Journal of South American Earth Sciences 21 (2006) 372–382

www.elsevier.com/locate/jsames

Geochronological and isotopical review of pre-Devonian

crustal basement of the Colombian Andes
a,*
Oswaldo Ordóñez-Carmona , Jorge Julián Restrepo Álvarez a, Márcio Martins Pimentel b

a
Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Facultad de Minas, A.A. 1027 Medellı́n-Colombia, Colombia
b
Instituto de Geociências, Universidade de Brası́lia, CEP: 70910-900 Brasilia, D.F., Brazil

Received 1 October 2004; accepted 1 March 2006

Abstract

Under the flatlands east of the Andes, the crustal basement is exposed in a few places, composed mainly of the Mitú migmatitic com-
plex and the Parguaza granite, whose ages range between 1.78 and 1.45 Ga. Extensive outcrops of high-grade metamorphic rocks are
found in several places. Two metamorphisms are dated between 1.2–1.1 and 1.0–0.9 Ga. They are considered blocks that formed during
the Grenville orogeny and have Sm–Nd TDM model ages of 1.87–1.47. The Andaquı́ terrane is formed mainly by the Garzón Massif,
composed of granulites, migmatites, and granites, and the metamorphic rocks of the Sierra de la Macarena, which are covered by unde-
formed Cambrian sediments. It is believed that after the Grenville orogeny, this unit remained attached to the Amazonic Craton. All the
other areas grouped in the Chibcha terrane, though they formed during the Grenville orogeny, are believed to have remained either as
part of another continental block or dispersed islands to be amalgamated to the Amazonic Craton during the Lower Paleozoic orogeny,
which in the Quetame Massif is dated between the Silurian and Devonian and is named the Quetame orogenic event.
 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Colombian Andes; Grenville orogeny; Quetame event

1. Introduction Tahamı́ terrane. These two terranes are composed of con-

The Colombian Andes are divided into three main
branches, known as the Eastern, Central, and Western
cordilleras, and include minor orographic systems such as
the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta and the Serranı́a de
Baudó. There is not a complete coincidence between the
geology and the orography, because the Colombian Andes
are composed of allochtonous terranes accreted to the
Amazonian Craton (Restrepo and Toussaint, 1988; Tous-
saint, 1993; Toussaint and Restrepo, 1994, 1996). The East-
ern Cordillera, the eastern flank of the Central Cordillera,
and parts of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta and the
Guajira Peninsula constitute the Chibcha terrane, whereas
the western flank of the Central Cordillera and the NW
part of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta constitute the
*
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: oswaldo.geologo@gmail.com (O. Ordóñez-Carmona).
tinental crust. The Western Cordillera and Serranı́a de
Baudó are composed of oceanic crust and are grouped in
the Calima, Cuna and Gorgona terranes, respectively.
The Andaquı́ terrane lies between the Amazonian Craton
and the Chibcha terrane (Fig. 1).
The geological history of current Colombian territory
can be traced back to the Paleoproterozoic, with the gener-
ation of approximately 1.8 Ga old rock units presently
exposed in easternmost Colombia, along the borders with
Brazil and Venezuela. The last important tectonic event
was the collision of the Panama-Baudó arc during the late
Cenozoic. Aleman and Ramos (2000) provide a brief
review of the geological history of the northern part of
the Andes (Ecuador, Colombia, and Venezuela) in the past
2.0 Ga, and Ramos and Aleman (2000) provide greater
understanding of the Andean orogeny.
During the Proterozoic and Paleozoic, evolution was
related to a Wilson cycle, with continental collisions at

0895-9811/$ - see front matter  2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jsames.2006.07.005
 O. Ordóñez-Carmona et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 21 (2006) 372–382
Fig. 1. Suspect terrains of Colombia (modified from Toussaint and Restrepo, 1994, 1996).
approximately 1000, 380(?), and 270 Ma, followed by the
subsequent opening of oceanic basins. During the Mesozo-
ic and Cenozoic, the regime changed to a North Andean
type of orogen, characterized by the accretion of oceanic
terranes. The collision of the Panamá-Baudo block during
the late Cenozoic produced the final uplift of the Colombi-
an Andes.
In this work, a review of the geochronological and iso-
topic data of the pre-Devonian basement of the Colombian
Andes is developed and complemented by recent data. A
model of the geodynamic evolution of the area between
the Mesoproterozoic and the Silurian is presented.
2. Isotopic data and analytical methods
Sr, Sm, and Nd isotopic analyses were performed at the
Geochronology Laboratory of the University of Brasilia,
using standard ion-exchange chromatography for the sepa-
ration of Sr, Sm, and Nd with a multicollector Finnigan
MAT-262 mass spectrometer. Sm and Nd concentrations
were obtained by isotope dilution using a mixed
373
149
Sm–150Nd spike. Sr and Nd isotopic ratios were correct-
ed for mass fractionation to 86Sr/88Sr = 0.1194 and
146
Nd/144Nd = 0.7219. Two sigma uncertainties for the
87
Sr/86Sr and 143Nd/144Nd ratios are smaller than 0.01%
and 0.005%, respectively.
