Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Topic2periodofcolonisationandstruggleforindependence 151220111007
Topic2periodofcolonisationandstruggleforindependence 151220111007
Colonisation
and Struggle
for
Independence
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
X 1. Identify the foreign powers that had once colonised our country;
2. Identify the effects of the colonisation with the current socio-
economic and political system;
4. Assess the main reasons why the citizens opposed national political
and economical administration by foreign powers;
7. Interpret factors that pushed forward the idea to form Malaysia; and
X INTRODUCTION
In general, this topic discusses the scene of our country since the period of
colonisation up to the birth of the struggle to seek independence. The areas
discussed in this topic are, amongst others, the factors that influenced foreign
powers to colonise our country; the reaction of the citizens towards that
colonisation; and the effect of the colonisation on our country. The focus on
colonisation begins with the colonisation by the Portuguese, the Dutch, English
and lastly the Japanese. And from the beginning colonisation is focused on
Malacca and thereafter linked in general to other states, such as Penang Island,
Singapore, Kedah, Perak, Selangor, Negeri Sembilan, Sabah and Sarawak. Among
the main factors for colonisation by these foreign powers were the factor of the
countryÊs location and wealth.
From the perspective of the citizenÊs reaction, you are brought to understand the
reaction of the citizens of Malaysia towards the colonisation by foreign powers.
This reaction reached its peak, for instance, with the murder of J.W.W. Birch in
Perak, the resistance by Tok Bahaman and Mat Kilau in Pahang, the resistance by
Mat Saleh in Sabah, and the awakening of the national spirit after the Japanese
colonisation.
Lastly, from the perspective of the effects of the colonisation, you are brought to
analyse the effects of the colonisation on the national political and administrative
system, national economic system, national education system and the citizen's
way of life as a whole.
There are two main factors that influenced foreign powers to colonise Malaya. We
can divide those factors into two, that is:
(a) Strategic location; and
(b) National wealth.
TOPIC 2 PERIOD OF COLONISATION AND STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE W 21
In addition, the foreign powers did indeed have key reasons to colonise South
East Asian countries. Among those reasons were, firstly their attempt to expand
its territory that could provide raw materials, and secondly to spread Christianity.
(ii) Malacca had a deep port that was very suitable for ships to anchor and
trade.
(c) Economic Factor
(i) Political and geographical factors also assisted Malacca in becoming
the central focus of economic activities. Malacca was able to provide
facilities that encouraged economic growth, such as spice trading and
centre of trade for goods from China, India, Arab countries and
Europe.
(ii) Rulers introduced the use of its own system of currency in trade
dealings. This simplified the execution of trading activities.
(iii) The Malacca Government also established a good tax collection system
and it was accepted by the foreign traders.
(d) Social Factor
(i) The education aspect was given emphasis by the Malaccan rulers.
MalaccaÊs position as the centre of knowledge was closely linked with
the Malaccan rulers who extremely respected and bestowed prominent
positions to the theologian group. Sultan Mansur Syah, for example
studied with Kadi Yusuf and encouraged the Al-Quran to be written in
the Malay language.
(ii) The arrival of Islam vastly changed the social system of the Malay
society. Equality, brotherhood among religions and world Islam unity
were the values instilled in the Malay societyÊs way of life in Malacca
and the entire Malay universe. The concepts of respect, cooperation,
helping and working together among one another were characteristics
instilled in Islam.
(e) Cultural Factors
(i) Malacca, as the centre for the spread of Islam, was able to further
encourage growth in trading with Muslim traders from India and Arab
countries.
(ii) The Malay language was widely used as the medium language or
„Lingua Franca‰. The use of the Malay language in the studies of
academic characteristics, production of literary works, area of
administration and its relationship with the foreign powers increased
its influence.
24 X TOPIC 2 PERIOD OF COLONISATION AND STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE
To fulfil this desire, the Dutch put an end to Portuguese control in Malacca with
the aim of attracting traders to Betawi. In the year 1641, the Portuguese were
defeated with the assistance of the Johor government. However, as with the
Portuguese, the Dutch did not leave behind a deep historical legacy in Malaysia.
The power struggle between the colonial powers illustrates that the Malay states
were desired by the Western powers. The most important factor was the aim to
exploit the economic resources in the Malay islands.
The arrival of Francis Light on 11 August 1786 at Penang Island and the arrival of
Stamford Raffles on 6 February 1819 in Singapore had great influence in the
shaping of the history of Malaya. It is here that the English began their attempts to
control the whole of Malaya.
