CNN URTQHKNGU KU EQWPVCDNG (QT GCEJ QH VJG HKTUV HQWT

EQORQPGPVU QH UWEJ C R KU C UWDUGV QH U CPF VJGTG CTG QPN[ HKPKVGN[ OCP[ QH VJQUG YJKNG

GCEJ QH VJG NCUV HQWT EQORQPGPVU QH UWEJ C R KU C ECTFKPCN m ℵ CPF VJGTG CTG QPN[
EQWPVCDN[ OCP[ QH VJQUG PCOGN[ VJG PCVWTCN PWODGTU CPF ℵ CPF ℵ 6Q EQORNGVG VJG
RTQQH QH VJG DQWPF QP VJG PWODGT QH XGT[ IQQF 5 YG KPXQMG HQT VJG HKTUV CPF NCUV VKOG

%* YJKEJ VGNNU WU VJCV VJG PWODGT QH UWDUGVU QH C EQWPVCDNG UGV KU ℵ
6Q EQORNGVG VJG RTQQH QH EQPUKUVGPE[ KV YQWNF DG GPQWIJ PQY VQ CUUKIP GCEJ RCKT

〈4 :〉 EQPUKUVKPI QH C UWKVCDNG GSWKXCNGPEG 4 CPF QPG QH KVU UGVU QH GSWKXCNGPVU : C

FKUVKPEV QTFKPCN  ω YJKEJ YG PQY MPQY KU RQUUKDNG UKPEG YG JCXG UGGP VJCV VJGTG CTG

QPN[ℵ UWKVCDNG GSWKXCNGPEGU CPF VJGTG CTG CV OQUV ℵ UGVU QH GSWKXCNGPVU HQT GCEJ
OCMKPI QPN[ ℵ UWEJ RCKTU KP CNN 6JKU FQPG YG EQWNF VCMG h4: VQ VJG QTFKPCN CUUKIPGF VQ

〈4 4=:?〉 CPF YG YQWNF JCXG C OQFGN QH

 CPF
C # UNKIJVN[ OQFKHKGF EQPUVTWEVKQP
CUUKIPKPI QTFKPCNU QPN[ VQ VJG UGVU QH GSWKXCNGPVU : TCVJGT VJCP RCKTU 〈 4 :〉  YQWNF IKXG

D KPUVGCF 9G YQWNF JCXG EQPUKUVGPE[ HQT GKVJGT QRVKQP CPF YKVJQWV WUKPI OQTG QH

8  . VJCP KVU KORNKECVKQP %*

6JQWIJ KPFGGF VJKU KU GPQWIJ VQ RTQXG EQPUKUVGPE[ KV YKNN DG YQTVJYJKNG VQ OCMG

4
WUG QH . CPF IKXG C OQTG GZRNKEKV FGHKPKVKQP QH h : 6Q DGIKP YKVJ ECNN 5 XGT[ IQQF KH
5 KU IQQF CPF VJGTG KU PQ 6 . 5 UWEJ VJCV 6 KU IQQF CPF 6TGNCVGFPGUU EQKPEKFGU YKVJ

5TGNCVGFPGUU 6JGP GXGT[ UWKVCDNG 4 EQKPEKFGU YKVJ 5TGNCVGFPGUU HQT UQOG WPKSWG XGT[

IQQF 5 %CNN C RCKT 〈 5 ;〉 GZEGNNGPV KH 5 KU XGT[ IQQF ; ⊆ ω CPF ; KU VJG .NGCUV OGODGT
QH KVU UGV QH GSWKXCNGPVU WPFGT 5TGNCVGFPGUU QT KP QVJGT YQTFU VJGTG KU PQ < . ; UWEJ

VJCV ; CPF < CTG 5TGNCVGF 5KPEG 5TGNCVGFPGUU KU C PQPKPHNCVKPI GSWKXCNGPEG VJGTG CTG CV

OQUV ℵ UGVU QH GSWKXCNGPVU GCEJ QH YJKEJ JCU GZCEVN[ QPG .NGCUV OGODGT UQ VJCV KP CNN
VJGTG m ℵ GZEGNNGPV RCKTU 〈5 ;〉 HQT CP[ QPG QH VJG ℵ XGT[ IQQF 5 CPF JGPEG QPN[ ℵ
GZEGNNGPV RCKTU CNVQIGVJGT /QTGQXGT HQT CP[ RCKT 〈 4 :〉 EQPUKUVKPI QH C UWKVCDNG

GSWKXCNGPEG 4 CPF C UWDUGV QH ω VJGTG KU C WPKSWG GZEGNNGPV RCKT 〈5 ;〉 UWEJ VJCV
4GSWKXCNGPEG EQKPEKFGU YKVJ 5TGNCVGFPGUU CPF : KU 5TGNCVGF VQ ; YJKEJ KU VQ UC[ : KU

4GSWKXCNGPV VQ ;
9G CNTGCF[ MPQY VJGTG KU C WPKSWG XGT[ IQQF 5 UWEJ VJCV

4GSWKXCNGPEG EQKPEKFGU YKVJ 5TGNCVGFPGUU CPF KV KU CNUQ ENGCTN[ VJG ECUG VJCV VJGTG KU C

WPKSWG ; VJCV KU .NGCUV COQPI CNN UWDUGVU QH ω VJCV CTG 4GSWKXCNGPV VQ : .GV WU UC[
VJCV UWEJ C RCKT ECRVWTGU 4 CPF : 5KPEG VJG PWODGT QH GZEGNNGPV RCKTU KU ℵ VJGTG KU C
QPGVQQPG EQTTGURQPFGPEG DGVYGGP QTFKPCNU  ω CPF GZEGNNGPV RCKTU CPF COQPI CNN UWEJ
EQTTGURQPFGPEGU VJGTG KU QPG VJCV KU .NGCUV YJKEJ YG OC[ ECNN VJG ECPQPKECN

EQTTGURQPFGPEG 6JGP HQT CP[ RCKT 〈 4 :〉 EQPUKUVKPI QH C UWKVCDNG GSWKXCNGPEG 4 CPF C

UWDUGV QH ω VJGTG KU C WPKSWG QTFKPCN Z  ω UWEJ VJCV Z EQTTGURQPFU WPFGT VJG ECPQPKECN
EQTTGURQPFGPEG VQ VJG GZEGNNGPV RCKT VJCV ECRVWTGU 4 CPF : .GV σ
4 : DG VJKU WPKSWG
QTFKPCN 4GXKGYKPI VJG FGHKPKVKQPU YG UGG VJCV KH 4 CPF 5 FQ PQV EQKPEKFG VJGP

σ
4 : l σ
5 ; HQT CP[ : CPF ; YJKNG HQT HKZGF 4 YG JCXG σ
4 :  σ
4 ; KH CPF
QPN[ KH : CPF ; CTG 4GSWKXCNGPV 6JGTGHQTG KH YG VCMG h4: VQ FGPQVG σ
4 ; YG IGV C

OQFGN QH
 CPF
C # UNKIJVN[ OQFKHKGF EQPUVTWEVKQP YQWNF IKXG
D KPUVGCF

6JKU TGCNN[ KU GPQWIJ VQ EQORNGVG VJG RTQQH QH EQPUKUVGPE[ DWV NQQMGF CV ENQUGN[

VJG RTQQH CEVWCNN[ RTQXGU OQTG VJCP EQPUKUVGPE[ 6JG FGHKPKVKQP QH C OQFGN KP GHHGEV IKXGU

CP KPVGTRTGVCVKQP QH 5)6# KP <(% 8  . /QTGQXGT VJQWIJ VJG RTQQH WUGF VJG

GZKUVGPEG QH ω CPF ℘
ω VQ IGV FQOCKPU HQT VJG QDLGEV CPF HKTUVNGXGN EQPEGRVXCTKCDNGU
CPF VJGTGD[ WUGF VJG GZKUVGPEG QH ℘
ω CPF ℘
ω CPF VJQWIJ VJG RTQQH WUGF UWDUGVU QH
℘
ω CU VJG FQOCKP QH VJG UGEQPFNGXGN EQPEGRV XCTKCDNGU VJG KPVGTRTGVCVKQP PQYJGTG
TGCNN[ WUGU VJG CUUWORVKQP VJCV VJGUG UWDUGVU HQTO C UGV YJKEJ KU VQ UC[ VJCV YG FQ PQV

PGGF ℘
ω QT ℘
ω HQT VJG RTQQH 6JKU OGCPU VJCV YG CEVWCNN[ IGV CP KPVGTRTGVCVKQP KP
<( ℘
ω 8  .  #PF KP QWT RTGNKOKPCT[ UWTXG[ QH U[UVGOU QH CPCN[UKU CPF UGV
VJGQT[ KV YCU TGOCTMGF VJCV VJKU VJGQT[ KU KPVGTRTGVCDNG KP <( ℘
ω YJKEJ KP VWTP KU
KPVGTRTGVCDNG KP 2 6JKU IKXGU VJG ECUG P   KP VJG HQNNQYKPI VJGQTGO HTQO YJKEJ VJG

ECUGU HQT P  HQNNQY VTKXKCNN[

%QPXGTUG VQ VJG (TGIG(KPG 6JGQTGO (QT CP[ P n  VJG PVJQTFGT UVTQPI IGPGTCN
VJGQT[ QH CDUVTCEVU KU KPVGTRTGVCDNG KP
P UVQTFGT 2GCPQ CTKVJOGVKE

6JG ECUG P   KU C NKVVNG OQTG FGNKECVG CPF + YKNN PQV FQV GXGT[ K QT ETQUU GXGT[ V

(QT VJG EQIPQUEGPVK YJCV VJG EQPUVTWEVKQP

KP KVU OQTG GZRNKEKV XGTUKQP WUKPI . TGCNN[

UJQYU KU VJCV VJGTG KU C YC[ VQ CUUQEKCVG VQ CP[ HQTOWNC θ

7 W : ; QH VJG NCPIWCIG QH
UGV VJGQT[ C HQTOWNC θ
7 W : Z QH VJG NCPIWCIG QH UGV VJGQT[ UWEJ VJCV HQT CP[ 7 CPF
W KH θ
7 W : ; FGHKPGU C UWKVCDNG GSWKXCNGPEG QP UWDUGVU QH ω VJGP θ
7 W : Z
FGHKPGU CP CUUKIPOGPV QH CDUVTCEVU Z ω VQ UWDUGVU : ⊆ ω UWEJ VJCV
 CPF
C JQNF
YKVJ θ
7 W : ; HQT 4:; CPF VJG WPKSWG Z UWEJ VJCV θ
7 W : Z CU h4: 6JG HQTOWNC

θ UC[U VJCV NGVVKPI σ DG VJG ECPQPKECN GPWOGTCVKQP QH GZEGNNGPV RCKTU CPF 〈5 ;〉  σ
Z
VJGP VJG RCKT 〈 5 ;〉 ECRVWTGU VJG RCKT EQPUKUVKPI QH VJG TGNCVKQP FGHKPGF D[ θ
7 W : ;

VQIGVJGT YKVJ : 6JCV VJG TGNCVKQP FGHKPGF D[ θ

7 W : ; GZKUVU CU C UGV 4 KU PQV TGCNN[
TGSWKTGF #PF VJWU ℘
ω CPF ℘
ω CTG PQV TGCNN[ TGSWKTGF CPF YG IGV CP KPVGTRTGVCVKQP
KP <( ℘
ω 8  . CPF VJGPEG KP <( ℘
ω CPF VJGPEG KP 2
6JG HKPCN TGUWNV KU VJCV KH YG UVC[ YKVJKP VJG DQWPFU QH UGEQPFQTFGT NQIKE CU OQUV

PGQ(TGIGCPU FQ VJGP TGN[KPI QP KPXCTKCPEG VQ UQNXG VJG J[RGTKPHNCVKQP RTQDNGO VJG

QNKOKVU QH CDUVTCEVKQPR VWTP QWV VQ DG VJQUG QH VJKTFQTFGT 2GCPQ CTKVJOGVKE 6JKU KU TGCNN[ C
SWKVG UVTQPI VJGQT[ CPF CP[ OCVJGOCVKEU VJCV ECPPQV DG FQPG KP KV OKIJV YGNN DG ECNNGF

QJKIJGT UGV VJGQT[R UQ VJCV (KPGOU CRRTQCEJ ECP DG UCKF VQ IGV WU CNN QH OCVJGOCVKEU
GZEGRV JKIJGT UGV VJGQT[

O
7PHQTVWPCVGN[ JQYGXGT (KPG U CRRTQCEJ FQGU PQV IKXG C EQORNGVG CPUYGT VQ VJG

DCFEQORCP[ QDLGEVKQP CU (KPG JKOUGNH KP GHHGEV EQPEGFGU 6JG RTQDNGO KU VJCV HQT CP[ 4

VJG TGNCVKQP FGHKPGF CU HQNNQYU

'456 ↔
5 ≅ 4  6 ≅ 4 ∨
`5 ≅ 4  `6 ≅ 4

KU KPXCTKCPV CPF C FKEJQVQO[ CPF [GV VQ CUUWOG CDUVTCEVU GZKUV HQT CNN UWEJ GSWKXCNGPEGU KU

VQ CUUWOG VJG GZKUVGPEG QH KUQOQTRJKUO V[RGU KPENWFKPI QTFGT V[RGU KPENWFKPI QTFKPCN

PWODGTU CPF VJG $WTCNK(QTVK RCTCFQZ GPUWGU #P CRRTQRTKCVG GZVGPUKQP QH (KPG U O

CRRTQCEJ HTQO GSWKXCNGPEGU QP QPGRNCEG EQPEGRVU VQ GSWKXCNGPEGU QP VYQRNCEG

TGNCVKQPCN EQPEGRVU JCU PQV

[GV DGGP FGXGNQRGF
 0GQ(TGIGCP5GV6JGQTKGU

6JG EQOOQP HGCVWTG QH VJG 9TKIJV*CNG CPF (KPG CDUVTCEVKQPKUV CRRTQCEJGU KU VJCV

VJG[ FKURGPUG YKVJ .CY 8 CPF GZVGPUKQPU CPF YQTM YKVJ CDUVTCEVU HQT GSWKXCNGPEGU VJCV

CTG SWKVG FKHHGTGPV HTQO EQGZVGPUKXGPGUU + YKUJ PQY VQ VWTP VQ VJGQTKGU VJCV KPUVGCF UCXG

(TGIG HTQO EQPVTCFKEVKQP D[ TGUVTKEVKPI .CY 8 5WEJ VJGQTKGU MGGR GZVGPUKQPU VJQWIJ

O
UWDLGEV VQ C TGUVTKEVKQP CPF NKMG (TGIG U QTKIKPCN VJGQT[ VJG[ FQ PQV FKTGEVN[ CUUWOG

CDUVTCEVU HQT CP[ GSWKXCNGPEG QVJGT VJCP EQGZVGPUKXGPGUU

+P C UGPUG QH EQWTUG CP[ CZKQOCVKE UGV VJGQT[ ECP DG XKGYGF CU C TGUVTKEVKQP QP

O
(TGIG U KPEQPUKUVGPV UGV VJGQT[ 6JG UGV VJGQTKGU + EQPUKFGT PGQ(TGIGCP JQYGXGT JCXG

O
VYQ HGCVWTGU VJCV OCMG VJGO UKOKNCT VQ (TGIG U QTKIKPCN VJGQT[ CPF FKHHGTGPV HTQO

OCKPUVTGCO CZKQOCVKE UGV VJGQTKGU UWEJ CU <(% 6JG HKTUV UWEJ HGCVWTG KU VJCV VJG[ OCMG

O
UGTKQWU WUG QH UGEQPFQTFGT NQIKE CPF VJCV KP CEEQTFCPEG YKVJ (TGIG U RTKPEKRNGU VJG[

UWDQTFKPCVG VJG PQVKQPU QH UGV CPF GNGOGPV VQ VJQUG QH HCNNKPIWPFGT CPF GZVGPUKQPQH 6JG

UGEQPF UWEJ HGCVWTG KU VJCV VJG[ JCXG QPN[ C UKPING WPKHKGF UGVGZKUVGPEG CZKQO QT CV OQUV

C EQWRNG KP EQPVTCUV VQ EQPXGPVKQPCN CZKQOCVK\CVKQPU VJCV KPVTQFWEG UGVU KP FTKDNGVU

VJTQWIJ C UGTKGU QH C JCNHFQ\GP QT OQTG GZKUVGPEG CZKQOU

6Q DGIKP YKVJ NGV OG UGV WR C EQOOQP HTCOGYQTM HQT C XCTKGV[ QH UWEJ UGV

VJGQTKGU 9G JCXG HWNN UGEQPFQTFGT NQIKE CPF VQ DGIKP YKVJ CV NGCUV + YKNN CUUWOG VJCV YG

JCXG HWNN F[CFKE UGEQPFQTFGT NQIKE #PF YG JCXG URGEKCN TGNCVKQPU[ODQNU e CPF ² CPF ∈
YKVJ VJG HQNNQYKPI CZKQOU (KTUV YG JCXG VJG CZKQOU QH UWDQTFKPCVKQP FGHKPKPI UGV CPF

GNGOGPV KP VGTOU QH HCNNKPIWPFGT CPF GZVGPUKQPUQH

 ²Z ↔ ∃: e Z:

 Z ∈ [ ↔ ∃;
e [;  ;Z

5GEQPF YG JCXG VJG CZKQO QH GZVGPUKQPCNKV[ KP VJG HQNNQYKPI (TGIGCP HQTO

 e Z:  e [; →
Z  [ ↔ : ≡ ;

0QVG VJCV
 KORNKGU VJCV VJG : KP
 CPF VJG ; KP
 CTG WPKSWG 9G JCXG UGGP JQY


KORNKGU VJG WPKSWGPGUU QH VJG GZVGPUKQP YJGP KV GZKUVU RGTOKVVKPI VJG FGHKPKVKQP QH U: CPF
]Z φ
Z_ HQT VJQUG EQPEGRVU : CPF nZ φ
Z€ VJCV JCXG GZVGPUKQPU #PF YG JCXG UGGP JQY


 RGTOKV VJG FGFWEVKQP COQPI QVJGT VJKPIU QH VJG HQNNQYKPI CNVGTPCVG HQTOWNCVKQP

QH GZVGPUKQPCNKV[

 ²Z  ²[  ∀\
\ ∈ Z ↔ \ ∈ [ → Z  [

6JGP YG JCXG C UGVGZKUVGPEG CZKQO QH QPG QH VJG VYQ HQTOU

C ∃Z e Z: ↔ : UCHG

D : UCHG → ∃Z e Z:

+ YKNN EQPEGPVTCVG QP VJQUG YKVJ CZKQOU KP DKEQPFKVKQPCN HQTO

C 9G JCXG UGGP JQY

UWEJ C TGUVTKEVGF GZKUVGPEG CUUWORVKQP EQWNF DG CTVKHKEKCNN[ RTGUGPVGF CU VJG CUUWORVKQP QH

VJG GZKUVGPEG QH CDUVTCEVU HQT C EGTVCKP GSWKXCNGPEG

CITGGKPI YKVJ ≡ HQT UCHG : DWV
EQWPVKPI CNN WPUCHG : CU GSWKXCNGPV CPF VJCV CFQRVKPI VJKU CTVKHKEKCN RTGUGPVCVKQP KU

GSWKXCNGPV VQ CUUWOKPI QPG CFFKVKQPCN PCOGCDNG QDLGEV ο PQV VJG GZVGPUKQP QH CP[
EQPEGRV

1PG V[RG QH UGV VJGQT[ HKVVKPI VJKU HQTOCV YG JCXG EQPUKFGTGF CNTGCF[ VJG \KI\CI

VJGQTKGU YJGTG UCHGV[ KU WPFGTUVQQF CU C MKPF QH UKORNKEKV[ +P VJKU UGEVKQP YG YKNN JCXG C

NQQM CV QVJGT V[RGU 1PG UWEJ JCU DGGP UWIIGUVGF D[ (KPG 6JG UWIIGUVKQP KU VJCV YG VCMG

QUCHGR VQ OGCP QPGCTN[ KPXCTKCPVR UQ VJG GZKUVGPEG CZKQO TGCFU CU HQNNQYU

 ∃Z e Z: ↔ : PGCTN[ KPXCTKCPV

# NKVVNG VJQWIJV UJQYU VJCV KH : KU PGCTN[ KPXCTKCPV UQ VJCV VJGTG KU UQOG UOCNN 9

UWEJ VJCV : KU 9KPXCTKCPV VJGP GKVJGT CNN Z QWVUKFG 9 JCXG `:Z QT CNN Z QWVUKFG 9 JCXG

:Z 6JKU OGCPU VJCV GKVJGT : KVUGNH KU UOCNN QT KVU EQORNGOGPV KU UOCNN KP YJKEJ ECUG YG

UC[ : KU EQUOCNN +V GCUKN[ UGGP VJCV EQPXGTUGN[ CP[ UGV VJCV KU UOCNN QT EQUOCNN KU PGCTN[

KPXCTKCPV 6JWU VJG UGV GZKUVGPEG CZKQO

 KU GSWKXCNGPV VQ VJG HQNNQYKPI

 ∃Z e Z: ↔ : UOCNN ∨ : EQUOCNN

6JG (TGIGCP UGV VJGQT[ YKVJ VJKU CZKQO + YKNN ECNN (KPG UGV VJGQT[ +V KU

KPVGTRTGVCDNG KP UGEQPFQTFGT 2GCPQ CTKVJOGVKE (QT KP 2 UOCNN COQWPVU VQ HKPKVG CPF

VJGTG CTG UKORNG EQFKPIU QH HKPKVG UGVU QH PCVWTCN PWODGTU VJCV CTG FGHKPCDNG KP 2
CPF

KPFGGF CNTGCF[ KP 2 CPF KPFGGF CNTGCF[ KP UVKNN YGCMGT VJGQTKGU CPF VJGUG ECP GCUKN[ DG

GZVGPFGF VQ IKXG C EQFKPI QH HKPKVG CPF EQHKPKVG UGVU

1PG EQFKPI QH HKPKVG UGVU EQFGU U D[

VJG UWO σ
U QH VJG RQYGTU O QH  HQT O ∈ U CPF VJKU ECP DG OQFKHKGF VQ C EQFKPI KP
YJKEJ  ⋅ σ
U EQFGU U CPF  ⋅ σ
U  EQFGU VJG EQORNGOGPV QH U #PF VJKU KU CNN VJG
OCEJKPGT[ PGGFGF VQ IKXG CP KPVGTRTGVCVKQP

%QPXGTUGN[ YQTMKPI KP (KPG UGV VJGQT[ UKPEG VJGTG KU CV NGCUV QPG QDLGEV CP GORV[

EQPEGRV KU UOCNN CPF JGPEG VJG GORV[ UGV ∅ GZKUVU CPF VJG WPKXGTUCN EQPEGRV KU EQUOCNN
CPF JGPEG VJG WPKXGTUCN UGV 8 GZKUVU /QTGQXGT UKPEG VJGTG KU CV NGCUV QPG QDLGEV 8 l ∅
CPF VJGTG CTG KP HCEV CV OQUV VYQ QDLGEVU 6JKU KU GPQWIJ VQ IKXG WU UKPINGVQPU CPF

EQUKPINGVQPU CPF KP RCTVKEWNCT VJG CZKQOU QH 7756 YJKEJ YG MPQY VQ DG GPQWIJ YKVJ

F[CFKE UGEQPFQTFGT NQIKE VQ RGTOKV VJG KPVGTRTGVCVKQP QH 2

+ VCMG KV CNN VJKU YCU MPQYP VQ (KPG VJQWIJ PQV SWKVG GZRNKEKVN[ UVCVGF KP JKU DQQM

.GV OG UGV KV FQYP CU CP QHHKEKCN VJGQTGO YKVJ C PCOG VJCV YKNN FKUVKPIWKUJ KV HTQO (KPG U O
NCTIGT VJGQTGOU QP VJG KPVGTRTGVCDKNKV[ QH CPCN[UKU KP VJG IGPGTCN VJGQT[ QH CDUVTCEVKQP CPF

VJG EQPUKUVGPE[ QH VJCV VJGQT[

(KPGOU .KVVNG 6JGQTGO (KPG UGV VJGQT[ CPF UGEQPFQTFGT 2GCPQ CTKVJOGVKE CTG

KPVGTRTGVCDNG KP GCEJ QVJGT

6JG TGOCKPKPI V[RG QH UGV VJGQT[ VQ DG EQPUKFGTGF KU DCUGF QP CP KFGC CNTGCF[

OGPVKQPGF VJCV QH NKOKVCVKQP QH UK\G YJQUG TQNG KP VJG JKUVQT[ QH UGV VJGQT[ HTQO %CPVQT

VQ VJG RTGUGPV FC[ JCU DGGP GZCOKPGF KP FGVCKN D[ /KEJCGN *CNNGVV

 + YKNN

FKUVKPIWKUJ HQWT HQTOU QH VJG KFGC VYQ SWCPVKVCVKXG CPF VYQ PQPSWCPVKVCVKXG CPF VYQ

OCZKOCNKUV CPF VYQ PQPOCZKOCNKUV +P CNN HQTOU VJG KFGC KU VJCV : JCU CP GZVGPUKQP KH CPF

QPN[ KH VJGTG CTG PQV VQQ OCP[ QDLGEVU HCNNKPI WPFGT : 6JG SWCPVKVCVKXG XGTUKQPU CTG

EQOOKVVGF VQ WPFGTUVCPFKPI QOCP[R CPF QHGYR KP VGTOU QH QPGVQQPG EQTTGURQPFGPEGU

YJKNG VJG PQPSWCPVKVCVKXG CTG PQV 6JG OCZKOCNKUV XGTUKQPU CTG EQOOKVVGF VQ GSWCVKPI

QVQQ OCP[R YKVJ QCU OCP[ CU VJGTG CTG QDLGEVU CNVQIGVJGTR VJG PQPOCZKOCNKUV XGTUKQPU
CTG PQV

6JG YGCMGUV QH VJG HQWT VJG PQPSWCPVKVCVKXG PQPOCZKOCNKUV XGTUKQP KU CNTGCF[

O
UWHHKEKGPV VQ OQVKXCVG <GTOGNQ U CZKQO QH UGRCTCVKQP

 : ⊆ ; →
∃[ e [; → ∃Z e Z:

+H : KU C RCTV QH ; CPF VJGTG CTG PQV VQQ OCP[ QDLGEVU HCNNKPI WPFGT ; VJGP VJGTG CTG PQV VQQ

OCP[ QDLGEVU HCNNKPI WPFGT : 5KPEG GXGT[ : KU EQPVCKPGF KP VJG WPKXGTUCN EQPEGRV
 KU

KPEQORCVKDNG YKVJ VJG CUUWORVKQP VJCV VJG WPKXGTUCN EQPEGRV JCU CP GZVGPUKQP YJKEJ KU VQ

UC[ YKVJ VJG CUUWORVKQP VJCV VJGTG GZKUVU C WPKXGTUCN UGV # NKVVNG VJQWIJV UJQYU VJCV
 KU
GSWKXCNGPV VQ VJG OQTG EQPXGPVKQPCN UGEQPFQTFGT UKPINGCZKQO HQTOWNCVKQP YJKEJ YKVJ

EQORTGJGPUKQP KORNKGU GCEJ KPUVCPEG QH VJG CZKQOUEJGOG XGTUKQP

C ²[ → ∃Z
²Z  ∀\
\ ∈ Z ↔ \ ∈ [  :\

D ²[ → ∃Z
²Z  ∀\
\ ∈ Z ↔ \ ∈ [  φ
\

O
6JG SWCPVKVCVKXG PQPOCZKOCNKUV XGTUKQP KU UWHHKEKGPV VQ OQVKXCVG (TCPMGN U CZKQO

QH TGRNCEGOGPV YJKEJ ECP DG UVCVGF WUKPI F[CFKE UGEQPFQTFGT NQIKE VJWU

 ∀[∃Z4[Z  ∀Z
:Z ↔ ∃[
;[  4[Z →
∃[ e [; → ∃Z e Z:

#ICKP C NKVVNG VJQWIJV UJQYU VJCV

 KU GSWKXCNGPV VQ C OQTG EQPXGPVKQPCN UGEQPFQTFGT

UKPINGCZKQO HQTOWNCVKQP YJKEJ KP VWTP KORNKGU GCEJ KPUVCPEG QH CP CZKQOUEJGOG

XGTUKQP 6JG FGVCKNU YKNN PQV OCVVGT JGTG

6JG PQPSWCPVKVCVKXG OCZKOCNKUV XGTUKQP QH VJG NKOKVCVKQP QH UK\G KFGC YKNN DG QH

PQ KOOGFKCVG EQPEGTP 6JG SWCPVKVCVKXG OCZKOCNKUV XGTUKQP OQVKXCVGU XQP 0GWOCPPOU

CZKQO YJKEJ KP VJG RTGUGPV EQPVGZV OC[ DG HQTOWNCVGF CU HQNNQYU

 ∃Z e Z: ↔ : UOCNN

*GTG QUOCNNR KU FGHKPGF KP F[CFKE UGEQPFQTFGT NQIKE CU KV YCU GCTNKGT VQ OGCP QPQV KP
QPGVQQPG EQTTGURQPFGPEG YKVJ VJG WPKXGTUG QH CNN QDLGEVUR $QQNQU EQPUKFGTGF VJG

(TGIGCP UGV VJGQT[ YKVJ

 CU KVU UGVGZKUVGPEG CZKQO QT TCVJGT VJG CDUVTCEVKQPKUV XCTKCPV

YJGTG YG JCXG QPG CFFKVKQPCN QDLGEV ο FKUVKPEV HTQO CNN GZVGPUKQPU VJQWIJ JG WUGF VJKU
NCUV QPN[ VQ IGV VJG GZKUVGPEG QH CV NGCUV VYQ QDLGEVU .GV OG ECNN VJG UGV VJGQT[ YKVJ


CPF ∃Z
Z  Z CU GZKUVGPEG CZKQOU $QQNQU UGV VJGQT[ 6JGP D[ VJG UCOG TGCUQPKPI CU YKVJ
(KPG UGV VJGQT[ CDQXG YG JCXG VJG HQNNQYKPI

$QQNQUOU .KVVNG 6JGQTGO $QQNQU UGV VJGQT[ CPF UGEQPFQTFGT 2GCPQ CTKVJOGVKE CTG

KPVGTRTGVCDNG KP GCEJ QVJGT

O
8QP 0GWOCPP U CZKQOCVK\CVKQP QH UGV VJGQT[ WUGF RTGFKECVKXG F[CFKE

UGEQPFQTFGT NQIKE DWV QVJGTYKUG YCU $QQNQU UGV VJGQT[ YKVJ C HGY CFFKVKQPCN

UGVGZKUVGPEG CZKQOU 9KVJ CP KPIGPKQWU VGEJPKECN KORTQXGOGPV D[ .GX[ VJG PWODGT QH

CFFKVKQPCN CZKQOU PGGFGF VQ IGV HWNNUVTGPIVJ UGV VJGQT[ ECP DG TGFWEGF VQ VYQ KPHKPKV[

CPF RQYGT UGV #FFKPI KPHKPKV[ IKXGU C VJGQT[ QH VJG UCOG UVTGPIVJ CU <( QT 2 CPF
CFFKPI CNUQ RQYGT UGV IKXGU C VJGQT[ QH VJG UCOG UVTGPIVJ CU <(% $WV YG FQ PGGF VJQUG

VYQ HWTVJGT CZKQOU

6JG NQPI CPF UJQTV QH KV KU VJCV VJG XGTUKQPU QH VJG NKOKVCVKQP QH UK\G KFGC

EQPUKFGTGF UQ HCT FQ PQV IGV QPG XGT[ HCT KPVQ VJG TGCNO QH UGV VJGQT[ DG[QPF CPCN[UKU 6JG

RTQDNGO KU VJCV VJG RTKPEKRNG VJCV C UGV GZKUVU WPNGUU KVU GNGOGPVU YQWNF DG CU OCP[ CU

VJGTG CTG QDLGEVU FQGU PQV VGNN WU VJCV C UGV GZKUVU WPNGUU KV KU XGT[ XGT[ NCTIG YKVJQWV VJG

HWTVJGT CUUWORVKQP VJCV VJGTG CTG XGT[ XGT[ OCP[ QDLGEVU 6Q IGV OQTG QPG JCU VQ CRRGCN

TGRGCVGFN[ VQ HTGUJ KPVWKVKQPU CDQWV JQY OCP[ KU VQQ OCP[ HQT VJG CZKQO QH KPHKPKV[ VQ

VJG KPVWKVKQP VJCV KPHKPKVGN[ OCP[ KU PQV VQQ OCP[ HQT VJG RQYGT UGV CZKQO VQ CP KPVWKVKQP

KORN[KPI VJCV WPEQWPVCDN[ OCP[ KU PQV VQQ OCP[ CPF KH QPG YCPVU KPCEEGUUKDNG ECTFKPCNU

VQ CP KPVWKVKQP VJCV KPCEEGUUKDN[ OCP[ KU PQV VQQ OCP[ 6JG UGV VJGQTKUV YJQ TGNKGU QP VJG

XGTUKQPU QH VJG NKOKVCVKQP QH UK\G KFGC EQPUKFGTGF UQ HCT JCU VQ MGGR EQOKPI DCEM VQ CUM

HQT OQTG NKMG VJG HKUJGTOCP KP VJG HCKT[ VCNG CDQWV VJG OCIKE HNQWPFGT
6JG HKUJGTOCP

HKPCNN[ CUMGF HQT VQQ OWEJ CU FKF UGV VJGQTKUVU YJGP VJG[ CUMGF HQT 4GKPJCTFV ECTFKPCNU

+H QPG KU IQKPI VQ IGV QWV QH VJG NKOKVCVKQP QH UK\G KFGC C UKPING WPKHKGF HQTOCN

UGVGZKUVGPEG CZKQO UWHHKEKGPV VQ IKXG C TGCNN[ RQYGTHWN UGV VJGQT[ QPG KU IQKPI VQ JCXG VQ

CFQRV C FKHHGTGPV OGVJQF


6JG4GHNGEVKQP2TKPEKRNG

#NN VJG VJGQTKGU EQPUKFGTGF UQ HCT KP VJKU EJCRVGT JCXG OCFG WUG QH F[CFKE

UGEQPFQTFGT NQIKE CPF VJG PQVKQP QH GSWKPWOGTQUKV[ .GV WU PQY OCMG C ENGCP DTGCM

CPF JGPEGHQTVJ UVKEM YKVJ OQPCFKE UGEQPFQTFGT NQIKE +P RCTVKEWNCT YG IKXG WR CP[

SWCPVKVCVKXG XGTUKQP QH VJG NKOKVCVKQP QH UK\G KFGC

9JCV KU NGHV QH QWT (TGIGCP HTCOGYQTM HQT UGV VJGQT[ KU OQPCFKE UGEQPFQTFGT

NQIKE YKVJ U[ODQNU e CPF ² CPF ∈ YKVJ VJG CZKQOU QH UWDQTFKPCVKQP CPF GZVGPUKQPCNKV[

 ²Z ↔ ∃: e Z:

 Z ∈ [ ↔ ∃;
e [;  ;Z

 e Z:  e [; →
Z  [ ↔ : ≡ ;

9JCV KU CNUQ NGHV KU VJG PQPSWCPVKVCVKXG XGTUKQP QH VJG NKOKVCVKQP QH UK\G KFGC YJKEJ GXGP

KP KVU PQPOCZKOCNKUV HQTO IKXGU VJG CZKQO QH UGRCTCVKQP

 : ⊆ ; →
∃[ e [; → ∃Z e Z:
9JCV KU OKUUKPI KU C HWTVJGT UGVGZKUVGPEG CZKQO QH VJG HQTO

 `∃Z e Z: → VJGTG CTG VQQ OCP[ Z HCNNKPI WPFGT : VQ HQTO C UGV

0QY QPG EQPEGRV VJCV YG MPQY ECPPQV JCXG CP GZVGPUKQP KU VJG WPKXGTUCN EQPEGRV

#RRNKGF VQ VJKU ECUG

 VGNNU WU VJKU

 VJGTG VQQ OCP[ QDLGEVU VQ HQTO C UGV

6JG YGCMPGUU QH VJG XQP 0GWOCPP CRRTQCEJ YCU VJCV KV KP GHHGEV FGHKPGF QVQQ OCP[ VQ
R VQ OGCP QCU OCP[ CU VJGTG CTG QDLGEVUR VJWU FGRTKXKPI
 QH CP[ UGTKQWU
HQTO C UGV

UWDUVCPEG 9JCV YG PGGF KU UQOG YC[ QH WPFGTUVCPFKPI QVQQ OCP[ VQ HQTO C UGVR VJCV YKNN

NGCXG
 YKVJ UQOG WUCDNG EQPVGPV

0QY VJGTG KU C YQTF VJCV CRRGCTU KP VJKU EQPPGEVKQP KP YTKVGTU CU FKXGTUG CU

&WOOGVV
 CPF %CPVQT
 VJG YQTF QKPFGHKPKVGR
QT QWPDGUVKOOVR 6JGTG KU PQ
UGV QH CNN QDLGEVU CEEQTFKPI VQ DQVJ VJKPMGTU DGECWUG VJGTG CTG KPFGHKPKVGN[ OCP[ QDLGEVU

&WOOGVV YJQ WUGU VJG GZRTGUUKQP QKPFGHKPKVGN[ GZVGPUKDNGR KU UQQP NGF D[ JKU
KPVWKVKQPKUVKE RTQENKXKVKGU VQ WPFGTUVCPF KPFGHKPKVGPGUU CU DGKPI QH C OCVVGT QH UQOG

UGPVGPEGU NCEMKPI VTWVJ XCNWGU %CPVQT YJQ WUGU VJG GZRTGUUKQP QSWCPVKVCVKXGN[
KPFGHKPKVGR
QT QSWCPVKVCVKX WPDGUVKOOVR WPFGTUVCPFU KPFGHKPKVGPGUU KP VJG UGPUG DGKPI
KPECRCDNG QH DGKPI CUUKIPGF QPG QH JKU CNGRJU CU ECTFKPCNKV[ + RTQRQUG VQ WPFGTUVCPF

QKPFGHKPKVGPGUUR KP C OWEJ OQTG KOOGFKCVG YC[ CU QWPFGHKPCDKNKV[R VJWU

 VJGTG CTG WPFGHKPCDN[ OCP[ QDLGEVU

#PF YJCV FQGU VJCV OGCP! 9GNN KV ECPPQV OGCP VJCV KV KU KORQUUKDNG VQ OCMG C

VTWG UVCVGOGPV CDQWV JQY OCP[ QDLGEVU VJGTG CTG UKPEG KV KU VTWG UVCVGOGPV VJCV VJGTG KU CV

NGCUV QPG QDLGEV HQT KPUVCPEG 9JCV + VCMG

 VQ OGCP KU VJCV VJQWIJ KV KU RQUUKDNG VQ OCMG

C VTWG UVCVGOGPV CDQWV JQY OCP[ QDLGEVU VJGTG CTG VJGTG CTG VQQ OCP[ QDLGEVU HQT KV VQ DG

RQUUKDNG HQT UWEJ C UVCVGOGPV VQ DG FGHKPKVKXG QH JQY OCP[ VJGTG CTG VJGTG YKNN PGEGUUCTKN[

DG PQV OGTGN[ CU OCP[ CU KU UCKF DWV OQTG CNUQ 9JCVGXGT QPG UC[U VJCV EQWNF UVKNN DG

VTWG KH KV YGTG UCKF PQV CDQWV CNN QDLGEVU DWV CDQWV LWUV UQOG QDLGEVU HGYGT VJCP CNN

 CP[VJKPI VJCV KU VTWG YJGP UCKF CDQWV CNN QDLGEVU

TGOCKPU VTWG YJGP UCKF CDQWV LWUV UQOG QDLGEVU HGYGT VJCP CNN
 6JKU NQQMU NKMG C RTQOKUKPI RTKPEKRNG HQT QPG ECP KOCIKPG CRRN[KPI KV CU HQNNQYU