Decay constants used are those recommended by Steiger
and Jäger (1977), and ages are reported at the 95% confi-
dence interval. Analysis of the NBS-987 Sr standard gives
values between 0.71024 and 0.71029, and the La Jolla Nd
standard yields values between 0.511828 and 0.511842 dur-
ing the period when the analyses were performed. Isochron
ages were calculated using Ex-Isoplot program 2.05 version
(Ludwig, 1999).
3. Precambrian basement
The Precambrian rocks in Colombia are exposed in
two main regions (Figs. 1 and 2): (1) as the sialic base-
ment of the Chibcha terrain in the Andes and (2) in
the eastern flatlands, comprising part of the Amazonian
Craton.
374 O. Ordóñez-Carmona et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 21 (2006) 372–382

Fig. 2. Simplified geological map of the Colombian Andes (after Toussaint, 1993).

3.1. Eastern flatlands
The western/northwestern part of the Amazonic Craton
forms the basement of the flatlands (Llanos) east of the
Colombian Andes. Most of it is covered by Tertiary sedi-
mentary rocks, though to the east, close to the borders with
Venezuela and Brazil, some outcrops of Precambrian rocks
appear. In the border region between Colombia, Venezue-
la, and Brazil, these metamorphic rocks are included in the
Mitú migmatitic complex (Fig. 1), which comprises mainly
biotite gneisses and migmatites of sedimentary origin with
low-pressure mineral assemblages that normally include
andalusite and cordierite. The sequence is closely associat-
ed with granitoids that likely correspond to anatectic mag-
mas. Descriptions of these poorly studied rocks appear in
Galvis et al. (1979) and Bruneton et al. (1983).
Gneisses and granites yield Rb–Sr isochron ages ranging
between 1780 and 1450 Ma (Priem et al., 1982), interpreted
as reflecting the formation of a metamorphic basement at
approximately 1780 Ma superimposed by a magmatic
event at approximately 1450 Ma. One U–Pb zircon date
indicates an age of 1480 Ma (Priem et al., 1982), and vari-
ous ages between 1447 and 1215 Ma were obtained by K–
Ar and Rb–Sr methods in mineral separates (hornblende,
biotite, and muscovite).
The Parguaza granite, a body with a rapakivi texture
that seems to intrude the Mitú Complex, has a U–Pb zircon
age of 1545 ± 20 Ma and a Rb–Sr whole-rock isochron age
 O. Ordóñez-Carmona et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 21 (2006) 372–382
of 1499 ± 39 Ma (Gaudett et al., 1978). These rocks are
part of the Paleo-Mesoproterozoic Rio Negro-Juruena
province that evolved in a magmatic-arc environment
between 1.8 and 1.55 Ga (Tassinari, 1984; Teixeira et al.,
1989; Tassinari et al., 1996).
3.2. Garzón Massif
Extensive outcrops of high-grade metamorphic rocks
are exposed in the Garzón Massif. Although this zone is
geographically part of the Eastern Cordillera, it is dis-
cussed in this section because it includes metamorphic rock
units east of the Andes (Figs. 1 and 2).
Two main units are recognized, one formed by the Gua-
potón and Mancagua granitic augen gneisses in the west
and the other, the Garzón Group, consisting of granulite
facies rocks, including charnockites, enderbites, migma-
tites, mafic granulites, pyroxene amphibolites, and ultra-
mafic rocks (Álvarez, 1981; Kroonenberg, 1982a;
Rodrı́guez, 1995). The anatectic granite of El Recreo also
is part of this massif (Rodrı́guez, 1995), and most rock
units of the Garzón Massif are cut by pegmatites with large
magnetite and biotite crystals.
The most detailed geochronological work in the area is
that by Cordani et al. (2005). Many U–Pb SHRIMP ages
show an igneous event at 1158 ± 23 Ma, with high-grade
metamorphism at 1000 ± 25 Ma for the Guapotón-Manca-
gua orthogneiss. From Las Margaritas gneiss, two garnet
whole-rock Sm–Nd isochrones were obtained with ages
of 1034 ± 6 Ma and 990 ± 8 Ma, which indicate the age
of cooling under 600 C after peak metamorphism. Similar-
ly, a U–Pb zircon age of 1015 ± 7.8 Ma for leucosomes of
migmatites indicates metamorphism at the end of the Mes-
oproterozoic. Other younger ages, ranging from 1000 to
905 Ma and obtained by several methods, probably reflect
either a second metamorphism or cooling after the main
metamorphic event.
Other areas that may be part of this block are the Sierra
de la Macarena to the northeast and the granitic gneisses,
amphibolites, and migmatites that crop out to the south-
west, along the Eastern Cordillera from Garzón to the
Ecuatorian border (Maya, 2001). These units are known
as La Cocha-Rı́o Tellez migmatitic complex (Murcia and
Cepeda, 1991) and an unnamed unit in the Sierra de La
Macarena. The metamorphic rocks (gneiss and amphibo-
lites) of the Sierra de la Macarena are covered by unde-
formed Cambrian sediments, which supports a
Precambrian age for these rocks.
Recently, Jiménez and Cordani (2003) challenged the
validity of the correlation of La Cocha-Rı́o Tellez migmat-
itic complex with the Garzon Massif on the basis of the U–
Pb zircon age of 166 ± 3.8 Ma for a granodiorite. They
suggest that the tectonomagmatic evolution of the complex
may be related to the emplacement of granitoids within
paraschists and paragneisses, which formed the migmatites.
However, the Jurassic magmatic belt that extends from
Ecuador to the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta does not
375
show any relation to the main regional metamorphic
event(s). Also, in Ecuador, these granites, known as Aza-
frán, have no relation with any known orogenic metamor-
phic event (Noble et al., 1997). Only in the Santander
Massif did the Mesozoic intrusives cause thermal metamor-
phism of the Paleozoic metamorphic and sedimentary
rocks (Restrepo-Pace, 1995).
According to Kroonenberg (1982a), the rocks from the
Garzón Massif, as well as those of the Sierra Nevada de
Santa Marta, are part of a granulitic belt that probably
formed during the collision between Amazonia and Laur-
entia. The alternative model of Toussaint (1993) proposes
that the Garzón Massif, together with the Sierra de La
Macarena, constitute the Andaquı́ terrane, allochtonous
with respect to the basement of the Amazonian Craton
and accreted as an isolated block to South America during
the Grenvillian orogeny. Restrepo-Pace (1995) believes that
the granulitic belt formed during a continent–continent
collision, with the rocks in the Garzón Massif being derived
from the Guyana Shield. A very different model, implying
an autochtonous origin for the Andes, was put forward by
Priem et al. (1989), who state that ‘‘not much, if any, con-
tinental accretion occurred in the Andes between 1.6 Ga
and the Cretaceous’’.
The ages found for the Garzon Massif are comparable
to those of the Sunsás orogeny, which took place in the
western region of the Amazonic Craton between 1.25 and
1.0 Ga (Tassinari et al., 2000).
3.3. Andean region
Consensus among geologists indicates the presence of a
Precambrian basement beneath the Andes in the Eastern
Cordillera and the eastern flank of the Central Cordillera.
However, the extension of this basement to the central
and western parts of the Central Cordillera is still debated.
According to Kroonenberg (1982b), the Precambrian base-
ment underlies the entire Central Cordillera. However,
Restrepo and Toussaint (1988) argue that it only exists—
or at least crops out—east of the Otú-Pericos fault, which
is taken as the boundary between the Chibcha terrane to
the east and the Tahamı́ (or Central Andean) terrane to
the west. Currently no reliable dating of Precambrian rocks
has been obtained from the Tahamı́ terrane, so the subse-
quent discussion relates only to the Chibcha terrane.
3.3.1. Santander Massif
It is located in the northern part of the Eastern Cordil-
lera (Fig. 2), which is formed predominantly by sedimenta-
ry rocks. In this area, metamorphic and plutonic rocks
crop out, with higher-grade metamorphic rocks included
in the Bucaramanga gneiss and lower-grade rocks consti-
tuting the Silgará Formation. The first unit is considered
Precambrian, whereas the second probably formed during
the Caledonian orogeny.
The Bucaramanga gneiss consists of biotite gneisses (some
with cordierite and sillimanite), migmatites, quartzites, and
376 O. Ordóñez-Carmona et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 21 (2006) 372–382

amphibolites. The predominant rock, banded biotite
gneiss, is considered derived from a pelitic sediment (Ward
et al., 1973; Restrepo-Pace et al., 1997). In addition, the
presence of alternating bands of amphibolites and amphi-
bole gneisses suggest some contribution of volcanic materi-
al or sills of basic rocks.
On the basis of K–Ar (945 ± 40 Ma) and Rb–Sr model
ages, Ward et al. (1973) consider that the Bucaramanga
gneiss metamorphosed during the Proterozoic. 40Ar/39Ar
dates by Restrepo-Pace (1995) give apparent ages between
668 ± 9 and 574 ± 8 Ma, though the argon spectrum shows
older ages on the order of 850–800 Ma. Restrepo-Pace
attributes this divergence to rejuvenation of Grenvillian
metamorphic rocks by later thermal effects. Cordani et al.
(2005) obtain 40Ar/39Ar ages close to 200 Ma in biotite
from the gneisses, which reflects the loss of argon during
the intrusion of the large batholiths in that area. They also
present SHRIMP U–Pb zircon ages between 1558 and
864 Ma. The older ages are interpreted as representing
the sources of the sedimentary protolith, whereas an age
of 1057 ± 28 Ma is believed to correspond to a Grenville
metamorphic event. Two zircon grains yield an age of
864 ± 66 Ma, interpreted as representing a late metamor-
phism episode. This latter age is similar to that detected
in the eastern flank of the Central Cordillera, which sup-
ports the idea that both regions belong to the same terrane.
For the present study, two samples of the Bucaramanga
gneiss were collected in the same location that Ward et al.
(1973) obtained samples for K–Ar dating, specifically,
along the highway between the towns of Aguachica and
Ocaña. In that area, gneisses have banded structure, with
predominant quartz–feldspar gneiss and minor amphibole
gneisses and amphibolites. Samples NB-1 and NB-3, select-
ed for Sr and Nd isotopic analyses (Table 1), correspond to
quartz–feldspar–biotite gneiss and hornblende gneiss,
respectively.

Table 1
Sr and Nd isotopic results for the Precambrian and Early Paleozoic rocks
143
Sample Sm Nd Nd/144Nd 147
Sm/144Nd eNd(T) TDM (Ga) 87
Sr/86Sr 87
Rb/86Sr 87
Sr/86Sri T (Ma)
Bucaramanga Gneiss
NB-1 4.39 16.84 0.512370 ± 25 0.1576 0.50 1.76 0.71398 ± 6 0.5551 0.70648 945
NB-3 4.96 25.53 0.511939 ± 37 0.1175 4.07 1.71 0.70506 ± 5 0.1062 0.70363 945
Los Mangos Granulite
GRM-1 5.18 22.52 0.512290 ± 12 0.1391 0.37 1.51 0.72607 ± 6 971
GRM-2 6.15 39.56 0.511882 ± 15 0.0940 1.99 1.47 0.72302 ± 7 971
GRM-10 WR 9.26 44.48 0.511930 ± 11 0.1259 5.02 1.87 971
GRM-10 Gr 8.47 5.02 0.517620 ± 15 1.0195 971
RG-3a 7.38 40.42 0.511872 ± 08 0.1104 4.23 1.69 971
RG-6a 1.13 9.68 0.511879 ± 08 0.0706 0.87 971
El Vapor Mylonitic Gneisses
B-4 7.48 37.15 0.511931 ± 14 0.1218 5.23 1.79 0.74861 ± 5 2.55 0.71603 894
B-22 7.99 30.79 0.512370 ± 13 0.1560 0.57 1.71 0.77792 ± 5 4.40 0.72171 894
Garzón Group
G-2a 1.37 16.78 0.511770 ± 07 0.0494 5.34 1180
G-11a 1.94 16.68 0.512032 ± 05 0.0703 7.30 1180
G-20a 1.14 3.62 0.512626 ± 07 0.1904 0.72 1180
Guapotón Granite
SnAnkr-1a 14.9 78.97 0.512062 ± 07 0.1143 0.24 1.50 1088
El Hı́gado Amphibolite
HP-3a 9.25 32.95 0.512472 ± 10 0.1697 0.09 911
HP-5a 0.18 1.587 0.512085 ± 06 0.0686 4.15 911
Ocaña Batholith
BOC-1 5.90 27.61 0.512341 ± 32 0.1291 2.23 1.27 0.73750 ± 6 9.6723 413
BOC-2 5.42 25.93 0.512318 ± 16 0.1264 2.54 1.27 0.72874 ± 7 7.4091 413
BOC-3 5.04 24.92 0.512274 ± 12 0.1222 3.17 1.28 0.73118 ± 8 7.8942 413
BOC-4 5.29 26.98 0.512292 ± 16 0.1186 2.63 1.21 0.72917 ± 7 7.4416 413
Sanı́n Villa Diorite
DSV-1 5.98 31.73 0.512190 ± 13 0.1139 4.38 1.30 0.70714 ± 6 0.1907 0.70602 413
2r uncertainties for the isotopic ratio 87Rb/86Sr < 1%, 87Sr/86Sr < 0.01%, 143Nd/144Nd < 0.003%, and 147Sm/144Nd < 0.1. Data for other Precambrian
units of the Colombian Andes are also included (Restrepo-Pace et al., 1997). The right column indicates the most accepted age of the corresponding
geological unit.
Note: WR = whole-rock, Gr = garnet; eNd = [{(143Nd/144Nd)i/(143Nd/144Nd)t-CHUR}1] · 104, using 143Nd/144Nd = 0.512638 as present-day CHUR
value. TDM = k1ln [1 + (143Nd/144Nd)i  (143Nd/144Nd)DM/(147Sm/144Nd)i  (147Sm/144Nd)DM], using 143Nd/144Nd = 0.513114 as present-day DM
value, and (147Sm/144Nd)DM = 0.222.
a
Restrepo-Pace et al. (1997).
 O. Ordóñez-Carmona et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 21 (2006) 372–382
TDM model ages of 1.76 and 1.71 Ga represent average
model ages of the original sediment source areas. There-
fore, the maximum age for the protolith sedimentation
must be approximately 1.71 Ga.
3.3.2. Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta
These mountains are not part of the main Andean
mountain chain; however, their sialic basement presents
similarities with other high-grade areas of the cordillera
(Fig. 2). The eastern part of the Sierra Nevada de Santa
Marta contains the most extensive exposures of high-grade
rocks, called Los Mangos granulites (Fig. 2, N4) and Dib-
ulla gneiss. The first Precambrian metamorphic age in
Colombia was obtained by MacDonald and Hurley
(1969) for the Dibulla gneiss, represented by a Rb–Sr iso-
chron of 1400 Ma with an initial 87Sr/86Sr ratio of 0.703.
Los Mangos granulite consists of a banded sequence of
mafic and granitic gneisses, amphibolites, anorthosites,
and ultramafic and calcareous bands, containing mineral
assemblages that indicate granulite facies conditions
(Gansser, 1955; MacDonald and Hurley, 1969; Tschanz
et al., 1974; Ordóñez-Carmona et al., 2002).
