TRAFFIC & HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

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X. HIGHWAY OPERATIONS AND MAINTENANCE

After construction has been completed and accepted from the contractor, a new
transportation facility ( a road or highway) is available for use by the traveling public. Damage
to the facility begins from the first day of operation and its performance begins to deteriorate.
Without timely and suitable maintenance and repair, it could lead to substantial damage and,
eventually, to premature loss of the condition of the facility for service to traffic.

1. Transportation System Operations

1)Traffic Flow Analysis

Involves analysis of traffic data and relationships among flow states such as flow,
speed, and density. Traffic data includes flows, speeds, densities, occupancies,
accident rates and observance rates for traffic control devices. Flow models
describe the actual relationships among flow states and describe movement of
these flow states in the traffic stream.

a) Types of Traffic Streams

o Interrupted Traffic Flow – flow is periodically interrupted by the presence of fixed
elements (traffic signals, stop signs, and other types of controls) no matter how
much traffic exists.
o Uninterrupted Traffic Flow – vehicles are not required to stop by any cause
external to the traffic stream.

b) Vehicle Movements and Maneuvers in Traffic Streams

o Car following – a vehicle follows the other vehicle ahead
o Lane Changing – a vehicle chooses to move faster or ahead of the vehicle it
follows by transferring to the other lane.
o Overtaking – is similar to lane changing except that the vehicle transfer from one
lane to adjacent but opposite stream and returns to the former lane.
o Weaving – two or more traffic flows running in almost the same direction cross
each other.
o Crossing – two traffic streams cross each other.
o Merging – a vehicle in one stream merges with another stream.
o Diverging – a vehicle departs from stream toward another.
o Queuing – a group of stopped vehicles wait due to an interruption

c) Traffic Flow Models – often classified as either microscopic or macroscopic

models.
o Fundamental relationship of traffic flow is q = uk, where q = flow in vph, u =
space mean speed in kph and k = traffic density in vehicles/km.
o Speed-Density Model is u = uf(1 – k/kj), where uf = free flow speed and k j = jam
density.
o Flow-Density Model is q = uf(k – k2/kj)
o Speed-Flow Model is q = kj (u – u2/uf)
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o In practice, q is maximum when occupancy (directly proportional to density) is

about 20 to 25%.
d) Flow at the unsignalized intersections can become complicated due to the conflicts
in the various maneuvers of vehicles.

o Intersection conflicts at a typical 4-legged intersections consist of:

– 16 crossing conflicts
– 8 merging conflicts
– 8 diverging conflicts

o Intersection conflicts at Staggered T-Intersections consist of:

– 6 crossing conflicts
– 6 merging conflicts
– 6 diverging conflicts

2) Capacity and Level of Service

Capacity of a transportation system or facility is defined as the maximum number of
vehicles, passengers or the like, per unit time, which can be accommodated under
given conditions with a reasonable expectation of occurrence.

Maximum flow rate or capacity, C = 1/(ave. hmin)

o For highway traffic, ave. hmin = 1.5 s per vehicle
o For rail transit systems, ave. hmin = 10 to 20 s per train
o Air traffic headways = 3 to 5 nautical miles minimum spacings on final approach
paths.

Service Volume is the maximum number of vehicles, passengers, or the like, which can
be accommodated by a given facility or system under given conditions at a given level
of service.

Level of Service is a measure describing operational conditions within a traffic stream

ranging from A to F, with A being the highest or best level of service and F the least
desirable or worst condition.

Highway Capacity. Heavily dependent on driver behavior and is calculated by using

flow models based on empirical data, in contrast with airport and rail capacities which
are heavily dependent on the details of their control systems and since control systems
may differ on a case-by-case basis, capacities are calculated by means of analytical
formulas, space-time diagrams and simulations.

3)Traffic Control: Highway Traffic Control Devices

Traffic Control Systems include traffic signal systems controlling highway and
street intersections, freeway/expressway control systems, rail traffic control
systems, and the air traffic control system.

Traffic control devices serve two principal purposes:

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a) Increase of safety
b) Reduction of system delays and increase of capacity

(1) Pavement and Curb Markings

 Longitudinal lines which are those laid in the direction of travel which
include: Center Line (Separation Line), Lane Line, Double Yellow Line, ‘No
Passing’ Zone Markings, Pavement Edge Line, Continuity Lines, and
Transition Line

 Transverse Lines which are laid across the direction of travel which
include: Stop Line, Give Way Lines, Pedestrian Crossing Markings, and
Roundabout Holding Lines

 Other Lines which include: Turn Lines, Parking Bays, Painted Median
Islands, and Bus & PUJ Lane Lines

 Other Markings which include: Approach Markings to Islands and

Obstructions, Chevron Markings, Diagonal Markings, Markings on Exit and
Entrance Ramps; Curb Markings for Parking Restrictions, Approach to
Railroad Crossing, Messages and Symbols, and Pavement Arrows

(2) Object Markings

 Object within the roadway, and
 Object adjacent to the roadway

(3) Reflectorized Markings

 Retro-Reflector Raised Pavement Markers (Studs)
 Hazard Markers, and
 Delineators

(4) Traffic Signs, classifications are:

(a) Regulatory Signs (Type R) – inform road users of traffic laws and
regulations which, if disregarded, will constitute an offense.

 Priority Signs (R1)

 Stop Sign (R1-1)
 Give Way Sign (R1-2) or (R1-2P)
 Left Turner Must Give Way Sign (R1-3)

 Direction Signs (R(2)

 Direction to be Followed
a) Disc Type (R2-1 to
R2-7)
b) Plate Type (only in urban areas): No Turns (R2-1P), One Way
(R2-2P), Keep Right (R2-3P), All Traffic (R2-5P), Merging
Traffic (R2-6P)
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 Other Directional Signs: Two Way (R2-7P), Salubong Na Trapiko

(R2-7S)
 Left Lane Must Turn Left (R2-8L) and Right Lane Must Turn Right
(R2-8R)

 Prohibitive or Restrictive Signs (R3)

 No Entry for All Vehicles (R3-1 and R3-1P)
 No Entry for Specific Type of Road Users (R3-2 to R3-12): No
Entry for Cars (R3-2), Jeepneys (R3-3), Bicycles (R3-4),
Motorcycles (R3-5), Tricycles (R3-6), Buses (R3-7), Trucks (R3-
8), Vehicles with Trailer (R3-9), Pedestrians (R3-10), Animal
Drawn Vehicles (R3-11), Pushcarts (R3-12)
 Pedestrian Prohibition Signs (R3-10P1; R3-10P2): Use Overpass
(S1-1) or Use PED XING (S1-2) or alternatively use R3-10P1 or
R3-10P2.
 Bawal Tumawid Gamitin Ang Overpass (R3-10P3)
 Turning Prohibition (R3-13; R3-14; R3-15): NO RIGHT TURN
(R3-13 or R3-13P), NO LEFT TURN (R3-14 or R3-14P), NO U
TURN (R3-15 or R3-15P)
 Prohibition of Overtaking (R3-16 or R3-16P BAWAL LUMUSOT)

 Speed Signs (R4)

 Speed Restriction (Maximum) (R4-1),e.g. R4-1(60)
 Speed De-restriction (R4-2;R4-12P), e.g., R4-12P(60)
 Speed Restriction (Minimum) (R4-3) for expressways only, e.g.,
R4-3(40)

 Parking Signs (R5)

 No Parking Signs (R5-1; R5-2; R5-3): No Parking Disc-R5-1S; No
Parking Plate (Pilipino Worded)-R5-1P; No Parking-Loading Only-
R5-2P; No Parking-Anytime-R5-3; No Parking-Tow Away- R5-3C
 Restricted Parking and Loading Signs (R5-4;R5-4A; R5-4B; R5-
4C): 1 HOUR METER PARKING (R5-4), METER PARKING (R5-
4A), LOADING ZONE (R5-4B), LOADING AND UNLOADING
ZONE (R5-4C)
 No Waiting Signs (R5-5; R5-5A; R5-5B): NO WAITING ANYTIME
(R5-5), NO WAITING (R5-5A), BAWAL MAGHINTAY ANO MANG
ORAS (R5-5B)
 No Loading and Unloading Signs (R5-6; R5-6A): NO LOADING
AND UNLOADING ANYTIME (R5-6R), BAWAL MAGSAKAY AT
MAGBABA (R5-6A)
 No Loading/Unloading Within Yellow-Painted Curb (R5-7)
 No Stopping Anytime (R5-8)
 No Parking or Stopping Signs-PUV Stop Area (R5-9A; R5-9B; R5-
9C): BUS STOP (R5-9A), PUJ STOP (R5-9B), BUS-PUJ STOP
(R5-9C)
 Do Not Block Intersection (R5-10)
 Right Turners Cross at Broken White Lines (R5-11)

 Miscellaneous Signs (R6):

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 No Blowing of Horns (R6-1)

 Load and Dimension Restriction Signs (R6-2 to R6-6)
 Use of Seat Belt Sign (R6-7)
 Pedestrian Crossing (R6-8)
 School Children Crossing (R6-9)
 Bike Lane (R6-10)
(b) Warning Signs (Type W) – warn road users of condition on or adjacent to
the road that may be unexpected or hazardous.

 Horizontal Alignment Signs (W1)

 Sharp Turn (W1-1)
 Reverse Turn (W1-2)
 Curve (W1-3)
 Reverse Curve (W1-4)
 Winding Road (W1-5)
 Hairpin Bend (W1-6)

 Intersection and Junction Signs (W2)

 Cross Road (W2-1)
 Other Cross Roads (W2-2; W2-3)
 T and Y Junctions (W2-4; W2-5; W2-6): T-Junction (W2-4), Y
Junction (W2-5) Side Road Junction (W2-6)
 Roundabout (Rotonda) (W2-7)
 Priority Road (W2-8; W2-9; W2-10)

 Advance Warning of Traffic Control Device Signs (W3)

 Signals Ahead (W3-1)
 Stop and Give Way Sign Ahead (W3-2; W3-3)

 Road Width Signs (W4)

 Narrow Bridge (W4-1 or W4-1P)
 Road Narrows (W4-2 or W4-2P)
 Divided Road (W4-3)
 End Divided Road (W4-4)

 Road Obstacle Signs (W5)

 Opening Bridge (W5-1)
 Uneven Road (W5-2)
 Hump (W5-3)
 Steep Descent (W5-4) and Steep Climb (W5-5)
 Spill Way (W5-6)
 Flood (W5-7)
 Falling Rocks (W5-8)
 Slippery (W5-9 or W5-9P)
 Animal Crossing (W5-10)
 Aircraft (W5-11)

 Pedestrian and School Signs (W6)

 Pedestrians (W6-1 or W6-1P)
 Children (W6-2)
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 Cross Only At Ped Xing (W6-3)

 Wheel Chair Crossing (W6-4)
 Bike Lane Ahead (W6-5)

 Railway Level Crossing (W7)

 Supplementary Signs (W8)
 Other Warning Signs (W9)

(c) Guide Signs or Informative Signs (Type G) – inform and advise road users
of directions, distances, routes, the location of services for road users, and
points of interest.

 Advance Direction Signs (G1)

 Intersection Direction Signs (G2)
 Reassurance DirectionSigns (G3)
 Finger Board Direction Signs (G4)
 Street Name Signs (G5)
 Town Name and Geographical Feature Signs (G6)
 Service Signs (G7)
 Tourist Information and Tourist Destinations Signs (G8)
 Route Makers (G9)

(d) Signs for Expressways (Type GE)

(e) Signs for Special Purposes (Type S), and
(f) Hazard Markers (Type HM)

(5) Channelization
(6) Traffic Signals: Pre-timed signals (or fixed time), Semi-actuated, Full-actuated,
and Volume-density signals
(7) Signal Systems: Progressive systems, Simultaneous systems, alternate systems,
and computer controlled
(8) Traffic Calming: Humps, Speed Tables & Road Cushions
(9) Intelligent Transportation Systems

2. Transportation Maintenance

(1) Highway or road maintenance is defined as the function of preserving, repairing,

and restoring a highway and keeping it in condition for safe, convenient, and
economical use. “Maintenance” includes both physical maintenance activities, such
as patching, filling joints, mowing, and so forth, and traffic service activities including
painting pavement markers, etc.

Objective is “to conserve, as nearly as possible, the original designed condition of

paved and unpaved roadways, and of traffic signs, signals and markings, in a
manner most likely to minimize the total cost to society of vehicle operation and
accident cost, plus the cost of providing the maintenance itself, under the constraints
of severe resource limitations, in respect of skilled manpower, equipment and
money, both local and foreign.” [Essentials of Highway Engineering with Reference to
Warm Climates, 1998, Gichaga, F.J. and Parker, N.A. ]
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(2) Classification of Maintenance Activities in terms of Operational Frequency

o Routine maintenance
o Periodic maintenance
o Urgent maintenance

a) Routine maintenance cover activities that must be carried out frequently, i.e.,
once or more per year; typically small scale, or simple, and often widely
dispersed. Some can be estimated and planned in advance, e.g., vegetation
control on shoulders and slopes. Other activities are more difficult to plan in
advance, e.g., roadway pothole patching. In the HDM model, frequent
maintenance activities are termed “recurrent maintenance”; ‘routine
maintenance” is used only for those types of recurrent maintenance that are
independent of traffic, i.e., maintenance of roadside areas and drainage system.

b) Periodic maintenance describes activities that are needed occasionally, i.e.,

after a period of some years; usually large scale and require more equipment
and skilled labor than routine maintenance.

c) Urgent maintenance comprises emergency repair required by flood damage,

earth slips, overturned trees, etc.

(3) Maintenance of asphalt pavements consists of:

a) routine activities: sanding, local sealing, crack sealing, filling depressions,

surface patching, and base patching;

b) periodic activities: surface dressing, fog spray and slurry seal, asphalt overlays,
and reconstruction.

(4) Maintenance of Portland Cement Concrete Pavement consists of:

a) routine activities: filling and sealing of joints and cracks in the pavement surface,
repairing spalled, scaled and map-cracked areas;

b) periodic activities: patching areas where failure has occurred, repairing areas
damaged by settlement or pumping, treating buckled pavements, asphalt or
Portland cement concrete overlays or resurfacing of old concrete pavements,
and reconstruction.

(5) Maintenance of unpaved roadways include:

a) routine activities: grading , labor-based minor reshaping, dragging, and patching;

b) periodic activity: labor-based major reshaping , and re-gravelling.

Unpaved roads are earth roads constructed from the natural soil found on the route,
and gravel roads surfaced with a layer of gravel that is stronger than the natural soil.
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(6) Maintenance of roadside areas. Roadside areas consist of shoulders, slopes and
other surface areas within the road margin. Paved shoulders and lay-bys are treated
as pavements.

a) Shoulders
o Routine activities: removing obstructions, reshaping shoulders, vegetation
controls;
o Periodic activities: adding shoulder materials.
b) Slope maintenance includes:
o Routine activity: vegetation control;
o Periodic activity: erosion control;
o Periodic or urgent activity: slip repair.

(7) Maintenance of Drainage Systems. Drainage system consists of:

a) side drains (ditches), turnouts (mitre drains) and cut-off drains;

b) culverts;
c) fords, drifts and causeways;
d) drainage pipes and manholes.

Activities include:
Elements Routine Activities
Drains Clearing and cleaning
Reshaping and deepening
Minor erosion control
Periodic Activities
Providing new turnouts
Major erosion control

Culverts Clearing and cleaning Repair of invert

Erosion repair Construction of outfall basin
Cracking repair Reconstruction
Walls and apron repair

Fords, Drifts and Clearing

Causeways Repair
Replacing of guide posts

Drainage Pipes and Clearing of pipe and manhole Relay drainage pipe
Manholes Replacing of manhole and grating
Clearing of manhole area
Cleaning of catchpit sump

(8) Maintenance of Traffic Control Devices includes:

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a) routine activities: cleaning, repainting, repairing in the workshop;

b) periodic activities: replacing guardrails, pavement marking, replacing traffic
signs, and repairing or relocating kilometer markers.

Traffic control devices include road signs, guideposts, kilometer markers or posts,
guardrails and pavement markings. They should be kept in a condition similar to that
at original installation to promote safe and efficient motor vehicle operation at all
times.