TOPIC 2 PERIOD OF COLONISATION AND STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE W 25
After being in the Straits Settlement, the British extended their control to the other
states in the Peninsular, Sabah and Sarawak. The purpose of the English
extending their control in this territory clearly had an economic motive. This
became easier to accomplish as at that time, there were internal problems taking
place in the relevant states. It has been recognised that the interference by the
English in numerous internal problem matters encouraged the English to further
extend their control to Peninsular Malaya, Sabah and Sarawak (refer to Table 2.1).
The peak of the resistance happened after the World War II, that is after the defeat
of the Japanese. The British army arrived to restore the status quo prior to World
War II. A form of military administration named the British Military
Administration (BMA) was established. In spite of this, the BMA was unable to
restore peace. In the end, the British made efforts to re-establish public
administration. Their purpose was to establish a strong administrative centre.
In March 1946, the BMA was dissolved. A new government that was known as
the Malayan Union or Kesatuan Malaya was established. Let us examine why the
Parliament of Britain announced the establishment of the Malayan Union. Among
its purposes were to:
(a) Establish a strong and efficient rule through the integration of all existing
administrations;
(b) Coordinate a defence system which is effective and in order; and
(c) Increase production of rubber and tin ore for the economic benefit of the
British empire.
For your information, the characteristics of the Malayan Union, among others,
were:
(i) Singapore was to be separated from the Malayan Union and designated as a
Crown Colony.
(ii) All the states in Malaya were to become British Colonies and led by a
Governor.
(iii) The Governor of the Malayan Union was to be placed under the control of
the Governor General in Singapore.
(iv) The Governor was to be given full authority, including veto power, except in
the Legislative Council, which was established at central level.
(v) Members of the Legislative Council were to be appointed by the Governor,
comprised of official and unofficial representatives of equal amounts.
(vi) The Malay rulers were to relinquish control, except in matters relating to
Islam and Malay culture.
(vii) Citizenship was to be based on the principle of jus soli. This principle
enabled anyone to become a citizen after residing in this country for 10
years.
TOPIC 2 PERIOD OF COLONISATION AND STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE W 27
Did you know that the incident where the Sultans were forced to sign the
Malayan Union Plan agreement raised resentment of the Malays? They regarded
the British colonisers as insulting the Malay Rulers. They were also worried that
the position of the Rulers and people would be threatened. Among the manifestos
of the objections of the public against the establishment of the Malayan Union
were:
• The Pan-Malay (Melayu Se-Malaya) Congress chaired by Dato Onn bin
Jaafar had its emergency meeting in Kuala Lumpur. The said meeting was
attended by 41 Malay organisations.
• All the Malay rulers were urged not to attend the gathering for the
officiating and appointment of the Malayan Union Governor.
• The Malay community was urged to mourn for seven days.
• A public get together by the Malays was held in many of the main cities
such as Johor Bahru, Kuala Lumpur and Alor Setar.
• The Malay dignitaries boycotted the official British assemblies.
• The Malay leaders formed the United Malay National Organisation
(UMNO) to protect the interest of the Malays.
UMNO continued to insist on the withdrawal of the Malayan Union. The British
government began to worry that chaos would ensue if immediate actions were
not taken. The English government discovered that the Sultans and the Malayan
dignitaries would continue not to support them. In addition to that, many Chinese
and Indian leaders also shunned the Council for the Declaration of the Malayan
Union. At the end, the British were forced to accept defeat and the Malayan Union
was dissolved. At that time, the Malayan Union was merely four months old.
firearms. Meanwhile, the local citizens participated in Force 136 under the
leadership of Captain Spencer Chapman.
The Askar Melayu Setia military unit was established in Perak in the year 1945
which was lead by Captain Mohd. Salleh bin Haji Sulaiman. The said military
units had launched numerous attacks on the Japanese army.
You should also know that the citizens in Sabah and Sarawak also faced pressure
from the Japanese colonisation. In Sabah and Sarawak, the Chinese worked
together with the Bumiputras to oppose the Japanese.
From all this, we are able to see that every invader that arrived and occupied this
country faced resistance from the local citizens.
lived in the rural areas. The differences between these groups created a
social divide that was marked by racial sensitivity and prejudices. This was
indeed what the colonialists intended as, with the existence of disharmony
among the citizens, it would be easy for the British to rule and thereafter
exploit the nationÊs economy.
(b) Political System
From the political aspect, the societyÊs system, which was once loyalty and
service under the rule of the rulers and Sultan changed with the interference
of the British. The power of the rulers and Sultans were reduced to a level
that they were only symbolic figureheads to the state or country. It began
with the introduction of the resident system in the Federation of Malay
States and subsequently by the system of British advisors in the Unfederated
Malay States. Both these systems began to reduce the ruling powers of the
Malay rulers and officials. The function of the British resident and advisor
was to advise the Malay rulers, which had been previously done by the
Malay officials.