Restrepo-Pace et al. (1997) date detrital zircons from a
sample of the Dibulla gneiss, obtaining ages between 1.0
and 1.3 Ga, possibly associated with the Grenville event.
They also report a U–Pb (zircon) upper intercept age of
1.5 Ga, interpreted as the age of crystallization of part of
the protolith of the granulites, and a lower intercept age
of 0.45 Ga interpreted as Pb loss related to an Andean
orogenic event. The Ar–Ar analyses of biotites from two
granulites produce complex age spectra with an integrated
age of 561 ± 6 Ma for one of the samples and a total
fusion age of approximately 845 Ma for the other. A prov-
enance pattern of detrital zircon grains (Cordani et al.,
2005) documents a Mesoproterozoic (1375 Ma) source,
as well as an early metamorphic event between 1190 and
1140 Ma and a later metamorphic event at approximately
990 Ma.
Samples in the present study were collected at the con-
fluence of the Guatapurı́ and Los Mangos rivers, approxi-
mately 20 km northwest of Valledupar (Fig. 2, N4).
Additional details about the petrographic and field charac-
teristics of these rocks may be found in Ordóñez-Carmona
et al. (2002).
The samples analyzed belong to three of the most abun-
dant associations of the banded sequence exposed in this
area. Sample GRM-1 (amphibolite) presents the lowest
Sm and Nd concentrations, and the TDM model ages calcu-
lated for these rocks are 1.47–1.87 Ga, suggesting that the
protoliths of the volcanosedimentary sequence are at least
1.47 Ga old. Garnet crystals from sample GRM-10 were
separated and analyzed, and the resulting garnet whole-
rock isochron indicates an age of 971 ± 8 Ma, considered
to be the age of granulite facies metamorphism and corre-
lated chronologically with the Grenville orogeny. It also
agrees within error with the K/Ar hornblende age of
940 ± 30 Ma reported by Tschanz et al. (1974).
377
3.3.3. Guajira Peninsula
The Guajira Peninsula lies to the northeast of the Sierra
Nevada de Santa Marta, separated by the right-lateral Oca
fault (Fig. 2). Pb- age of zircons from the Jojoncito gran-
ite (Alvarez, 1967) gave an age of 1250 Ma (Banks, 1975);
so far, it is the only Proterozoic unit identified in the area.
According to Cardona (2003), this unit is not a granite but
a paragneiss.
SHRIMP U–Pb ages of 17 zircons indicate ages of
1529 ± 43, 1342 ± 25, and 1236 ± 16 Ma for three nuclei.
Two overgrowths yield ages of 1167 ± 17 and
1165 ± 37 Ma, and younger overgrowths of other grains
give an average age of 916 ± 19 Ma (Cordani et al.,
2005). The younger ages likely represent metamorphic
events between 1165 and 916 Ma, whereas the older ages
indicate the age of Mesoproterozoic sources that, accord-
ing to Cordani et al. (2005), were located in the Amazonian
Craton.
3.3.4. Eastern flank of the Central Cordillera
Since the geological mapping project carried out by
Feininger et al. (1972), the gneisses exposed east of the
Otú fault have been considered Precambrian retrograded
granulites, similar to those in the Sierra Nevada de Santa
Marta, though diagnostic minerals of this facies have not
been found. It is worth noting that the fault that marks
the western limit of the Precambrian outcrops, according
to the map of Feininger et al. (1972), is the Otú fault, not
the Palestina fault as shown in some publications (Cediel
et al., 2002).
Geological evidence of the age is available, because
Ordovician sedimentary rocks (Harrison, 1930; Botero-
Arango, 1940), metamorphosed at low-grade conditions,
rest unconformably on the medium-grade gneisses. Also,
a Rb–Sr isochron of El Vapor mylonitic gneisses (Fig. 2,
N1), close to the town of Puerto Berrı́o (latitude 630 0 N),
indicates an age of 894 ± 36 Ma (Ordóñez-Carmona
et al., 1999) that can be related to ductile deformation of
the gneisses and therefore represents a minimum age of
metamorphism. In addition, the TDM model ages calculat-
ed for these rocks are between 1.71 and 1.79 Ga, suggesting
that the protoliths are at least 1.71 Ga old. The extension
of these rocks to the north might occur in the poorly
known Serranı́a de San Lucas, where the basement is
thought to be formed by Precambrian rocks (González-Ire-
gui, 1996). Recently, Ordóñez-Carmona and Restrepo (in
press) found granulites in the northeastern region of Serra-
nı́a de San Lucas, which allows correlation and association
with other Precambrian high-grade metamorphic rocks in
the Chibcha terrain.
Restrepo-Pace et al. (1997) report an Ar–Ar hornblende
age of 911 ± 2 Ma for the El Hı́gado amphibolite (Fig. 2,
N3) located in the eastern flank of the Central Cordillera
at latitude 211 0 N. Similarly, the Tierradentro Amphibolite
(Fig. 2, N2), at latitude 5N, is dated at 1360 ± 270 Ma by
K–Ar on hornblende (Vesga and Barrero, 1978), though
large error casts doubt on the exact age.