6Q DGIKP YKVJ VJGTG KU CV NGCUV QPG QDLGEV $[

 VJCV YQWNF UVKNN DG VTWG KH QPG YGTG

URGCMKPI PQV QH CNN QDLGEVU DWV LWUV QH UQOG QDLGEVU HGYGT VJCP CNN KP QVJGT YQTFU KV KU CP

WPFGTUVCVGOGPV YJKEJ OGCPU VJCV VJGTG OWUV DG CV NGCUV VYQ QDLGEVU $[ VJGP
 CICKP

VJCV KU CP WPFGTUVCVGOGPV UQ VJGTG CTG CV NGCUV VJTGG QDLGEVU %QPVKPWKPI KP VJKU YC[ VJGTG

CTG KPHKPKVGN[ OCP[ QDLGEVU $WV D[

 GXGP VJCV KU CP WPFGTUVCVGOGPV UQ VJGTG OWUV DG

WPEQWPVCDN[ OCP[ QDLGEVU $WV D[

 CICKP GXGP VJCV KU CP WPFGTUVCVGOGPV UQ W $WV
CNTGCF[ YG JCXG IQV HWTVJGT VJCP YG GXGT IQV DGHQTG
#PF YJCV KU OGCPV D[ QHGYGT VJCP CNNR JGTG! *CXKPI FKUECTFGF F[CFKE
UGEQPFQTFGT NQIKE CPF SWCPVKVCVKXG XGTUKQPU QH NKOKVCVKQP QH UK\G YG UVKNN JCXG VJG UQ HCT
WPWUGF PQPSWCPVKVCVKXG DWV OCZKOCNKUV XGTUKQP CEEQTFKPI VQ YJKEJ QHGYGT VJCP CNNR
DGEQOGU QHGY GPQWIJ VQ HQTO C UGVR 6JKU VTCPUHQTOU
 KPVQ VJG HQNNQYKPI

 CP[VJKPI VJCV KU VTWG YJGP UCKF CDQWV CNN QDLGEVU

TGOCKPU VTWG YJGP UCKF CDQWV LWUV VJG GNGOGPVU QH UQOG UGV
#V VJKU RQKPV JQYGXGT RCTCFQZ OC[ UGGO VQ VJTGCVGP UKPEG QPG VJKPI VJCV KU VTWG
CDQWV CNN QDLGEVU KU VJCV VJG[ CTG PQV HGY GPQWIJ VQ HQTO C UGV CPF VJCV EGTVCKPN[ KUPOV VTWG
QH VJG GNGOGPVU QH CP[ UGV V $WV VJG RCTCFQZ ECP DG TGUQNXGF D[ DGKPI ECTGHWN CDQWV
QCDQWVR 6JG UVCVGOGPV Q6JGTG KU PQ UGV VJCV JCU CNN QDLGEVU CU GNGOGPVUR KU VTWG CPF VJG
UVCVGOGPV Q6JGTG KU PQ UGV VJCV JCU CNN GNGOGPVU QH V CU GNGOGPVUR KU HCNUG DWV VJG HCNUG
UVCVGOGPV KUPOV LWUV CDQWV VJG GNGOGPVU QH V UKPEG VJG WPKXGTUCN PGICVKXG QVJGTG KU PQ
UGVWR UC[U UQOGVJKPI CDQWV CNN UGVU PQV LWUV VJQUG VJCV CTG GNGOGPVU QH V 6JG UVCVGOGPV
KP VJG XKEKPKV[ VJCV KU LWUV CDQWV VJG GNGOGPVU QH V KU TCVJGT VJG UVCVGOGPV Q6JGTG KU PQ UGV
COQPI VJG GNGOGPVU QH V VJCV JCU CNN GNGOGPVU QH V CU GNGOGPVUR CPF VJCV KU PQV

RCTCFQZKECN
%NGCTN[ VJG PQVKQP TGSWKTGF JGTG KU VJCV QH TGNCVKXK\CVKQP QH SWCPVKHKGTU 1WT IGPGTCN
PQVCVKQP HQT TGNCVKXK\KPI VJG SWCPVKHKGTU KP C HQTOWNC φ VQ C HQTOWNC θ
Z TGRNCEKPI ∀Z
W
D[ ∀Z
θ
Z → W CPF UKOKNCTN[ HQT ∃ JCU DGGP φθ 9JGP θ
Z KU Z ∈ V UQ YG CTG
TGRNCEKPI ∀Z
W D[ ∀Z
Z ∈ V → W CPF UKOKNCTN[ HQT ∃ YG LWUV YTKVG φ  5KPEG YG CTG
V

WUKPI UGEQPFQTFGT NQIKE YG PGGF VQ UC[ JQY UGEQPFQTFGT SWCPVKHKGTU CTG VQ DG

TGNCVKXK\GF 4GNCVKXK\KPI ∀: DGEQOGU
∀:
∀Z
:Z → θ
Z → W QT ∀:
∀Z
:Z → Z ∈ V → W
KP VJG IGPGTCN QT VJG URGEKCN ECUG TGURGEVKXGN[ CPF UKOKNCTN[ HQT ∃ 6JG HQTO QP VJG TKIJV
OC[ DG CDDTGXKCVGF ∀:
: ⊆ V → W QT GXGP LWUV ∀: ⊆ V
W *CXKPI VJKU PQVKQP QH
TGNCVKXK\CVKQP KP JCPF YG ECP UC[ VJCV YJCV KU OGCPV D[
 KU VJG HQNNQYKPI

 φ → ∃V φV

+V KU PQV ENCKOGF VJCV

 KU UGNHGXKFGPVN[ VTWG QT GXGP UGNHGXKFGPVN[ EQPUKUVGPV
$[ )ÑFGNOU UGEQPF KPEQORNGVGPGUU VJGQTGO C UGNHGXKFGPVN[ EQPUKUVGPV VJGQT[ YQWNF
JCXG VQ DG XGT[ YGCM KPFGGF 4CVJGT
 KU UQOGVJKPI VJCV JCU DGGP CTTKXGF CV D[
HQNNQYKPI C EGTVCKP JGWTKUVKE VTCKP QH VJQWIJV UVCTVKPI YKVJ VJG KFGC QH NKOKVCVKQP QH UK\G
CPF VJG CFFKVKQPCN UWIIGUVKQP VJCV QVQQ OCP[R UJQWNF DG WPFGTUVQQF VQ OGCP QKPFGHKPKVGN[
QT KPFGHKPCDN[ OCP[R TCVJGT VJCP VQ OGCP QGSWKPWOGTQWU YKVJ CNN QDLGEVUR CU KP RTGXKQWU
CVVGORVU
2TKPEKRNGU QH VJG IGPGTCN UJCRG QH
 UC[KPI VJCV YJCVGXGT JQNFU KP VJG
OCETQEQUO QH CNN QDLGEVU JQNFU KP VJG OKETQEQUO QH GNGOGPVU QH UQOG UGV V CTG ECNNGF
TGHNGEVKQP RTKPEKRNGU 4GHNGEVKQP RTKPEKRNGU YGTG KPVTQFWEGF KPVQ CZKQOCVKE UGV VJGQT[ D[

#\TKGN .GX[ CPF GURGEKCNN[ FGXGNQRGF D[ 2CWN $GTPC[U

 YJQ UJQYGF VJG[ EQWNF
DG QH ITGCV RQYGT
0GKVJGT .GX[ PQT $GTPC[U KU FKTGEVN[ EQPEGTPGF YKVJ OQVKXCVKPI
TGHNGEVKQP RTKPEKRNGU CU CZKQOU .GX[ FGTKXGU QPG HTQO VJG CZKQOU QH <( CPF $GTPC[U
GZRNQTGU VJG EQPUGSWGPEGU QH VCMKPI QPG CU CP WPCTIWGF CUUWORVKQP 6JG TGHNGEVKQP
RTKPEKRNG
 KU KPFGGF VCPVCNK\KPIN[ ENQUG VQ QPG UVWFKGF D[ $GTPC[U 6JG $GTPC[U
RTKPEKRNG FKHHGTU HTQO
 QPN[ D[ KORQUKPI C EGTVCKP GZVTC VGEJPKECN EQPFKVKQP QP V
6JG VCUM QH IQKPI DCEM QXGT VJG JGWTKUVKE NKPG QH VJQWIJV NGCFKPI VQ
 CPF VT[KPI
VQ OQVKXCVG VJG GZVTC VGEJPKECN EQPFKVKQP D[ URGEKCN RNGCFKPI UGGOU FCWPVKPI CPF
HQTVWPCVGN[ KV KU WPPGEGUUCT[ UKPEG KV VWTPU QWV VQ DG RQUUKDNG VQ FGTKXG VJG $GTPC[U
RTKPEKRNG HTQO
 WUKPI C VGEJPKSWG QH $GTPC[U JKOUGNH EQODKPGF YKVJ VJG QPG
FKUVKPEVKXGN[ (TGIGCP HGCVWTG QH QWT CZKQOCVK\CVKQP VJG UWDQTFKPCVKQP CZKQOU YJKEJ JCXG
PQV [GV DGGP WUGF
6JG $GTPC[U VGEJPKSWG CRRNKGF VQ
 KU UKORN[ VJKU VJCV KH YG JCXG RTQXGF C
VJGQTGO θ VJGP CP[ φ KORNKGU θ  φ CPF CRRN[KPI
 VQ VJKU EQPLWPEVKQP TCVJGT VJCP LWUV
φ YG IGV φ → ∃V
θ  φ YJKEJ KU VJG UCOG CU φ → ∃V
θ  φ  +H θ KORNKGU UQOG
V V V V

URGEKCN RTQRGTV[ ψ
V VJGP YG IGV φ → ∃V
ψ
V  φ  +H VJG TGNCVKXK\CVKQP QH C VJGQTGO VQ
V

V KORNKGU C URGEKCN RTQRGTV[ QH V VJGP VJG TGHNGEVKQP RTKPEKRNG ECP DG UVTGPIVJGPGF VQ

TGSWKTG V VQ JCXG VJKU URGEKCN RTQRGTV[ 5KPEG VJG EQPLWPEVKQP QH CP[ PWODGT QH VJGQTGOU

KU UVKNN C VJGQTGO VJG VJGQTGOTGNCVKXK\CVKQP RTKPEKRNG ECP DG WUGF QXGT CPF QXGT VQ IGV
OQTG CPF OQTG URGEKCN RTQRGTVKGU IKXKPI OQTG CPF OQTG VJGQTGOU IKXKPI OQTG CPF OQTG
URGEKCN RTQRGTVKGU C HGCVWTG KP EQPPGEV YKVJ YJKEJ $GTPC[U WUGU VJG GZRTGUUKQP
QUGNHTGKPHQTEKPIR
.GV WU HKTUV CRRN[ VJKU KFGC VCMKPI CU QWT θ VJG UWDQTFKPCVKQP CZKQO
 +VU
TGNCVKXK\CVKQP TGCFU CU HQNNQYU
∀Z
Z ∈ V →
²Z ↔ ∃: ⊆ V e Z:

6JG WUGHWN RCTV QH VJG DKEQPFKVKQPCN KU VJG KORNKECVKQP HTQO NGHV VQ TKIJV (QT UWRRQUG Z ∈ V
CPF [ ∈ Z 6JGP VJKU FKTGEVKQP QH VJG DKEQPFKVKQPCN VGNNU WU VJGTG KU CP : ⊆ V UWEJ VJCV e Z:
6JG UWDQTFKPCVKQP CZKQO
 VGNNU WU VJCV UKPEG [ ∈ Z YG JCXG :[ CPF VJKU VQIGVJGT YKVJ
: ⊆ V VGNNU WU YG JCXG [ ∈ V #P[ GNGOGPV QH CP GNGOGPV QH V KU CP GNGOGPV QH V #U YCU

OGPVKQPGF KP VJG FKUEWUUKQP QH NCTIG ECTFKPCNU KP %JCRVGT  C UGV YKVJ VJKU URGEKCN
RTQRGTV[ KU ECNNGF VTCPUKVKXG 6JG URGEKCN RTQRGTV[ QH VTCPUKVKXKV[ KU VJG QGZVTC VGEJPKECN
EQPFKVKQPR KP VJG $GTPC[U TGHNGEVKQP RTKPEKRNG YJKEJ COQWPVU VQ YJCV YG JCXG LWUV
RTQXGF PCOGN[

 φ → ∃V
V VTCPUKVKXG  φV

.GV OG ECNN VJG UGV VJGQT[ KP VJG OQPCFKE UGEQPFQTFGT NCPIWCIG YKVJ LWUV ² CPF ∈
CPF VJG CZKQOU QH GZVGPUKQPCNKV[ UGRCTCVKQP
KP C UKPINGCZKQO UGEQPFQTFGT XGTUKQP
CPF TGHNGEVKQP KP VJG UVTQPIGT HQTO
 $GTPC[U UGV VJGQT[ $ (QT VJQWIJ PQV RTGEKUGN[ VJG
U[UVGO YKVJ YJKEJ $GTPC[U YQTMGF KV KU PGCTN[ GPQWIJ UQ HQT RTGUGPV RWTRQUGU #PF NGV
OG ECNN VJG UGV VJGQT[ VJCV CFFU e CPF VJG UWDQTFKPCVKQP CZKQOU CPF UWDUVKVWVGU TGHNGEVKQP
KP VJG YGCMGT HQTO
 (TGIGCPK\GF $GTPC[U UGV VJGQT[ ($
$GTPC[U KP GHHGEV RTQXGF VJCV CNN VJG TGOCKPKPI GZKUVGPEG CZKQOU QH UGEQPFQTFGT
<GTOGNQ(TCPMGN UGV VJGQT[ <( CU YGNN CU UGXGTCN NCTIG ECTFKPCN CZKQOU
PCOGN[ RCKTKPI
WPKQP RQYGT KPHKPKV[ TGRNCEGOGPV KPCEEGUUKDNGU J[RGTKPCEEGUUKDNGU W ECP DG FGFWEGF
KP $ #U CP KOOGFKCVG EQTQNNCT[ QH QWT FGFWEVKQP QH
 HTQO
 CPF VJG UWDQTFKPCVKQP
CZKQOU YG JCXG VJG HQNNQYKPI
(TGIGCPK\CVKQP QH VJG 6JGQTGO QH $GTPC[U #NN VJG GZKUVGPEG CZKQOU QH UGEQPFQTFGT
<GTOGNQ(TCPMGN UGV VJGQT[ CU YGNN CU KPCEEGUUKDNGU J[RGTKPCEEGUUKDNGU W CTG FGFWEKDNG
KP (TGIGCPK\GF $GTPC[U UGV VJGQT[
 +V JCU IGPGTCNN[ DGGP O[ RQNKE[ PQV VQ TGRTQFWEG RTQQHU CNTGCF[ TGCFKN[ CXCKNCDNG
KP VJG NKVGTCVWTG GZEGRV YJGTG KV KU PGEGUUCT[ VQ TGXKGY VJG RTQQH KP QTFGT VQ QDVCKP
TGHKPGOGPVU 6JG QPN[ TGHKPGOGPV + JCXG VQ QHHGT VQ VJG VJGQTGO QH $GTPC[U CRCTV HTQO
VJG KPKVKCN JGWTKUVKE OQVKXCVKQP HQT VJG TGHNGEVKQP RTKPEKRNG KU VJG QDUGTXCVKQP VJCV VJG GZVTC
VGEJPKECN EQPFKVKQP QH VTCPUKVKXKV[ FQGU PQV PGGF VQ DG CUUWOGF DWV ECP DG FGFWEGF WUKPI
VJG (TGIGCP UWDQTFKPCVKQP CZKQOU CPF VJKU TGHKPGOGPV JCU CNTGCF[ DGGP RTGUGPVGF 6JG
$GTPC[U RTQQH KU UQ DGCWVKHWN JQYGXGT VJCV KV KU FKHHKEWNV VQ TGHTCKP HTQO RTGUGPVKPI CV
NGCUV RCTV QH KV CPF VQ FQ UQ OC[ HCEKNKVCVG WPFGTUVCPFKPI QH YJCV JCU IQPG DGHQTG
9G IQV C TGHKPGOGPV QH TGHNGEVKQP WUKPI VJG UWDQTFKPCVKQP CZKQOU CPF
GZVGPUKQPCNKV[ DWV JCXG PQV [GV VTKGF TGHNGEVKPI VJG UGRCTCVKQP CZKQO *GTG QUGRCTCVKQPR
OC[ DG CP[ EQPXGPKGPV UKPINGCZKQO HQTOWNCVKQP QH VJG RTKPEKRNG UKPEG CNN VJG XCTKQWU
HQTOWNCVKQPU CTG VJGQTGOU 6JG OQUV EQPXGPKGPV VQ EQPUKFGT IKXGU VJG HQNNQYKPI CU KVU
TGNCVKXK\CVKQP

 ∀Z ∈ V ∀: ⊆ V ∃[ ∈ V ∀\ ∈ V
\ ∈ [ ↔ \ ∈ Z  :\

*GTG V OC[ DG VCMGP VQ DG VTCPUKVKXG 0QY KH Z ∈ V CPF Y ⊆ Z HKTUV PQVG VJCV Z ⊆ V D[

VTCPUKVKXKV[ 5Q YG JCXG Y ⊆ V CPF VJGTGHQTG VJG EQPEGRV :  n\ \ ∈ Y€ UCVKUHKGU : ⊆ V 5Q
TGNCVKXK\GF UGRCTCVKQP
 VGNNU WU VJGTG KU C [ ∈ V HQT YJKEJ YG JCXG VJG HQNNQYKPI

 ∀\ ∈ V
\ ∈ [ ↔ \ ∈ Z  :\

6JG TGNCVKXK\CVKQP KP VJG SWCPVKHKGT ∀\ ∈ V KP

 KU TGFWPFCPV UKPEG VJG EQPFKVKQP \ ∈ [
QP VJG NGHV UKFG CPF VJG EQPFKVKQP \ ∈ Z QP VJG TKIJV UKFG QH VJG DKEQPFKVKQPCN KP
 DQVJ
KORN[ \ ∈ V CNTGCF[ IKXGP VJCV Z ∈ V CPF [ ∈ V CPF V KU VTCPUKVKXG 5Q YG YJCV YG TGCNN[
JCXG KU VJG HQNNQYKPI

 ∀\
\ ∈ [ ↔ \ ∈ Z  :\

$WV TGECNNKPI VJCV :  n\ \ ∈ Y€ CPF Y ⊆ Z VJG EQPLWPEVKQP \ ∈ Z  :\ QP VJG TKIJV UKFG
QH VJG DKEQPFKVKQPCN KP
 KU GSWKXCNGPV VQ \ ∈ Y CPF UQ YG JCXG Y  [ ∈ V +P QVJGT
YQTFU GXGT[ UWDUGV Y QH CP GNGOGPV Z QH V KU CP GNGOGPV QH V #U YCU UCKF KP VJG
FKUEWUUKQP QH NCTIG ECTFKPCNU KP %JCRVGT  C VTCPUKVKXG UGV YKVJ VJKU URGEKCN RTQRGTV[ KU
ECNNGF UWRGTVTCPUKVKXG 5Q YG JCXG GUVCDNKUJGF VJG HQNNQYKPI UWRGT$GTPC[U XGTUKQP QH
TGHNGEVKQP

 φ → ∃V
V UWRGTVTCPUKVKXG  φV

6Q FGTKXG RCKTKPI YG QPN[ PGGF VJG QTKIKPCN XGTUKQP QH TGHNGEVKQP )KXGP W CPF X
YG TGHNGEV VJG HQNNQYKPI NQIKECN VTWVJ

 ∃Z
Z  W  ∃[
[  X

VQ IGV C UGV V UWEJ VJCV

 JQNFU TGNCVKXK\GF VQ V YJKEJ KU VQ UC[ VJG HQNNQYKPI JQNFU

 ∃Z ∈ V
Z  W  ∃[ ∈ V
[  X

$WV
 KU LWUV C NQPIYKPFGF YC[ QH UC[KPI W ∈ V CPF X ∈ V 9G OC[ PQY CRRN[
UGRCTCVKQP VQ UGRCTCVG QWV HTQO V LWUV VJQUG QH KVU GNGOGPVU VJCV CTG GKVJGT KFGPVKECN YKVJ W
QT KFGPVKECN YKVJ X CPF UQ QDVCKP VJG RCKT ]W X_
(QT WPKQP YG WUG VJG $GTPC[U XGTUKQP YKVJ VTCPUKVKXKV[ VQ UJQY VJCV HQT GXGT[ W
VJGTG KU C VTCPUKVKXG UGV VQ YJKEJ KV DGNQPIU 5WEJ C V YKNN EQPVCKP CNN VJG GNGOGPVU QH W CPF
CNN VJG GNGOGPVU QH VJQUG GNGOGPVU CPF YG ECP UGRCTCVG QWV VJG GNGOGPVU QH GNGOGPVU VQ
IGV VJG WPKQP ∪W
(QT RQYGT YG WUG VJG XGTUKQP YKVJ UWRGTVTCPUKVKX[ VQ UJQY VJCV HQT GXGT[ W VJGTG
KU C UWRGTVTCPUKVKXG CPF VTCPUKVKXG UGV V YKVJ W ∈ V 5WEJ C V YKNN EQPVCKP CNN VJG UWDUGVU QH W
CPF YG ECP UGRCTCVG QWV VJQUG UWDUGVU VQ IGV VJG RQYGT UGV ℘
W
(QT KPHKPKV[ CPF TGRNCEGOGPV + TGHGT VJG TGCFGT VQ VJG YQTM QH $GTPC[U JKOUGNH (QT
KPCEEGUUKDNGU NGV OG LWUV UC[ VJCV QPG QH VJG OCP[ MPQYP GSWKXCNGPV HQTOWNCVKQPU QH VJG
CZKQO KU VJG GZKUVGPEG QH C UWRGTVTCPUKVKXG CPF VTCPUKVKXG UGV V UWEJ VJCV CNN VJG GZKUVGPEG
CZKQOU
YKVJ UGRCTCVKQP CPF TGRNCEGOGPV KP VJGKT UGEQPFQTFGT UKPINGCZKQO HQTOU JQNF
TGNCVKXK\GF VQ V $WV VJKU YG IGV KOOGFKCVGN[ D[ TGHNGEVKQP CU UQQP CU YG JCXG IQV VJG
GZKUVGPEG CZKQOU VJGOUGNXGU
6JGTG TGOCKP QPG CZKQO QH <(% VJCV YG JCXG PQV IQV KP KVU WUWCN HQTO CPF VYQ
VJCV YG JCXG PQV IQV CV CNN CPF UQOGVJKPI OWUV DG UCKF CDQWV VJGUG CPF JQY VQ IGV VJGO
6JG QPG YG FQPOV JCXG KP KVU WUWCN HQTO KU GZVGPUKQPCNKV[ VJG QVJGT VYQ CTG HQWPFCVKQP QT
TGIWNCTKV[ CPF EJQKEG
#U HQT GZVGPUKQPCNKV[ HQTO KP YJKEJ YG JCXG KV CPF VJG WUWCN HQTO CTG CU HQNNQYU

 ²Z  ²[  ∀\
\ ∈ Z ↔ \ ∈ [ → Z  [

 ∀\
\ ∈ Z ↔ \ ∈ [ → Z  [
1WT HQTO
 KU VJG QPN[ TGCUQPCDNG HQTO KH QPG CUUWOGU CU (TGIG JKOUGNH CNYC[U FKF
VJCV VJG QDLGEV XCTKCDNGU TCPIG QXGT CDUQNWVGN[ CNN QDLGEVU 6JG WUWCN CFQRVKQP QH HQTO

 KU PQV CP GZRTGUUKQP QH VJG WPTGCUQPCDNG DGNKGH VJCV CDUQNWVGN[ GXGT[ QDLGEV KU C UGV
DWV TCVJGT QH CP KPVGPVKQP VQ KORQUG CP WP(TGIGCP TGUVTKEVKQP QP VJG TCPIG QH VJG QDLGEV
XCTKCDNGU 6JG[ CTG VQ DG TGUVTKEVGF VQ UGVU CPF PQV LWUV VQ UGVU DWV VQ UGVU QH YJKEJ VJG
GNGOGPVU CTG CNN QH VJGO UGVU CPF CTG PQV LWUV UGVU DWV CTG UGVU YJQUG GNGOGPVU CTG CNN QH
VJGO UGVU CPF CTG PQV LWUVW +P UJQTV VJG TGUVTKEVKQP KU VQ UGVU Z UWEJ VJCV GXGT[ QDLGEV
UVCPFKPI KP VJG CPEGUVTCN QH VJG GNGOGPVJQQF TGNCVKQP VQ Z KU C UGV 5WEJ CTG ECNNGF RWTG
UGVU
6JG QDXKQWU UVTCVGI[ HQT IGVVKPI VJG WUWCN XGTUKQP
 QH GZVGPUKQPCNKV[ YQWNF DG
VQ TGNCVKXK\G SWCPVKHKGTU VQ RWTG UGVU 6Q FQ VJKU YG OWUV HKTUV HKPF C HQTOWNC θ
Z
GZRTGUUKPI VJCV Z KU RWTG 6JKU KU PQ RTQDNGO WUKPI UGEQPFQTFGT NQIKE YJGTG YG JCXG
(TGIGOU FGHKPKVKQP QH VJG CPEGUVTCN $WV KP HCEV VJGTG KU CP GSWKXCNGPV HKTUVQTFGT θ
Z
YJKEJ UKORN[ UC[U VJCV VJGTG KU C VTCPUKVKXG V UWEJ VJCV Z ∈ V CPF GXGT[ GNGOGPV QH V KU C
UGV 5KPEG C VTCPUKVKXG V UWEJ VJCV Z ∈ V YKNN JCXG CNN QDLGEVU UVCPFKPI KP VJG CPEGUVTCN QH VJG
GNGOGPVJQQF TGNCVKQP VQ Z CU GNGOGPVU KH CNN GNGOGPVU QH V CTG UGVU Z KU EGTVCKPN[ RWTG
%QPXGTUGN[ YG MPQY VJCV GXGT[ Z KU CP GNGOGPV QH UQOG VTCPUKVKXG UGV V CPF YG ECP
UGRCTCVG QWV HTQO V LWUV Z CPF VJG QDLGEVU VJCV UVCPF KP VJG CPEGUVTCN QH VJG GNGOGPVJQQF
TGNCVKQP VQ Z VQ HQTO C UGV W VJCV YKNN DG VTCPUKVKXG CPF YKNN JCXG Z ∈ W CPF VJCV KH Z KU RWTG
YKNN JCXG QPN[ UGVU CU GNGOGPVU
9G PGGF VQ EJGEM VJCV KP IGVVKPI GZVGPUKQPCNKV[ KP XGTUKQP
 YG JCXG PQV NQUV
CP[VJKPI GNUG 9G PGGF VQ EJGEM HQT KPUVCPEG VJCV VJG CZKQO QH RCKTKPI UVKNN JQNFU YJGP
SWCPVKHKGTU CTG TGNCVKXK\GF VQ RWTG UGVU +H VJGTG GZKUV VTCPUKVKXG V CPF U EQPVCKPKPI W CPF X
TGURGEVKXGN[ CPF DQVJ JCXKPI QPN[ UGVU CU GNGOGPVU YG PGGF VQ UJQY VJGTG KU C VTCPUKVKXG
T EQPVCKPKPI Y  ]W X_ CPF JCXKPI QPN[ UGVU CU GNGOGPVU 6JKU ECP DG FQPG D[ XGTKH[KPI

VJCV T  U ∪ V ∪ ]Y_ YKNN FQ DWV VJGP VJG UCOG JCU VQ DG FQPG HQT GXGT[ QVJGT UGVGZKUVGPEG
CZKQO /QTGQXGT VQ IGV VJG CZKQO QH HQWPFCVKQP QPG PGGFU VQ FQ UQOGVJKPI UKOKNCT
YKVJ C UGEQPF TQWPF QH XGTKHKECVKQPU (QTVWPCVGN[ VJG FGVCKNU CTG IKXGP KP KPVTQFWEVQT[
VGZVDQQMU CPF PGGF PQV EQPEGTP WU JGTG
#U HQT EJQKEG YJKEJ JCU OCP[ GSWKXCNGPVU UWEJ CU VJG RTKPEKRNG VJCV GXGT[ UGV
ECP DG YGNNQTFGTGF VJGTG CTG UGXGTCN QRVKQPU 6JG HKTUV QRVKQP KU VQ QDVCKP EJQKEG D[
TGNCVKXK\CVKQP VQ )ÑFGNOU EQPUVTWEVKDNG UGVU M VJKU KU JQY )ÑFGN UJQYGF <(% ECP DG
KPVGTRTGVGF KP <( 6JG RTQEGFWTG KU CTVKHKEKCN UKPEG KP EQPVTCUV VQ VJG ECUG QH
GZVGPUKQPCNKV[ VJQUG CFQRVKPI #% CTG PQV GZRTGUUKPI CP KPVGPVKQP VQ NKOKV VJG TCPIG QH VJG
QDLGEV XCTKCDNGU VQ EQPUVTWEVKDNG UGVU $WV CTVKHKEKCNKV[ KU PQV CNYC[U CP QDLGEVKQP 1PG
UJQWNF DG CYCTG VJQWIJ VJCV KH QPG KU RTGRCTGF VQ IGV CZKQOU D[ TGNCVKXK\CVKQP VJGP CP
QUVGPUKDN[ OWEJ OQTG QOKPKOCNKUVKER UVCTVKPI RQKPV VJCP ($ YKNN IGV WU VQ VJG UCOG IQCN
6JKU JCU DGGP GUVCDNKUJGF KP TGEGPV YQTM QH (TKGFOCP
! YJKEJ + YKNN FKITGUU VQ
FGUETKDG DTKGHN[ (TKGFOCP HKTUV EQPUKFGTU C NCPIWCIG YKVJ QPN[ QDLGEV XCTKCDNGU CPF QPN[
∈ PQ UGEQPFQTFGT CRRCTCVWU CV CNN CPF PQV GXGP  *G EQPUKFGTU C HKTUV VJGQT[ + YKNN ECNN
*(4 HQT *CTXG[ (TKGFOCP TGHNGEVKXG UGV VJGQT[ HKTUV XGTUKQP JCXKPI PQ CZKQOU GZEGRV
VJG HQNNQYKPI UEJGOG
φθ → ∃V
∀Z
Z ∈ V → θ
Z  φV

+H φ JQNFU TGNCVKXK\GF VQ θ VJGP VJGTG KU CP V UWEJ VJCV θ JQNFU HQT CNN GNGOGPVU QH V CPF φ
JQNFU TGNCVKXK\GF VQ V *G EQPUKFGTU CNUQ VJTGG UWEEGUUKXGN[ UVTQPIGT VJGQTKGU + YKNN ECNN
*(4 HQT K     GCEJ CICKP JCXKPI C UKPING CZKQO UEJGOG KP VJG HQTO QH C TGHNGEVKQP
K

RTKPEKRNG *G UJQYU VJCV *(4 KU GSWKEQPUKUVGPV YKVJ CPCN[UKU 2 QT <(  *(4 YKVJ <(%


*(4 YKVJ $ QT ($ CPF *(4 YKVJ C UVKNN UVTQPI VJGQT[ JCXKPI UVKNN NCTIGT NCTIG
ECTFKPCNU 6JG RTQQHU CTG VGEJPKECN VQWTU FG HQTEG CPF DG[QPF VJG UEQRG QH VJKU
OQPQITCRJ
# UGEQPF QRVKQP KU PQY VJCV YG JCXG RCKTKPI VQ
TGKPVTQFWEKPI F[CFKE
UGEQPFQTFGT NQIKE EQFKPI VYQRNCEG TGNCVKQPCN EQPEGRVU D[ QPGRNCEG EQPEGRVU YKVJ
QTFGTGF RCKTU HCNNKPI WPFGT VJGO CPF VJGP CFQRV XQP 0GWOCPPOU CZKQO YJKEJ ECP DG
OQVKXCVGF CU CPQVJGT GZRTGUUKQP QH VJG UCOG WPFGTN[KPI RTKPEKRNG QH NKOKVCVKQP QH UK\G VJCV
OQVKXCVGU UGRCTCVKQP CPF TGHNGEVKQP %JQKEG VJGP HQNNQYU D[ C ENGXGT CTIWOGPV QH XQP
0GWOCPP
*G FGXGNQRU C VJGQT[ QH QTFKPCNU KP VJG YC[ VJCV KU PQY UVCPFCTF KP CZKQOCVKE
UGV VJGQT[ JG WUGU VJG $WTCNK(QTVK RCTCFQZ VQ EQPENWFG VJCV VJG QTFKPCNU FQ PQV HQTO C
UGV JG WUGU JKU CZKQO VQ EQPENWFG VJCV VJGTG KU C QPGVQQPG EQTTGURQPFGPEG DGVYGGP CNN
QDLGEVU CPF VJG QTFKPCNU CPF NCUVN[ JG WUGU VJG QPGVQQPG EQTTGURQPFGPEG CPF VJG HCEV
VJCV VJG QTFKPCNU CTG YGNNQTFGTGF VQ GUVCDNKUJ VJCV CP[ UGV ECP DG YGNNQTFGTGF
# VJKTF QRVKQP KU VQ FQ YJCV $GTPC[U JKOUGNH FKF CPF CFQRV *KNDGTVOU εU[ODQN
YJKEJ KP GHHGEV DWKNFU #% KPVQ HKTUVQTFGT NQIKE 6Q FGUETKDG VJKU QRVKQP KP FGVCKN YQWNF
VCMG WU VQQ HCT CHKGNF # HQWTVJ QRVKQP KU VQ FQ YJCV KU FQPG KP OQUV EQPXGPVKQPCN
CZKQOCVK\CVKQPU CPF UKORN[ CFQRV #% CU CP CZKQO VJCV JCU VQ DG KPFGRGPFGPVN[
OQVKXCVGF
 5GEQPF1TFGT.QIKE4GEQPUKFGTGF

4CVJGT VJCP GNCDQTCVG HWTVJGT QP VJG UGVVJGQTGVKE OCVGTKCN + JCXG CNNWFGF VQ OQUV
QH YJKEJ KU TGCFKN[ CXCKNCDNG GNUGYJGTG CPF XGT[ NKVVNG QH YJKEJ JCU OWEJ UCXQTKPI QH
(TGIG CDQWV KV + YKNN WUG VJG TGOCKPKPI URCEG CXCKNCDNG VQ OG VQ ECUV C OQTG ETKVKECN G[G
WRQP VJG VQQN GORNQ[GF KP QPG YC[ QT CPQVJGT KP CNN PGQ(TGIGCP RTQLGEVU UGEQPFQTFGT
NQIKE KVUGNH
9KVJ HKTUVQTFGT NQIKE YG JCXG C U[PVCEVKE QT RTQQHVJGQTGVKE PQVKQP QH C
EQPENWUKQP RGTJCRU C EQPLGEVWTGF VJGQTGO DGKPI FGFWEKDNG HTQO C RTGOKUU RGTJCRU C
EQPLWPEVKQP QH CZKQOU QH UQOG VJGQT[ 5RGEKCN QT FGIGPGTCVG ECUGU IKXG WU VJG PQVKQPU QH
KPEQPUKUVGPE[ CPF FGOQPUVTCDKNKV[ C RTGOKUU KU KPEQPUKUVGPV KH CPF QPN[ KH CP[ EQPENWUKQP

KU FGFWEKDNG HTQO KV CPF C EQPENWUKQP KU FGOQPUVTCDNG KH KV KU FGFWEKDNG HTQO CP[ RTGOKUU
+H YG UVCTV YKVJ VJG PQVKQP QH KPEQPUKUVGPE[ YG ECP CNVGTPCVKXGN[ FGHKPG FGFWEKDKNKV[ QH ψ
HTQO φ CU VJG KPEQPUKUVGPE[ QH `ψ  φ CPF FGOQPUVTCDKNKV[ QH ψ CU VJG KPEQPUKUVGPE[ QH
` ψ
9G CNUQ JCXG C UGOCPVKE QT OQFGNVJGQTGVKE PQVKQP QH C EQPENWUKQP DGKPI C
EQPUGSWGPEG QH C RTGOKUU ψ KU C EQPUGSWGPEG QH φ KH CPF QPN[ KH GXGT[ OQFGN VJCV OCMGU

φ VTWG OCMGU ψ VTWG 9G CNUQ JCXG TGNCVGF PQVKQPU QH WPUCVKUHKCDKNKV[ CPF XCNKFKV[ C
RTGOKUU KU WPUCVKUHKCDNG KH VTWG KP PQ OQFGN CPF C EQPENWUKQP KU XCNKF KH VTWG KP CNN OQFGNU
+H YG UVCTV YG VJG PQVKQP QH WPUCVKUHKCDKNKV[ YG ECP CNVGTPCVKXGN[ FGHKPG ψ DGKPI C
EQPUGSWGPEG QH φ CU VJG WPUCVKUHKCDKNKV[ QH `ψ  φ CPF XCNKFKV[ QH ψ CU VJG
WPUCVKUHKCDKNKV[ QH `ψ
6JG VYQ VTKRNGU QH PQVKQPU EQKPEKFG D[
VJG UQWPFPGUU VJGQTGO CPF VJG )ÑFGN
EQORNGVGPGUU VJGQTGO θ KU UCVKUHKCDNG KH
CPF QPN[ KH θ KU EQPUKUVGPV (TQO VJKU KV HQNNQYU
CNUQ VJCV FGFWEKDKNKV[ EQKPEKFGU YKVJ EQPUGSWGPEG CPF FGOQPUVTCDKNKV[ YKVJ XCNKFKV[ 6JG
EQPPGEVKQP DGVYGGP VJG U[PVCEVKE CPF UGOCPVKE PQVKQPU OGCPU VJCV OQFGNVJGQTGVKE TGUWNVU
ECP DG WUGF VQ FGTKXG RTQQHVJGQTGVKE EQTQNNCTKGU CPF XKEG XGTUC
6JWU HCT + JCXG EQPUKFGTGF QPN[ U[PVCEVKE PQVKQPU KP EQPPGEVKQP YKVJ UGEQPFQTFGT
VJGQTKGU CPF JCXG GORJCUK\GF VJCV UQ HCT CU EQPUKUVGPE[ FGFWEKDKNKV[ CPF
FGOQPUVTCDKNKV[ CTG EQPEGTPGF UGEQPFQTFGT NQIKE KU LWUV OCP[UQTVGF HKTUVQTFGT NQIKE
CPF CNN VJG VQQNU WUGF KP EQPPGEVKQP HQT VJG NCVVGT ECP DG WUGF HQT VJG HQTOGT 6JKU KPENWFGU
VJG WUG QH OQFGNU KP VJG UGPUG QH HKTUVQTFGT NQIKE VQ GUVCDNKUJ EQPUKUVGPE[
5QOGVKOGU
VJGTG CTG CFXCPVCIGU VQ GUVCDNKUJKPI EQPUKUVGPE[ RTQQHVJGQTGVKECNN[ TCVJGT VJCP
OQFGNVJGQTGVKECNN[ DGECWUG C RTQQHVJGQTGVKE CTIWOGPV HQT EQPUKUVGPE[ V[RKECNN[ IKXGU
CFFKVKQPCN KPHQTOCVKQP DG[QPF OGTG EQPUKUVGPE[ KP C YC[ C OQFGNVJGQTGVKE CTIWOGPV
V[RKECNN[ FQGU PQV $WV C OQFGNVJGQTGVKE RTQQH QH EQPUKUVGPE[ FQGU RTQXG EQPUKUVGPE[
CPF C VJGQT[ FQGUPOV DGEQOG CP[ OQTG EQPUKUVGPV VJCP KV CNTGCF[ YCU YJGP C
OQFGNVJGQTGVKE RTQQH KU TGRNCEGF D[ C RTQQHVJGQTGVKE RTQQH
+P YQTMKPI YKVJ OQFGNU HQT UGEQPFQTFGT NQIKE KV KU CNYC[U UWHHKEKGPV VQ EQPUKFGT
QPN[ ∈OQFGNU QT OQFGNU YJGTG VJG FQOCKP QH VJG UGEQPFQTFGT XCTKCDNGU EQPUKUVU QH
UWDUGVU QH VJG FQOCKP QH VJG HKTUVQTFGT XCTKCDNGU
UKPEG KV KU CP GCU[ VJGQTGO VJCV CP
CTDKVTCT[ OQFGN KU KUQOQTRJKE VQ CP ∈OQFGN UQ NQPI CU QPG KU CUUWOKPI GZVGPUKQPCNKV[
CU + CNYC[U JCXG DGGP 5QOGVKOGU VJG FQOCKP QH VJG UGEQPFQTFGT XCTKCDNGU EQPUKUVU QH
CNN UWDUGVU QH VJG FQOCKP QH VJG HKTUVQTFGT XCTKCDNGU QHVGP KV FQGU PQV +P VJG HQTOGT ECUG

YG JCXG C UVCPFCTF QT 6CTUMK OQFGN KP VJG NCVVGT ECUG C IGPGTCN QT *GPMKP OQFGN
)GPGTCN OQFGNU CTG LWUV CU IQQF CU UVCPFCTF OQFGNU HQT GUVCDNKUJKPI HCEVU CDQWV U[PVCEVKE
EQPUKUVGPE[ FGFWEKDKNKV[ QT FGOQPUVTCDKNKV[
6JGTG KU CNUQ JQYGXGT C PQVKQP QH UVCPFCTF UGOCPVKE EQPUGSWGPEG QH YJKEJ +
JCXG UCKF PQVJKPI UQ HCT CEEQTFKPI VQ YJKEJ ψ KU C UVCPFCTF EQPUGSWGPEG QH φ KH CPF QPN[
KH ψ KU VTWG KP GXGT[ UVCPFCTF OQFGN KP YJKEJ φ KU VTWG 9KVJ VJKU PQVKQP EQOG CUUQEKCVGF
PQVKQPU QH UVCPFCTF WPUCVKUHKCDKNKV[ QT UCVKUHKCDKNKV[ CPF UVCPFCTF XCNKFKV[ QT KPXCNKFKV[
#PF KP
CITGGOGPV YKVJ VJG UQWPFPGUU VJGQTGO CPF KP EQPVTCUV VQ VJG )ÑFGN
KPEQORNGVGPGUU VJGQTGO HQT HKTUVQTFGT NQIKE KV KU MPQYP VJCV UVCPFCTF EQPUGSWGPEG KU C

PGEGUUCT[ DWV PQV C UWHHKEKGPV EQPFKVKQP HQT FGFWEKDKNKV[ CPF UKOKNCTN[ HQT UVCPFCTF
WPUCVKUHKCDKNKV[ CPF KPEQPUKUVGPE[ CPF UVCPFCTF XCNKFKV[ CPF FGOQPUVTCDKNKV[ 6JKU KU
DGECWUG HQTOWNC θ OC[ JCXG QPN[ IGPGTCN OQFGNU CPF PQ UVCPFCTF OQFGNU KP YJKEJ KV KU
VTWG
6JKU KU UQ HQT CP[ U[UVGO QH TWNGU QH FGFWEKDKNKV[ KP YJCVGXGT HQTOCV UQ NQPI CU KV
KU TGSWKTGF VJCV VJG TWNGU DG TGEWTUKXG
YJKEJ D[ %JWTEJOU VJGUKU KU C PGEGUUCT[ EQPFKVKQP
HQT KVU DGKPI GHHGEVKXGN[ FGEKFCDNG YJGVJGT QPG JCU HQNNQYGF VJG TWNGU QT PQV KP CP[ IKXGP
ECUG YJKEJ OWUV DG UQ HQT CP[ TWNGU YQTVJ[ QH VJG PCOG (QT VJGP VJG UGV QH KPEQPUKUVGPV
HQTOWNCU YKNN DG TGEWTUKXGN[ GPWOGTCDNG YJKNG VJG UGV QH UVCPFCTFN[ WPUCVKUHKCDNG
HQTOWNCU KU MPQYP PQV VQ DG CPF VJG OKUOCVEJ DGVYGGP
KPEQPUKUVGPE[ CPF UVCPFCTF

WPUCVKUHKCDKNKV[ IKXGU TKUG VQ C UKOKNCT OKUOCVEJ DGVYGGP

WPFGOQPUVTCDKNKV[ CPF
UVCPFCTF
KPXCNKFKV[ CPF DGVYGGP FGFWEKDKNKV[ CPF UVCPFCTF EQPUGSWGPEG 5WEJ KU VJG
PQVQTKQWU KPEQORNGVGPGUU
QT TCVJGT UKPEG KV CRRNKGU VQ CP[ U[UVGO QH TWNGU QH FGFWEKDKNKV[
KPEQORNGVCDNKNV[ QH UGEQPFQTFGT NQIKE

6JTGG SWGUVKQPU CTG TCKUGF D[ VJKU TGUWNV YJKEJ KU C MKPF QH EQTQNNCT[ VQ VJG )ÑFGN
KPEQORNGVGPGUU VJGQTGOU VJQWIJ VJG TQWVG HTQO VJG QPG VQ VJG QVJGT PGGF PQV EQPEGTP WU
JGTG (KTUV YJCV FQGU UVCPFCTF UCVKUHKCDKNKV[ JCXG VQ FQ YKVJ KPVWKVKXG UCVKUHKCDKNKV[ YJKEJ
KU VQ UC[ YKVJ UCVKUHKCDKNKV[ KP VJG KPVWKVKXG UGPUG QH EQOKPI QWV VTWG WPFGT UQOG
KPVGTRTGVCVKQP QH YJCV QDLGEVU VJG QDLGEVXCTKCDNGU CTG UWRRQUGF VQ TCPIG QXGT CPF YJCV
TGNCVKQPU VJG TGNCVKQPU[ODQNU QH VJG NCPIWCIG CTG UWRRQUGF VQ FGPQVG! 5GEQPF KH
UVCPFCTF UCVKUHKCDKNKV[ FQGU EQKPEKFG YKVJ KPVWKVKXG UCVKUHKCDKNKV[ UQ VJCV VJG
KPEQORNGVGPGUU QH UGEQPFQTFGT NQIKE OGCPU VJCV KPVWKVKXG UCVKUHKCDKNKV[ FQGU PQV EQKPEKFG
YKVJ U[PVCEVKE FGFWEKDKNKV[ KU VJKU C EQIGPV ITQWPF HQT QDLGEVKPI VQ VJG WUG QH
UGEQPFQTFGT NQIKE! 6JKTF KH PQV KU UGEQPFQTFGT NQIKE GURGEKCNN[ CU EQPEGKXGF D[
(TGIGCPU CPF PGQ(TGIGCPU QRGP VQ CP[ QVJGT EQIGPV QDLGEVKQP! +P VJKU UGEVKQP + YKNN
VCMG WR VJG VJTGG SWGUVKQPU KP VJG QTFGT NKUVGF
+P IGPGTCN YJGP FQKPI OCVJGOCVKEU QH CP[ MKPF KPENWFKPI OGVCOCVJGOCVKEU

RTQQH VJGQT[ CPF OQFGN VJGQT[ QPG KU KPHQTOCNN[ YQTMKPI KP UQOG MKPF QH DCEMITQWPF
OCVJGOCVKECN OGVCVJGQT[ #PF YJGP FQKPI OQFGN VJGQT[ IGPGTCNN[ VJKU OGVCVJGQT[ KU
UQOG MKPF QH UGV VJGQT[
VJQWIJ YJGP FQKPI QPN[ RTQQH VJGQT[ KV OC[ DG UQOGVJKPI
OWEJ YGCMGT GXGP CU YGCM CU 3  +∆
UWRGTGZR QT YGCMGT 6JG FGHCWNV CUUWORVKQP
YJGP PQ OGVCVJGQT[ KU GZRNKEKVN[ KPFKECVGF KU VJCV QPG KU EQPHQTOKPI VQ IGPGTCNN[
CEEGRVGF UVCPFCTFU KP EQPVGORQTCT[ OCVJGOCVKEU YJKEJ KU VQ UC[ VJCV QPG KU YQTMKPI
YKVJKP VJG IGPGTCNN[ CEEGRVGF UGV VJGQT[ QH EQPVGORQTCT[ OCVJGOCVKEU <(%
VJQWIJ
QHVGP QPG KU TGCNN[ WUKPI HCT NGUU VJCP VJG HWNN UVTGPIVJ VJGTGQH +V VWTPU QWV VJCV KV OCMGU C
TGCN FKHHGTGPEG VQ VJG SWGUVKQP QH VJG TGNCVKQPUJKR DGVYGGP UVCPFCTF UCVKUHKCDKNKV[
CPF
EQPUGSWGPEG CPF XCNKFKV[ CPF KPVWKVKXG UCVKUHKCDKNKV[
CPF EQPUGSWGPEG CPF XCNKFKV[ LWUV
YJCV UGV VJGQT[ QPG KU YQTMKPI KP CPF VJG UGV VJGQT[ ($ KU GZCEVN[ YJCV KU PGGFGF VQ DG
CDNG VQ IKXG C FGEKUKXG CPUYGT VQ VJG SWGUVKQP QH VJG TGNCVKQP QH UVCPFCTF VQ KPVWKVKXG

XCNKFKV[ 6JKU HCEV UJQWNF EGTVCKPN[ DG C RQKPV KP HCXQT QH VJCV UGV VJGQT[ HQT PGQ(TGIGCPU
CPF QVJGTU EQOOKVVGF VQ YQTMKPI YKVJ UGEQPFQTFGT NQIKE 6JKU RQKPV JCU KP GHHGEV DGGP
PQVGF D[ $QQNQU
C KP C UNKIJVN[ FKHHGTGPV EQPVGZV DWV FGUGTXGU TGKVGTCVKQP CPF
GNCDQTCVKQP
(QT UKORNKEKV[ NGV OG EQPUKFGT LWUV C OQPCFKE UGEQPFQTFGT NCPIWCIG YKVJ C
UKPING PQPNQIKECN U[ODQN UC[ C VYQRNCEG TGNCVKQP U[ODQN s CRRN[KPI VQ
QDLGEVXCTKCDNGU .GV OG TGXKGY KP C NKVVNG OQTG FGVCKN YJCV KU OGCPV D[ JCXKPI C UVCPFCTF
OQFGN KP VJKU EQPVGZV DGHQTG EQORCTKPI VJCV PQVKQP QH UVCPFCTF UCVKUHKCDKNKV[ YKVJ VJG
KPVWKVKXG PQVKQP
9G DGIKP YKVJ 6CTUMKOU PQVKQP QH C OQFGN HQT VJG HKTUVQTFGT RCTV QH VJG NCPIWCIG
5WEJ C OQFGN EQPUKUVU QH C PQPGORV[ UGV ^M^ VJG WPKXGTUG QH VJG OQFGN VJG TCPIG QH VJG
QDLGEVXCTKCDNGU CPF C UGV sM QH QTFGTGF RCKTU QH GNGOGPVU QH ^M^ VJG TGNCVKQP QH VJG
OQFGN +P QTFGT VQ FGHKPG YJCV KV KU HQT C ENQUGF HQTOWNC YKVJ PQ HTGG XCTKCDNGU VQ DG VTWG
KP VJG OQFGN QPG OWUV FGHKPG YJCV KV KU HQT C HQTOWNC YKVJ QT YKVJQWV HTGG XCTKCDNGU VQ DG
UCVKUHKGF QT VTWG TGNCVKXG VQ CP CUUKIPOGPV QH GNGOGPVU QH VJG WPKXGTUG QH VJG OQFGN VQ CP[
HTGG XCTKCDNGU 6JG FGVCKNU QH VJG FGHKPKVKQP YJKEJ RTQEGGFU D[ KPFWEVKQP QP VJG
EQORNGZKV[ QH VJG HQTOWNC YKNN PQV DG TGECNNGF GZEGRV VQ OGPVKQP VJCV CV VJG DCUG UVGR
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T YGNNQTFGTU Z

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W #PF QH EQWTUG VJGTG CTG UWEJ QDLGEVU PCOGN[ VJG QDLGEVU HQT YJKEJ φ JQNFU
(QT CPQVJGT VJKPI RNWTCN NQIKE QPN[ RTQXKFGU C TGRNCEGOGPV HQT OQPCFKE
UGEQPFQTFGT NQIKE CPF NGCXGU WU YKVJQWV C YC[ VQ HQTOWNCVG OQUV QH VJG VJGQTKGU
EQPUKFGTGF KP VJKU EJCRVGT PCOGN[ CNN VJQUG VQ YJKEJ VJG PQVKQP QH QPGVQQPG
EQTTGURQPFGPEG
PQV GZRNCKPGF KP VGTOU QH C RTKQT PQVKQP QH QTFGTGF RCKT YCU ETWEKCN
6JKU GHHGEVKXGN[ NGCXGU QPN[ ($ VJG OQUV KORQTVCPV CPF CNOQUV VJG QPN[ VJGQT[
DCUGF QP KORTGFKECVKXG DWV OQPCFKE UGEQPFQTFGT NQIKE VQ DG EQPUKFGTGF KP QWT UWTXG[
1H EQWTUG D[ VJG VKOG QPG CFQRVU CP[ XGTUKQP QH VJG NKOKVCVKQP QH UK\G KFGC QPG JCU
CFQRVGF VJG EGPVTCN KFGC QH (TGIGOU TKXCN %CPVQT CPF CP KFGC QH YJKEJ VJGTG KU PQ VTCEG KP
(TGIG JKOUGNH #PF D[ VJG VKOG QPG CFQRVU VJG URGEKHKE XGTUKQP QH VJG NKOKVCVKQP QH UK\G
KFGC GODQFKGF KP ($ VJGTG KU XGT[ NKVVNG TGUKFWG QH (TGIG NGHV 0QPGVJGNGUU VJG (TGIGCP
TGUKFWWO YCU ETWEKCN VQ QWT CDKNKV[ VQ IGV D[ YKVJ C NGUU VGEJPKECN CPF GCUKGTVQOQVKXCVG
XGTUKQP QH TGHNGEVKQP CPF YG OWUV EQPUKFGT YJGVJGT VJG TGUKFWCN (TGIGCP KFGC KPXQNXGF
UWTXKXGU VTCPUNCVKQP KPVQ RNWTCN NQIKE
6JG (TGIGCP KFGC YCU VJCV VJG TGNCVKQPUJKRU QH GNGOGPV \ VQ UGV Z KU UWDQTFKPCVG VQ
QT FGTKXCVKXG HTQO OQTG RTKOCT[ TGNCVKQPUJKRU VJCV C OGFKCVKPI EQPEGRV ; DGCTU VQ VJG VYQ
QDLGEVU \ CPF Z UGRCTCVGN[ PCOGN[ VJG TGNCVKQPUJKRU QH \ HCNNKPI WPFGT ; CPF QH Z DGKPI VJG
GZVGPUKQP QH ; 6JG RNWTCN VTCPUNCVKQP YQWNF DG VJG KFGC VJCV VJG TGNCVKQPUJKR QH GNGOGPV \
VQ UGV Z KU UWDQTFKPCVG VQ QT FGTKXCVKXG HTQO OQTG RTKOCT[ TGNCVKQPUJKRU DGVYGGP UQOG
OGFKCVKPI QDLGEVU VJG [U VQ VJG VYQ QDLGEVU \ CPF Z UGRCTCVGN[ PCOGN[ VJG TGNCVKQPUJKRU
QH \ DGKPI QPG QH VJG [U CPF QH Z DGKPI VJG UGV QH VJG [U +P QVJGT YQTFU VJG TGNCVKQPUJKR QH
C UGV VQ VJG VJKPIU QH YJKEJ KV KU VJG UGV VCMGP EQNNGEVKXGN[ JCU RTKQTKV[ QXGT VJG
TGNCVKQPUJKR QH VJG UGV VQ CP[ RCTVKEWNCT QPG QH VJQUG VJKPIU VCMGP KPFKXKFWCNN[ 6JG KUUWG
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WP%CPVQTKCP +V YQWNF DG RQUUKDNG VQ VTCPUNCVG VJG YJQNG CDQXG FKUEWUUKQP QH (TGIGCPK\GF
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OQPQITCRJ QP PGQ(TGIGCPKUO KU PQV VJG RNCEG HQT C FKUEWUUKQP QH UWEJ C U[UVGO
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50 W KU YKUG EQPEGRV W

: ;

500 W VCWIJV M TGNCVKQPCN EQPEGRV W

4 5

5
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5
50
50 9JQGXGT WM
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'ZVGPUKQPQH 4GNCVKQP5[ODQN e 2TKOKVKXG

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&GHKPKVKQP ∈e Z ∈ [ ↔ ∃;
e [;  ;Z
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Q.CY 8 R U U :  ; ↔:≡;
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&GHKPKVKQP ² U ²[ ↔ ∃;
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φ
Z€  ι;∀Z
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Z
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Z ∈ [ ↔ φ
Z
Q.CY 8 R ∀[∀\
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Z ∈ [ ↔ Z ∈ \ → [  \
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Z ∈ [ ↔ :Z
&GHKPKVKQP U²∈ U :  ι[
²[  ∀Z
Z ∈ [ ↔ :Z
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Z_  ι[
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Z ∈ [ ↔ φ
Z
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'ZKUVGPEG #UUWORVKQP *KFFGP

Q.CY 8 R ]Z φ
Z_  ]Z ψ
Z_ ↔ ∀Z
φ
Z ↔ ψ
Z
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&GHKPKVKQP U]  _ U :  ]Y :Y_

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[  ]Z ;Z_
∴ %QORTGJGPUKQP φ → ²]Z φ
Z_
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Y ∈ ]Z φ
Z_ ↔ φ
Y

(QT XGTDCN FGUETKRVKQPU UGG h

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6GTOKPQNQI[ 5[ODQN &GHKPKVKQP

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5KPINGVQP ]W_  ]Z Z  W_

7PQTFGTGF 2CKT ]W X_  ]Z Z  W ∨ Z  X_

7PQTFGTGF 6TKRNG ]W X Y_  ]Z Z  W ∨ Z  X ∨ Z  Y_

#FLWPEVKQP W @ [  ]Z Z ∈ W ∨ Z  [_
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5KORNG 7PKQP W ∪X  ]Z Z ∈ W ∨ Z ∈ X_

5KORNG +PVGTUGEVKQP W ∩X  ]Z Z ∈ W  Z ∈ X_

)TCPF 7PKQP ∪ W  ]Z ∃[

[ ∈ W  Z ∈ [_

)TCPF +PVGTUGEVKQP ∩ W  ]Z ∀[

[ ∈ W → Z ∈ [_
&KHHGTGPEG W  X  ]Z Z ∈ W  Z ∉ X_
5WDUGV W ⊆X ↔ ∀Z
Z ∈ W → Z ∈ X
2QYGT 5GV ℘
W  ][ [ ⊆ W_
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2CKTKPI ∃Z∀[
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7PKQP ∃Z∀[
[ ∈ Z ↔ ∃\
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2QYGT 5GV ∃Z∀[
[ ∈ Z ↔ ∀\
\ ∈ [ → \ ∈ W
+PHKPKV[ ∃Z
∅ ∈ Z  ∀[
[ ∈ Z → [ ∈ Z
5GRCTCVKQP ∃Z∀[
[ ∈ Z ↔ [ ∈ W  φ
[
(QWPFCVKQP ∃Z
Z ∈ W → ∃Z
Z ∈ W  `∃[
[ ∈ Z  [ ∈ W
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X Y → ∃Z∀[
[ ∈ Z ↔ ∃X
X ∈ W  ψ
X [
%JQKEG ∀W

∀Z
Z ∈ W → ∃W
W ∈ Z 
∀Z∀[
Z ∈ W  [ ∈ W  `Z  [ → `∃Y
Y ∈ Z  Y ∈ [ →
∃\∀Z
Z ∈ W → ∃Y
Y ∈ Z  Y ∈ \

(QT XGTDCN FGUETKRVKQPU UGG hF

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#TKVJOGVKEU 5GV 6JGQTKGU

UV 1TFGT PF 1TFGT UV 1TFGT PF 1TFGT

3 ≈ 3  +∆  2(#
3  +∆
GZR  '(#

3  +∆
UWRGTGZR  5'(#

W
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W
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 52  #64

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Π %# <

Π %# <

W W
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W
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E CPF F  G TGURGEVKXGN[

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0COG (QTOWNC

'ZVGPUKQPCNKV[ ²Z  ²[  ∀\
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0WNN 5GV ∃Z
²Z  ∀[
[ ∉ Z
5KPINGVQP ∃Z
²Z  ∀[
[ ∈ Z ↔ [  W
2CKT ∃Z
²Z  ∀[
[ ∈ Z ↔ [  W ∨ [  X
6TKRNG ∃Z
²Z  ∀[
[ ∈ Z ↔ [  W ∨ [  X ∨ [  Y
#FLWPEVKQP ²W → ∃Z
²Z  ∀Z
[ ∈ Z ↔ [ ∈ W ∨ [  X
&GNGVKQP ²W → ∃Z
²Z  ∀Z
[ ∈ Z ↔ [ ∈ W  [ l X

7PKQP ²Z  ²[ → ∃\
²\  ∀Y
Y ∈ \ ↔ Y ∈ Z ∨ Y ∈ [
+PVGTUGEVKQP ²Z  ²[ → ∃\
²\  ∀Y
Y ∈ \ ↔ Y ∈ Z  Y ∈ [
&KHHGTGPEG ²Z  ²[ → ∃\
²\  ∀Y
Y ∈ \ ↔ Y ∈ Z  Y ∉ [
%QORNGOGPV ²Z → ∃[∀\
\ ∈ [ ↔ \ ∉ Z
7PKXGTUCN 5GV ∃Z
²Z  ∀[
[ ∈ Z
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0COG #ZKQOU
DGUKFGU 'ZVGPUKQPCNKV[ +PVGTRTGVU
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72( 0WNN 5GV 5KPINGVQP 2CKT 6TKRNG W  %QORNGOGPV
56 0WNN 5GV #FLWPEVKQP 3 ∴ 3
756 0WNN 5GV 2CKT
7756 0WNN 5GV 5KPINGVQP
3
3
2756 /QPCFKE 2TGFKECVKXG PF1TFGT .QIKE 756 3 ∴ 3
27756 &[CFKE 2TGFKECVKXG PF1TFGT .QIKE 7756 3 ∴ 3
256 /QPCFKE 2TGFKECVKXG PF1TFGT .QIKE 56 3
56< 0WNN 5GV #FLWPEVKQP 5GRCTCVKQP 2
756
(WNN /QPCFKE PF1TFGT .QIKE 56 2
7756 
(WNN &[CFKE PF1TFGT .QIKE 56 2
(QT XGTDCN FGUETKRVKQPU UGG h
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6GTOKPQNQI[ 5[ODQN &GHKPKVKQP

'ORV[ %QPEGRV «  nZ Z l Z€
#FLWPEVKQP :@Y  nZ :Z ∨ Z  Y€
&GNGVKQP :>Y  nZ :Z  Z l Y€
2CTV :⊆; ↔ ∀Z
:Z → ;Z
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`:Z  ;Z
7PKXGTUCN %QPEGRV 7  nZ Z  Z€
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6GTOKPQNQI[ 5[ODQN &GHKPKVKQP

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#FLWPEVKQP 4 @ 〈W X〉  nZ [ 4Z[ ∨
Z  W  [  X€
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28 ≈ ℘8   n +∆  +∆
UWRGTGZR

28 C n +∆

GZR  +∆
UWRGTGZR

2ω8 C n +∆

GZR  +∆
UWRGTGZR

2*2 E n +∆  +∆

UWRGTGZR

2*2 E n +∆

GZR  +∆
UWRGTGZR

℘8  n 2#

Π  (#

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(#  2#
(# 08  2#
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VTWVJXCNWGUR HQT QUGPVGPEGUR 6JKU WUCIG TGHNGEVU C DK\CTTG XKGY VJCV VJG ECVGIQT[ 5 KU KPENWFGF KP VJG
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ι φ
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∀ ψ
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Z [

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 YJGTG φ
 KU CP[ HQTOWNC 1T OQTG RTGEKUGN[ UVKNN YJGTG
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φ
 OC[ DG
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PQPUGPUGGZENWFKPI RTQXKUQ YKNN DG NGHV VCEKV KP HWVWTG HQTOWNCVKQPU

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OKIJV CNUQ DG EQPUVCPVU    W HQT QDLGEVU CPFQT    W HQT EQPEGRVU CPFQT    W HQT
C D E # $ % ( ) *

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 CPF ψ
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C
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D 6JG TGUWNV GZRQWPFGF

KP VJKU UGEVKQP YCU CU OWEJ CU + YCU CDNG VQ YQTM QWV HQT O[UGNH QP NGCTPKPI QH C UVTQPIGT TGUWNV QH *CTXG[

(TKGFOCP YKVJQWV CEVWCNN[ UGGKPI JKU RTQQHU M CPF YKVJQWV CV VJG VKOG DGKPI CYCTG QH VJG GCTNKGT YQTM QH

$GTPC[U KP YJQUG HQQVUVGRU + JCF DGGP WPYKVVKPIN[ HQNNQYKPI CNN VJG YJKNG + CO ITCVGHWN VQ -CK 9GJOGKGT

O
HQT DTKPIKPI $GTPC[U RCRGT VQ O[ CVVGPVKQP VQ 5VGHCP .GWGPDGTIGT HQT JGNR YJKNG + YCU UVTWIINKPI YKVJ VJG

)GTOCP CPF VQ 5QNQOQP (GHGTOCP HQT RQKPVKPI QWV VJCV VJG UVTWIING YCU WPPGEGUUCT[ UKPEG VJGTG GZKUVU CP

'PINKUJ VTCPUNCVKQP

 5GG *TDCEGM CPF ,GEJ

 %JCRVGT 

 4GCNN[ KP
 4 QWIJV VQ DG TGUVTKEVGF VQ TGNCVKQPU UWEJ VJCV 4WX KORNKGU :W CPF :X HQT CNN W CPF

X DWV VJKU VGEJPKECN RQKPV KU KTTGNGXCPV VQ VJG OCKP EQPEGRVWCN KUUWG CPF YKNN DG KIPQTGF DGNQY

 1HHKEKCNN[ YG CTG UVKNN YQTMKPI YKVJ OQPCFKE UGEQPFQTFGT NQIKE UQ VJG F[CFKE

UGEQPFQTFGT SWCPVKHKGT KU TGCNN[ CP CDDTGXKCVKQP HQT UQOGVJKPI KPXQNXKPI C OQPCFKE UGEQPFQTFGT

SWCPVKHKGT CPF OGPVKQP QH QTFGTGF RCKTU DWV VJKU VGEJPKECN RQKPV KU KTTGNGXCPV VQ VJG OCKP EQPEGRVWCN KUUWG

CPF YKNN DG KIPQTGF DGNQY

 +V OC[ DG OGPVKQPGF RCTGPVJGVKECNN[ VJCV OCP[ DWV PQV CNN PGY UGVVJGQTGVKE CZKQOU YQWNF DG

GSWKXCNGPV VQ PGY NQIKECN CZKQOU 6JG VTWVJ QH CP[ EQPLGEVWTG KP PWODGT VJGQT[ GZRTGUUKDNG CU C HQTOWNC ψ
QH HKTUV QT UGEQPFQTFGT 2GCPQ CTKVJOGVKE M VJG CTKVJOGVKECN HQTOWNC EQFKPI VJG UVCVGOGPV VJCV ($ KU

EQPUKUVGPV HQT KPUVCPEG M KU GSWKXCNGPV VQ VJG UVCPFCTF CPF JGPEG KPVWKVKXG XCNKFKV[ QH C EGTVCKP

UGEQPFQTFGT HQTOWNC PCOGN[ φ → ψ YJGTG φ KU VJG EQPLWPEVKQP QH CNN VJG PQPNQIKECN CZKQOU QH 2 QH
YJKEJ VJGTG CTG QPN[ HKPKVGN[ OCP[ EQWPVKPI VJG EQORTGJGPUKQP CZKQOU CU NQIKECN TCVJGT VJCP PQPNQIKECN

6JG VTWVJ QH VJG EQPVKPWWO J[RQVJGUKU KU GSWKXCNGPV VQ VJG XCNKFKV[ QH CPQVJGT UGEQPFQTFGT HQTOWNC $WV

VJG VTWVJ QH UQOG NCTIG ECTFKPCN J[RQVJGUGU KU PQV

 4GHGTGPEGU

#LFWMKGYKE\ -CUKOKGT\  Q&KG U[PVCMVKUEJG -QPPGZKV¼V R 5VWFKC 2JKNQUQRJKEC 

#PVQPGNNK #NFQ CPF /C[ 4QDGTV ! Q O

(TGIG U 1VJGT 2TQITCO R 7PRWDNKUJGF /5

$CT*KNNGN ;GJQUJWC  Q1P 5[PVCEVKECN %CVGIQTKGU R ,QWTPCN QH 5[ODQNKE .QIKE 

$GJOCPP *GKPTKEJ  Q $GKVT¼IG \WT #NIGDTC FGT .QIKM KPUDGUQFGTG \WO 'PVUEJGKFWPIURTQDNGO R
/CVJGOCVKUEJG #PPCNGP 

$GNN ,QJP .  Q O

(TGIG U 6JGQTGO KP C %QPUVTWEVKXG 5GVVKPI R ,QWTPCN QH 5[ODQN .QIKE 

$GPCEGTTCH 2CWN  Q9JCV 0WODGTU %QWNF 0QV $G R 2JKNQUQRJKECN 4GXKGY  4GRTKPVGF KP

$GPCEGTTCH CPF 2WVPCO

 

LLLLLLLLLL  Q/CVJGOCVKECN 6TWVJR ,QWTPCN QH 2JKNQUQRJ[  4GRTKPVGF KP $GPCEGTTCH CPF
2WVPCO
 

LLLLLLLLLL CPF 2WVPCO *KNCT[  2JKNQUQRJ[ QH /CVJGOCVKEU 5GNGEVGF 4GCFKPIU PF GF
%CODTKFIG %CODTKFIG 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU

$GTPC[U 2CWN  Q<WT (TCIG FGT 7PGPFNKEJMGKVUUEJGOCVC KP FGT CZKQOCVKUEJGP /GPIGPNGJTGR KP
'UUC[U QP VJG (QWPFCVKQPU QH /CVJGOCVKEU 'F ;GJQUJWC $CT*KNNGN GV CN  ,GTWUCNGO

/CIPGU 2TGUU 6TCPU , $GNN CPF / 2NCPKV\  Q1P VJG 2TQDNGO QH 5EJGOCVC QH +PHKPKV[ KP
#ZKQOCVKE 5GV 6JGQT[R +P 5GVU CPF %NCUUGU 1P VJG 9QTM D[ 2CWN $GTPC[U 'F )GTV /×NNGT

 #OUVGTFCO 0QTVJ *QNNCPF

$QQNQU )GQTIG 5  Q6Q $G +U VQ $G VJG 8CNWG QH C 8CTKCDNG

QT 5QOG 8CNWGU QH 5QOG 8CTKCDNGUR
,QWTPCN QH 2JKNQUQRJ[  4GRTKPVGF KP $QQNQU
 

LLLLLLLLLL C Q0QOKPCNKUV 2NCVQPKUOR 2JKNQUQRJKECN 4GXKGY  4GRTKPVGF KP $QQNQU

 

LLLLLLLLLL D Q4GCFKPI VJG $GITKHHUUEJTKHVR /KPF  4GRTKPVGF KP &GOQRQWNQU


 4GRTKPVGF KP $QQNQU
 

LLLLLLLLLL  Q6JG %QPUKUVGPE[ QH (TGIGOU (QWPFCVKQPU QH #TKVJOGVKER +P 1P $GKPI CPF 5C[KPI
'UUC[U HQT 4KEJCTF %CTVYTKIJV 'F , , 6JQOUQP  %CODTKFIG /+6 2TGUU 4GRTKPVGF KP

&GOQRQWNQU
  4GRTKPVGF KP $QQNQU
 

LLLLLLLLLL  Q+VGTCVKQP #ICKPR 2JKNQUQRJKECN 6QRKEU  4GRTKPVGF KP $QQNQU

 
LLLLLLLLLL  Q6JG 5VCPFCTF QH 'SWCNKV[ QH 0WODGTUR +P /GCPKPI CPF /GVJQF 'UUC[U KP *QPQT QH
*KNCT[ 2WVPCO 'F )GQTIG $QQNQU  %CODTKFIG %CODTKFIG 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU 4GRTKPVGF

KP &GOQRQWNQU
  4GRTKPVGF KP $QQNQU
 

LLLLLLLLLL  Q9JGPEG VJG %QPVTCFKEVKQP!R #TKUVQVGNKCP 5QEKGV[ 5WRRNGOGPV  4GRTKPVGF
KP $QQNQU
 
LLLLLLLLLL C Q!R +P 4GCFKPI 2WVPCO 'F 2GVGT %NCTM CPF $QD *CNG  1ZHQTF
$NCEMYGNN 4GRTKPVGF KP $QQNQU
 

LLLLLLLLLL D Q6JG #FXCPVCIG QH *QPGUV 6QKN QXGT 6JGHVR +P /CVJGOCVKEU CPF /KPF 'F
#NGZCPFGT )GQTIG  1ZHQTF 1ZHQTF 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU 4GRTKPVGF KP $QQNQU
 

LLLLLLLLLL  Q1P VJG 2TQQH QH (TGIGOU 6JGQTGOR +P $GPCEGTTCH CPF *KU %TKVKEU 'F #FCO /QTVQP
 1ZHQTF $NCEMYGNN 4GRTKPVGF KP $QQNQU
 

LLLLLLLLLL  .QIKE .QIKE CPF .QIKE %CODTKFIG *CTXCTF 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU
LLLLLLLLLL CPF $WTIGUU ,QJP 2 CPF ,GHHTG[ 4KEJCTF %  %QORWVCDKNKV[ CPF .QIKE VJ GFKVKQP
%CODTKFIG %CODTKFIG 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU

$WTCNK(QTVK %GUCTG 

QTKIKPCNN[ RWDNKUJGF  Q# 3WGUVKQP QH 6TCPUHKPKVG 0WODGTU  1P
9GNN1TFGTGF %NCUUGUR 6TCPU , XCP *GKLGPQQTV +P XCP *GKLGPQQTV
 

$WTIGUU ,QJP 2  4GXKGY QH 9TKIJV

 2JKNQUQRJKECN 4GXKGY 

LLLLLLLLLL CPF *C\GP # 2  Q#TKVJOGVKE CPF 2TGFKECVKXG .QIKER 0QVTG &COG ,QWTPCN QH (QTOCN
.QIKE 

LLLLLLLLLL CPF 4QUGP )KFGQP  # 5WDLGEV YKVJ 0Q 1DLGEV 5VTCVGIKGU HQT 0QOKPCNKUVKE
+PVGTRTGVCVKQP QH /CVJGOCVKEU 1ZHQTF 1ZHQTF 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU

%CPVQT )GQTI  4GXKGY QH (TGIG

 &GWVUEJG .KVGTCVWT\GKVWPI 

%JKJCTC %JCTNGU  1PVQNQI[ CPF VJG 8KEKQWU %KTENG 2TKPEKRNG +VJCEC %QTPGNN 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU

%QNNKPU )GQTIG ( CPF *CNRGTP , &  Q1P VJG +PVGTRTGVCDKNKV[ QH #TKVJOGVKE KP 5GV 6JGQT[R 0QVTG
&COG ,QWTPCN QH (QTOCN .QIKE 

%TCKI 9KNNKCO  Q6JTGG 7UGU QH VJG *GTDTCPF)GPV\GP 6JGQTGO KP 4GNCVKPI /QFGN 6JGQT[ CPF 2TQQH
6JGQT[R ,QWTPCN QH 5[ODQNKE .QIKE 

&GFGMKPF 4KEJCTF  9CU UKPF WPF YCU UQNNGP FKG <CJNGP! $TWPUEJYGKI 8KGYGI 6TCPU 9QQUVGT

9QQFTWHH $GOCP  Q6JG 0CVWTG CPF /GCPKPI QH 0WODGTUR +P 'UUC[U QP VJG 6JGQT[ QH
0WODGTU  %JKECIQ 1RGP %QWTV

&GOQRQWNQU 9KNNKCO GF  (TGIGOU 2JKNQUQRJ[ QH /CVJGOCVKEU %CODTKFIG *CTXCTF 7PKXGTUKV[

2TGUU

&WOOGVV /KEJCGN  (TGIG 2JKNQUQRJ[ QH /CVJGOCVKEU %CODTKFIG *CTXCTF 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU

(GHGTOCP 5QNQOQP CPF *GNNOCP )GQHHTG[  Q2TGFKECVKXG (QWPFCVKQPU QH #TKVJOGVKER ,QWTPCN QH
2JKNQUQRJKECN .QIKE 

(GTTGKTC (GTPCPFQ ! Q#OGPFKPI (TGIGOU )TWPFIGUGV\G FGT /CVJGOCVKMR 7PRWDNKUJGF /5
LLLLLLLLLL CPF 9GJOGKGT -CK  Q1P VJG %QPUKUVGPE[ QH VJG ∆ %# (TCIOGPV QH (TGIGOU

)TWPFIGUV\G R ,QWTPCN QH 2JKNQUQRJKECN .QIKE 

(KPG -KV  6JG .KOKVU QH #DUVTCEVKQP 1ZHQTF 1ZHQTF 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU

(TGIG )QVVNQD $GITKHHUUEJTKHV GKPG FGT CTKVJOGVKUEJGP PCEJIGDKNFGVG (QTOGNURTCEJG FGU TGKPGP

&GPMGPU *CNNG .QWKU 0GDGTV 6TCPU 5VGHCP $CWGT/GPIGNDGTI +P XCP *GKLGPQQTV

 
LLLLLLLLLL  &KG )TWPFNCIGP FGT #TKVJOGVKM 'KPG NQIKUEJOCVJGOCVKUEJG 7PVGTUWEJWPI WDGT FGP
$GITKHH FGT <CJN $TGUNCW 9KNJGNO -QGDPGT 6TCPU , . #WUVKP (QWPFCVKQPU QH #TKVJOGVKE 

1ZHQTF $NCEMYGNN

LLLLLLLLLL  Q¯DGT 5KPP WPF $GFGWVWPIR <GKVUEJTKHV H×T 2JKNQUQRJKG WPF RJKNQUQRJKUEJG -TKVKM
 6TCPU /CZ $NCEM Q1P 5GPUG CPF 4GHGTGPEGR +P )GCEJ CPF $NCEM
 
LLLLLLLLLL  )TWPFIGUGV\G FGT #TKVJOGVKM DGITKHHUUEJTKHVNKEJ CDIGNGKVGV  XQNU ,GPC 2QJNG
4GRTKPVGF  *KNFGUJGKO 1NOU 2CTVKCN VTCPU 2'$ ,QWTFCKP CPF , 5VCEJGNTQVJ $CUKE .CYU

QH #TKVJOGVKE +P )GCEJ CPF $NCEM

 

(TKGFOCP *CTXG[ ! Q5GPVGPVKCN 4GHNGEVKQP CPF 'NGOGPVCN 5GPVGPVKCN 4GHNGEVKQPR 7PRWDNKUJGF /5
)GCEJ 2GVGT  4GXKGY QH / &WOOGVV (TGIG 2JKNQUQRJ[ QH .CPIWCIG /KPF 

LLLLLLLLLL CPF $NCEM /CZ GFU  6TCPUNCVKQPU HTQO VJG 9TKVKPIU QH )QVVNQD (TGIG 1ZHQTF
$NCEMYGNN

)QNFHCTD 9CTTGP  Q(KTUV1TFGT (TGCIGCP 6JGQT[ KU 7PFGEKFCDNGR ,QWTPCN QH 2JKNQUQRJKECN .QIKE


*CNG $QD  Q4GCNU D[ #DUVTCEVKQPR 2JKNQUQRJKC /CVJGOCVKEC 

*¶LGM 2GVT CPF 2WFNCM 2CXGN  /GVCOCVJGOCVKEU QH (KTUV1TFGT #TKVJOGVKE $GTNKP 5RTKPIGT

*CNNGVV /KEJCGN %CPVQTKCP 5GV 6JGQT[ CPF .KOKVCVKQP QH 5K\G 1ZHQTF 1ZHQTF 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU

*CTTKPIVQP .GQ GV CN GFU  *CTXG[ (TKGFOCPOU 4GUGCTEJ QP VJG (QWPFCVKQPU QH /CVJGOCVKEU

#OUVGTFCO 0QTVJ *QNNCPF

*C\GP # 2  4GXKGY QH 9TKIJV

 #WUVTCNCUKCP ,QWTPCN QH 2JKNQUQRJ[ 

*GEM ,T 4KEJCTF )  Q1P VJG %QPUKUVGPE[ QH 5GEQPF1TFGT %QPVGZVWCN &GHKPKVKQPUR 0QÖU


LLLLLLLLLL  Q6JG &GXGNQROGPV QH #TKVJOGVKE KP (TGIGOU )TWPFIGUGV\G FGT #TKVJOGVKMR ,QWTPCN QH
5[ODQNKE .QIKE  4GRTKPVGF YKVJ C RQUVUETKRV KP &GOQRQWNQU
 

LLLLLLLLLL  Q1P VJG %QPUKUVGPE[ QH 2TGFKECVKXG (TCIOGPVU QH (TGIGOU )TWPFIGUGV\G FGT
#TKVJOGVKM R *KUVQT[ CPF 2JKNQUQRJ[ QH .QIKE 
LLLLLLLLLL C Q6JG (KPKVG CPF VJG +PHKPKVG KP (TGIGR +P 2JKNQUQRJ[ QH /CVJGOCVKEU 6QFC[ 

'F / 5EJKTP  1ZHQTF 1ZHQTF 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU

LLLLLLLLLL D Q(KPKVWFG CPF *WOGOU 2TKPEKRNGR ,QWTPCN QH 2JKNQUQRJKECN .QIKE 
*QFGU *CTQNF  Q.QIKEKUO CPF VJG 1PVQNQIKECN %QOOKVOGPVU QH #TKVJOGVKER ,QWTPCN QH 2JKNQUQRJ[


*TDCEGM -CTGN CPF ,GEJ 6JQOCU  +PVTQFWEVKQP VQ 5GV 6JGQT[ TF GF 0GY ;QTM /CTEGN &GMMGT

-CPCOQTK #MKJKTQ  6JG *KIJGT +PHKPKVG EQTTGEVGF RTKPVKPI $GTNKP 5RTKPIGT

.KPPGDQ «[UVGKP ! Q2TGFKECVKXG (TCIOGPVU QH (TGIG #TKVJOGVKER 7PRWDNKUJGF /5

.ÑYGPJGKO .GQRQNF  Q¯DGT /ÑINKEJMGKVGP KO 4GMCVKXMCNM×NR /CVJGOCVKUEJG #PPCNGP 
6TCPU 5VGHCP $CWGT/GPIGNDGTI Q1P 2QUUKDKNKVKGU KP VJG %CNEWNWU QH 4GNCVKXGUR +P XCP
*GKLGPQQTV
 

/QPVCIPC (TCPEQ CPF /CPEKPK #PVQPGNNC  Q# /KPKOCN 2TGFKECVKXG 5GV 6JGQT[R 0QVTG &COG
,QWTPCN QH (QTOCN .QIKE 

/QUVQYUMK #PFT\GL  Q5QOG +ORTGFKECVKXG &GHKPKVKQPU KP VJG #ZKQOCVKE 5GV 6JGQT[R (WPFCOGPVC
/CVJGOCVKE¿ 

0GNUQP 'FYCTF  2TGFKECVKXG #TKVJOGVKE 2TKPEGVQP 2TKPEGVQP 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU

0QXCM )CN +NUG  Q# %QPUVTWEVKQP QH /QFGNU QH %QPUKUVGPV 5[UVGOUR (WPFCOGPVC /CVJGOCVKE¿


2CTUQPU %JCTNGU  Q(TGIGOU 6JGQT[ QH 0WODGTR +P 2JKNQUQRJ[ KP #OGTKEC 'F /CZ $NCEM 
+VJCEC %QTPGNN 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU 4GRTKPVGF KP &GOQRQWNQU
 

2CTUQPU 6GTGPEG  Q1P VJG %QPUKUVGPE[ QH VJG (KTUV1TFGT 2QTVKQP QH (TGIGOU .QIKECN 5[UVGOR 0QVTG
&COG ,QWTPCN QH (QTOCN .QIKE  4GRTKPVGF KP &GOQRQWNQU
 

3WKPG 9 8  Q1P (TGIGOU 9C[ 1WVR /KPF  4GRTKPVGF KP 5GNGEVGF .QIKE 2CRGTU
 0GY ;QTM 4CPFQO *QWUG

LLLLLLLLLL  /CVJGOCVKECN .QIKE TGXKUGF GF %CODTKFIG *CTXCTF 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU
LLLLLLLLLL  Q# $CUKU HQT 0WODGT 6JGQT[ KP (KPKVG %NCUUGUR $WNNGVKP QH VJG #OGTKECP /CVJGOCVKECN
5QEKGV[ 

4COUG[ ( 2  Q6JG (QWPFCVKQPU QH /CVJGOCVKEUR 2TQEGGFKPIU QH VJG .QPFQP /CVJGOCVKECN 5QEKGV[
  4GRTKPVGF KP 6JG (QWPFCVKQPU QH /CVJGOCVKEU  'F 4 $ $TCKVJYCKVG 

.QPFQP 2CWN 6TGPEJ 6WDPGT

4QUUGT , $CTMNG[  Q6JG $WTCNK(QTVK 2CTCFQZR ,QWTPCN QH 5[ODQNKE .QIKE 
LLLLLLLLLL CPF 9CPI *CQ  Q0QP5VCPFCTF /QFGNU HQT (QTOCN .QIKEUR ,QWTPCN QH 5[ODQNKE .QIKE


4WUUGNN $GTVTCPF  .GVVGT VQ (TGIG 6TCPU $GXGTN[ 9QQFYCTF +P XCP *GKLGPQQTV
 

LLLLLLLLLL  6JG 2TKPEKRNGU QH /CVJGOCVKEU + %CODTKFIG %CODTKFIG 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU

LLLLLLLLLL  Q5QOG &KHHKEWNVKGU KP VJG 6JGQT[ QH 6TCPUHKPKVG 0WODGTU CPF 1TFGT 6[RGUR
2TQEGGFKPIU QH VJG .QPFQP /CVJGOCVKECN 5QEKGV[ 

LLLLLLLLLL  Q/CVJGOCVKECN .QIKE CU $CUGF QP VJG 6JGQT[ QH 6[RGUR #OGTKECP ,QWTPCN QH
/CVJGOCVKEU  4GRTKPVGF KP XCP *GKLGPQQTV
 

5EJTQGFGT*GKUVGT 2GVGT  Q# /QFGN6JGQTGVKE 4GEQPUVTWEVKQP QH (TGIGOU 2GTOWVCVKQP #TIWOGPVR

0QVTG &COG ,QWTPCN QH (QTOCN .QIKE 

5JQGPHKGNF , 4  Q# 4GNCVKXG %QPUKUVGPE[ 2TQQHR ,QWTPCN QH 5[ODQNKE .QIKE 

5KORUQP 5VGRJGP )  5WDU[UVGOU QH 5GEQPF 1TFGT #TKVJOGVKE $GTNKP 5RTKPIGT

5VGKPGT /CTM  /CVJGOCVKECN -PQYNGFIG +VJCEC %QTPGNN 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU

6CTUMK #NHTGF CPF /QUVQYUMK #PFT\GL CPF 4QDKPUQP 4CRJCGN /  7PFGEKFCDNG 6JGQTKGU

#OUVGTFCO 0QTVJ *QNNCPF

6GPPCPV 0GKN  #PVK4GCNKUO KP .QIKE 6TWVJ CU 'VGTPCN 1ZHQTF 1ZHQTF 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU

7TSWJCTV #NCUFCKT  'FKVQTKCN KPVTQFWEVKQPU VQ %QNNGEVGF 2CRGTU QH $GTVTCPF 4WUUGNN  (QWPFCVKQPU

QH .QIKE  .QPFQP 4QWVNGFIG

8CP *GKLGPQQTV ,GCP GF  (TQO (TGIG VQ )ÑFGN # 5QWTEGDQQM KP /CVJGOCVKECN .QIKE 

%CODTKFIG *CTXCTF 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU

9CPI *CQ  Q6TWVJ &GHKPKVKQPU CPF %QPUKUVGPE[ 2TQQHUR 6TCPUCEVKQPU QH VJG #OGTKECP
/CVJGOCVKECN 5QEKGV[ 

9GJOGKGT -CK  Q%QPUKUVGPV (TCIOGPVU QH VJG )TWPFIGUGV\G CPF VJG 'ZKUVGPEG QH 0QP.QIKECN
1DLGEVUR 5[PVJGUG 

9JKVGJGCF # 0 CPF $ 4WUUGNN  2TKPEKRKC /CVJGOCVKEC  XQNU %CODTKFIG %CODTKFIG

7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU PF GF 

9TKIJV %TKURKP  (TGIGOU %QPEGRVKQP QH 0WODGTU CU 1DLGEVU #DGTFGGP 5EQVU 2JKNQUQRJKECN

/QPQITCRJU

LLLLLLLLLL CPF *CNG $QD  6JG 4GCUQPOU 2TQRGT 5VWF[ 'UUC[U VQYCTFU C 0GQ(TGIGCP 2JKNQUQRJ[
QH /CVJGOCVKEU 1ZHQTF 1ZHQTF 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU
 +PFGZ
)GPGTCNN[ QPN[ VJG HKTUV QEEWTTGPEGU QH VGEJPKECN VGTOU
QT VJG HKTUV KP GCEJ UGPUG YJGTG VJG VGTO

JCU UGXGTCN UGPUGU CTG KPFGZGF DGNQY +VGOU KPFGZGF KP VJG 6#$.'5 CTG PQV KPENWFGF

CDDTGXKCVKQPU UVCVWU QH   $GTPC[U UGV VJGQT[ $   (TGIGCPK\GF 

CDUQNWVGPGUU QH DQWPFGF HQTOWNCU  

CDUVTCEVKQP IGPGTCN VJGQT[ QH  $GTPC[U 2CWN   P JKU

RTKPEKRNGU   YGCM VJGQT[  VJGQTGO 

CDUVTCEVU
HQT CP GSWKXCNGPEG  PQVCVKQP " DKEQPFKVKQPCN ↔ 
CPF h HQT  $QODGNNK 4CHCGN 

#EMGTOCPP 9KNJGNO  $QQNQU UGV VJGQT[  $QQNQUKHKGF $GTPC[U UGV

CFFKVKQP  FGHKPKVKQP QH   CUUQEKCVKXG VJGQT[ 

CPF EQOOWVCVKXG NCYU QH    $QQNQU $WTIGUU CPF ,GHHTG[ P P

CFFKVKXG EQPEGRV   HQTOWNC  MGTPGN  P P P P

QDLGEV  P

CNGRJ\GTQ ℵ 
  CNGRJQPG ℵ

 $QQNQU )GQTIG       

CPCN[UKU 5GG 2GCPQ CTKVJOGVKE UGEQPFQTFGT  P P P

CPCN[VKECN JKGTCTEJ[  P P JKU EQPXGTUG VQ (TGIGOU

CPEGUVTCN  VJGQTGO   JKU QNKVVNGR VJGQTGO

#PVQPGNNK #NFQ P 

CTKVJOGVKECN JKGTCTEJ[  DQQVUVTCRRKPI 

CUUQEKCVKXG NCY HQT CFFKVKQP CPF OWNVKRNKECVKQP $QWEJGT #PFTGY 

   HCKNU HQT GZRQPGPVKCVKQP  DQWPFGF HQTOWNC 5GG ∆ HQTOWNC


HQT KPVGTUGEVKQP CPF WPKQP  DQWPFGF SWCPVKHKGTU KP CTKVJOGVKE  KP UGV

CZKQO UEJGOG XU UKPING CZKQO  QH KPFWEVKQP VJGQT[ 

 QH UGRCTCVKQP  DTCEMGV PQVCVKQPU n € ^^ ^^ ] _ CPF = ? 〈 〉 5GG

CZKQOU QH EJQKEG KPHKPKV[ TGFWEKDKNKV[ 5GG WPFGT EQPEGRV PWODGT UGV UGIOGPV

WPFGT EJQKEG KPHKPKV[ TGFWEKDKNKV[ $WTCNK(QTVK %GUCTG  JKU RCTCFQZ 

 

DCFEQORCP[ QDLGEVKQP   $WTIGUU ,QJP 2   

$GITKHHUUEJTKHV   

$GJOCPP *GKPTKEJ  %CPVQT )GQTI      JKU

$GNN , .  VJGQTGO CPF RCTCFQZ  JKU VTCPUHKPKVG

$GPCEGTTCH 2CWN KZ    ECTFKPCNU CPF QTFKPCNU  
%CTFCPQ )KTQNCOQ  P EQPUVTWEVKDKNKV[ CZKQO QH 8  .  

ECTFKPCNU UGG VTCPUHKPKVG EQPVKPWWO c 

%CTVGUKCP RTQFWEV ⊗  EQPVKPWWO J[RQVJGUKU %* 

ECVGIQTKGU 0 5 CPF FGTKXCVKXGU  P %TCKI KPVGTRQNCVKQP VJGQTGO 

%JKJCTC %JCTNGU P P %TCKI 9KNNKCO  P

EJQKEG CZKQO QH #%      EWVGNKOKPCVKQP VJGQTGO   P

P

%JWTEJOU VJGQTGO  VJGUKU  &GFGMKPF HKPKVWFG 

ENCUUGU    &GFGMKPFOU VJGQTGO   XGTUKQP ++ 

EQCPCN[VKE UGVU  P XGTUKQP +++ 

EQHKPKVG EQUOCNN  &GFGMKPF 4KEJCTF     P

EQFG PWODGT  FGFWEKDKNKV[ XU EQPUGSWGPEG 

EQGZVGPUKXGPGUU ≡  FGHKPGF XU RTKOKVKXG PQVCVKQP 

%QJGP 2CWN  FGHKPKVKQP KORNKEKV  D[ TGEWTUKQP 

%QNNKPU )GQTIG  &GNVCHQTOWNCU ∆ 

QT ∆ 
 QT DQWPFGF KP

EQOOWVCVKXG NCY HQT CFFKVKQP CPF CTKVJOGVKE   ∆ 

QT DQWPFGF KP UGV

OWNVKRNKECVKQP   HQT KPVGTUGEVKQP VJGQT[  ∆ 

 QT CTKVJOGVKECN 

CPF WPKQP  ∆ 
 EQORTGJGPUKQP  P

EQORNGZ PWODGTU C    FGOQPUVTCDKNKV[ XU XCNKFKV[ 

EQORNGZ XU UKORNG 5GG \KI\CI VJGQT[ FGUETKRVKQPU 4WUUGNNOU VJGQT[ CPF PQVCVKQP ι 

EQORQUKVKQP QH HWPEVKQPU  P

EQORTGJGPUKQP    HQT UGVU  KP FKTGEVKQPU (TGIGOU GZCORNG  

CPCN[UKU  FKULWPEVKQP ∨ 

EQORWVCVKQP QH RTQFWEV  QH RQYGT  QH FKUVKPEVPGUU l  
UWO  FKUVTKDWVKXG NCY   

EQPEGRV   PQVCVKQP n €  FQWDNG RTGFKECVKXG 5GG WPFGT RTGFKECVKXG

EQPFKVKQPCN →  &WOOGVV /KEJCGN   

EQPLWPEVKQP   F[CFKE JKIJGTQTFGT NQIKE  XU OQPCFKE  

EQPUGSWGPEG XU FGFWEKDKNKV[  

EQPUGTXCVKXG GZVGPUKQP  

EQPUKUVGPE[ XU UCVKUHKCDKNKV[  GNGOGPVJQQF ∈ 

EQPUKUVGPE[ RTQQHU QH OQFGNVJGQTGVKE  GRKUVGOQNQIKECN ENCKOU 

RTQQHU QH RTQQHVJGQTGVKE  GRUKNQP

ε U[ODQN *KNDGTVOU 

TGNCVKXG CPF EQPUKUVGPE[ UVTGPIVJ GRUKNQP

∈ OQFGNU 5GG OQFGNU

 EQPUKUVGPE[ VJGQTGOU   GSWKPWOGTCVKQP 

EQPUVCPVU KPVTQFWEVKQP QH   GSWKPWOGTQUKV[ ≈  

GSWKXCNGPEG
TGNCVKQP  OWNVKRNG  UVTQPIN[ HKTUVQTFGT 2GCPQ CTKVJOGVKE 5GG 2GCPQ

UWKVCDNG  UWKVCDNG  YGCMN[ CTKVJOGVKE HKTUVQTFGT

UWKVCDNG  HKTUVTQWPF 5GG WPFGT RTGFKECVKXG

GSWKXCNGPEG ENCUU 5GG UGV QH GSWKXCNGPVU (KVEJ (TGFGTKE 

GZEGNNGPV  HNQCVKPI EQPEGRVU 

GZENWFGF OKFFNG  HQWPFCVKQP CZKQO  

GZGIGVKECN ENCKOU  (TCPMGN #DTCJCO 5GG TGRNCEGOGPV CZKQO

GZKUVGPVKCN SWCPVKHKGT ∃ 5GG WPFGT SWCPVKHKGT (TGIG CTKVJOGVKE (#   Π 
 XGTUKQP

GZRQPGPVKCN EQPEGRV  HQTOWNC MGTPGN  

GZRQPGPVKCVKQP ↑ FGHKPKVKQP QH   KP (TGIGOU VJGQTGO  (KPGOU TGHKPGOGPV CPF

U[UVGOU QH CTKVJOGVKE  EQPXGTUG   )GCEJ$QQNQU

GZVGPUKQPCN JKIJGTQTFGT EQPEGRV  EQPXGTUG  *GEM$GNN TGHKPGOGPV

GZVGPUKQPCNKV[ HQT EQPEGRVU     .KPPGDQ TGHKPGOGPV 

HQT UGVU    RTGFKECVKXG  

GZVGPUKQPU  PQVCVKQPU e CPF U CPF ] _ HQT  (TGIGOU YC[ QWV 

UCHG  (TGIG )QVVNQD      

     

HCEVQTKCN    P P P

HCKT IQQF XGT[ IQQF GZEGNNGPV  P P P JKU

HCNNKPI WPFGT ∇   FGHKPKVKQPU CPF EJCKP QH FGFWEVKQPU

(GHGTOCP 5QNQOQP KZ P P  

(GTTGKTC (GTPCPFQ  P (TGIGCPK\GF $GTPC[U UGV VJGQT[ ($ 5GG WPFGT

(KPG UGV VJGQT[  P $GTPC[U UGV VJGQT[

(KPG -KV KZ     JKU IGPGTCN (TKGFOCP *CTXG[ KZ   

VJGQT[ QH CDUVTCEVKQP  JKU P P

QNKVVNGR VJGQTGO  JKU TGHKPGOGPV QH HWPEVKQPU[ODQN KPVTQFWEVKQP QH 

(TGIGOU VJGQTGO CPF EQPXGTUG  HWPEVKQPU

KP (TGIGOU UGPUG 

 P P

HKPKVGN[OCP[ # 5GG SWCPVKHKGT )CWUU % ( 

HKPKVKUO   P HKPKVKUVKE XU KPHKPKVKUVKE )GCEJ 2GVGT  P

 IGPGTCNK\GF EQPVKPWWO J[RQVJGUKU )%* 

HKPKVWFG 5GG &GFGMKPF HKPKVWFG OKPKOCNN[ IGPGTCNK\GF SWCPVKHKGTU 5GG SWCPVKHKGTU

CFGSWCVG HKPKVWFG 4WUUGNN HKPKVWFG )GPV\GP CTKVJOGVKE +∆

UWRGTGZR 

HKTUVQTFGT NQIKE NCPIWCIGU CPF VJGQTKGU   )GPV\GP )GTJCTF   

 INQDCN KPVGTRTGVCDKNKV[ 

INQDCN XU NQECN CZKQO QH EJQKEG 

)ÑFGN EQORNGVGPGUU VJGQTGO  J[RGTKPCEEGUUKDNG ECTFKPCNU  

)ÑFGN KPEQORNGVGPGUU VJGQTGOU   

)ÑFGN -WTV      KFGPVKV[ HWPEVKQP 

)QNFHCTD 9CTTGP P KFGPVKV[ RTQDNGO 

IQQF XGT[ IQQF  KFGPVKV[ KP OCP[UQTVGF CPF JKIJGTQTFGT NQIKE

ITCOOCT (TGIGCP  CPF UGEQPFQTFGT   P

SWCPVKHKECVKQP  KORNKEKV FGHKPKVKQP 

)TGNNKPI RCTCFQZ 5GG JGVGTQNQIKECN RCTCFQZ KORTGFKECVKXG XU RTGFKECVKXG 5GG RTGFKECVKXKV[

)TWPFIGUGV\G       KPCEEGUUKDNG ECTFKPCNU   

P KPEQORNGVGPGUU QH UGEQPFQTFGT NQIKE 

)TWPFNCIGP     P  5GG CNUQ )ÑFGN

)T\GIQTE\[M #PFT\GL  KPEQORNGVGPGUU VJGQTGOU

KPFGHKPKVGPGUU CPF KPFGHKPCDKNKV[ 

*CLGM 2GVT  KPFGUETKDCDNG ECTFKPCNU 

*CNG $QD     KPFKUEGTPKDKNKV[ 

*CNNGVV /KEJCGN  P KPFKXKFWCNU 

*CNRGTP , &  KPFWEVKDNG 

*COKNVQP 9KNNKCO  P KPFWEVKQP OCVJGOCVKECN     CZKQO +

*CTTKPIVQP .GQ P XU UEJGOG +  ∆   



*C\GP # 2 KZ      P  SWCPVKHKGTHTGG   Σ Σ

 


*GEM 4KEJCTF KZ      KPFWEVKXG EQPEGRV   HQTOWNC   UGV

 P JKU EQPUKUVGPE[ VJGQTGO 

  P KPHKPKVKUVKE XU HKPKVKUVKE 

*GNNOCP )GQHHTG[ P KPHKPKV[ i P vi P

*GPMKP OQFGNU 5GG WPFGT OQFGNU KPHKPKV[ CZKQO QH   

JGVGTQNQIKECN RCTCFQZ  KPHNCVKQP CPF J[RGTKPHNCVKQP  P

JKIJGT RTGFKECVGU CPF EQPEGRVU  JKIJGTQTFGT KPHQTOCVKQP RTQDNGO 

NQIKE   KPLGEVKQP 

*KNDGTV εU[ODQN  KPUVCPEG QH C UEJGOG 

*KNDGTVOU RTQITCO   KPVGIGTU Z   

*KNDGTV &CXKF    KPVGTRQNCPV 5GG %TCKI KPVGTRQNCVKQP VJGQTGO

*QFGU *CTQNF  KPVGTRTGVCVKQP   QH 3  

JQTUG EQPEGRV QH  KPVWKVKQP OCVJGOCVKECN 

*TDCEGM -CTGN P KPVWKVKQPKUO  P

*WOGOU RTKPEKRNG *2  CPF RTGFKECVKXKV[


KPXCTKCPEG  FQWDNG  PGCT CPF XGT[ .ÑYGPJGKO .GQRQNF 

PGCT   YKVJ TGURGEV VQ .ÑYGPJGKO$GJOCPP VJGQTGO   

C UGV  P P P

KPXGTUG QH C HWPEVKQP  .ÑYGPJGKO5MQNGO VJGQTGO  

KQVC PQVCVKQP 5GG FGUETKRVKQPU

KTTGHNGZKXKV[  /CFF[ 2GPGNQRG KZ

KUQOQTRJKUO  /CPEKPK #PVQPGNNC 

OCP[UQTVGF NCPIWCIGU CPF NQIKEU  OQFGNU

,GEJ 6JQOCU P HQT 

,GHHTG[ 4KEJCTF  /CVJGOCVKEC `  P

,WNKWU %CGUCT RTQDNGO  OCZKOCNKUV CPF PQP XGTUKQP QH NKOKVCVKQP QH

UK\G 

-CNOCT CTKVJOGVKE +∆

GZR  /C[ 4QDGTV P

-CNOCT .CU\NQ  /KNN ,QJP 5VWCTV  

-CPCOQTK #MKJKTQ KZ  OKPKOCNN[ CFGSWCVG HKPKVWFG 

-CPV +OOCPWGN   /KPVU )TKIQTK P

-GKUNGT * , P /.

/CVJGOCVKECN .QIKE 

-NGGPG JKGTCTEJ[  OQFGN VJGQT[ XU RTQQH VJGQT[  

-TKRMG 5CWN KZ    OQFGNU HQT OCP[UQTVGF HKTUVQTFGT CPF HQT

UGEQPFQTFGT VJGQTKGU 

NCTIG ECTFKPCNU  EQPUKUVGPE[ RTQQHU WUKPI 

.CY 8  PWOGTKECN 08  ∈OQFGNU   *GPMKP OQFGNU
.GKDPK\ ) 9    UVCPFCTF OQFGNU   6CTUMK

.GUPKGYUMK 5VCPKUNCY P OQFGNU 

.GWGPDGTIGT 5VGHCP KZ OQPCFKE HKTUVQTFGT NQIKE YKVJ KFGPVKV[ 

.GX[ JKGTCTEJ[  JKIJGTQTFGT NQIKE  XU F[CFKE  

.GX[ #\TKGN   

NKOKVCVKQP QH UK\G   /QPVCIPC (TCPEQ 

NKPGCT QTFGT  /QTUG-GNN[ UGV VJGQT[ /- 

.KPPGDQ «[UVGKP KZ    JKU /QUVQYUMK #PFT\GL  P

TGHKPGOGPV QH (TGIGOU VJGQTGO  OWNVKRNG GSWKXCNGPEG 5GG GSWKXCNGPEG

NQECN KPVGTRTGVCDKNKV[  OWNVKRNKECVKQP ⋅ FGHKPKVKQP QH  CUUQEKCVKXG

NQECN XU INQDCN CZKQO QH EJQKEG  CPF EQOOWVCVKXG NCYU QH   

NQIKE 5GG HKTUVQTFGT UGEQPFQTFGT JKIJGTQTFGT OWNVKRNKECVKXG EQPEGRV  HQTOWNC  MGTPGN

NQIKECN QDLGEVU  NQIKECN PQVKQPU CPF  QDLGEV 

KPXCTKCPEG 
PCOGU 5GG ECVGIQT[ 0 2GCPQ CTKVJOGVKEU HKTUVQTFGT    Π

PCVWTCN
ECPFKFCVG OQFGN QH UGV VJGQT[  XGTUKQP  UGEQPFQTFGT 

PCVWTCN PWODGTU N  FGHKPKVKQPU QH   VJKTFQTFGT 

PGICVKQP `  2GCPQ RQUVWNCVGU

22   

0GNUQP 'FYCTF KZ    RGTOWVCVKQP 

0GNUQP9KNMKG CTKVJOGVKE +∆  2KHQTOWNCU Π Π KP CTKVJOGVKE  Π Π KP

PGQ(TGIGCPKUO      UGV VJGQT[  Π  Π CPF Π 

  P P Π KP CPCN[UKU  PQVCVKQP HQT

0(
Q0GY (QWPFCVKQPUR  RTQFWEV  Π EQORTGJGPUKQP 

PQ ENCUUGU VJGQT[  Π 2GCPQ CPF (TGIG CTKVJOGVKEU

PQOKPCNKUO  

0QXCE )CN +NUG P RNWTCN NQIKE 

PWODGTU PQVCVKQP HQT  CPF ^^ ^^ HQT  2QKPECTÃ *GPTK P P

PWOGTKECN GSWKXCNGPEG CPF .CY 8 5GG .CY 8 RQN[CFKE JKIJGTQTFGT NQIKE 

PWOGTKECN SWCPVKHKGTU ∃M 5GG SWCPVKHKGT RQYGT UGV CZKQO NKOKVGF HQTOU ℘P
ω  UGV

VJGQT[ YKVJQWV KV <( 

QDLGEV  P CFFKVKQPCN QDLGEV ο   RQYGTHWNPGUU 

QOGIC ω  QOGICQPG ω  RTCIOCVKUO 

QPGVQQPG EQTTGURQPFGPEG  RTGFKECVGU 

QTFGT  QT  QP PCVWTCN PWODGTU FGHKPKVKQPU QH RTGFKECVKXKUO P

   RTGUGTXCVKQP QH   RTGFKECVKXKV[    HKTUV CPF

 V[RGU CPF QTFKPCN PWODGTU  UGEQPFTQWPF  CPF *WOGOU

QTFGTGF RCKT 〈  〉 9GKPGT-WTCVQYUMK FGHKPKVKQP RTKPEKRNG  UKORNG  

QH   FQWDNG   TCOKHKGF  

QTFGTN[ EQPEGRV  HQTOWNC  MGTPGN   UGEQPF FKOGPUKQP QH

QDLGEV  KORTGFKECVKXKV[  WNVTC 

QTFKPCNU 5GG VTCPUHKPKVG RTGUGTXCVKQP QH QTFGT 5GG WPFGT QTFGT

RTGUWRRQUKVKQP 

RCKT 5GG QTFGTGF RCKT RTKOKVKXG TGEWTUKXG CTKVJOGVKE 24# P

RCTCFQZ 5GG $WTCNK(QTVK RCTCFQZ JGVGTQNQIKECN P

RCTCFQZ 4WUUGNNOU RCTCFQZ RTKOKVKXG TGEWTUKXG HWPEVKQPU 

RCTCOGVGTU  RTKOKVKXG 5GG FGHKPGF XU RTKOKVKXG

2CTUQPU CTKVJOGVKE +Σ  RTQFWEV 5GG OWNVKRNKECVKQP

2CTUQPU %JCTNGU KZ  RTQFWEVKXKV[  XU OWNVKRNKECVKXKV[ 

2CTUQPU 6GTGPEG   RTQHKNG 

RTQLGEVKXG XU CHHKPG IGQOGVT[ 

RTQQH VJGQT[ XU OQFGN VJGQT[  TGIWNCTKV[ CZKQO 5GG HQWPFCVKQP CZKQO

RTQRQUKVKQPCN HWPEVKQPU   4GKPJCTFV ECTFKPCN   P

RTQVQPCVWTCN  TGNCVKQPCN EQPEGRVU 5GG EQPEGRVU

2WFNCM 2CXGN  TGNCVKXG EQPUKUVGPE[ 5GG EQPUKUVGPE[ UVTGPIVJ

RWTG UGVU  TGNCVKXK\CVKQP  

2[VJCIQTGCPU  TGRNCEGOGPV CZKQO  

TGRTGUGPVCDKNKV[ 

3 5GG 4QDKPUQP CTKVJOGVKE TGRTGUGPVCVKXGU 

SWCPVKHKGTU DQWPFGF KP CTKVJOGVKE  DQWPFGF TGXGTUG OCVJGOCVKEU 

KP UGV VJGQT[  GZKUVGPVKCN ∃  4QDKPUQP CTKVJOGVKE 3  

HKPKVGN[OCP[ #  IGPGTCNK\GF 4QDKPUQP 4CRJCGN  5GG CNUQ 4QDKPUQP

 PWOGTKECN ∃M CPF ∃M  RNWTCN CTKVJOGVKE

 TGNCVKXK\GF    4QUGP )KFGQP 

UGEQPFQTFGT KPVGTRTGVCVKQP QH 4QUUGT , $  P

 WPKSWG GZKUVGPEG ∃  4WUUGNN EQPEGRV  HKPKVWFG  P

WPKXGTUCN  RCTCFQZ  UGV 

SWCPVKVCVKXG CPF PQP XGTUKQPU QH NKOKVCVKQP QH 4WUUGNN $GTVTCPF      

UK\G  P P P

SWCVGTPKQPU H   P

3WKPG 9 8  P P P UCHG GZVGPUKQPU  

UCVKUHKCDKNKV[ KPVWKVKXG XU UVCPFCTF  XU

TCOKHKGF 5GG WPFGT RTGFKECVKXG EQPUKUVGPE[ 

4COUG[ ( 2   UCVWTCVGF XU WPUCVWTCVGF 

TCPM QH UGV VGTOU ] _    UEJGOG 5GG CZKQO UEJGOG

TCVKQPCN PWODGTU Q    5EJTQGFGT*GKUVGT 2GVGT 

TGCN PWODGTU R    GZVGPFGF P 5EQVVKUJ UEJQQN 5GG 9TKIJV %TKURKP CPF *CNG

TGEWTUKQP 5GG FGHKPKVKQP D[ TGEWTUKQP $QD

TGEWTUKXG UCVWTCVKQP P UGEQPFQTFGT NQIKE    5GG CNUQ

TGEWTUKXG UGVU  OQPCFKE XU F[CFKE

TGEWTUKXGN[ GPWOGTCDNG UGVU  UGEQPFQTFGT 2GCPQ CTKVJOGVKE 5GG 2GCPQ

TGFWEKDKNKV[ QH QPG VJGQT[ VQ CPQVJGT   CTKVJOGVKE UGEQPFQTFGT

TGFWEKDKNKV[ CZKQO QH   UGEQPFTQWPF 5GG WPFGT RTGFKECVKXG

TGHGTGPEG XU UGPUG    5GG 2GCPQ CTKVJOGVKE UGEQPFQTFGT

TGHNGEVKQP RTKPEKRNG  UGIOGPV = ? 

TGHNGZKXKV[ CPF TGHNGZKXG ENQUWTG  UGPUG 5GG TGHGTGPEG

TGITGUUKXG  UGPVGPEGU 5GG ECVGIQTKGU 0 5 CPF FGTKXCVKXGU

UGRCTCVKQP CZKQO    CZKQO XU UWRGTGZRQPGPVKCVKQP ⇑ FGHKPKVKQP QH  KP
UEJGOG   U[UVGOU QH CTKVJOGVKE 

UGRCTCVKQP RTKPEKRNGU  UWRGTVTCPUKVKXG UGV  

UGV QH GSWKXCNGPVU = ?  UWRGTVTCPUKVKXG UGV 

UGV VJGQT[ CZKQOCVKE   U[OOGVT[ CPF U[OOGVTKE ENQUWTG 

UGVJQQF PQVCVKQP HQT

² U[PVCEVKE XU UGOCPVKE 5GG OQFGN VJGQT[ XU RTQQH

UGVU  ] _ PQVCVKQP HQT  VGTOU  VJGQT[

5JQGPHKGNFOU VJGQTGO      5\OKGNGY 9CPFC 

P JKUVQT[ QH P 5\OKGNGY6CTUMK VJGQTGO  FQWDN[ GZVGPFGF

5JQGPHKGNF ,QUGRJ P P  GZVGPFGF 

5KIOC HQTOWNCU Σ Σ KP CTKVJOGVKE  Σ Σ

KP UGV VJGQT[  Σ  Σ CPF Σ  6CMGWVK )CKUK P

Σ 
 KP CPCN[UKU  PQVCVKQP HQT UWO 6CTUMK OQFGNU 5GG WPFGT OQFGNU

 Σ  EQORTGJGPUKQP  6CTUMK #NHTGF  

UKORNG RTGFKECVKXG 5GG WPFGT RTGFKECVKXG 6GPPCPV 0GKN KZ   

UKORNG XU EQORNGZ 5GG \KI\CI VJGQT[ VJKTFQTFGT NQIKE 

5KORUQP 5VGRJGP  VJKTFQTFGT 2GCPQ CTKVJOGVKE 5GG 2GCPQ

5MQNGO CTKVJOGVKE 5GG RTKOKVKXG TGEWTUKXG CTKVJOGVKE VJKTFQTFGT

CTKVJOGVKE 24# VJQWIJV 

5MQNGO RCTCFQZ P VTCPUHKPKVG ECTFKPCNU CPF QTFKPCNU   

UOCNN CPF XGT[ UOCNN  

5QNQXC[ 4QDGTV   VTCPUKVKXG ENQUWTG

UQTVCN RTGFKECVG  VTCPUKVKXG UGV  

URNKVVKPI  VTCPUKVKXKV[  CPF VTCPUKVKXG ENQUWTG 

UVCPFCTF OQFGNU 5GG OQFGNU VTKEJQVQO[ 

5VGKPGT /CTM P VTWVJXCNWGU  P

UVTWEVWTCNKUO  V[RGU VJGQT[ QH  UKORNG XU TCOKHKGF 

UWDQTFKPCVKQP CZKQOU QH   RTKPEKRNG QH XU UGV VJGQT[ 

 

UWEEGUUQT FGHKPKVKQP QH  PQVCVKQP  CPF HQT WNVTCRTGFKECVKXG 

 VJGQTGO  WPKSWG GZKUVGPEG 5GG WPFGT SWCPVKHKGTU

UWK IGPGTKU XKGY QH PWODGTU  WPKXGTUCN EQPEGRV 7  UGV 8 

UWKVCDKNKV[  UVTQPI  YGCM  WPKXGTUCN SWCPVKHKGT ∀ 5GG WPFGT SWCPVKHKGT
UWO 5GG CFFKVKQP WPUCVWTCVGF 5GG UCVWTCVGF XU WPUCVWTCVGF

UWOOCDKNKV[  XU CFFKVKXKV[  7TSWJCTV #NCUFCKT P

8 5GG .CY 8 WPKXGTUCN UGV

XCNKFKV[ XU FGOQPUVTCDKNKV[ 

XCTKCDNGDKPFKPI VGTOHQTOKPI QRGTCVQTU EQPEGRV

n €  UGV ] _  PWODGT ^^ ^^ 

8QP 0GWOCPPOU CZKQO 

XQP 0GWOCPP  $GTPC[U )ÑFGN UGV VJGQT[ 0$)



XQP 0GWOCPP ,QJP FGHKPKVKQP QH PWODGT 

 JKU CZKQOCVK\CVKQP QH UGV VJGQT[

  5GG CNUQ XQP 0GWOCPP 

$GTPC[U  )ÑFGN UGV VJGQT[

9CPI *CQ  P P

9GJOGKGT -CK KZ  P P

9GKPGT-WTCVQYUMK FGHKPKVKQP 5GG QTFGTGF RCKT

YGNNQTFGT 

9JKVGJGCF # 0 

9KNMKG #NGZ  

9TKIJV %TKURKP KZ   

<GTOGNQ UGV VJGQT[ < 

<GTOGNQ 'TPUV FGHKPKVKQP QH PWODGT  5GG

CNUQ UGRCTCVKQP CZKQO <GTOGNQ UGV

VJGQT[ <GTOGNQ(TCPMGN UGV VJGQT[

<GTOGNQ(TCPMGN UGV VJGQT[ <(  YKVJ EJQKEG

<(%  5GG CNUQ UGRCTCVKQP

\GTQ FGHKPKVKQP QH 

\GTQRNCEG U[ODQNU 

\KI\CI VJGQT[