The bombing of the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki by the American army
resulted in the Japanese surrender. This incident caused the British to return to
Malaya in September 1945. Subsequently, numerous eventful incidents took place:
(a) The British established the British Military Army (BMA);
(b) The Malayan Union was established; and
(c) The Communist Party of Malaya became more active until the British were
forced to declare a state of emergency in Malaya on 17 June 1948.
For approximately three and a half years the Japanese occupation in Malaya left
behind many negative and positive effects, which include:
(i) Malaya was placed under the control of the Japanese military administration
with its centre in Singapore.
(ii) Singapore was separated from the administration in Malaya.
(iii) The Chinese people in Malaya had been suppressed by the Japanese,
whereas the Malays had received a more favourable treatment. This raised
30 X TOPIC 2 PERIOD OF COLONISATION AND STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE
the resentment of the Chinese people towards the Malays and hostilities
began to simmer.
(iv) Greater political awareness existed among the Malays.
(v) Confidence for self-rule among the Malays arose as a result of the experience
derived from the Japanese administrative work.
(vi) The Chinese and Indians in Malaya became more enthusiastic/active in
strengthening their identities and roots.
(vii) Hostility between the Malays and the Chinese as a result of the Japanese
occupation stirred up the spirit of the Malay Congress.
(viii) The Communist Party of Malaya became the strongest party from 1945 ă
1948.
ACTIVITY 2.1
1. In your opinion, what are the factors that caused Malacca to achieve
its glory in the 16th century A.D. until it was envied by foreign
powers?
2. The invasion by the Japanese Army from 1942 to 1945 was a
blessing in disguise to the citizens of Malaysia. Analyse this
statement based on suitable examples.
We should be aware that national movements before the World War II in the
Malay Peninsular was heavily influenced by the success of the Japanese in
defeating Russia in the Russo-Japan War. At the same time, the struggle of
Indonesian nationalists against the Dutch was a boost to the nationalists in the
Malay Peninsular. The Young Turks Movement led by Mustafa Kamal was also
an inspiration in the struggle for independence.
National spirit in the Malay Peninsular in the early 20th century was largely
stirred by the media, through publications such as newspapers and magazines
(refer to Table 2.2). The media gave lots of opportunities to the public to submit
and receive important information from leaders.
In Sabah, there were several socio-economic based associations fighting for social
and economic interests of the local population. Mean while in Sarawak, the
Sarawak Malay Association was established in 1939. This association aimed to
develop the Sarawak Malays in all fields, as well as to cultivate cooperation
among them.
Indians in putting forward suggestions to the government. Until 1949, there were
7000 members in MIC, and this figure increased to 20,000 in 1955.
The alliance between the two parties at state level prompted the UMNO
President, Tunku Abdul Rahman, and the MCA President, Tan Cheng Lock, to
form the Alliance Party in 1955. The MIC joined the alliance in April 1955.
The forming of the Alliance Party witnessed the cooperation between the three
majority races in the Malay Peninsular. As a result, in the Malay Federation
General Elections in 1955, the Alliance Party won 51 out of the 52 contended seats.
This victory also formed the catalyst to a more enthusiastic cooperation to achieve
the independence of the Malay Federation.
As result of these negotiations, the London Treaty was signed on 8 February 1956.
The date for independence was fixed for 31 August 1957. Tunku Abdul Rahman
TOPIC 2 PERIOD OF COLONISATION AND STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE W 35
declared the date in the Bandar Hilir Field, Malacca when the delegation returned
from London.
From the negotiations, a commission tasked with drafting the new constitution of
the Malay Peninsular the Reid Commission was created. Among the contents of
the Constitution of the Malay Peninsular are:
(i) The Yang Dipertuan Agong as the head of state and elected from the nine
Malay Rulers;
(ii) The head of government was the Prime Minister who would be elected from
the Dewan Rakyat;
(iiii) A Parliament consisting of the Dewan Negara and Dewan Rakyat formed;
(iv) Conditions for citizenship tightened;
(v) Bahasa Melayu elevated as a national language; and
(vi) Islam as the Federal religion and other forms of religion are allowed.
After his speech in Singapore, Tunku Abdul Rahman Figure 2.2: Tunku Abdul
made trips to Sabah and Sarawak in June 1961 and to Rahman, MalaysiaÊs first
Brunei in July the same year, in order to explain the Prime Minister, Father of
concept, aim and purpose of the forming of Malaysia. Independence (31 August
This suggestion, however, received mixed reactions. 1957 to 21 September 1970)
Discussions were also held between senior officials of
the Federation of Malaya and British officials from
Sarawak, Sabah and Singapore. As a result, a Racial
Unity Negotiation Committee (JPPK) was formed in
Singapore on June 1961, chaired by Donald Stephens.