378 O. Ordóñez-Carmona et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 21 (2006) 372–382
3.3.5. Central Cordillera west of the Otú fault
Although no Precambrian radiometric ages have been
found west of the Otú fault (i.e., in the Tahamı́ terrane),
the latest maps by Ingeominas show two areas where gran-
ulitic rocks are exposed: the Puquı́ Complex and El Retiro
Group, indicated as probably Proterozoic (González-Ire-
gui, 1996, 2001). Recent radiometric dates do not support
this assumption (Ordóñez-Carmona et al., 2001; Ord-
óñez-Carmona and Pimentel, 2002) but indicate ages of
306 ± 11 Ma (Puquı́ Complex, Rb–Sr isochron) and
226 ± 17 Ma (Retiro Group, garnet whole-rock Sm–Nd
isochron).
A Proterozoic age for the Cajamarca Group, the main
metamorphic unit in the Central Cordillera, has been
proposed by Gómez and Núñez (2003), on the basis of
the presence of clasts of metamorphic rocks that seem
to be derived from this group and are found in the Santa
Teresa metasediments, dated paleontologically as Ordovi-
cian. This unit is located along the Pericos fault, consid-
ered the southern extension of the Otú fault, between the
Cajamarca Group to the west and the Tierradentro
Amphibolites to the east. As discussed previously, the
Otú-Pericos fault has been considered the limit between
two different terranes. Thus, an allocthtonous origin for
the Santa Teresa metasediments cannot be discarded,
and their original position with respect to both the Caja-
marca Group and the Tierradentro Amphibolites remains
uncertain.
4. Early Paleozoic basement
Although no radiometric ages in this interval are cur-
rently available for the rock units west of the Otú-Pericos
fault, La Miel orthogneiss, dated by a Rb–Sr isochron at
388 ± 12 Ma, and the Samaná orthogneiss, dated by the
same method at 346 ± 26 Ma (Restrepo et al., 1991), con-
tain xenoliths of the country rocks composed of low- to
medium-grade metamorphic rocks. Therefore, a metamor-
phic event older than 388 Ma is indicated. Restrepo et al.
(1991) and Toussaint (1993) suggest that one of the meta-
morphic events that formed the basement of the northern
part of the Central Cordillera is associated with a ‘‘Cale-
donian orogeny,’’ but geochronological confirmation is
still lacking. With respect to the protholith, a Late Prote-
rozoic–Early Paleozoic age is inferred for at least part of
the metamorphic sequence. In marbles from the eastern
and western flanks of the Central Cordillera, an Ediaca-
ran age has been obtained by C-isotope stratigraphy for
the deposition of the limestone that formed marbles (Silva
et al., 2004). Also, locally in the eastern flank of the Cen-
tral Cordillera, fossils in low-grade metasediments indi-
cate Lower Ordovician deposition (González-Iregui,
2001).
In the eastern block (Chibcha terrane), important igne-
ous, metamorphic, and sedimentary events took place dur-
ing the Early Paleozoic. Metamorphic rocks generally
considered to be of this age include the Perijá and Silgará
formations, the Quetame Group, and La Cristalina metase-
diments. The main plutonic unit is the Santander Plutonic
Group, which presents K–Ar ages of 457–413 Ma, whereas
La Cristalina, Amoyá, and El Hı́gado formations represent
the sedimentary record for the Early Paleozoic.
4.1. Santander Plutonic Group
The only dated magmatic unit of Early Paleozoic age in
the Colombian Andes is found in the Santander Massif of
the Eastern Cordillera (Fig. 2). This unit comprises both
granitic and gabbroic rocks that intrude the metamorphic
basement, consisting of the Bucaramanga gneiss and Sil-
gará Formation.
In the massif, the metamorphic basement and intru-
sions are covered by Devonian and Carboniferous sedi-
ments, thus indicating a pre-Devonian age for the
basement rocks. This age relationship is confirmed by
K–Ar data that yield ages for the intrusions in the range
of 456 ± 23 Ma (whole-rock) to 413 ± 30 Ma (horn-
blende) (Goldsmith et al., 1971; Boinet et al., 1985). How-
ever, some igneous rocks considered related to the Early
Paleozoic event yield Mesozoic K–Ar and U–Pb ages
(Goldsmith et al., 1971; Boinet et al., 1985; Dörr et al.,
1995), which suggests Mesozoic intrusions are present in
the area or an important younger tectonothermal event
has somehow reset the isotopic systems, yielding Mesozoic
ages.
Four samples of the Ocaña Batholith (Fig. 2, N5), com-
posed of medium- to coarse-grained pink granites, with
quartz, k-feldspar, plagioclase, and biotite, were collected
for the analyses. In the study area, the batholith intrudes
the metamorphic rocks of the Bucaramanga gneiss. A N–
S–elongated diorite body that intrudes the Bucaramanga
gneiss in this region also is known as the Sanin Villa dio-
rite. A sample was collected in the Sanin Villa sector of
the Aguachica–Ocaña road. It is composed of a medium-
to fine-grained diorite with hornblende, plagioclase, and
some K-feldspar and quartz.
Sr and Nd isotopic analyses were carried out on these
five samples (Table 1). Sm and Nd concentrations, as well
as the isotopic ratios, are quite uniform in the five samples
analyzed. eNd(T) values were calculated for a tentative
intrusion age of 413 Ma. The Rb/Sr data are linear
(MSWD of 1.04), but the initial Sr87/Sr86 ratio of 0.7007
for the isochron makes the obtained age of 268 ± 26 Ma
meaningless. Also, the Ocaña Batholith is covered by the
Middle Devonian Las Mercedes Formation (Bayer et al.,
1973). The TDM ages are as old as 1.30 Ga for the diorite
and between 1.21 and 1.28 Ga for the batholith, which sug-
gests the magma crustal contaminants are at least Meso-
proterozoic in age. In the case of the Ocaña Batholith,
the uniform model age values indicate magma homogenei-
ty and perhaps contaminant homogeneity as well.
The eNd(413Ma) values for these rocks are negative (2.23
to 4.38), indicating an important crustal component in
the parental magma.
 O. Ordóñez-Carmona et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 21 (2006) 372–382
4.2. Silgará Formation
Stratigraphically the Silgará Formation rests on top of
the Bucaramanga Gneiss. However, the nature of the con-
tact between them remains unclear, so an unconformity
between the two units cannot be ruled out. It comprises
slates, phyllites, schists, metasandstones, marbles, and
ortoamphibolites (Ward et al., 1973; Shäfer et al., 1998).
The metamorphic conditions vary from greenschist to
low amphibolite facies, but some local upper amphibolite
facies associations have been described (Shäfer et al.,
1998). These rocks show fine-banded structures and abun-
dant phyllites and schists compared with the Bucaramanga
gneiss rocks. Where contact is covered, the thickness of the
banding and rock association is useful to distinguish
between the two rock units. In other cases, the contact
often is defined by the biotite–sillimanite isograd (Ward
et al., 1973; Restrepo-Pace et al., 1997), though this differ-
entiation method seems to imply a common metamorphism
for both units.
For the Silgará Formation, a pre-Devonian age is cer-
tain, because the fossiliferous La Floresta Formation, of
Middle Devonian age, rests unconformably on it. In addi-
tion, dykes and granitoids intrude the metamorphic rocks
of the Santander Massif, and some K–Ar ages for these
bodies range between 457 and 413 Ma, as previously dis-
cussed. According to these dates, the ages of metamor-
phism of the Bucaramanga gneiss and Silgará Formation
are older than 460 Ma. With respect to the protholith, C-
isotope stratigraphy obtained from some marbles of the
Silgará Formation indicates an Ediacaran–Early Cambrian
deposition of the original limestone (Silva et al., 2005);
therefore, a common age for metamorphism of the Bucara-
manga gneiss and Silgará Formation is not possible, con-
trary to the point of view of Ward et al. (1973) and
Shäfer et al. (1998). These authors propose that the age
of metamorphism is the same for both units, but the gneiss
simply represents the lower, more strongly metamorphosed
portion of a single volcanosedimentary sequence, whereas
the Silgará Formation represents the upper, less metamor-
phosed part.
In contrast, Toussaint (1993) considers the possibility of
an unconformity between the Bucaramanga gneiss and the
Silgará Formation, as well as a difference in the metamor-
phic grade, which enables the separation between the two
units, with the gneiss Precambrian in age and the Silgará
Formation Early Paleozoic. Presently, the Early Paleozoic
age for the Silgará Formation is widely accepted by Colom-
bian geologists, as reaffirmed recently by Rı́os et al. (2003).
4.3. Perijá Formation
According to Forero (1970), this formation is composed
of a sequence of phyllites and metasandstones in which
some sedimentary structures are preserved. These rocks
represent the basement of the Serranı́a de Perijá, one of
the branches of the Eastern Cordillera (Fig. 2) for which
379
no absolute ages are available. Undeformed sediments with
Middle Devonian (390 Ma) fossils cover this sequence,
indicating that the metamorphism is pre-Devonian. Thus,
the rocks may be either Lower Paleozoic or represent the
northern continuity of the Precambrian metamorphic rocks
of the Santander Massif, metamorphosed at a lower grade.
4.4. Quetame Group
The Quetame Massif (Fig. 2) comprises a sequence of
low-grade metamorphic rocks that attain the biotite zone.
No absolute ages are available, but stratigraphic relation-
ships show that they are pre-Devonian, because they are
covered by the undeformed fossiliferous sediments of the
Lutitas (shales) de Portachuelo Formation of lower Devo-
nian age and the Areniscas (sandstones) de Gutierrez For-
mation of Middle to Upper Devonian age (Renzoni, 1962,
1968; Stibane, 1969).
These rocks also contain palynomorphs of Ludlovian
age (Gröser and Prossl, 1991) and are the only rocks with
Silurian fossil material in Colombia. Therefore, the meta-
morphic event that affected the Quetame Group is
post-Ludlovian and pre-Middle Devonian, chronologically
correlated with the Caledonian orogeny (425–390 Ma).
4.5. La Cristalina metasediments
Along the eastern flank of the Cordillera Central, in the
Puerto Berrı́o area, a sequence of low-grade metamorphic
rocks is exposed (Feininger et al., 1972), covering the base-
ment rocks represented by El Vapor mylonitic gneisses
(Fig. 2). These rocks, known as La Cristalina metasedi-
ments, include preserved fossil fauna that corresponds to
Lower Ordovician graptolites (Harrison, 1930; Botero-
Arango, 1940). Consequently, the age of metamorphism
is considered post-Lower Ordovician, though due to a lack
of geochronological data, regional correlations remain
uncertain.
4.6. El Hı́gado and Amoyá formations
South of La Cristalina rocks and in faulted contact with
El Hı́gado Amphibolites (Fig. 2, N3), a sequence of shales,
sandstones, and limestone corresponds to El Hı́gado For-
mation (Mojica et al., 1987). The sedimentary structures
and substantial fossil fauna are preserved in this unmeta-
morphosed sequence, indicating Middle Ordovician
sedimentation.
North of the type section of El Hı́gado Formation,
another set of sedimentary rocks is known and may be cor-
related with it. These rocks were affected by low-grade
metamorphism and constitute the Amoyá Formation
(Núñez et al., 1982).
Considering that these formations, together with La
Cristalina metasediments, are located in the eastern flank
of the Central Cordillera and contain Middle Ordovician
fossils, they might be interpreted as a sedimentary belt that
380 O. Ordóñez-Carmona et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 21 (2006) 372–382
covers the Grenvillian basement of the eastern flank of the
Central Cordillera. Subsequent to the sedimentation, part
of this belt was affected by a low-grade metamorphic event
that is more evident in the north (La Cristalina metasedi-
ments) and not detected in southern rocks (El Hı́gado For-
mation). This metamorphic event is post-Middle
Ordovician.
5. Geological evolution
The rocks of the Mitú migmatitic complex and Parguaza
granite are the oldest rocks dated in Colombia. They were
incorporated into the Amazonic Craton during the Rio
Negro-Juruena event. Although they crop out in limited
exposures at the limits with Venezuela and Brazil, they
probably form most of the basement of the Colombian
eastern flatlands, in that they are covered by mostly Tertia-
ry sediments.
For other Proterozoic rocks in Colombia, according to
the data reviewed previously, the presence of a Grenvillian
belt in the Colombian Andes, as proposed initially by
Kroonenberg (1982a), is generally confirmed. The high-
grade metamorphic rocks of the Andaquı́ and Chibcha
terranes formed during this orogeny, though some differ-
ences emerge between the rocks in the two terranes.
In the Andaquı́ terrane, the Garzón Massif underwent a
first metamorphic event between approximately 1050 and
1015 Ma, with other ages in the range of 1000–905 Ma,
which reflects either cooling of the rocks or, more proba-
bly, a second metamorphism. Ages around 1100 Ma may
correspond to the intrusion of the granites. An important
characteristic of this terrane alone is that after the Gren-
ville orogeny, the block remained attached to the Amazon-
ic Craton, covered in the Sierra de la Macarena by
unmetamorphosed Cambrian sediments. In this way, dur-
ing the Phanerozoic, it constituted part of the Autochton-
ous Block, though part of it was uplifted during the
Andean orogeny as a component of the Eastern Cordillera.
The other Grenvillian blocks, including the Santander
Massif, Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, Guajira Peninsula,
and eastern flank of the Central Cordillera, all grouped in
the Chibcha terrane, followed a different evolution. There
is no certitude that a continuous belt of Neoproterozoic
rocks links these massifs, in part because little is known
about the basement that underlies the thick sedimentary
basins that separate them. In all, there was a first metamor-
phism between 1200 and 1100 Ma, followed by a second
one in the range 1000–900 Ma. Little is known about the
evolution of these massifs between 900 and 500 Ma, but
during Early Paleozoic times, the region initially underwent
sedimentation followed by metamorphism and plutonism
(Quetame event), probably as a collision between Gondw-
ana and eastern North America. The exact position of
these blocks at the moment is unknown. Several differences
in tectonic styles, sedimentation, and the presence or
absence of metamorphism led Toussaint (1993) to propose
that the Chibcha terrane followed a different evolution
than that of the Autochtonous Block, at least until the Ear-
ly Paleozoic. The Chibcha terrane probably was located
somewhere within the Silurian–Devonian collision zone
but not connected to the Autochtonous Block in its present
position, being displaced, possibly by faults (Paleo-Guaicá-
ramo fault), during the Late Paleozoic to its present loca-
tion. Thus, the eastern part of the Colombian Andes
(‘‘Oriente Andino’’) was completely amalgamated to the
Amazonic Craton by the beginning of the Mesozoic.
Acknowledgments
This study was partially supported by the Institute of
Geosciences of the University of Brası́lia, Brazil, by
CNPq, the Brazilian Research Council, and the National
University of Colombia through DIME and DINAIN.
The authors thank the staff of the Geochronology Labo-
ratory of the University of Brasilia and the National Uni-
versity (GEMMA Group) for logistic support during
fieldwork. They also appreciate the concepts and correc-
tions made by the reviewers, which were very relevant
to structure this article.
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