Structural Use of Glass in Buildings PDF

The Institution of Structural Engineers Xe NS wT) SUT) eB ome Meets Me mole ie n) r torThe Institution of Structural Engineers 20 SEP 2001 Structural use of glass in buildings DECEMBER 1999 The Institution of Structural Engineers 11 Upper Belgrave Street, London SW1X 8BHConstitution of Task Group DJA Alsop, BEng, CEng, FiStructE, FICE (Oscar Faber Consulting Engineers Ltd) — Chairman (until his death in October 1996) R J Saunders, CEng, MIStructE, MConsE (Harris & Sutherland Ltd) Chairman (from December 1996) J Colvin, Hanson Glass (formerly of Pilkington Glass Consultants)” SB Desai, OBE, BE, PhD), CEng, FIStructE:, MICE (Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions) P J Gilder, MRF. CEng MISiructF. ARICS, Corporation of London S R Ledbetter, BSc, PaD, CEng, MICE (Centre Ee Window and Cladding Technolog M Otlet, BSc(HHons), CEng, FIStructe (W S Atkit G AR Parke, BSc(Eng), MSc, PhD, CEng, Aisin, MICE (Unive D Pike, BSe(Eng), PhD, CEng, FiStructE, MICE, MASCE, FRSA (B JG Smith, BSc(Eng), CEng, MICE (R T James & Partners Led)** SN Taylor, RIBA (Health and Safety Executive) , University of Bath of Surrey) Design Partnership) \ “Representing the Glass and Glazing Federation ** Representing the Institution of Civil Engineers Corresponding members SL Chan, MSc, PhD, CEng, MIStructe (he Hong Kong Polytechnic University) P Haworth, BEng, FIEAust, MICE (Ove Arup & Partners, Australia) ( NF Johnson, MSc, CEng, MICE (Sccurity Facilities Executive) 8 Conolly (Akiboye Conolly Architects) (formerly of lan Ritehle Architects) Consultant CGH Jofeh, BSc(Eng), ACGI, CEng, MiStructl, PE(California) Ove Arup & Partners) Secretary to the Task Group SM Doran, BS(Eng), AKC, PhD, CEng, MICE, FRSA (The Institution of Structural Engincers) Published hy SFTO, 11 Lipper Relgrave Street, London SWIX RBH. Furst published 1999 ISBN 1 874266 514 © 1999 The Institution of Structural Engineers World Wide Web site: hp.//www.istructe.org.uk Front cover: The glass bridge spanning between the offices of KraaijvangereUrbis architects in Rowerdam, by Dirk Jan Postel (courtesy of Bram van der Heijden, Kraaijvanger*Urbis) nn of Structural Engineers and the members of the Committee which produced this report have endeav- re the accuracy of its contents. However, the guidance and recommendations given in the report should always be reviewed by those using the report in the light of the facts of their particular case and specialist advice obtained as necessary. No liability for negligence or otherwise in relation to this report and its contents is accepted by the Institution, the members of the Committee, its servants or agents. ‘No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means without prior permission of the Institution of Structural Engineers who may be contacted at 11 Upper Belgrave Steet, London SWIX 8BH a Sut Strata use of gas in uidigsContents Foreword lee ee Acknowledgements «++ .0++++ 1 Introduction, scope and status 1.1 Introduction = 12 Scope 13 Status of ihe report (4 Relevant standards . 13 Other references. 56 Soureos of inform: 2 Principles. 2.1 Behaviour uf glass as a suuctusal 21.1 Antealed glass 212 Toughened glass. 2.1.3 Hoat-sirengihened giass 214 Laminated glace 215 21. Multiple glazing 6 Glass blocks... fon-structural issue’ that influence design ‘2 Thermal transmission... 222 Solar radiation 22'3 Condensation 2.24 Ralnwuer rune 22°5 Pre behaviour 22 11 Maintenance 12 Repair and replacement. 13 Avuatabitiy 4 Appearance, ft and poston: 15 Durability " 16 Environmental impact 2.17 Lifeseyele costing.» « 2.3 Behaviour of other materials often sed with glass 24 Fabrication 25 References Books and papers 2°5.2 Codes and standards 8 Design requirements 3.1 Introduction 32 Client's program and 3.3 Form and function . 34 Context 3 Structure’ 36 Climate eontol 3.7 lateral environmental control 318 Durability and working life . 3.9 Health and safety . 3.10 Environmental impel 3.11 Security 3.12 Construction method 3.13 Design process 31 3 4 Site processes 2.2? 15 Contrat administaivon 5:16 References and omer suggested 4 Design selection . 47 General approach 42 Gravity system. 421 Facade 42.2 Roof 44.3 Lateral lon yc 444 Alternative load paths 453 Sorvizeability 415 Accommodation af ovement 42 Salty cede or deter dae 48 References . Suu Sutra use of gas in buildings5 Calculations 6.s..ee. $1 Iason es 2 Limit state approach 22.2.2 £21 Srrengoh $22 Seniceabily 3 Loads 3 Stengih | 3 Fracture mechanics 56 Stress concentrations 1 Fa 3 Sunes {9 Movement To Susy» 11 Robustness. 12 Stress analy SIRT Analytical 5.122 Experinemal $123 Suistical 5.13 References and oir suggested reading 6 Panes supported on two or more edges . Ki dec accroaice ae 6.2 Rules of thumb O21 Steneih 622 Deftection 6.23 Resistance to tnerinal sires 63 Performance in use Oi Seleton dst piston 03 Design eas 616 Worked example 69 References 7 Glass beams and fins . 7.1 General description 7.4.2 Guss bewms 7.13 Glass fins 7.2 Rules of thamb 72.1 Sirengih 72.2 Deflection 7.23 Elastic stability 7.24 Resistance to thermal siresses 7.3 Performance in use... 74 Selection, design and application << 73 Design details 7.6 Worked example. 77 Referees aul oir suggested realinis 8 Glass columns and walls 8.1 General description 8.2 Rules of thumb S82 Loa vans in te conn or wal 82.2 Elastic stabitigy «.. 82.3 Strength vvveevcecececeese £24 Deflection : 825 Resistance to thermal stressee 83 Performance in use 84 Selection, design and application - 85 Design deuils 86 Worked example 87 References 9 Point-supported glass . 9.1 General description | 9.2 Rules of thus V2 Strength 9.2.2 Deflection : 9.2'3 Resistance fo thermal stresses - 93 Performance in use. so 8.4 Selection, design and application 95 Design dernils 96 Worked example 9.7 References and other suggested reading « 10 Externally-prestresced glass. 10.1 General description 10.2 Rules of thumb 10.2.1 Elastic stability 3 5 5 3 x 5 5 & 8 Sue Starr use of eas in buidines102.2 Strengih anevinebeneacceneaesonaih 102.3 Deflection ‘ S97 10.24 Resistance to thermal siresses .... 98 10.3 Pesformanen fn wee cy 10.4 Selection, design and application 55D 10.5 Design details 99 10.6 Worked example’. sina ciamvenreT ene D 10.7 References « 99 11 The structural uve of adhesives + ‘General deceription 112 Rules of thumb... 11.2.1 Strength 1122 Deflection... 1123 Resistance to thermal stresses 11.3 Performance in use 11.4 Selection, design and application ©2222. .7 Shop 11/5 Work example... S506 11.6 References and suggested further reading ayaa 12 Glass balustrades . 12.1 General description 122 Rules of thumt aL 12:3 Performance in use 112 12:4 Selection, csign and application cna 125 Desigu details... 112 126 Worked example’. m2 127 References +» mM 13 Gls stale, ors & bridges 13.1 General description... 132 Rules of thumb 13.2.1 Strength... 13.2.2 Deflection 1323 Elastic ability 13.24 Resistance to thermal siresses 13.3 Performance in use 134 Selection design and api 1.5 Design details. 136 Additional information 13.7 Worked example 138 References 14 Glas in large deflection strmetnres wee AD 14.1 General description een V4.2 Rules of thumb ...000000000 III, 14.2. Strength 123 14.2. Deflection 133 14.2'3 Resistance io thermal siresses 00.02.02... 428 14.3 Performance in use : 123 143 Selection, design and uplical 14.5 Design details 186 Worked example’ |. 14,7 Suggested reading. 15 Special applications D.1 General description 15.2 Blast-resistamt glazing... 6... 15.2.1 Rules of thumbs 15.2.2 Performance in use. 15.3 Bullet and manval attack and Vasdal-reistant mn 153.1 Rules of thumb 15.32 Performance in use 154 Hydrostatic pressures ISAT Redes of thumb fovsaee 154.2 Performance in wse 20.0... 15.5 Design details rs ee, 15.5 Worked example 157 Referewees « 16 Specification 16.1 Specification wri 161 Material and workmanship” 16.1.2 Performance .. a 16.1°3 Specification checklist ‘Sure Struct use of as in oidines17 Contract and procurement, inspection and maintenance . 141 7.1 Approaches to contract ha 17.2 Review of contacts and sub-conisacts - 141 173 Tendcring, certificates, warrantic, insurance and defects «141 17.4 Competence and resources of potential glass suppliers . 1141 1753 Inoplaion of te werk 1B Vis The ate he cone to 17 Mean and saey i 18 a ews ‘handling and storage... . . i 13 Ste presses ones 1Hf0 Pde ettaance 13 17 Dims dec dines rH 1712 Reteences 13 Appendix A History of glass . . se eeeeeee 145 “Appendix D Regulatory framework Sas Appendix C Stability of marrow fins and beams «2. --+++sa147 Appendix D Load sharing vasa Appendic E The eects of atmospheric pressure and ‘ehperarure on slang units ass Append F Glossary of terms and symbols ......s.ees ose a186 ‘Suro: Stctral at of gle in bigsForeword Glass is a man-made material, which has been around since 10,000 BC, and has enjoyed in the past few years an upsurge of interest in its use structurally in buildings. There are very few publications on the design of glass used structurally and it is intended that this publication will bridge this eap. ‘The Guide is not intended to be a code of practice but a basis of information for those interested in the structural use of glass. It is intended for those people who have little or no knowledge of the structural use of glass and the details contained therein will be of interest not only to engineers but also to members of the other professions in the construction industry. Examples arc given for sisuple design as well as references and guidance for those people wishing i advance their knowledge further in the structural use of glass. It is a publication that not only contains a wealth of information, but also makes very interesting reading, Twould like to thank all members of the Task Group and our Secretary, Sue Doran, for their help and contributions in producing this document. In addition, I would like to single out our consultant, Chris Jofeh of Ove Arup & Partners, whose enthusiasm and hard work in researching, drafting and preparing the final text of the document ensured keep- ing to our original programme, and who was magnanimous when receiving and incorpo- rating comments on the drafis from the Task Group members. RJ SAUNDERS Task Group Chairman Acknowledgements ‘The preparation of this report was partly funded by the Department of the Environment, ‘Transport and the Regions under the ‘Partners in Technology" programme. This funding ‘was used principally for the appointment of the Consultant to the Task Group. Mr C G H Jofeh, whose role was to research available information, visit manufacturers, suppliers land designers, collate information provided by other members of the Task Group and write the drafts of the report for consideration by the Group and prepare its final text. "Sere Stata use of eas in uilies 71 Introduction 1.1 General Glass remains an elusive material for engineers, feared because its brite, uiner-ured because use Tul design data is so hard to find, This is especially ‘erations bocause itis a material much sought aftor by architsete, It i hard to think of any modem building ia which glass does not play an important part. Transparency and translucency are essential Features of much modem architecture. "There ate many books and many precedents that inspite designers to use glass but the data designers need is not easy to find. It exists, buts not avaal- able from a single source. This Guide attempts to assemble the infomation dat suuctual engineers Will need. In doing s0 ittouches.on many issues that influence design but which are not necessarily thomaslver structural, for example, condensation, colour and acoustical behaviour. ‘This Guide is aimed at two distinct groups of the frst group wants straightforward advice ‘on how to do something mn glass with [guidance on the appllcabllity of he destgns or eas hat ae ofered , + the second group wants to design in glass from first principles. This group needs reliable data and advice on the critical factors when Macigning with glass. The second group is looking for a prescriptive approach, which is better provided by codes of practice, including the forthcoming European code, As far as possible, this Guide compres and con- thst te sutra benaviou of wis wi hat OF tae, betie-known,sractiral matenas In patio AE Obs ste esting chars wich oe with satful thank eoprosuced fom Materials rele. Soin mechonedl design, by Mc iy of Camber Univer, ost gs nthe context oF cher material Tiee ate 17 chapters Chapters 21 5 cover pxin- cs design requirements, design selection and ‘laos: Chaptes 6019 cover diferent spp- cations of lass a stctral material In Too, facades sink eaewtee, an ilu worked esa bles. Ghaper 16 vovelsspeification end Chapsr 17 conta and procurement, inspection and msi tonance There ae aeo 8 appendices 1.2 Scope “This Guide deals with he design of glass in bild- ings where the glass plays sctral rote It may resis only wind oad or may do more, cartying 1s town weight or perhaps sipporing Ive load fom People walking fleas aus ‘This Guides. princpally cngineess Its scope ‘i therefore largely but nat Sirely limited to those festes most concer ta Sacttal engineers strength stability stifiness ‘durability robustness buildability ‘Suri Struc we of gas ie bulings Structures do not exist in isolation from the buildings they serve The Gude therefore also adresses Sore of the othe sles that may fence sree {url penavsur or place constants on Wht can Be fchieved, In doing soi Joes mt seck wo provide, {or example, uppt-ahewinte dala on wat oat ing and heat tetments are evelable fom which manufacturers. However, it does ty 10 list where Such advice ean be olsinod an fo vine what jnmtuence coatings and heat treatments (and other rogesses) mav have om siretial behaviour By listing issues that need to be considered when designing structural glass, the Guide will be of usc in clartying. desigh responsibilities amongst the design team, Isnt be moed hat hs tear ight wll ince de gis tafe, the sls f= ati and the glass nsalle. “This Gui has Htatons ta prxpoce it pro vide general guidance based on existing good practice as a stating point fom which desionert can carryout further studies and research according 0 Gircumtances It is not intended to define The responsiilies of any parties, oo relieve ther, a gen contact in particular, the reader should not assume tat i is porsible to write a specification using only the hetlings or mumcrieal values given in this Guide The information presented is typical UK indostty information and ce auch may not be rprevenatve ‘fiw output of any pacioular mamifaciner eh eater ‘Whether experienced in glass design or not, most users wilh se tis Guide in their wn Wa, turning to those points of enty they find moat ‘immediately usefl. The Guide theretore attempts to provide f Hexibie approach fo nit tn with The ‘ways thar designers work in prt, for exai= pe + Itprovides detailed guidance but recognises ‘thatthe designers must make the Final judge ‘ment, hased'on the specific contract they are handing , ‘+ Ttincludes information important to the designer, presented to show what are the criti cal aspects + Information ana issues are ote presemed as checklist, 10 save the reader from having scan extensivel + Information is aked o explanations to show how itcelates tothe general principles under- lying the strucinral hehaviout of glass. + The chapters follow a particular sequence ‘but the reader can follow his or her own route through if prefered, using the cross- referencing, + Advice on critical design issues is highlighted Inblue in Chapters 610 14 1.3 Status of this report ‘The Institution of Structural Engingors hac pro. ‘duced this report as a guide and, as such, itis only Jntended for use as a guide. It isnot intended to provide the definitive grea in any situation, ain ll ccumtanes the party best placed to decide on the appropriate course of action will be the designer undertaking the particular project.1.4 Relevant Standards ‘Throughout this Guide, reference is made to appropriate British and other Standoede Tt should he rhoted that British Standards are in the proc being superseded by European Standards. The read- et should always ensure that the most recent rele- ‘ant Standard is being used. ‘Those seeking to apply this Guide outside the UK should make reference to the appropriate national standards or regulations. 4.5 Other references ‘Throughout this Guide, veferenee ie ale made to a wide range of textbooks, which may be revised and reissued from time to ime. Care should therefore be taken when referring to, for example, tables in textbooks whose mumbers may be different in later editions to those referred to n ths Gude. 1.6 Sources of information Laminated Glass Information Centre 299 Onford Street London WIR. ILA, ‘Telephone: 020 7499 1720 Fax: 0207495 1106 gto ing Teron 5-48 Borough High Street London Sil IXB ‘Telephone: 020.7403 7177 Fax; 020-7357 7458 Centre for Window and Cladding Technology University of Bath Chiverton Down Bath BA2 TAY ‘Telephone: 01225 826541 Fax: 01225 8: Glass Association of Nosth America 3310 SW Hartson Sureet Topeka Kansas 66611-2279 USA’ Telephone: 1785 266 7013 Glass Research and Testing Laboratory ‘Texas Tech University Lubbock “Texas 79409 usa’ ‘Telephone: 1 806 742 3476 ‘The UK reader should congult the Glass and Glaving Federation for the names and aciresses af ‘suitable manufacturers, fabricators and installers. Suwa Sracturl we of gas in builingsFig. 2.1.Acomperison of satan large decom Theory (eeprom Gia’ in Bunga, od. Baton Pye, hy permission of Butierworth-Heinemann) 2 Principles 2.1 Behaviour of glass as a structural material Glass behaves in a crucially different way from other, more familiar, structiral materials such as Steel of aluminium. it does not yleld: W fractures ‘and Ws fllure fy stoctuaste (ie. prediction is rshe based, or statistical). Structural engineers designing steel structures have typically concentrated their attention on limit. ing stresses a planes nf maximum hending and shear. Because steel is plastic and will yield and flow if it is locally overstessed, and lack of fit and its associated stress concentrations are not generally a problem. Designers cannot ignore stress. concentrations ‘and cannot ignore lack of fit when designing glass. ‘Glass In panes cant deflewt by uote thas its own, thickness. This takes designers into the realm of deflection theory, which is unfamiliar terrto- ry Tor most engineers. One consequence is that it ‘heen customary to express stresses in glass 28 if small deflection theory were valid. This gives rise to the problem that the use of a realistic allowable sires with small deflection theory can lead to the calculation of glass thicker than it really needs to be. Quoted design stresses. for use with small deftection theory Will be larger dna realistic Uesign suesses used wil lige deflection theory. Basic properties of glass This section draws heavily on Engineering mater «als ~ an introduction to their properties and appli: ‘cations, by M. F. Ashby and D. RH. Jones and on Mater selection i mechanical design Oy “Ashby. tes m2) 1b 2000 nile pase (hin?) su Stoctural use of gs in bins Materials may be classed into five groups: + Metals and alloys + Polymers . Elastomers | Ceramics and glasses + Composites ‘The difference between glasses and ceramics is that ‘ceramics are crystalline, inorganic non-metal: glasses tre: non-crystaline (ar amorphous) solids. Most engineering glasses are nom-metals but a range of metallic slasses with useful properties is ‘now available, These are known by a number of ames: metallic glasses, glassy metals, metglass, and so on, They are metals or alloys that are pro~ ‘duced by cooling trom the molien stute so rapidly that crystallisation does not have time 10 occur, Scholae (1991) describes. their properties. This Guide is only concerned with non-metallic elasses. Clear glass for glazing is typicaly of the soda-ime siliea type and its general physical and mechanical properties are described in BS EN 572. ‘Composition varies between manufacturers but is senerally as shown in Table 2.1. “Table 2:1 Typical composition of soda-time- sillea glass lca SO, 70-74% Lime ca) 312% Soda Nao 12-169% ‘with small amounts of magnesium, aluminium, ion and other elements ‘Materials can have properties that are intrinsic or ‘uributive, All these affect the way in which prox ucts are designed. Intrinsic propertios 2 Ball reenien operon Density Mes ad ai at fed sent emi sength an hardness Fracture toughness Fatigue seit, thermal algue Creep stenth Buil’non mechanical propertioe ‘Thermal properties Orica pepe Magnetic properties etal ropes arface properties Oxidation and corrosion Picton, abrasion and Wear Autribmive properties + Price and availability + Production propert Ease of manufacture Fabrication, joining and finishing Aesthetic properties ‘Appearance, texture and feel ‘To set glass in the context of other materials, with whieh designers may be more familia, the following charts are reproduced from Materials selection Im mechantcal destgn, by M. F. Ashby with permis-Youngs Nocuiue, £ (3a) ‘Suongth qMPa) _ WT 2d ee Density, » (Mai?) Density (Min) Chart 2: Swength plowed against density Sure Seta us of hs in bunsPracrare coughess Chart 4: Youne's Modulus ploted against sirengih ISwuc Srctral use of sas in buildings Fracture “oughness K; (MPa m2) Youngs Modulus, E (GPa) “5 Face “Touphness-Densty br Ki Bs foe 1 ra (cteaae Seng Heian ce eefz speste moauius Specie Svenat] Pienaresreheenocsienm | (rani Oanes Conga gh Compete ole Sengh wea co ane speci: Woduiue Elp (CPa(Mgin®) “A [Besign PP Gude ines “a000 i 9 fe = ‘Specific Strength “Yo (MPa/(Ma/m?)) ‘00-5 Fracture v ay ee 7 hye Engheenng” wl = 10 S 3 Be i al Chart 5: Specific mental. pleted agent specific Strength Chart 6¢ Fracture toughnase piloted azainst Youne’s ‘Modulus Strut Storr ws of gs in bling(Chart 7: Fracture toughness ploted ageins siengyh Nets and Peay Vals StngT i Vials botore Fret Tugtnas Kc Pa) o or 7 10 ‘co ‘008 T0000 Strength 4, (MPa) Chart 8: Loss coeficient (damping) plored against 0 T Younes modules cue 8. Los Cooficiont Modulus Ae] a B a fi Loss Coetfiient at 99 Cyr 5 f i 10+ [esr 10° co 1 ‘0 1 Young's Modulus, E (GPa) ‘Sura Sita ase of gs in biingsLinear Exparsion Cosfcient © (10-2~) Tanvoune veo} — Specie Hoa E z g § 8 a é as use 3 Ton vo y Specie Het wf Ooh oe 107 10 10% 30. Expansion Conductvty Consus he (Wn) Tage Thermal 1900 {Sain Mismatch hart 9. Thermal conducivies plotted agcinst thermal ‘dapusves Chr 1 inv expansion ‘onic pled goat al "Sus Stactual use of gis in ikings(Chart 11: Linear expansion ‘coefficient potted against Young s Modus Chars 12: Nenad se ploited agains! linear a pansion coecent Normalsed Srength «/E € Linser Expansion Coatfcient x (10°°K-} 71, Expansion Modulus enue Thamal Ses (Pa) Pare 2 tian S 12, Strengih-Expansion en and Payor cent ‘cengontee tonen ange ‘Sonour rar Shook Rossance Berane et os a Tama Sho] ResistanceTemperature (C) 400200 ago 490 eno 50019000 ‘Srengh at Temperattreo, 7) (MPa) ‘Youngs Modulus E (GPa) Relative Cost per Unit Volume CP (Moi?) {iru Stet os of gas in buiings(Chart 13: Swenuih plowed strength o (Pa) v9 ‘7 T Chart 16: Young's Modulus piloted agains energy content 16 Modulus Energy Content engehoaige | e ly o Energy Content, qo (Gulm*) IS Swot ws of gas in buildings *Chart 17: Srengthploned ‘aeains! energy content 0.000 — 17 Stength Energy Content Strength (MPa) celiac a ee a Tera '* @conent 8 Sova © Poor ‘Struct Sita use gl oanFig, 22 lusraton of urge felexopie mirror (courtesy of (Galaxy Pitre Libary) Fig, 2.3 The main legs ofthe Commmercbank, clad in slase {outtesy of Foster Partners) sion from Butterworth-Heinemann and the author and are gratefully acknowledged. ‘Structural design involves: choosing a shape as well as a material, Ihe immensely wide choice of materials is narrowed, first, by apply Constrims dictated by the design and then by sce ing the best subset of materials which maximise the performance of the component. Primary contrainte are imprced hy charaotoris. ties af the design that are non-negotiable: tempera ture, chemical environment, that it must be a con- Guctor or an insulator of electricity, and so on. In = seeeiies percen oases ee eae Pan re ‘Sime iretrl us of ges in buildings world’s largest ground-based. optical telescones Glass provides the ight siength sities, cimen- Sinai tapiity and Tack of thermal distortion and has the rie febrcation properties to suppor. and positon a 6m diameter miro with precision bout cyual to the wavelengths of visible hah ‘Anotter surprising Use of glass Ts asa cladding material to protect Stel suture. This i what becuts on de unin Tegs of the Commerzbank in Fraukfuit (1997, Aichitect: Sir Norman Poster & Perino. Sngincon Ove Arup & Partners). Ineoad ofthe more conventional tel or lamin, glass panel ith nutaton behind them provide durable protection tothe steelwork, Inthe past glass ashlars Were used lo line coal hoppers to protect the ste fom abrasion Wanyproceses are posible wo pode gis withthe hght combination of properties to mect 8 Pater need Fat glass (2 acto 21-1) ca Table 2.2 Typieal properties of annealed glass Density “Modulus of elasticity 2500kg/m? 70-74KN/ Shear modulus 3OKN mm 022 Poisson's ratio | Theoretical value is 3600N/mm? but behaviour is fracture- governed 'SD00N mim but Tracture-gaverned ‘Yield strength Tensile strength “Tensile ductility 0 >1000N/mm* but Complimentary tensile ‘stresses will govern ‘Compressive strength Hardness 6 Moll Ygecotseniat Tigao ye “Toughness OTK racture toughness | U./MNm?* ‘About 530°C — varies ‘with composition Softening temperature Glass transition ‘About 570°C — varies temperature with composition ‘Approx. 280°C (but Maximum service beware temperature temperature aifferences, espectally Inanneated glass) Wilk 6X 107m ‘Thermal conduct ‘Thermal diffusivity Coefficient of thermal ‘expansion, 88x 10K ‘Variation in rate of erick growth with | See Fig 2.5 humidity and stressMetra cece cory ote gaee be clear, tinted or coated. It can then he honttreat- ed or bent. It can then be further printed. laminated and double-glazed. Button and Pye (1993) describe, these processes in more detail 2.1.1. Average mechanical properties of annealed float glass ‘Annealed glass is today usually made by the float Process the chemical ingredients, which include silica sand, sods ash limestone and salt eake, are blended ‘with culer (recycled broken glass) and heated in a furnace w about 1300°C wo form moten glass. The anole glass fed onto te top of alte i Wal While on the tin bath, controlled heating permits the glass to flow, forming a flat ribbon of uniform thickness [At the end of the tin bath the glass i slowly cooled. Then itis fed off the molten tin into the ‘nealing leh (or oven) for further controlied grade ual cooling. Changing the speed at which the glass ribbon moves info the anoeating lehr can vary the thickness of flat glass. The Chambers Dictionary definition of anveal is v9 leat and cool gradually, The glass edges arc trimmed to give a vensta wid 1 the emeraing shes, which then ext to length ‘Annealed glass behaves perfectly elastically until the moment it fractures. Shurds of annealed glass ate dangerous, There is no creep (alass does not slow a hve fatigue in he, eel nse. There 1s slow growth of cracks under sus ined or cyclical loading. Gy (1999) describes 2 long experiment involving 19mm toughened Blass which concluded tht the deformation of Permanently loaded glass structural clement should Trereate by ose than 30 over 50 youn. tis not only impact that eauses brite fracture of annealed glass, Bending stresses, thermal stresses, imposed strains ~ all of these cause elastic defor Imation and may cause het: No warning is riven. Whether or not fracture will occur d inte gus the soos level te x area and the duration ofthe ioad ‘The flaws in the glass may be iulerent vt may resul 1g of the glass and from the envizonment to which tho glass has hoon ehjacted Humidity encourages crack gost Cut edges of annealed glass are often weaker than its flat surfaces. This means that annealed glass beams are designed to lower stresses than lass plates, unless limiting deflections is the governing Enterion, ‘The condition for the onset of fast fracture is given by, in general ona) = where a is the halflength of the crack, E is the Young's Modulus and G, is the toughness of the lass G, has units of kl/n? and ia the toughneos of the lac, ermatinos knwwm at the erica sala energy release rate “The equation savs that fast fracture will occur ‘when, in'a material subjected toa stress 0, «crack reaches some critical size a of, alternatively, when ‘material containing eracks of size ais subjected 10 Some erica stress 0. “This equatioa isthe aematical description of ths welt eon phenerecngs at shoei ass Stronger under short term loading than itis unde long-term loading, Charles (1958) and Inglis (1913) deseithe early werk in th Rel ‘When annealed glass breaks it breaks into large shatp pieces which can be extremely dangerous. On the other hand, an annealed glass pane may not fall ‘ou of is frame when broken and may continue t0 be able to support light loads because alernaive load paths exist across the pane. Annealed glass pates den spontancutsty facutey as U0 Sore ‘ther types of slas from time to time, Wired glans (BS EN'372.3 and $72 6) is come times thotigh of as stronger than ordinary annealed vo tonite Fig. 24 The float glass process (courtesy of Pilkington) ig. 2.5 Graph of crack growth Speed vers sires lmensiy for liferens hamidiies (ator Sediacek) Fig. 26 Graph comparing stvessisrain curves for steel tnneuted glass (afi Chae snd Sus)ig. 2.7 The sresses in ‘echoed fas bol thermal ey jemi iter Croke Stinsery & Moret) compen Trea, crea, ie oe lass because the wies are regarded as reinforcement, Unfortunately the opposite fs wue. The wites Act a cock Induveis wil weaken the glass. The Canadian Case Structural desig of glast for build ings, CANICGSB-12.20-M89, advises designers to ftsuime that wine glace fe alfa strong as ordinary aimnesied glass of the same thickness. The advan- tage of wired glass is that it holds together when broken. Patterned glass (BS EN $72-5) can be designed to the same sesses as lat glass a long asthe min- {uu thickness at any seciton i used. "The coeMlent of dermal expansion of glass depends on the chemical composition of th glass. Timor lat gles atves such ae alkalines can wary the costiciont butwoon and 0 > 100K Borosilicate glass has a coefficient of 3-5 x 10°%K and purer Si, glass, such as fused flea or quartz glass. has lower valies, around 5 % 10°7K, which {nakes it useful for use in the construction of cook- ing surfaces (the So-alled ‘ceramic hobs). 2.1.2 Toughened glass Thermally toughened glass (prEN 12150), which the Americans call fully tempered glass, begins with annealed glass. Iti then heated to approx! ately OC and quenched (cooled rapidly) by jets Of cooled ait. This has the effect of cooling and Soliifying the surface frst. As the interior cools it ttiea to shrink, The interior goes into tension and the furface of the glass into. compyession, which in Europeen, glacs is usnally between 90. and 150Nimn®. The maximum oblainablestess level is discussed by K. Blank in Kurkjian (1985). ‘The benefit that this confers s that surface racks do not propagate under compressive stress and so toughened. glass can sustain higher stresses than anal pls. The proces is deste by Wile (1997, 1b & 0 (Onc note of caution: Americans (and others) sometimes use “tempered” to mean “fully tem pered’ ‘A different pattern of stresses can be achieved by chemical toughening in which the composition of the surface of the glass is altered. This is done by dipping the panes into electrolysis baths in which the glass’s shrlace sodium ions ate exchanged for [potassium ions, which are 30° bigger. This creates lin external layer under pressure, The advantages of is provess over thermal toughening are no thermal formation ofthe lacs and thinner sheets of glass ean be toughened. The disadvantage isa much tin- nn surface compressive layer. which is likely to be Tess robust than the thicker layer produced by ther ‘mal toughening. There ae two principal types of thermally ough- ‘ening fumace: vertical, in Which the glass is trans- ported through the system suspended vertically from spectal wigs, ad horizontal, in which it is {tansported horizontally on special rollers ‘ASTM standard CIOI8-8S.specifiss that the curface compression be a minimnm af 10,000 px stn Sica ea fens in ings (@9Nimm?). European manufactures. (including the UK) can generally be relied upon produce & surface compressive stress of at least 8SN/mm’ Se manufrs ay they can produce mich higher stresses than this in thick sections of glass. "Tore ae tests th can iret meastie the surface compressive stess. One approach is 10 use the fragmentron test defined in BS 606. In this testa pane of glass is struck ina controlled manner, When the glass breaks the number of fragments in a standard area are counted. Ihe surface compres- Sion can be deduced fom the numberof fragments Te is amlcipated. thatthe folcoming European Stadaid piEN 12150 (Karlsson, 1997) will eventa ally supersede BS 6206. Ao the surface sirvse increases 20 the number of fragments in given area increases but fragment count alone eannot be ised a measure of surface stress for desizn putpos s-Tes ull fr ue a a ough and ready ql ty control measure, Anotler approach is to use an optical instrument called a dilletential surtace reractomietet (4st). 1 measures the twist of polarised light from thet Surface of the glass and this van be converted to a Sutiace stress "Toughened glass panes exhibit high values of bending etrongth bectuxe ofthe locked-in eames: sive surtare sree ant the inherent strength oF the annealed glass. The obvious analogy is with pre- Stressed concrete. In many cases, deflection may Timit the design and the strength of toughened glass may not be fully exploited Ti has been found that bolt holes do nor cause large changes Im surface stess, ay Hanke a> thei meter is at Feast equal to the thickness of the lass. This chables cooling air (0 pass re through the Noles so that they cool ata similar ra to the rest ofthe glass All cating and deiling and {ring af the glass must be carted out before the ‘lass is toughened, to avoid shatering it Float plass may contain impurities. I the elas is simply annealed these: do not ususily cause any problems but toughened glass is notorious for sud- shattering for no apparent reason. The reusou fs te presence of Uny inclusions of uickel sulphide that undcrgy a pase change in which they expand. ‘This cracks the glass and the locked-in eneray of the toughening process does the rest. The glass breaks into a shower of smal cubes known as dice. ‘There is a quality control process known as heat~ soaking that causes most of the phase changes to ‘occur in the factory. "Toughened glass will also shatter i the surface is <éceply enough seratched for the erack to penetrate the tensile zine of the glass, “The size ofthe manufacturer’ furnace wil deter ine the largest pan that can be toughened. enerally, sizes up to 42m 2.4m can he made horizontally and. up to 15m X 25m vertically. Tanger an thinner toughened panes may be possible. Colvin (1997) provides futher details of the availabilty of processed plass products. “The Glass. and Glazing Federation's. Glazing Mormal contains a Standard tor the quality. of toughened glass, This will need to be supplemeited for speci; pes Chapter 16 proves pif ‘ation checklist, 2.1.3 Heat-strengthened glass Heat senting mt procs 1 urhen Ing but the levels of pretos that ae pode are doer When the glass breaks it breaks ike annealed {ne rather than toughened. ‘ASTM C048 defines a attem of breakage for Psheacengiend sas I is ancipated ht the define the range a8 25 to 40Nimmy The Glass and Glazing Federabon’s Glazing Manat contains. comparison between hate englicne and toughened glass aid specifics the Srfae compres ates for heattengthones lass as between 24 and 69N/mm?, 2.1.4 Laminated glass Laminating is @ process in which two or more pieces of glass are bonded by means of an interlay- x The two principal materials for the interlayer are Palyvinylhutyral (nv) andl resins such as serylic ‘The interlayer can be as litle as O.4mm thick oF as such as 6mm. Though two layers of glass is the, ‘most common arrangement, over 25 layers have been successfully bonded in an assembly over Toomm thick. The forthcoming Evropean Standard is prN 12543, For further information about wat the industry ean produce te reader should consult the Laminated Glass Information Centre, whose address is given in section 1.6 Laminates can incarporate: many thicknesses an ‘many combinations of glass types fo give a range of produets with the required range of mechanical and ‘optical properties. Other materials such as polycar- bbonates can be included. Annealed, heat-strength- ‘ened and toughened glass can all be laminated, 2s fean bent glass. Hea rengthening and toughening tude waves (caused by the hhcated glass travels) in the ‘lacs, These inereace the ceparation between shoots being laminated and make peb laminating impracti- cal. The solution isto use resin laminating. Both these processes are described below. Bent giass "ly used in the automotive industry (Lappe, 1997) and generally uses pvb laminating, Sheet laminating ‘The sheet interlayers can be pvb or polyurethane or 4 prbipolyerterpv sandwich, pub tthe common fest sheet interlayer material The sheets of plas ae ‘ssembled with an extruded sheet of pwb besseen them. ‘The “sandwich” is then passed through an ‘ven that heats to about 70°C, from which itpass- ts between rollers that squeeze at any excess air land form the initial bond. The laminate ten moves {oan autoclave where itis heated to about [40°C under a pressure of cbuut 120pst(O.8Nnn). The largest ze that can be nvade by this process is approximately 6m % 3m. Colvin (1997) provides, further details of the svalability of procesied glass products Resin laminating ‘The two man resins use are acrylic and polyester. ‘The sheets of glass are brought together i hel distame apat by double-sided tape around meter Resin is pour between the to and hon all the air has been displaced the ‘open edge fe sorlad and the laminate stored hor antally while the resin cures and saliifies. Curing iS by chemical reaction oF UV light. Size is limited by the ability of the fabriator or by the size of panes available. Structural behaviour ‘This depends on the type(s) of glass used and on the properties of the interlayer. Hooper (1973) showed that, for the imerlayer materials he considered, ‘of-plane loads were resisted by the ito oF research in dhe USA hus refined these conclusions fun is descibed by Minos and Reznik (1990), by Behe, Minor and Norville (1993) and by Norville (1997). Jacob (1997) describes a new limit state Sesign move! for laminated glass Norvlle (1599) argues that both test data and theoretical studies behaviour under short-term Joading equivalent to monolithic window glass of the same type and ‘nominal thickness. Sobek, Kutterer and Messmer (0999) describe research at the University of Sluugaut into the time aud tensperature dependence of the shear stiffness of the interlayer. Inoreasing temperature softens the interlayer and reduces composite behaviour, which can be signiti- cant in doubie-glaved units, which can act as solar collectors. Laminated glass offers a number of performance benefits. Fig, 2.8 The manufacture of @ Tainaze (courtesy of {Laminated Glass tnforuation Cents) Fig. 29 A comparison benveen composite behaviour and load sharing courtesy Andrew Pye) Sir Srl wc of gan in blingig, 210 Lamingte domoged hy ules CWB &B Stratevie com ‘munication) ig. 2.11 Mustration of a hermetically sealed unit Tabled to show the main ‘omponems (ate. Beye & Klein) Safety If'an impact or other cause breaks ome layer or bath Tayers of glass, the interlayer can prevent penetra tion and any broken pieces of glass will remain bonded to the interlayer. This minimises the likei- hood of serious cuts or injuries caused by falling lass Inlumescent resin imerlayers are available. In fire these turn into u foun wich wot only prevents Ue passage oF fie but also reduces the conduction andthe radiation of heat through the glace. Thie protects people who may need to pass it on their ‘Way out of the building Security ‘The use of thicker mterlayers inereases the penetra tion resistance of the panel, glving protection from ‘samc Stevia use of ls fn uliings sledgehammer attack. Multlaminates also provide inereased. resistance Some bullot-resistant lami nates include sheets of polycarbonate to improve their performance, Laminated panes can, if properly held at their edges, also improve safety from bomb biasts. This is discussed further m chapter 15. Solar control Tinted and_ translucent interlayers ‘which modify the passage of solar rad are even laminates which when examined minutely show themselves to have interlayers that are lou vered in the manner of Venetian blinds, ‘These can be used to exclude, for example, high altitude sum- ‘mer sun while admitting low altitude winter sun. Compagno (996) descnbes a wide range of modem glass compositions and surface treatments, including body-tited glass, photosensitive las, photochromic glass, dichroic coatings and cera fenamel coatings. He also describes a range of ings for inculating glavs wnite. Vitkala (1000) doscrihes the toughening of low emissivity glass. available tion, Thaee Sound control Laminated glasses are better than single sheets at absorbing sound, because of the damping effect of the interlayer THis Is more effective at higher fie= quencies. ‘Laminating is a versatile process. Manufacturers are often willing to discuss new ideas with design- fers. In many cases it may he possible fo produ Special products simply by modifying an existing product. -S Multiple glazing sm that covers two main types of glaz= ing: hermetically sealed units and window or ‘walling systems that contain two or more separate panes of glass. Hermetically-seated units ‘These are commonly known a2 insulating units Their constriction is covered by BS $713 and the forthcoming European Standard prEN 1970 and their hisloreal and future development is described by Beye and Klein (19 ‘Sealed units are constructed in a variety of ways but most have similar basic components ‘A bollow spacer tude, normally aluminium, sep- rates tne pafes of glass. This tube 1s Ned with ‘desiccant Keep the ar lathe cavity dy. The panes tof glass and the spacer tube arc scaled together round their perimeter Wi of poxy polysulphide or butyl, ora dual system using &iprimiry seal of polyisohuiylene and a secondary Seal of polysulphide, polyurethane oF silicone, ‘These seals must be able to bond the glasses, allow them to move a little and keep water vapour out of the cavity "Almost all imaginable thicknesses and types of lass, clea, tnted, reflective, low emissivity, lami- fated, (ouglewed aud patterned can be incorporated (0 units (Davies, 1997). Cavities typically vary ‘6mm and 20mm, Cavities can be filled with air or other inert gases. “The main benefits of such units are improved thermal and acoustic insulation. Building BS at Stockley Park (1990; Architect lan Ritchie Associates; Engineer Ove Arup & Partners) uses 1.385in X 3m instlating glass units. The inner pane ‘s6mm toughened glass with a low emissivity coat ing; the outer pane is 12mm toughened and the Tomm cavity is filled with argon. ‘The larges thanoar ‘Saas it ||-—ssio an (ep Fig. 211.3a) Diagram of 9 double-gheeed wei, the John Hancock Building (epeoduce trom Why bufdings fal down Levy & Salvador ~by permission of W. W. Nowton & Company) ‘usual thickness of the outer panes earries the countersunk bolts, helps limit deflections and gives same acoustic protection from a nearby heliport. This thickness also gives rise to the characteristic seen tint ofthe glass facade, Load sharing in insulating units ‘Atuispheric pressure is about LOQkN/m2. Wind pressures in the UK rarely excood 2.SkN/m® (but fan be higher elsewhere). The question arises: co the panes of an inlaid unit share Inads? In gen tral the answer is yes, though i isnot so for small Sti panes of glass separated by deep cavities. The ‘analysis that leads to this conclusion is contained in ‘Appendix D, Temperature changes and atmospheric precsure changes Because they are sealed, insulating units are affect ‘ed by temperature changes and by atmospheric pressure changes. Temperature changes ‘Doutg its lif an insulating unit will be exposed to ‘varying air temperatures om its surfaces and tothe tifets of solar mdiation. Roth surfaces also Tose heat continuously by radiating long-wave radiation. ‘When the gas in the unit changes temperature its pressure changes in accordance with Boyle's Law Low atmospheric. pressure ‘combined with igh temperatures produces the greatest expansion of the fus High atmospheric pressure combined wi how femperatures produces the greatest contraction of the gas. Watch out for inslating units manufac tured somewhere cold at va lavel and then inetalled Somewhere sunny in the mountains! For Rrher information see Appendix E. “The inner and outer panes will expand and contract in response to thermal changes. HOw they are rated and sealed and their shape and sizé Wil alfelfct the stresses tnt are induced by tis the Jonn Hancook Builing In Boston (Levy and Salvador, 1994) had a difficult time when it was Soong, ith glass falling from the building daring a Yindstorm that hit during construction. Failure of its Lam % 345m douhle-plaved unite was finally ‘tlfnied t the comnection between the lead spa ® cer and the outer reflective pane. The connection was found to be too sill, resulting mn unaccepraple rains being imposed’ on the ouict pau, which Cracked il, All 10 344 double-glazed panels were replaced by single shects of toughened gh Atmospheric changes ‘At sea level atmospheric pressure is about I4psi ot bout 1004’. It commonly varies as high and iow pressure systems cross the UK by pus or minis Sone: plus or minus SkNim. Ths' may vary oxner counties. If Ue glass panes ave small and thick, then atmsopheri pressure. changes can ‘Sgnifcant sess inthe glass, This phenomenon {Sheinforced by the use of rigid edge seal. I the panes are relatively flexible then they can bow at Telaively low stresses bu this ean produce visible Astortions when viewing reflections inthe pass. ‘An approach to the calculation of te eects of azmmospherie pressure and temperature on insulating tints i given im appendix E 2.1.6 Glass blocks Tollow’ glass blocks are available in many sizes ‘rom 113mm X 113mm x Om thick up to 300mm. 300i x 9am thick. Solid blocks are also ‘vailable, from 120mm > 120mm % 10mm up 10 200mm % 200mm x SOmm. Hollow blocks are mannfaemeed in two halves that are sealed together at high temperature, When the sealed block is annealed to room temperature, the internal pressure drops to about 0.3 of atm« pheric pressive. This partial vacuum improves the {hermal insulation and the acoustic insulation of the igliss blocks have been used for walls and floors, In the former, reinforcement in the horizontal and vertical joints is used to deal with tensile Torees, in & way Similar to a reinforced concrete wall In floors. the blocks are supported, via resilient Fig, 2.131) The John Hancock Datiding (courtesy of “Architect AssnciationJoe ken Sac Strata use of gas in buldings4 Wagaee teeta 1 |_[ ecoregion & a 3 _ ; Lee . | es) 5 nema ql am t : oo ELIF esa | EJ i \ saat af amon] aa mmm) Fig. 2.14 The manufacture of spacers, by steel or cast-iron gratings. 2.2 Non-structural issues that hollow blocks courtesy of Nippon Bloctrie Glass) Fig. 2.15 Otass oeks oe @ grating (couresy of Nippon tecrte Glas) “Ashe gas in glass Blocks is annealed tay Be expected fo have properties silat those iste In Abie 2 Stuctoral design. with plas Dicks would be. very simi to structiral design of Thasonry, thc nant protval strocturl wos would Te walls and clement in hich the dominant eress- Sars compres, Store ele ads an Be Strid wath some confdeace bit ng-tem tensile fone are ether designed Ou or eared by rein- Toreement which supnties al the ductility. Pst- tensioning may be of benefit het, However, history has governed our perceptions and there 1s reluctance 0 design glass block walls torent auything oer than self neigh and out-of plane Toads: Cracking isthe Tse. A glass block Wall acting a a Toadbcaring clement in «building Wille susjeted to forees and movements hat may rack th wall The tltonal sation has been 1 frovide soft joins around the wal 30a N01 sob- Jer it to those forces and movements, A structure Nippodting a gles block wall should not deflect ite tha a6 ode fo educe tn ak Cracking the ‘wall, The forcoming. European Standard, pekN' 12/23, actaly ores the use of lass blocks as laden element ened tes es ge ‘sin Smtr we of ae in uligs influence design 2.2.1 Thermal transmission Ip noemal float gla, thermal tranemiscion is erit- igal factor in heat lows and pain whic in tur affects the heating and cooling costs of the building “The thermal resistance of glass asa result of eon- auction i only marginally alfected by the thickness fof the glass, This has led to the widespread use oF insulating uns with tWo or More layers of xls separated OY ar or oder iver pases. Load sharing Insulating units is deseribed in section 2.1.5 and Appendix D. MToe dcition whether to use single glazing or inulating units can “leper! on the expectations of the sors af the space and aso on the level of ther- ‘nal analysis that the designers are willing or able to Lndertake. n'a transiently used space such as Shopping mall it may’ well be reasonable f0 use sin- fle glazing for the Toot because people using the Anal willbe dressed for the weather ud wil be sat- Isreal ty ae sete For buiing, DG at Po (1997; Architect: Renzo Piano Building WorkshopSeat! 2) anchor cleo Expansion sp 2) at i () / > hase) ‘ LEB l > is s a, go en ee ; A AL / ssa 2 er ainole 4 Mate =e 2 “ae Engineer: Ove Arup & Partners) extensive thermal ‘modelling was used to persuade the authoritics that heat losces from the single-glized space were Tow noua be acepable ad that he ser Wold be fortable. ‘Thermal stresses in glass can be significant. I is an intemal force created by a temperature difference between the centye and the edge of a piece of lis, common cause of which i partial Shading. ‘A temperature difference of I°C between the ceatle 2 and the edge of a glass plate causes a stress of about 0.6Nimm, according to the Canadian Code, All types of annealed glass are susceptible to thermal breakage and the Fisk increases when fin ccd. incat absorbing. reflective or coated glass com [ponents are used in double- or tiple-glazed units. IF the annealed glass edge has been oF is poorly cut, breakage is likelierat ower temperature ‘differences than in glass in good condition, Section 6.3.3 provides a checklist of items 1 garrett 4 aha ser Siete Fes inulinFig. 217 Building B6 01 PaetamerPlatsouresy of Gour Gmbh ig. 2.18 Estertor of Waterow Inscrastional Station roof (Coumesy Nicholas Grimshaw i Pariners Eo Reid & John Peck) consider when thinking about thermal stresses in is. Append Vf te Canadian Code covers this Issue in some deta. 2.2.2 Solar radiation The transparency of translucency of glass are its most imporam propetties for use in buildings. Becuuse ples is gt crystalline its propertie are isotropic and light passee through transparent glaxs swithout being scattered. Radiation from the siwn and sky extends beyond the narrow band that we cart see, which has wave- Tengths between aporoximately’ 380 and 780m Below 380nm is the ultraviolet region and above 780nm is the infra red (IR) region. Our eyes are, not Surprisingly tated around the peak speciral density Of Solar radiation, which uscuis at acound 480nm, Atmosphirie svieutisis usually refer to radiation fetween 150nm and 3000am ae short wave cadia tom and that beyond 3000nm as long-wave radia tatimesilica glass transmits radiation with str Srl a fg in ings bie 2.3 The relative energy content of solar [Energy content Visible TR wa% wavelengths Between 319m and 5000. Raton Dulsige tase wavelengs. i canst completly Shsorbed. Objects esol, buildings, human beings) Brnormaltempertures radiate mast energy at ‘tavclongths of between $000 and 12000 and Th one i abeorbed hy plas This the iin Shion mn ‘erenhouse effec In general tems 8 Slasehouse provides two frm of contol fst itis sMratve iter, and second, i edues turbolent iat losses becuse it eives almost compete Wind Shatin The mite filer was always held 10 be ths dominant heating mechanism but it ean been Sten at seler ca be eualy wr ane important As the sls absorbs this long wave radiation it heats upon in fun Begins to loss heat by a.combi- tution ot radiation, conduction snd ennvection. 12.2.3 Condensation, ‘Condensation occuts wlien the susface temperature Cf the glass falls below the dew point of the air in Contact with it, An insulating unit will usually have Figher tomperatures on its inside face than a single sheet of glass. Tt wr therefore appear to be not ‘ale choice to select single glazing but double-sh ing may not be necessary a1 may not be afford able With very low U-value insulating units (Le. very ‘200d insulators) external condensation is also pos- Sible. This occurs because tere is insufficient flow (of heat frort te interior to keep the outside surface lass above the dew point. "The designers need to decide how much condensation might aceur and how frequently. Then they need to decide what, if anything, should be done alot i ‘At Waterloo Intemational Station, Loncion (19944; Acchitect: Nicholas Grimshaw & Partners; Engineer “Anthony Hunt Associates) the upper panes overlap the lower panes, a6 in a traditional greculouse, but with a neoprene sealing lip which contains a tiny Catmel wo Wallet condensation and hold it wntl it evaporates. 2.2.4 Rainwater runoff ina facade, whether vertical or sloping, a crucial consideration is that of water dammed by elamps or fllict projections ‘Water that runs down a steep or vertical face needs to go somewhere when it reaches the bottom ff the fice The choice facing the designers is ‘whether to intercept some of the water part of the ‘way down of to collect a larger quantity atthe bottom, ‘On a flat roof, the issues are, again, those of ‘damming but also those of providing sufficient falls find sufficient gulets of the right size to allow the water ty diain from the soof at an acceptable rate ‘The design should tako account ofthe possibility of blocked drains and the effect of wind combined ‘with the build-up of water on the roof. Designers should also carefully took at options available for Creating falls and at the deflections of the roof ‘under Toad, ‘At the Kemper Memorial Arena tn Kuuses City(Levy and Salvadori, 1994), one of the causes ofits n collapse on 4 June 1979 was ponding of Water during a severe downpour. The ponding was nade worse by strong winds and by the cumulative teflections of the roof deck, the joists supporting the deck, the trusses supporting the joists and the Tong-span portals supporting the tusses. These cir cumstances combined to overload bolt, already ‘weakened by fatigue. When the bolt failed it shed Teal to its neighbours which failed in tem and the roof began to collapse, ‘When talking of fire resistance it is impartant to Gidinguich Between integrity (the ability 10 hold together) and insulation (the ability to resist the pas- sige of head. Gass, being incombustible, can be used as a tire protection material. Wired glass was made com- fnereially available atthe end of the 19th century 3s {product that WoUld Noid togedier, thus preventing the spread of stioke ad flames. Laminated glasses, With intumnescent interlayers are now available. With the right framing, both such glasses can pr vide up to Ahr fire resistance (ie. integrity) ‘Tho first real alternative to wired glass was bornciticate glass, which has a different chemical composition to ordinary window glass (ie. soda- Timersilicate gas). Borosilicate glass has been tused for many years for ovenware and laboratory lass, thanks” {@ its low coefficient of tesmal expansion and its high sofiewiug temperature. A modified compusition of this glass, heat strength ned, can provide fire resistance (integrity only) for sp to 120 minutes ‘An alternative product with very good fite-resistant properties is ceramic glass. Ils coefficient of thermal expansion is close to zero and, with the appropriate framing, it ean provide up t0 240 min: ites of integrity-only fire resistance. Tt is important to remember that glass on its own i nof fie resistant, Tt needs a frame with the fire resistance 100. Glass products that give full fine resistarice Cansulation ax well as integrity) should be lazed into a frame that ulso gives insulation, rise the whole assembly can he classified for integrity only ‘Particular care i required to detail timber frames to support lass when resisting fire. The effect of the chatri ‘wood must be considered. Steel frames tend to Warp When subjected to fire, break ing the glass and causing problems for bead fining methods. AS a fesult, nearly all steel frames used for fire resistance are proprietary systems, specifically ae being darn engineered to be more robust than ordinary frames and to have better fixings, Ste! is a good conduc tor of heat, so special designs are required tor frames used for full insulation fire resistance, Nolte (1999) "repors that harmonising European Standards for fire testing building eomponents has rested in establishing tougher requirements 2.2.6 Acoustic behaviour Glass can be used to reduce outside noise so that the ‘occupants of a building are not unduly disturbed, Achieving this may require thick glass, oF Laminat- 2d glass, or multiple panes, Mass isthe mast impor. tant factor. “To determine what is needed involves defining the extemal noise level, and the required intemal noise level, From these it is possible to caleulate the Sesree of attenuation required. The attenuation pro ‘vided by lass (or other building materials) is mot Constant across all Irequencies. ‘Single panes of zlass attenuate noise by using their mass 10 absorb some of the energy in the Sound. Toughened and wired and patterned glass behave the sime way. The softer interlayers used in laminated glass give i lightly better acoustic alten: tain at seme Frequencies than the same mass of single glass. Doub generally gives worse fllenuation than the same mass of single because of resonances in the system. Varying the cavity width between 6mm and’ 16mm makes Title difference our wider cavides eau inuprove pesform- ance agal ‘None of this means anything if air gaps are not scaled effectively For more information the reader is referred 10 Fig. 2.19 Wuter being dammed Fig, 2.20 An intnescent interlayer lf) before ond Stra Straws of gs in buildingsPilkington (1993) and the draft European Standard prEN 12758-1 2.2.7 Access The CDM Regulations (Health and Safety Commision, 1994) require designers ani specifiers to have adequate regard health and safety in their Aecision-making process. The structure Of this risk management process includes the need for the designer/speeifier to adopt S hierarchy ‘of risk contol-in the following sequence: + avoid foreseeable risks ‘combat risks at source {give privity te measures that protect all + provide infarmation about residual risks Ove Arup & Partners (1997) provides clear yuide ance for designers on meeting thei legal obliga tons, with sections specifically devoted to glazing. "Access will be ceded for inctllation, cleaning, ingpestion, maintenance, repair and replacement Glass will be used in the building envelope, which ‘means tat itis very likely that workers will be work ing at height. and exposed to the wind and the rain, ‘Significant hazards associated with this are work- cers falling and workers dropping objects. Glass Panes are often surprisingly heavy ~ a zm x 3m ane 12mm thick weighs about [LSkN (appronie ‘mately 180kgf or 40010. "Thee designer will need to consider the following issues in particular: ‘© Are there particular access problems for people or materials? + Will the public need to be protectea? + Will seaitolding be required? 2.2.8 Installation ‘The designer will need to consider the following issues in particular ‘+ Hus access for lnstallaton becn considered? 2 How nuch handling of the glass will be required? + On/off lores * Invout of storage * Upidown the building ovr will the glass be handled? + Will special handling equipment be needed? Will the workers require special protective clothing? Will the public need to be protected? Will scaffolding he required? How are the elements to be lifted? How are the elements to be fixed? How are the elements to be sealed? Can the glazing be prefabricated at ground Jevel and then safely lifted and fixed ino place in all locations? + How ise faa us rout to be tested? 2.2.9 Cleaning The designer will need w eousider the following {issues in particular + How is safe access for cleaning to be achieved? How will windows he opened for cleaning? Willie of opening lights limit clening + Will permanently installed equipment be pro- {Struct Stvcuml use of sas ie buildings vided! forthe outside of the building and for the underside of atrium roofs? + How will water be provided for cleaning the FRG wi the water be removed rom he se fae ofthe gas? 2.2.10 ion ‘The designer will need to consider the following issues particular = What inspection is required” {What frequency of inspection does the design require or assume? + How is safe nccoxs for ingpection to he achieved? 2.2.11 Maintenance ‘The designer will new! to consider the following ites in particular: + Life to first maintenance + ‘The use of low maintenance materials + Will the maintenance/repair company be as knowledgeable as the original desigier und insualler? 7 + How is safe access for inspection to be achieved? 2.2.12 Repair and replacement ‘The designer will necd'to consider the following issues in particular How i safe access for replacement be achieved? + Iie sgnane tea campy be owledgeale asthe orginal esincr a installer os + Gatelements ot me tacade or roo be safely ‘ismanted? «Has access for replacement been considered? Tow much handing of tho gas il be rq? On/oft lores $ Inout of storage + Upidown the bulding + How will the glass be handled? 1 Will epecial handling equipment he needed? + Will the workers requ special protective clothing? + Will the public or the building's occupiers iced to be protected? + Will soaffolding be required?” + Mow are the replacement elements ro be Ht + How are the replacement clement to be fixed? + How are the replacement elements to be sealed? Can the replacement glazing and/or framing be prefabricated at around feel an then sale iy lifted snd fixed into place in all locations? + How are the replaced areas of facade or root tobe tested? 2.2.13 Availabill Designers are advised to consult one of more rep- ‘able manufacturers carly inthe design process to ‘check on lead times for different types and sizes of lass, Some glass is available ex-stock while other prodiicts may be mtanufuctued only onee per yearSpecial items will almost always have a long lead time. An example of what can be produced is the Soft hy 8ft pane of 3/8 inch polished plate glass (15.2m x 2.4m x9, Sram) installed in the Power and Production Pavilion at the Festival of Britain in 1931 Gilass is a sophisticated product that may pas through several hands before i is installed and itis Important 10 be aware of and record the supply clin, When there aro problema, trageubilty, it fessential, The major glass manufacturers. do buy lass Irom each other, sn the company contracted 10 Supply the glass may well not be the company that ‘made i, For example.a piece of elass may be made, cut, drilled, coated, toughened, heat soaked and Jaminated before being installed "A reputable toughener will correctly mark the glass (0 indicate the standard to whicl it las been {otighencd, for example w BS 6206, class A, B or C. Glass to be used as safety glass in the UK is required to be permenently marked in a visible location identifying it as safety glass Heat soaking i not carried out to the same stan lard by all manufueturers and is not carried out at all by some, Bordeaux and Kasper (1997) discuss a hheat soaking process that is claimed to be a signfi- ‘cant improvement on the widely used DIN 18310 Part 4. [tis expected that a new European standard will bein place by the year 2000. 2.2.14 Appearance, fit and position Nioor (1991) provides wel-usrated examples of the Work of ansts making creasingly wide we of new eaperinental techniques and. material. with a “Glass je_ visually important in many movie buildings: The Willis Chron building (formerly Willi Faher and Dumas) in Ipswich, England (1975; Arehitect: Foster Associates; Engineer: ‘Anthony Hunt Associates) has walls entirely made Gf lass, suspended from the root and stiffened ‘ainst the wind by glass fins The accuracy of fit of the glass and its ates ae cruel 10 the appearance of Ue face ‘Glass like any building component, is tito the space allocated fr i. Te must be connected 10 {he sorrounding building orto its supporting struc {ural frame: in'a Way that delivers the forses that revqire resistance while allowing relative move ments to oveur that the slass cannot tolerate Ryan e? a. (1998) cover this Important aspect of fase design in deta The 12m high glass walls atthe main terminal building at’ Stansted Airport, England (1991; ‘Atchitet, Foster Associates; Engincer: Ove ARID & Partners) are supported by siuctural stot mule fions that run Tron floor to roof and by steel and aluminiom transome that span between mullions. Under extteme environmental conditions. analysis shoved thatthe roof structure might sway By up {0 1OOmm. It was also visually imporant that the walls ot appear 0 support the edge of the root, ‘which was then free f move up-and down DY 00mm. The architect and engineer Uevised a side ing prop detail at allowed the root to prop the wall Test wind Tooding but to olde parallel to the SEI Tec allowed the roof to rise and fall without bearing onthe tops of the milBinns ‘Gre surprising consequence ofthis was that the comer bays of 2148s warped asthe oof swayed. “Aluinum clamps with cover strips and eo prene seals hold the 1.8m tall by 3.6m wide panels OF inslating glass These allow aay Inaccuraetes in manufacturing fo be Conceuled in Ure overlay, eal skis ot abelian 1 appearance. mntrast to this is the roof ofthe new ‘onal Station, London (1994: Architect: 'Nicholae Grimshaw & Partners Engineer: Anthony Hunt Associates). The form of the roof was very constrained by the route of the ral aks and oa planning estictions Ts ed toa complicated doubly curved area of glass on the other side of the arched root “To avoid the need for thousands of differently sized ‘id shaped pieces of glass, the desi Ucvelope a flenible support and jointing oyatem for ‘Waterloo. Inter Fig, 221 Willis Corroon bung. (courtesy of Foster & Parmer) Fig. 2.22 Stansted detail {coaresy Foster & Parers) Fig. 223 Corer warp et Sed ° ‘rm Strsctiral wt fg ia bingeFig. 2.28 kage of elas tn lamp ot Stansted (courtesy Foster & Partners) the glass. Tis flexibility also food the glass fom being strained by thermal movement of the main struchiral frame Upper panes overlap lower panes. as ina trad tional greenhouse, but with a neoprene scaling lip ‘which contains a tiny channel to collect condensa tion and hold it ntl evaporates and stops wind- bown ruin going back up between the panes. The parks aie same Tevel ate con ike neoprene scaly which partion Betweon Sdjacent edges, both in- and out-of plane. Thus ‘warping surface was constmicted from fat rectan- ilar component This flexibility was not achieved without struc tural penalty, The Supporting structure has to pro Yide Considerable adjustment in the location and Tolaton ofthe points of attachment. The designers ‘developed a vey elegant system of atcutated ei nection ples, some of which were site- welded to the main roof trusses, but the cost was high and the degrees of freedom provided made it pocible install panes of glars out of their desited lcations. complete contest again, and a dicet design descendant of Wilis Crroon. ae the many Planar- Supporied sli facades on buildings all around the World. The Planar system. was developed by Pilkington Glass and_an early example’ is the Renault building. Swindon, England (1982 Architect: Foster Associates: Engineer’ Ove Arup Partners), tis shown in Fig, Sel The feature of ficance to this scction ofthe Gude is the silt deal botwoen adjacent panes of glass. Unless the glass ie manutactved acurtaly snd inealed Sevurately the nominally 10 or 12 or TSmm wide seals will vary in wid unaceepeabl. chlach has developed a method of curved geomelties that can be parallel sided pans o gas. iiss and. Glazing Federation's, Glazing Manual contains guidance on the manufactae of Fig. 2.25 Curved roof at Imaterivo (ouesy UF Genge Fig. 2.26 Siructrat lttochnventsat Waterloo Conrtoey of Nicholas, Grimshaw & Partners Lid) Maschenrone Fig. 227 Sehlaichs doubly-cursed geometry generation IStat: rca ue of ass aldings‘curved glass. Car windscreens are advanced exam ples of what is possible (Pennells, 1997 and Matsushite, 1997), 2.2.15 Durability Glass is extremely durable. The oldest finds of glass 7S GERP 90-120 160-220 ‘Wood 18-40 1236 Reinforced concrete 220 70.50 Iss Srl we of las in uidthe building (inthe northern hemisphere) then the designers will also nced to prevent unwanted solar fain during the summer. External shading is a com monly stead technique, ae st Ruilding RO at Stockley Park, near London (1990; Architect: Lan Ritchie Architects; Engineer: Ove Arup & Partners), 2.2.17 Life eyele costing Life Cycle Management aims to match the life and Derformance attributes of the procured item to the requirement defined by the client, or defined by the designers in conjunction with the client as part of the development ofthe bel ‘The item under consideration should be selected ‘Teast eost basis ineluding the eusts Of any pro YYisions for safe maintenance, Where the life of the item is Jess than the intended life of the building, the design should make shitable provision for easy and safe remaval and replacement Design life should be categorised as follows: + Replaceable: naving a shone iife han tat intended for the building, with placement planned at the design stage, with the owner ‘operating the intended maintenance and life cycle management regime. ‘+ Mainiainahle: will lat as long as the intended life of the building with periodic treatment and minor repairs, provided that a proper inspection and maintenance regime is carried ‘out over the Tul life of the building, * Lifelong: il ast as ong asthe acing, ‘with minimal or no maintenance. Itis worth remembering that: ‘+ Usage of parts ofthe building cannot be fore seen, and the designer has no control over thi + Products at the leading edge of technology ate unlikely to have @ history on which to found a sound prediction. ‘+ Large assemblies of components may Introduce interactions that reduce the life of individual parts. Cladding itoms euch as sealants and sealed units Ge. double-glazing) are likely to fall into. tho replacenble eategory. If glass is to be used structurally then access for replacement in case of damage will be needed. This is analogous to the access needed for inspeotion and. replacement of bridge bearings. 2.3 Behaviour of other materials often used with glass Designers slivuld tke eae wien alse tc with gla Thins not ip bree of possible incompatiblites in intrinsic proper ofthe base materials such a the coefficient of ther- tmal expansion. It also Because of the coatings {sed with materials whieh may be incompatible or ‘which mav need maintenance thet fs dificult 10 Carry out without harming the glass ot coatings in some way. Examples ae shown in Table 2.5, ‘A’simple- question might be: "will my. chosen adie cn, cose Tow emis coe Ing?” A material that has some desirable properties tiny also have some undesirable onc and the ead ‘er should investigate carefully. “Table 2.6 gives the prrperties of sme materials used in contact with glass and some materials used Instead of glass. ASavet: Secu ws of lain bailing "Table Z5 Coatings used with Material [Coatings Timber | Preservatives, pais and stains Paints, polyester powder coating, sal galvanising * “Aluminium | AHodising, polyester power a Hard and soft solar control ‘coatings, low emissivity coatings, Glass fritting, acid etching, screen print- ing, adhesive films, coloured vera coatings 2.4 Fabrication Most manutacturers have said that they can cut ‘annealed glass to the following accuracy + Longh 4 2to 4mm. + Sqitireness (difference in length between diagonals of a rectangle) #2 to 4mm Because glass is produced by a process. that involves rollers, the surface ofa pane of glass is not ‘completely flat. Irmay have surface waves with and suiplivude of 0.7 w 1.0m ‘The thickness of a pane of float glass manufactured to BS EN 572-2 can vary as shown in Table 2.7 In idl be noted that flat glass manufactured to conform with US Standard ASTM C1036-91 may be thinner than fat glass of the same nominal thickness manufactured to conform with UK standards, Holes can be drilled to the following accuracy: + Diumewer: # 0.5uun + Distaace between ventcs of holes. £0.3mm t 2mm tors can achieve + 05mm, iceded for the pos Computer-conteoled whieh is the accuracy countersunk holes. 25 a SS Sig cus y de clog Stee ee Sco cae NO. Tena ote cn oa ‘Sonera som a Fig. 2.28 Bow, roller wave and edge dip (courtesy Andrew Pye) 3s‘Table 2.6 Some typical material properties Tad ee ‘Material ‘Modulus MoH!Bninell” = Remarks Metis se [ Mote” [etree | enon =. S805) | Srtonmens ‘Nin , , 5 . Frc gwen, nt yt el las w | woasmoo [ascs ree | sovcmere | Enos sid set i Caosion potion may te eee Beer [gg [zvsassvna [4800100 | ocnun ox | We pr omer gh re Grades $75 toy strength ‘ is) ° ~ protection may be weeded for structural S388 ee: siwel | ‘aie eet 5 os Swinaing pos i cnt aainessest ceo | wouoosan [2 |S°S00%36 | see chan 18 | ston te comet ads of Grades 16 and ae send Stainless sss pe Anis ann, . sel syoiniom fm sem | aazrao Jan sect 18 | Corson proestion may te nee tants Sat os Jka Tone ines manade nee wna Hares toceny eran nal Tse Parallel to grain | 10-16, 100-140 - 35 ‘See-chort IR} results are for sinall clears with 9-12% Ponmsinia” [Oats | 34 2owa000 | ds atc oper defen jishiolt us sete trans an snes) we les Stine comet Parallel to grain | 10-16 Can't measure | ~ acs |e! este acca tpg aete, fe sien TONTSSNs Pe forcast eee 4 oe GIs ad ‘stresses which account for natural — Te asic PVC Tino cman, | Sete advo ih ak ‘setting blocks con = BS 903, i ‘See chart 18 | tpahogany has traditionally been used Pan Shar 07.20 hades 8:0, epee snng|0722,,|asoa ra | seccnan | rome san bes mprtat s i elongation) | "* Part 3, Method eebeal estos soe ‘cl ie ass an ete posi dei by oa thew B28 Nymoates [isos | 3570 worm ‘| sectan 8 Pobeutonae [25 | o70 ‘0 seccran 8 7 api us of ent wth erenim | 1aa6 | 0asan4s vom | seechanie | Retinol sen Ceverly ieand eat al hei ely ¥ ouste taco ns corset aplcnn, However suo [rattan assets |120S%4 | cr meuaed | hy ma be ted sna ae ste rome sets some i denen one dro temperature o 3 the contact {sir Stair use of sas in lingsTable 2.7 Variations in thickness of float glass manufactured to BS EN 872-2 “Nominal thickness | Tolerance “Die 6mm +02mm St 12 0.3mm - 1s ee 19mm and [ftom Fig, 229 Comparison of he rength of arrssed edges and lean cat edges (reproaiced * on ain Buen z Baton & Dye, by por a ‘of Buterworth-Heinemann) = q 4 on __J ope sara Bow and warp of annealed float glass is rarely, if ure a peahlem’ ‘The thermal toughening pro roller wave and edge dip, which are shown in Fig 228, “Toughened glass can be produced with the following flatness: bow: + 3mmim along edges and iagonals. Veatically toughened or heat-strengthened glass may also have tong marks resembling small dim ples clove to one ede. You get what you pay for: accuracy isa function of cost Ryan et al, (1998) discuss the interfaces between steel and glazing in buildings. Glass may be attached to Stel, aluminium, timber, concrete, brick i other materials, The normal accuracy of manu facture ofthe glass may be significantly better than the Installed accuracy Uf Ue sates ial trust inter= fave with, 90 He may not be worthwhile to demand Fig. 2.20 Imuoeed Fame rami (courtesy RFR) Isic Sri wse of asin uidigs| extenordinary accuracy of manufacture ofthe gla ‘On the other hand, fine aceuraey may be needed visually for alignment 'S common complaint of contractors i the unnec- cessarily high accuracy often called for by designers and specifiers, This may well have implications for Salety on site if, for example it increases the time that people must spend high off the ground. 2.5 References and other suggested reading 2.5.1 Books and papers ‘Ashby, M. F. and Jones, D. R. H. (1980): Engineering materials ~ an inroduetion to thew properties and applications. Pergamon Press Ashby, M. PF. (1987): Materials selection in ‘mechanical design. Pergamon Press Bat, R.A. Mino JE and Nol H, 8 (1993) ‘Structural behaviour lass’. Journal of Siruc 1191) . F, W. and Klein, P. (1997): “Design of insu- ing giass ~ a look from the past to the future Froceeaings of the Fifi niernattonat Conference tal nl Ausomenive Glass, ‘September 1997 Kasper, A. (1997): ‘Optimised neat soak test’ to AR | ity criteria associated with weathertightness_ or appearance that govern acceptable movements, The Kempinski Hotel (Holgate, 1997) (Fig. 4.3) is a soca example affresh approach to the oretimes inking compliance L/175 or other arbitrary tule (see Table 64) ‘Ryan al (1998) list all the possible movements of Ue glass aid ity pinay and secondary support stouctutes and point out the special care nceded to Timit imposed fotetions om the glass at bolted con Pawson (1096) describes the articulation designed into the glass-clad vault of the 244mn-long, ‘Tou. Wwide and 28m-all Leipzig Neue Messe (1996 jehiest yoo Geskan, Marg Parts with la Ritchie Architects; Engineer: IPP with Ove Arup & Partners) 4.7 Safety — accidental or deliberate damage and selection of glass for overhead and sloped glazing requires special attention for num ber of reasons: + Sloped glass ie more succeptible to impact fram falling objects, wind-borne debris and thrown objects than vertical glas. + Sloped glazing in most cases is more likely to fall from the opening when it breaks than ver tical glass, Good design indicates thatthe ‘choice of glass must be based on eliminating ‘or minimising lizards so a as is easouably practicable + Show loads may be imposed on the glazing for long periods. The strength of annealed glass fand the contribution af the plastic interlayer in Jaminated glass are both time dependent atic carte tation ren ia ad i | Fig, 428 Shock absorbers at La iene (courtesy of RFR) aie, showings how large ‘movements could occur and Fr to prevent them {Suri Sivctra use of shin bling+ Formos orientations, sloped glass and overhead lags muy rent a higher lomporatare than vertical glazing because the sun’ radia fier own Deady sara it fae Ft and because of stratification of warm ai in ihe balding The converse i also tue, nd the orientation of the sloped or overhead lass ‘nay allow ite temperature to fall ater than that ot vertical lass on clear nigh Punter guidance on dhe selection of u-vertical ‘overhead glazing from the point of view of safety may be found in aoction 7.1 of Tae Glass and Glazing Federation's Glazing Manual. Guidance an the selection af glass for impact resistance in buildings in the UK may be found in BS 6206, BS 6180, BS 6262 and The Building Regulations Approved Document N. 4.8 References Anonymous (1997); “Glasdac auf Setloss Juval in 8 Glas 197 BSI (1995): Code of practice for protective barriers {in and about buildings. BS 6180. 1995 BSI (1981): Specyication Jor umpact performance ‘requirements for fat safers glass and safety plastics Jor use in buildings. BS 6206: 1981 (1994) BSI (1994): Code of practice for glazing for build Ings. Pan 4. Safety related to human inpact. BS (262. Pau 4, 1994 Conolly, 8. (1992): “Glass towers, Reina Sota Museum of Modem Art, Madrid’, Steet Construction Today, November, p 252 Conolly, S. (1995): “Towards the transparent envelope’. Architecis’ Journal, 15. Lawson, 8.1989) "Casp lines of a toating glass sheer’ Architects’ Journal, 19 October Dawson, S. (1996a): “Glass act’. The Architectural Review, January Dawson, S. (19960): a crystal palace for Leipaig’. sTune 1996 Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions (1997): The Building Regulations 1991. Approved Document N ~ Glazing ~ safety in rela ‘gn o impact, pening ane! cleuning. 28 edition Derau, series 58, number 3, ApAVMay 1998 (entire issue) ‘Glass and Glazing Federation (1991) Glazing manual Molese, A. (1997) The at of srctra engineer ing — The work of Jérg Schlaich and his tea Edition Axel Menges, Stutigar’London Krewinkel, H. W. (1998): Glass buildings. Birkhauser Marshall, J. (1997): “The osmotic a issue 3, October 1997 lass ball creates wenitects' Journal, 6 . Touchstone, (1995); Structural Glass. E EN Spon, 2nd ed Ryan, P. and Oilet, M. and Oden, R. G. (1998): Steel. supported glazing systems, Ascot: Steel Construction Institute. SCI Publication 193 The Architectural Review. May 1998 (entire issue) ‘Thornton, J. (1993): “The glass towers at the Centro. de Arie Reina Sofia, Madrid’. Proc. Insin. Cv Engrs. Civ. Engng, 00.91, Aus. ppll0-117 ‘Walker. A. (1996): “When small is beautiful”. The Consulting Eneineer, Issue 6. Winter ‘Struct Structural use of gas in buildings Woods, M. and Warren, A. (1990). Glass howses. Aurum Press 35 Calculations 5.1 Introduction Refore caring out any calculations, itis most important thatthe sesigner has cle des of ho the stniture wil heave. There fs nothing unnstal about this notion and it applies as much to stel or onerete as it does 10 glass, The reason for its emphasis here is that an engineer i glass design may Tee tempted to ake reluge in Eslefations, Because ofthe brite nature of glass is also important tthe Uesiger hus Cat He m sructuc is fo bchave after onc oF more vot how Fig. 5.) A comparison of small and fare deftecion shears (eprodaced fromm Chass ix Rulldings, ed Button & Pye, by permission of Bulerworth: Heinemann) ‘es Nee) rc} rer rosure =o ‘Table 5.1 International Standards experienced in lass clemenis have failed. It is also important 10 assess he safety implications of fallure ofa pieve of slass. what isthe likelihood of people being injured by falling glas, for example? tie only when the etruetural behaviour ie unde stand that docisione can be made ahout shat eal lations are appropriate. As a simple example, consider a pane of glass supported along all four edges. Under Wind Joad it may behave like a plate, in cease Kitchotf’s linear theory, which can be {ound in Timeshenko's (1959) Thedry of plates and shells, i8 applicable. However, if the plate derects laterally by more dan half its thickness, then large deficetion non-linear theory comes inio play. 10 take account of the membrane stress thal are sat ‘as mat meviem design sooms ta involve lage thin panes of glass. i¢ might be assumed that for even the simplest design it would be necessary for the designer to solve. some complex differential squations. Fortunately this nots, which ust as ‘well because obtaining appropriate material dala (Gor example ine characteisuc strengtn of Weatn- ‘Ste stincle! ghns) an bea calleaing buses. For rectangular panes of glass, with continuous lateral support along all four edges, the internation alstandard Listed in Table 3.1 provide simple was ff determining the appropriate glass thickness to resist specified design loads Care’ should be taken when using design standards from one country with materials from anoth- ex, Forexampe, variations in allowable glass thick- hess may differ. Design calculations should be based on the dhinnest wlass dat could be produced, fou « given uninal thickness, with appropriate allowances for weathering of the surface of the ilass. Weathering normally affects strength rather than thicknose ‘Most manufacturers will provide guidance on ‘what thickness glass should be used, based on their experience, Engineers should satisfy. themselves thatthe guidance is appropriate, UK BS 6262 Glazing for buildings | Under revision ‘Concept Richi Gives desizn stresses and ‘The Netherlands Constructief Glas ‘raterial Factors ‘The Netherlands | NEN 2608 and Viakglas voor Gebouwen | Gives load factors Australia AS I288-1995 Gtass in buildings ~ Selection and installation . ‘Standard practice for determining the minum thick- a coe ness and type of glass required t0 resist a specified load Canada CANICGSB-12.20-M89 | Structural design of glass for buildings Draft for “Design of slass BC CENFTCI29WGS | panes Part2: Design for | In draft Uniformly distributed load” [strc Strata! we flan in bidings5.2 Limit state approach ‘The draft European standard adopts a limit state pproach to the structural design of glass. This 1s rational and familiar 1o most engineers 5.2.1 Strength ‘The US and Canadian standards are based upon a failure prediction model developed at Texas Tecit University (Beason and Morgan, 1904). The American Code charts are said to be based on a probability of failure under design load of 8/1000 for anneafed glass but in practice they achieve better than this. In the USA the applied loads and the Sllowable, loads are expressed in. working, i. tunfactored terms. In Canada and The Netherlands fand the forthcoming European Standard the fac tored load is compared withthe Factored resistance. 5.2. Serviceahility Deletions of the ass and its supporting structure should be considered carefully. How people per- Serve the deflections is a function of their expects flons. Apparently large movements. it a glass assembly tha is dealied 0 look vigil woukd be how alarming Ui ge whieh is detlled ior ently, Generally, toughened glase panes will defloet tmuch more than annealed. glass panes of the same Strength, because they will be much thinner. 3.3 Loads: Because the strength of annealed glass in tension is time-dependent, 1t is appropriate to consider the duration of loading and to apply appropriate foc tors. The Canadian Code muakes the distinetions Shown in Table 5.2, This is consistent with practic in'The Netherlands which considers dead load, stat~ Fe live load and dynamic live load (ie. wind gusts). I is also consistent with the recommendations of Sedlacek e! 1 (1995). “The American Code inyolves the calculation of ‘an ‘equivalent design load’, which it defines as “the ‘magnitude of a 603 duration constant load provides by the specifying authority to represent the curl tive effects ofthe components ofall lnads acting on the glass’. Unforunuely it goes on to say, “The ITansformaion uf Tuas to account for variations in ftude, dircction ond duration ic beyond the cope of this document’. Fortimately, guidance is available from s number of other sources, including Figure 3 af Sedlacek e1 ai, (1995), which shows how the relative strength of annealed glass varies with load duration. 5.4 Strength ‘here is a phenomenon known as the static fatigue OF glass, which some consider a misnomer, A more ecutate title would be sub stitial eracke growth Cracks of flaws grow slowly with time under sub: (critical stress unit a Tength is reached at which the reaches a eritical ‘t,he highly tip break very quickly-and raid facture coeur. Pies described furtherin seston >. The expre ‘Hon feos conosin” is sometimes Used, ith the ope fe gap fcc ww wei ee Sirbec intensity) factor on log-log. paper teing Mietfed oas ie sen comosion constant Allie {Sieiens mae moet glsese moet one 10 SION ‘Table 5.2 Canadian Code load durations “Approximate equiva: Toasts Tent load duration Wind and earthquake | 1 minute SSoctainad (eno, ponding) ‘Continuous (dead load, hydrostatic pressure) 1 week to 1 month 1 year to 10 years ~ Table 5.3 Typical properties of annealed float lass rte ome ne 10Nio? Cureateisitente | 1940 soon Po gos = Fos | neat a ‘Table 54 Variation of exponent with «environment avironiment » ‘Water at 25°C oO ‘Air witn 30% RH WIC | HEI _ “ir with 10% RHat2HC [27.0 acum a 25°C [700 Making mows 70° [160 crack growth, as does increasing temperature. For further data the reader is refered to Creyke, Sainsbury and Morell (1982), “The relationship between time to fallure wn applied sires has been extensively eseached and an be summarised by the equation o°T = constant whore: gis stress {Tic craton of stress and isa constant. Scallacek (1995) presented values of m as shown it Table 5a, Sedlacek recommends using n = 16 for design purposes and this value is also recommend ed by Pilkingion Glass Consultants “The cqvation implies that for extremely long: duration loads allowable stresses must decrease {0 Sreeligible values but in practice it has been found that this does not occur. There is 2 lower limit below which glass strength does not fall. Figure 3 ff Sedlacek er al. (1995) shows a reduction in rela- saber ne tofature and eppied stress (ler Seataced) Istnet Strat of gas in buildies‘ig. 9.8 Stresses atthe tip af tanellipical crock fuble 5.5 Time-dependent strengths of annealed glass in the Netherlands ead load t Stati live load 24 Dynamic live oad (i.e, wind gusts) | 4 tive strength frye 1 fox a yuessecoud duration loa, to around 0.5 for a one-year duration load, Conversely, fora load of duration of 0.01 second slacs has 4 relative strength of about 1.6. These fi lures are roughly consistent with RS $516, in which short duration wind loads are resisted by 2.6 times the sirength available to resist long duration snow Toads. Table 5.5 shows the relative strengths for ordinary, Le. annealed, float glass used in The Nether In summary, the suength of a piove uf auicaled laws depends on the following main factors: + the duration of application of the load * the environmental conditions. especially the humidity + the sizeof the stressed area + the distribution of stresses across the stressed ‘+ the condition ofthe surfaces and edges of the lass 5.5 Fracture mechanics 1 by heat stngtbening or ougheing the sutace ofthe pls prevented fom experening ny te Shines cng ow a prop to cary outany ace mechanics cae ctl: Sima; famed gis if be sed ineieumstanesn'whih the engine confided thei wi no experience ens ese neve then crocs nna giv a! uu appre yout any ates mechani Saco "The fundstone of foere mechniey or ald bya Beis neva rciect, Pofssor Innis n Tid, He cognac har thie eh inh met pa ended orc stele sngih by Tengo sees ato eack Fasceaccpepapnen ‘Sua: Stature of gs in ings ‘more than would be predicted fom considers only the reduction in tensile area. He showed that the stress field near the discontinuity is magnified hy an arn hat pens on th ie of ar ture of the discontinuity compared to its length per- Denicular tothe stess field. Following Inglis, A. A. Griffith carvied out pio- neering work in fracture mechanics atthe beginning ‘of the 20th century and the randomly distributed ‘laws oF discontinuities across the surtave of a piece tf glass ae referred iy a Grifih Maws, While Griffith flaws are present on the surface of any glass, the strength of glass is also modi the presence of major (visible) dafects, whi he the origin of oracke under applied tenei es. The edges of a plate of plase are mare pone to damage from accidental contact than the surface. ‘The energy of an impact on the face of a pieve of lass can usually be absorbed by deflection (bending) of the glass bat edge impact is resisted by the full in-plane stiffness ofthe glass plate or beam and elivess a higher aun! mre damaging impulse ‘Under load, stresses concentrate at the tips of these flaws or cracks, which may well be invisible to the naked eye. Grifith stated that erack propaga tion will occur if the energy released upon crack ‘growth js sufficient to provide all the enerpy that is required for crack growth, This can be expressed ‘mathematically as: (BG, FS. (ue Fig. 5.3) sat (oe Fig. 53) where o, Is the sess required to racture a plate With 9 eack of length 2a, £ is Youg's Modules tnd G. isthe critical clastic energy release rate or {oughtess of tho elas, with unite of energy per nit plate thiekness and per unt erack extension. This Equation indleates thar fas fracone will over when, in a material subjected to a stress o, a crack reaches some etlical size ao, allematvely, when ‘material containing cracks of size Is subjected t0 Some critical stress 6. The equation shows thatthe criteal combination of stess and crack Jeng for fat fracture is material Constant Tracture mechanics can provide a watiual Lia for the design stresses given in national codes and standards (Sedlacek ef al. 1995). For everyday ‘engineering calculations if i not an appropriate ‘proach, because of is length and complexity For an application where the engineer decides that fracture mechanics calculations are necessary, then Sedlaek eta. show how itis possible to cal= ite the integrated life experience ofthe glass ¢ the damage accumulated BY Toads of varying inen sity. and dutation under eiferen environmental Conditions. Chapter 18 of Ashby and Jones (1998) dloserbes very’ leary the statis. and the time Aependonce of brite fractre. Creyke, Sainsbury and Morell (1982) provide a clear guide to des non-ductile materials; chapter 3 covers brittle fracture and strength and chapter 4 the effects of time under lead. Porer and Houlsby (2000) pro- Pose a new design method Tor erackcabraded glass members, based upon a “design crack’ Some observers have Wed th glass has the ability to reverse damage (ie cal the microctachs) iit te roumed to an unstressed sate and some therefore question whether wind damage ie accu ‘mulative, Conversely, the surface condition of sheet of glass is changed every time the sas is leaned (Le. new microcracks ae generated). The engineer mist decide whether damage reversal is Something that can be relied upon in design. ”5.6 Stress concentrations ‘Because stecl is plastic, it yields and flows if it is Joeally oversitessed. Glass docs not do this. When it is overstressed it breaks without waming. It is therefore very important thatthe designer trios hard to oliminate any. cesign features that may cause Stress concentrations. Section 9.5 illustrates some halted glace details in which the reader can see the efforts made to avoid siress concentrations, Bolted gas is widely used because ois rans, pareney. What may also be invisible 1o the casual Shserver is the extraordinary effort by bolted glass ‘designers fo avoid stress concenttations around the bolts, Bolied design docs need yery careful atten ‘Whenever glass is used, there will be forces thats have to be trancmited from the glass to another material, often a structural frame. Traditionally soft fetting blocks, fibre gaskets, protective bushes and rules such as ‘avoid glass io metal contact’ have Degn use fo iit stessconeeneatons 0 ae able levels. ‘Research work is underway at Oxford University imo the behaviour of different materials and eiffer ent shapes of seting blocks. Pilkington recommend tic Tong-term average bearing stresses for setting blocks in Tuble 5,6, baced on RS 678? ‘Chapter 9 illustrates some ofthe different ways in which designers have dealt with stress concentra tions at bolted connections. Pilkey (1997) and Roark & Young (197) ean be of help in assessing stress concentration. Giass is not subject to fatigue. The perfect linearity Uf tie stress-strain curve means that reversals of ‘Stress perform no net work on the material and so ho damage or work hardening can occur. ‘Glas always fails by britle fracture, never by ductile fracture. Cyelic loading ean cause cracks (0 ‘grow (in ductile materials as well as in glass). For many materials there exists a fatigue lint: a stress amplitude below which tracture does not ocwur, O: ‘occurs after a very lange (> 10°) number of cycles. The Fag at ett of he ane Hm the yield strength. As glass does not have a yield peters tr | vith “Table §.6 BS 6262 allowable beari Maal Awa weg adword 25M? Plastes and hard rubers | 1.sIN‘mn? strength, other than in theory, this ratio is not much tise for glass designers. tis mentioned to help com- pare and contrast glass with other, more familiar, Tuterial, Tn metals auch oo steel, tho stress amplitile below which fmeture does not occur is wefetred to as the endurance limit. Following the work of ‘August Wohler. the graph that plots stress amplitude against number of sirss reversals to fracture is feferred to as a Woher line. An example is given in ‘Alexander and Street (1982). Sedlacek eta. (1993) ‘how how the behaviour of glass cam be described by equations analogous wo the equation for the fig strengl: of steel members and may be inter preted asa kind of Wahler line. Fatigue strength of steel Ag"N = Ao,?N, = constant ‘where: Ag isthe stress amplitude NY isthe number of eyeles m ——isanesponcat “This i shown in Fig. 5.5. Survival probability of scratched glass loaded ‘at a constant rate 0°,,5, = 4S, = constant Fig. 54 Diagrams of sme where: G —— Isthe temile tess B _isamesponent of value 25 a 5, is 2400em?, which i the DIN $2 79? Part 2.R 400. s ‘This is shown in Fig. 5.6. an area Spo! ares concetatons Fipricol each (Ce theory) ‘and eircuar hoe in tension A eee reauved in eld (rom Peterson's Stress ‘concentration factors, Walter Pike, © 1997 Joba Wiley & ons: ne) i a Kee eaa0e(t-f)-oeetr-gyrt22(1- erg eter) Kwskstt- oH ™__ | -280(1-f)e1s20-gF Ise Seta se of ls in buildings

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