36 X TOPIC 2 PERIOD OF COLONISATION AND STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE
The JPPK meeting took place four times, in Jesselton, Sabah (now known as Kota
Kinabalu); Kuching, Sarawak, Kuala Lumpur and Singapore. Brunei only sent
observers to the last three meetings.
In the last meeting in Singapore on February 1962, the meeting delegates agreed
to submit a memorandum to the Cobbold Commission which was formed by the
British. The memorandum contained important issues relating to the views and
feelings of the people of Sabah and Sarawak with regards to joining the
Federation of Malaysia.
The Cobbold Commission, which was tasked with obtaining public opinion in
Sabah and Sarawak about the forming of Malaysia as well as evaluation,
submitted the report stating that the people of Sabah and Sarawak supported the
forming of Malaysia on the condition that their interests would be protected.
Based on the report, the Cobbold Commission made several suggestions:
(i) The new Malaysian Constitution should be based on the Malayan
Constitution of 1957.
(ii) Sabah and Sarawak be given the power to determine their respective
immigration policies.
(iii) Bahasa Melayu is made the national language.
(iv) The rights and status of Bumiputras in Sabah and Sarawak be guaranteed.
(v) Support for the name Malaysia to be used to represent the new country.
The Indonesian and Filipino governments felt that they had valid reasons to
oppose the forming of the Federation of Malaysia. In their opinion, the Malayan
government should have obtained their views first before making statements that
could create tension.
However, there were concerns, for example, about the people of Borneo would
love their strength due to domination by the people from the Peninsular. The non-
Malays feared they would suffer discrimination, i.e. not getting equal rights.
Suspicion arose because they assumed that political power would be concentrated
in Kuala Lumpur. Another matter worrying the Chinese in Sabah and Sarawak
was the fear of being left out in the economic competition with their cousins in
Singapore.
The early resistance to the idea of the Federation, generally, was put to rest, and it
became a plus factor to the national politics that were occurring. The investigation
by the Cobbold Commission and United Nations into the views and aspirations of
the Sabah and Sarawak populations, who were keen on the concept of Malaysia,
helped strengthen the existing Federation.
The aim to merge with Malaysia however faced resistance from the Brunei
PeopleÊs Party, led by A.M. Azahari. The party wanted Brunei to merge with
British North Borneo (Sabah) and Sarawak under the name North Kalimantan.
This resistance led to an armed rebellion, which came to be known as the Brunei
Rebellion, on 7 December 1962. However, it was stopped by the Sultan with the
help of the British.
At the time, the Sultan of Brunei laid down several claims in order to realise the
entrance of Brunei into the Federation of Malaysia. Let us look at these claims.
(i) Brunei would be given at least 10 Parliament seats;
(ii) Allowed to continue control oil revenue;
(iii) Maintain autonomy in the early stages;
(iv) Maintain all its investments;
(v) Maintain low taxes;
(vi) Continue its education and welfare programmes; and
(vii) Acknowledge the seniority of the Sultan of Brunei in the Council of Rulers
by taking account of the year he ascended the throne (1950) and not by the
year Brunei entered Malaysia.
TOPIC 2 PERIOD OF COLONISATION AND STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE W 39
Several negotiations were held to solve the claims, and finally all the claims were
met except the issues on oil revenue and the seniority of the Sultan of Brunei.
Tunku Abdul Rahman, on the whole, agreed to meet the claims of the Brunei
Sultan through compromise. However, the issues viewed seriously by the Sultan
were not agreed upon.
Sultan Omar Ali Sarifuddin decided to withdraw from joining Malaysia a day
before the Treaty of Malaysia was due to be signed in London. He was said to
have been insulted because the issue of his seniority was not deeply considered.
However, Lee Kuan Yew was still eager for Singapore to merge and be part of
Malaysia. Here we see that such setbacks did not deter the decision to join
Malaysia. For Tunku Abdul Rahman and Lee Kuan Yew, the problems faced
strengthened their resolve to realise the forming of Malaysia.
At that time, Sabah and Sarawak were British colonies. Singapore was a Crown
Colony. The entry of these states into Malaysia was a way of them freeing
themselves from foreign occupation. In fact, for the leaders and people of the
respective countries, freedom from the influence of foreign powers was the main
factor in choosing to join Malaysia.
40 X TOPIC 2 PERIOD OF COLONISATION AND STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE
The factors that led to the forming of Malaysia can be summarised as follows:
(a) Hastening the independence of Singapore, Brunei, Sabah and Sarawak;
(b) Reducing the threat of communism and to maintain regional stability and
peace;
(c) Creating ethnic balance and strengthening unity;
(d) Developing the regional economies for the interests of people and member-
states; and
(e) Cultivating a Malaysian nation of various races, based on the sharing of rich
cultural heritage.
Two years after the forming of Malaysia, the Malays and Chinese in Peninsular
Malaysia and Singapore suffered dangerous racial divisions. The tension started
through the PeopleÊs Action Party (PAP) channels in Singapore and the Alliance
Party channels in the Peninsular, leading to conflict.
Approaching July 1964, the racial tension peaked until two riots broke out, one on
21 July 1964 and another on 2 September 1964. The consequences of the riots were:
(i) Worsened the understanding between Tunku and Lee Kuan Yew;
(ii) Worsened relations between Lee Kuan Yew and MCA leaders; and
(iii) Pushed Tunku into considering the separation of Singapore and Malaysia as
a solution.
The ÂMalaysian MalaysiaÊ concept introduced by Lee Kuan Yew on April 1965
was among the factors that contributed to Malay unrest in the Peninsular. This
slogan encouraged Malaysians, especially non-Malays, to state that there was no
race in Malaysia that could claim to be more original than other races. In other
words, all races, be it Malay, Chinese or Indians were equal. There was to be no
concept of special rights to the Malays as the original people of the land. The
slogan also united the Chinese in banding together against the Malays. At the
same time, the Malays considered the slogan to outwardly challenge their
ownership status of the land.
Several efforts were made to find a solution. However, all efforts failed because
Singapore continued to make things worse. Finally, on 9 August 1965, Singapore
left the Federation of Malaysia. Singapore then formed a Republic, after being a
member of the Malaysian Federation for only 23 months.
TOPIC 2 PERIOD OF COLONISATION AND STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE W 41
ACTIVITY 2.2
1. The idea of Malaysians was to put Malaysia at a higher level than
when Malaya first achieved independence in 1957. Describe the
consequences that arose from this idea and what were the forms of
threats that might have occurred after the forming of the bloc.
2. Discuss the factors that led to the forming of the Federation of
Malaysia. How far did these factors became the main basis of the
forming of Malaysia?
ACTIVITY 2.3
Singapore separated from Malaysia after several conflicts that could
have posed a big problem to Malaysia. Discuss, how far did the issue of
national security, especially internal and external security, play a big
role towards the decision that was reached.
• The main factors that caused foreign powers to have interest in colonising our
country.
• The concept of the Malayan Union or Kesatuan Malaya and its resistance by
the Malay race.
• The main reasons why the citizens resisted foreign control of the national
political and economic administration.
• You also learnt that efforts taken to achieve independence did not run
smoothly. Tunku Abdul Rahman put forward a serious proposal to form
42 X TOPIC 2 PERIOD OF COLONISATION AND STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE
Malaysia in Singapore on 27 May 1961, and it met with various reactions from
different parties.
• Most of the people of the original states (Singapore, Brunei, Sabah and
Sarawak) were keen to join the Federation.
• Brunei pulled out at the last minute before the Federation of Malaysia was to
have been declared.
Autonomy Independence
Confrontation Memorandum
Congress Nationalism
Entreport Resident
Federation Union/Association
Guerrilla
Barbara Watson Andaya & Leonard Y. Andaya. (1983). Sejarah Malaysia. Kuala
Lumpur: Macmillan Publishers (M) Sdn Bhd
Buyung Adil. (1973). Sejarah Melaka dalam Zaman Kerajaan Melaka. Kuala
Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
Buyung Adil. (1985). Perjuangan Orang Melayu Menentang Penjajahan: Abad 15-
19. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
Muhammad Yusoff Hashim. (1992). The Malay Sultanate of Malacca. Kuala
Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka
Muhammad Yusoff Hashim. (1992). Pensejarahan Melayu: Kajian Tentang Tradisi
Sejarah Melayu Nusantara. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
Muhammad Yusoff Hashim. (1989). Kesultanan Melayu Melaka. Kuala Lumpur:
Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka
Shellabear, W.G.. (1978). Sejarah Melayu. Kuala Lumpur: Fajar Bakti
TOPIC 2 PERIOD OF COLONISATION AND STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE W 43
Syed Muhammad Naquib Al-Atas. (1972). Islam Dalam Sejarah dan Kebudayaan
Melayu. Kuala Lumpur: Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia.