ASM Handbook, Volume 4: Heat Treating
ASM Handbook Committee, p 761-766
DOI: 10.1361/asmhba0001200
C o n t r o l of Distortion in Tool Steels
Revised by Bruce A. Becherer, Teledyne Vasco; and Larry Ryan, Lindberg Heat Treating Company
D I M E N S I O N A L C H A N G E S in tool
steel caused by heat treatment are particu-
larly important to the manufacture, proper
design, and use of tooling. Although no
simple solution to the problem of distortion
exists, an understanding of the complex
factors involved will lead to procedures for
minimizing the amount of change in dimen-
sions. This article deals primarily with irre-
versible changes that affect the actual net
dimensional change or distortion of a part.
The reversible effects of thermal expansion
and contraction--when a part is heated
from room temperature to austenitizing
temperature and cooled to room
t e m p e r a t u r e - - t e n d to cancel each other out.
Reversible changes cause stressing in the
elastic range. Under such conditions, the
initial dimensional values can be restored
by a return to the original state of stress or
temperature.
The upper limit of reversible dimensional
change in a tool steel is determined by the
stress required to initiate deformation (that
is, the elastic limit corresponding to a pre-
selected value of plastic strain), the elastic
deformation per unit stress (modulus of
elasticity), the effect of temperature on
these properties, the coefficient of thermal
expansion, and the temperature-time com-
binations at which stress relief and phase
changes occur.
F o r practical purposes, the modulus of
elasticity of all tool steels, regardless of
composition or heat treatment, is 210 GPa
(30 × 106 psi) at room temperature. There-
fore, if a tool steel part deforms excessively
under service loading but returns to its
original dimensions when the load is re-
moved, a change in grade or type of tool
steel or in heat treatment will not be useful.
To counteract excessive elastic distortion it
is necessary to reduce the applied stress by
increasing the section size, or to use a tool
material with a higher modulus of elasticity
(such as cemented tungsten carbide).
Irreversible changes in size or shape of
tool steel parts are those caused by stresses
that exceed the elastic limit or by changes in
metallurgical structure (most notably, phase
changes). Such irreversible changes some-
times can be corrected by thermal pro-
cessing (annealing, tempering, or cold treat-
ing) or by mechanical processing to remove
excess material or to redistribute residual
stresses.
Nature and Causes of Distortion
Distortion is a general term encompassing
all irreversible dimensional changes. There
are two main types: size distortion, which
involves expansion or contraction in vol-
ume or linear dimensions without changes
in geometrical form; and shape distortion,
which entails changes in curvature or angu-
lar relations, as in twisting, bending, and/or
nonsymmetrical changes in dimensions.
Frequently, both size and shape distortion
(shown in Fig 1) occur during a heat-treating
operation.
Size distortion is the result of a change in
volume produced by a change in metallur-
gical structure during heat treatment. Shape
distortion results from either residual or
applied stresses. Residual stresses devel-
oped during heat treatment are caused by
thermal gradients within the metal (produc-
ing differing amounts of expansion or con-
traction), by nonuniform changes in metal-
lurgical structure, and by nonuniformity in
the composition of the metal itself, such as
that caused by segregation.
c h a n g e s in metallurgical structure during
heat treatment of tool steels are produced
by the three steps described below.
The first step involves heating an an-
nealed structure (usually consisting of fer-
rite and spheroidal carbides, commonly
called spheroidite) to about 800 °C (1450 °F)
or higher to change the ferrite to austenite
( Size distortion
Before Heated
hardening to austenitize
Fig I Size and shape distortion in hardening
Copyright © 1991 ASM International®
All rights reserved.
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and to dissolve all or most of the spheroidal
carbides to the austenite. F o r plain carbon
or low-alloy tool steels, austenitizing results
in a contraction in volume. The extent of
volumetric contraction decreases with in-
creasing amounts of carbon present in the
composition. This can be approximated as
follows:
VSA = --4.64 + 2.21 (%C) (Eq 1)
where VSA is the volume change in percent
that occurs when spheroidite transforms to
austenite. By use of this equation, it can be
estimated that, if heated to a temperature
high enough to dissolve all of the carbon in
the austenite, a 0.50% carbon tool steel
would exhibit a volume change of - 3 . 5 3 % ,
a common type containing 1% carbon
would exhibit a change of - 2 . 4 3 % , and a
very high-carbon type containing 1.5% car-
bon would exhibit a change of - 1 . 3 3 % .
However, tool steels having carbon con-
tents higher than that of the eutectoid com-
position are normally austenitized at tem-
peratures only high enough to dissolve the
eutectoid amount of carbon. Under these
circumstances, 1% carbon and 1.5% carbon
tool steels would exhibit changes in volume
of - 2 . 7 7 and - 2 . 5 3 % , respectively, after
austenitizing. These percentages are less
than that calculated directly from Eq 1
because an allowance must be made for the
volume occupied by undissolved carbides,
which is about 3.5% for the 1.0% carbon
steel and about 12% for the 1.5% carbon
steel.
The second step involves cooling quickly
enough to cause the austenite to transform
to martensite. The steel expands on t r a n s -
j-
-~ ( Shape distortion
.... -13
Quenched Before After
to martensite hardening hardening
 762 / Heat Treating of Tool Steels

Table 1 Microconstituents in various tool steels after hardening temperature of 540 to 595 °C (1000 to 1100
Retained °F) to form alloy carbides, which induces an
As-quenched Martensite, austenite, Undissolved additional expansion in volume. The forma-
Steel Hardening treatment hardness, HRC vol% vol% carbides, vol%
tion of alloy carbides during tempering is
Wl 7 9 0 ° C (1450 °F), 3 0 m i n ; W Q 67.0 88.5 9 2.5 characteristic of tool steels containing large
L3 845 °C (1550 °F), 3 0 m i n ; O Q 66.5 90 7 3.0 amounts of carbide-forming elements such
M2 1225 ° C ( 2 2 3 5 °F), 6 m i n ; O Q 64 71.5 20 8.5
D2 1040 °C (1900 °F), 3 0 m i n ; A C 62 45 40 15
as chromium, molybdenum, and tungsten,
which are found in high-speed tool steels.
Note: WQ, water quench; OQ, oil quench; AC, air cool

formation, the amount of expansion being in

inverse proportion to the amount of carbon
in solution in the austenite:
VAM = 4.64 -- 0 . 5 3 ( % C )
where VAr~ is the percent volume change
that occurs when austenite transforms to
martensite. By use of Eq 2, it can be esti-
mated that a 0.5% carbon tool steel would
exhibit a volume increase for this transfor-
mation of 4.37%, and that 1.0 and 1.5%
carbon steels would exhibit increases of
4.07% and 3.71%, respectively, if austen-
itized at the normal austenitizing tempera-
ture (only 0.8% carbon, the eutectoid
amount, in solution, and again allowing for
the volume occupied by undissolved car-
bides).
Equations 1 and 2 can be used to calcu-
late the net change in dimensions in a tool
steel when it is heat treated to transform it
from an annealed to a fully hardened (mar-
tensitic) state. F o r the examples referred to
above, normal heat treatment would pro-
duce net volume increases of - 3 . 5 3 + 4.37
= 0.84% in the 0.5% carbon tool steel,
- 2 . 7 7 + 4.07 = 1.30% in the 1.0% carbon
steel, and - 2 . 5 3 + 3.71 = 1.18% in the 1.5%
carbon steel. Net changes in linear dimen-
sions would be about one-third of the cor-
responding net changes in volume.
The third step involves reheating the
freshly formed martensite to relatively low
temperatures (tempering) to increase tough-
ness and reduce lattice stress. Tempering
produces various changes in metallurgical
structure, depending on temperature and
time at temperature.
After very long times at room tempera-
ture or shorter times at temperatures up to
200 °C (400 °F), the high-carbon martensite
in plain carbon and low-alloy tool steels
(Eq2)
decomposes into low-carbon martensite
(about 0.25% carbon) plus epsilon carbide,
with an accompanying contraction in vol-
ume. At higher tempering temperatures, 200
to 430 °C (400 to 800 °F), the martensite
decomposes into ferrite plus cementite.
Transformation of the maximum amount
of austenite to martensite on quenching
usually requires continuous cooling to be-
low the martensite-finish temperature (Mr),
which for a eutectoid tool steel is about - 5 0
°C ( - 6 0 °F). To prevent cracking of very
large or very intricate pieces, it is common
practice to remove the tool from the
quenching medium and to begin tempering
it while it is still slightly too warm to hold
comfortably in the bare hands (about 60 °C,
or 140 °F). Under these conditions, a sub-
stantial proportion of the structure (10% or
more) may still be austenite. Most alloying
elements lower the Mf temperature. Conse-
quently, more austenite is retained at room
temperature in the more highly alloyed tool
steels. On tempering at increasing tempera-
tures in the range of 120 to 260 °C (250 to
500 °F), increasing amounts of this retained
austenite transform to bainite for some tool
steel compositions, with an accompanying
expansion in volume.
Depending on the alloy content of the tool
steel, all, some, or none of the retained
austenite will transform during tempering.
In some highly alloyed tool steel composi-
tions, cementite redissolves at tempering
Size Distortion in Tool Steels
Typical volume percentages of martens-
ite, retained austenite, and undissolved car-
bides are given in Table 1 for four different
tool steels quenched from their recommend-
ed austenitizing temperatures.
Typical changes in linear dimensions for
several tool steels are given in Table 2. As
shown in this table, some tool steels such as
A l 0 show very little size change when hard-
ened and tempered over the entire range
from 150 to 600 °C (300 to 1100 °F).
Other types, such as the M2 and M41
high-speed steels, expand about 0.2% (2
mm/m, or 0.002 in.fin.) when hardened and
tempered in the temperature range of 540 to
595 °C (1000 to 1100 °F) to develop full
secondary hardness. Although the informa-
tion in Table 2 is useful in comparing size
distortion in several tool steels, the factor of
shape distortion makes it impossible to use
these data alone to predict dimensional
changes of a particular tool made from any
of these steels. Densities and thermal ex-
pansion characteristics for several classes
of tool steels are presented in Table 3.
Shape Distortion in Tool Steels
The strength of any tool steel decreases
rapidly above about 600 °C (1100 °F). At the
austenitizing temperature, the yield
strength is so low that plastic deformation
often occurs simply from the stresses in-
duced in the part by gravity• Therefore,
long parts, large parts, and parts of complex
shape must be properly supported at critical

Table 2 Typical dimensional changes in hardening and tempering

Hardening treatment Total change in linear dimensions, %, after tempering at
Temperature Total change in linear
Tool Quenching dimensions, % after °C 150 205 260 315 370 425 480 510 540 565 595
steel °C OF medium quenching °F 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 950 1000 1050 II00

Ol 815 1500 Oil 0.22 0.17 0.16 0.18

Ol 790 1450 Oil 0.18 0.09 0.12 0.13
06 790 1450 Oil 0.12 0.07 0A0 0.14 0.10 0.00 -0.05 -0.06 ' • -0.07
A2 955 1750 Air 0.09 0.06 0.06 0.08 0.07 ••• 0.05 0.04 .. 0.06
A10 790 1450 Air 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.08 0.08 0.01 0.01 0.02 • • 0.01 ' • 0.02
D2 1010 1850 Air 0.06 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.00 . . . . 0.01 -0.02 • • 0.06
D3 955 1750 Oil 0.07 0.04 0.02 0.01 -0.02
D4 1040 1900 Air 0.07 0.03 0.01 -0.01 -0.03 • • -0.4 -0.03 • ' 0.05
D5 1010 1850 Air 0.07 0.03 0.02 0.01 0.00 • • 0.3 0.03 • ' 0.05
Hll 1010 1850 Air 0.11 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.08 • • 0.3 0.01 • • 0.12
H13 1010 1850 Air -0.01 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.00 •- 0.06
M2 1210 2210 Oil -0.02 . . . . . . . . . -0.06 0.10 0.14 0.16
M41 1210 2210 Oil -0.16 . . . . . . . . . -0.17 0.08 0.21 0.23
 Control of Distortion in Tool Steels / 763

Table 3 Density and thermal expansion of selected tool steels

Thermal expansion
Density Itm/m • K from 20 *C to pin.fin. *F from 68 *F to

Type Mg/m 3 Ib/in. 3 100 *C 205 *C 425 *C 540 *C 650 *C 200 *F 400 *F 800 *F 1000 OF 1200 *F

Wl 7.84 0.283 10.4 11.0 13.1 13.8(a) 14.2(b) 5.76 6.13 7.28 7.64(a) 7.90(b)
W2 7.85 0.283 14.4 14.8 14.9 8.0 8.2 8.3
SI 7.88 0.255 12.4 12.6 13.5 13.9 14.2 6.9 7.0 7.5 7.7 7.9
$2 7.79 0.281 10.9 11.9 13.5 14.0 14.2 6•0 6.6 7.5 7.8 7.9
$5 7.76 0.280 12.6 13.3 13.7 7.0 7.4 7.6
$6 7.75 0.280 12.6 13.3 ••• 7.0 7.4
$7 7.76 0.280 • • • 12.6 13.3 13.7(a) 13.3 7.0 7.4 7.6(a) 7.4
Ol 7.85 0.283 • • • 10.6(c) 12.8 14.0(d) 14.4(d) 5.9(c) 7.1 7.8(d) 8.0(d)
02 7.66 0.277 11.2 12.6 13.9 14.6 15.1 6.2 7.0 7.7 8.1 8.4
07 7.8 0.283
A2 7.86 0.284 10.7 10.6(c) 12.9 14.0 14.2 5.96 5.91(c) 7.2 7.8 7.9
A6 7.84 0.283 11.5 12.4 13.5 13.9 14.2 6.4 6.9 7.5 7.7 7.9
A7 7.66 0.277 12.4 12.9 13.5 6.9 7.2 7.5
A8 7.87 0.284 12.0 12.4 12.6 6.7 6.9 7.0
A9 7.78 0.281 12.0 12.4 12.6 6.7 6.9 7.0
D2 7.70 0.278 10.4 10.3 11.9 12.2 12.2 5.8 5.7 6.6 6.8 6.8
D3 7.70 0.278 12.0 1l•7 12.9 13.1 13.5 6.7 6.5 7.2 7.3 7.5
D4 7.70 0.278 12.4 . . . . . . 6.9 --.
D5 . . . . . . • • • 1 2 . 0 • • • • .. 6•7
H10 7.81 0.281 12.2 13.3 13.7 6.8 7.4 7.6
Hll 7.75 0.280 11.9 12.4 12.8 12.9 13.3 6.6 6.9 7.1 7.2 7.4
HI3 7.76 0.280 10.4 11.5 12.2 12.4 13.1 5.8 6.4 6.8 6.9 7.3
H14 7.89 0.285 1 1 . 0 • • • 6.1
H19 7.98 0.288 11.0 11.0 12.0 12.4 12.9 6.1 6A 6.7 6.9 7.2
H21 8.28 0.299 12.4 12.6 12.9 13.5 13.9 6.9 7.0 7.2 7.5 7.7
H22 8.36 0.302 11.0 " • • 11.5 12.0 12.4 6.1 6.4 6.7 6.9
H26 8.67 0.313 • • • 12.4 • • • • ." 6.9
H42 8.15 0.295 • • • 11.9 • • • -.' 6.6
T1 8.67 0.313 • "- 9.7 11.2 11.7 11.9 5.4 6.2 6.5 6.6
T2 8.67 0.313
T4 8.68 0.313 • • • 1 1 . 9 • - • • ." 6.6
T5 8.75 0.316 11.2 "•• • • • 11.5 • • • 6.2 • ." 6.4
T6 8.89 0.321
T8 8.43 0.305
TI5 8.19 0.296 • '' 9.9 11.0 11.5 . •• 5.5(c) 6.1 6.4
MI 7.89 0.285 • • • 10.6(c) 11.3 12.0 12.4 5.9(c) 6•3 6.7 6.9
M2 8.16 0.295 10.1 9.4(c) 11.2 11.9 12.2 5.6 5.2(c) 6.2 6.6 6.8
M3, class 1 8.15 0.295 11.5 12.0 12.2 6.4 6.7 6.8
M3, class 2 8.16 0.295 11.5 12.0 12.8 6.4 6.7 7.1
M4 7.97 0.288 9.5(c) 11.2 12.0 12.2 5•3(c) 6.2 6.7 6.8
M7 7.95 0.287 9.5(c) 11.5 12.2 12.4 5•3(c) 6.4 6.8 6.9
M10 7.88 0.255 1 1 . 0 11•9 12.4 6.1 6.6 6.9
M30 8.01 0.289 11.2 11.7 12.2 6.2 6.5 6.8
M33 8.03 0.290 11 •0 11.7 12.0 6.1 6.5 6.7
M36 8.18 0.296
M41 8.17 0.295 9.7 10.4 11.2 ••• 5•4 5.8 6.2
M42 7.98 0.288
• . .
M46 7.83 0.283
M47 7.96 0.288 10.6 11.0 11.9 ••• 12.6 5.9 6.1 6.6 "" 7.0
L2 7.86 0.284 14.4 14.6 14.8 8.0 8.1 8.2
L6 7.86 0.284 11.3 12.6 12.6 13.5 13.7 6.3 7.0 7.0 7.5 7.6
P2 7.86 0.284 13.7 . . . . . . 7.6 "--
P5 7.80 0.282
P6 7.85 0.283
P20 7.85 0.283 12.8 13.7 14.2 7.1 7.6 7.9
(a) From 20 to 500 °C (68 to 930 °F). (b) From 20 to 600 °C (68 to 1110°F). (c) From 20 to 260 °C (68 to 500 OF).(d) From 38 °C (100 *F)

l o c a t i o n s t o p r e v e n t s a g g i n g at t h e h a r d e n - r e g i o n s will d e f o r m p l a s t i c a l l y t o r e l i e v e t h e Slow heating minimizes distortion by

ing t e m p e r a t u r e •
Rapid heating increases shape distortion,
e s p e c i a l l y in l a r g e t o o l s a n d in c o m p l e x
t o o l s c o n t a i n i n g b o t h light a n d h e a v y s e c -
t i o n s . I f t h e r a t e o f h e a t i n g is h i g h , light
s e c t i o n s will i n c r e a s e in t e m p e r a t u r e m u c h
faster than heavy sections• Likewise, the
o u t e r s u r f a c e s in h e a v y s e c t i o n s will in-
c r e a s e in t e m p e r a t u r e m u c h f a s t e r t h a n t h e
i n t e r i o r . D i f f e r e n c e s in t h e r m a l e x p a n s i o n
d u e t o t h e d i f f e r e n c e s in t e m p e r a t u r e b e -
t w e e n light a n d h e a v y s e c t i o n s o r b e t w e e n
s u r f a c e a n d i n t e r i o r in h e a v y s e c t i o n s will
b e e n o u g h t o s e t u p l a r g e s t r e s s e s in t h e
material. Under these stresses, the hotter
thermally induced stress•
E v e n t u a l l y , t h e h o t t e r p o r t i o n s will
reach the furnace temperature, whereas
t h e c o o l e r p o r t i o n s will c o n t i n u e t o in-
c r e a s e in t e m p e r a t u r e . A t t h i s p o i n t , a
d e c r e a s e in t h e r m a l d i f f e r e n t i a l b e g i n s ,
w h i c h will c a u s e a p a r t i a l r e v e r s a l in t h e r -
mal stress that produced plastic deforma-
tion when the temperature differential was
high. This m a y c a u s e the part to u n d e r g o
f u r t h e r plastic d e f o r m a t i o n , but to a l e s s e r
extent than the deformation caused by the
initial h i g h - t e m p e r a t u r e d i f f e r e n t i a l . S u c h
d e f o r m a t i o n will o c c u r in a d i f f e r e n t d i r e c -
tion.
keeping temperature differentials low and
thermal stresses within the elastic range of
the material throughout the heating cycle.
I d e a l l y , all h e a t t r e a t m e n t o f t o o l s t e e l p a r t s
should start from a cold furnace to provide
the greatest freedom from shape distortion
during heating. Starting from a cold furnace
is n e i t h e r v e r y p r a c t i c a l n o r e n e r g y e f f i c i e n t
u n l e s s h e a t t r e a t i n g is b e i n g d o n e in a v a c -
u u m f u r n a c e . W h e n h e a t t r e a t i n g in f u s e d
salt or an a t m o s p h e r e f u r n a c e , p r e h e a t i n g
t h e p a r t s at o n e o r m o r e i n t e r m e d i a t e t e m -
peratures prior to heating them to the aus-
tenitizing temperature provides the best
compromise.
764 / Heat Treating of Tool Steels
During quenching, large temperature dif-
ferences between surface and interior, and
between light and heavy sections can cause
severe shape distortion, because of thermal
stress and mechanical stress produced by a
martensitic transformation. This problem is
most severe if the hardenability of the steel
is so low that a fast cooling rate is required
to obtain full hardness. In such a situation,
especially when making a large or complex
part, it may be best to substitute a high-
hardenability, air-hardening tool steel,
which requires only a slow cooling rate to
fully harden. It is worth noting that water
quenched steels will generally show large
dimensional changes after quenching. How-
ever, because plain carbon tool steels such
as W l and W2 are shallow hardening, the
amount of movement in large cross sections
may be less than comparable tools made
from higher-hardenability grades.
However, if lower-hardenability steels re-
quiring liquid quenching are used, fixturing
and pressure die quenching can help mini-
mize distortion. Long symmetrical parts
should be fixtured and should be quenched
in the vertical position with vertical agita-
tion of the quench mediums.
Special Techniques for
Controlling Shape Distortion
Special quenching procedures such as
martempering and austempering may also
be useful for controlling distortion in parts
that have an appropriate configuration and
have been made of material of appropriate
hardenability. In martempering, parts are
quenched in hot molten salt fast enough to
avoid transformation to high-temperature
transformation products such as ferrite or
pearlite. The parts are held at a bath tem-
perature in the range from slightly above to
slightly below the M s just long enough to
equalize the interior and surface tempera-
tures. The parts are then removed from the
bath and allowed to air cool to room tem-
perature. Slow cooling through the marten-
sitic transformation range reduces distor-
tion as compared with rapid quenching.
Martempered tools must be given the usual
tempering treatment.
Austempering can be used to reduce dis-
tortion if a hardness no higher than 57 HRC
is acceptable for the application. In austem-
pering, parts are also quenched in hot mol-
ten salt but by temperature selection are
forced to transform into bainite rather than
martensite. Bainite forms at temperatures
above those at which martensite forms. The
parts must be held long enough at a temper-
ature above M S (usually about 230 °C, or 450
°F) to permit the austenite to transform to
lower bainite. When air cooled to room
temperature, austempered tools exhibit less
shape distortion and generally require no
subsequent tempering.
Besides being reduced through control of
rates of heating and cooling, shape distor-
tion can be reduced by employing a local-
ized method of heating and quenching such
as flame hardening, induction hardening,
electron beam or laser hardening to treat
only that portion of the tool that must be
hardened.
Controlling out-of-roundnessis important
for certain precision applications, such as
class C and D cutting hobs made of high-
speed steels. Class C and D hobs must be
held close to size limits because they are not
ground to size after heat treatment, but
rather are used in the unground condition.
Normal size distortion in hardening and (a) C o ~ o n s l procms
tempering can be accommodated by making
the tool slightly oversize or slightly under-
size, as required, before heat treating. High-
speed steel bars, however, have been ob-
served to go out-of-round as much as 0.05 0.11Q5m e
mm (0.002 in.) during heat treatment. The
pattern of size distortion shown in Fig 2(a)
can occur. It appears to be related to the
initial shape of the cast ingot and to the
specific primary-mill processing used to re-
duce the ingot into bars. By changing steel-
making, forgings, and rolling procedures,
out-of-roundness has been reduced to the
smaller differential pattern shown in Fig (b),~isl process
2(b), where the difference between high and Typical diameter changes during heat treat-
low points is only 0.005 mm (0.0002 in.). Fig 2 merit for high-speed steel bars. Drawings pro-
High-speed steel bars made this way are duced by calculation from precision measurements of
diameter. Charts are plots on polar coordinates de-
marketed by a few tool steel producers as picting variations in diameter after heat treatment for
"close tolerance hob stock." An even bet- a bar that was round within -+1.25 p,m (-+0.00005 in.)
ter method of combating out-of-roundness before heat treatment.
is to use high-speed tool steel bars made
from hot isostatically pressed powders,
which maintain the best possible symmetry
during conventional heat treatment (see the tensite in plain carbon or low-alloy tool
discussion of powder metallurgy steels later steels that must be tempered at low temper-
in this article). atures to achieve the hardness required.
Stabilization involves reducing the Cold treatment may be applied either before
amount of retained austenite in heat-treated or after the first temper. If, however, the
material. Retained austenite can slowly tools tend to crack because of the additional
transform and produce distortion if the ma- stress induced by dimensional expansion
terial is later heated or subjected to stress. during cold treatment, it is generally pru-
Stabilization also reduces internal (residual) dent to apply cold treatment after first tem-
stress, making distortion in service less pering of the tools. When cold treatment is
likely to occur. Stabilization is most impor- applied after the first temper, the amount of
tant for tools that must retain their exact retained austenite that transforms during
size and shape over long periods (that is, the cold treatment may be considerably less
gages and blocks). than desired because some of the austenite
If the tool steel chosen provides the re- may have been stabilized by tempering pri-
quired hardness after tempering at a rela- or to cold treating. Cold treatment is usually
tively high temperature, it is possible to done in a commercial refrigeration unit ca-
reduce the amount of retained austenite and pable of attaining - 7 0 to - 9 5 °C ( - 100 to
the internal stress by multiple tempering. - 1 4 0 °F). Tools must be retempered
Initial tempering reduces internal stress and promptly after return to room temperature
conditions the retained austenite so that it following cold treatment to reduce internal
can transform to martensite on cooling from stress and to increase the toughness of the
the tempering temperature. A second or newly formed martensite.
third retempering is usually necessary to F o r some tools, a small percentage of
reduce the internal stress set up by the retained austenite is desirable for improving
transformation of retained austenite. toughness and providing a favorable inter-
Single or repeated cold treatment to a nal stress pattern that will help the tool to
temperature below Mf will cause most of withstand service stresses. F o r these tools,
the retained austenite to transform to mar- a full stabilizing treatment may actually
 Control of Distortion in Tool Steels / 765

result in tools that are unfit to perform their transformation will set up compressive or Powder Metallurgy Steels
required functions. tensile stresses that can cause distortion
Temper Straightening of Martempered and/or cracking. Elimination of surface mill In recent years, tool steels with improved
Tool Steels. Temper straightening is used for decarburization or carburization by machin- properties have been produced by the pow-
correcting distortion caused by heat treat- ing or grinding prior to heat treatment are der metallurgy (P/M) process.
ment. The workpiece first is tempered to a recommended to eliminate such effects. The basic production routes now in com-
hardness somewhat higher than required, Shape change caused by mechanical mercial use for P/M tool steels are summa-
and then clamped in a straightening fixture thermal stresses prior to heat treatment rized in Fig 3. All these processes use gas-
and tempered to the required hardness. The can be addressed by stress relieving, Me- or water-atomized powders and either hot
greater the hardness difference between the chanical sources such as forming, grind- isostatic pressing (HIP), mechanical com-
first and the corrective tempering opera- ing, or machining can set up nonuniform paction (extrusion, forging, and so on), or
tions, the more accurate the dimensions will residual stresses. Brazing, welding, and vacuum sintering for densification. The ba-
be. Temper straightening is most successful torch heating can cause thermal residual sic difference among these processes is that
at hardness levels of 55 HRC and lower. stresses. These residual stresses remain in the use of gas atomization will yield spher-
Deep-hardening alloy and tool steels that the component until thermally relieved. As ical particles, while water atomization will
are being martempered to minimize distor- the component is heated, the steel will produce angular particles of significantly
tion should be held straight during the cool- yield plastically at the point where the hot higher oxygen content. The angular parti-
ing period after austenitizing and until the yield strength and residual stress level cles can be cold pressed to provide a com-
completion of martempering. If straightness coincide. The creep deformation occurs pact that has sufficient mechanical strength
is not maintained throughout martempering, simultaneously with any stress relaxation. to be handled and processed directly, while
the workpiece will warp as martensite con- Localized mechanical stresses such as the spherical gas-atomized powder must be
tinues to form. Straightening should be stamped identification marks, machining encapsulated prior to densification. The
done below 480 °C (900 °F). Cold bars or marks, sharp corners, and changes in sec- most widely used of the aforementioned
chills contacting the high side will more tion size will have a significant influence production practices utilize gas atomization
rapidly extract the heat from the workpiece on the degree and location of the shape and HIP.
and aid in straightening. distortion. A separate stress-relieving cy- P/M tool steels have two major advantag-
Other Considerations. One of the most cle by heating to approximately 650 °C es: complete freedom from macrosegrega-
common instances of dimensional change in (1200 °F) and air cooling allows the control tion and porosity, and uniform distribution
steel articles is the warpage that occurs of mechanically or thermally induced re- of extremely fine carbides. These character-
during the heating operation and that is sidual stress. istics provide deeper hardening and faster
often mistaken for a dimensional change Upon cooling from the stress relief, the response to hardening conditions (see Fig
occurring in the quench. It will be noted part may be distorted, but can be easily 4). The latter is important, particularly for
that on heating, a relatively large expansion corrected in the annealed condition with molybdenum high-speed steels, which tend
takes place, and that at the transformation an additional operation of straightening, to decarburize rapidly at austenitizing tem-
temperature, a slight contraction occurs. machining, or grinding. In many situations peratures. P/M products also show less out-
Because this contraction occurs when the where extensive machining is required, a of-roundness distortion in large-diameter
steel is hot and very plastic, it is not likely good practice is to rough machine, stress bars (see Table 4).
to lead to cracking. However, the continu- relieve, and then finish machine or grind When sulfur is added to P/M tool steels,
ous expansion on heating will cause heavy using light passes. Annealing in place of they exhibit a very fine homogeneous dis-
objects or long slim objects to warp if not stress relieving is acceptable and preferred tribution of sulfides. This uniform sulfide
properly supported, if the rate of heating is if considerable welding has been per- distribution promotes better machinability.
too great or if nonuniform heating occurs. It formed. After heat treating, the refined, hardened,
is necessary to emphasize the importance of Preheating as the initial phase of harden- and tempered P/M tool steels exhibit better
proper support for any article to be heated ing will provide a stress-relieving effect. grindability and greater toughness than con-
to a high temperature, because at this tem- However, distortion will manifest itself and ventionally processed (cast and wrought)
perature the lack of strength will often allow if allowed to exist through the hardening tool steels. As of 1990, more than 30 differ-
the steel to bend under its own weight. operation, the effect of stress relieving will ent P/M tool steel compositions were com-
Warpage and dimensional changes can also be lost because straightening of a hardened mercially available. Many of these corre-
arise on heating from machining stresses part is very difficult to accomplish. spond directly to AISI wrought
and from unbalanced design. Slow rates of Fundamentals such as the technique of counterparts. More detailed information on
heating offer less danger of either occurring placing the tools in a high heat furnace as processing and properties of P/M tool steels
than fast rates of heating because at any one well as racking and handling methods must can be found on pages 780 to 792 of Volume
time the temperature gradients throughout be considered as potential causes of shape 1 of the 10th Edition of Metals Handbook.
the steels are less. distortion. Uniform support of parts in a
Excessively high austenitizing tempera- furnace is important to prevent sagging, Maraging Steels
tures in tool steels will lead to excessive particularly at high heat temperatures for
grain growth and a more stabilized austen- long, slender sections. Large parts must be A group of alloys known as 18% Ni
ite. This overheated condition along with raised off the hearth plate to ensure satis- maraging steels are commonly used for tool-
the larger thermal gradients experienced factory heat circulation and more even heat- ing. These maraging steels are chosen for a
during heating and quenching will result in ing and cooling. Because tool steel is auste- variety of reasons, not the least of which is
irregular dimensional changes. nitic when it is removed from the high heat their freedom from distortion associated
Another factor that will influence shape furnace, care must be exercised in transfer- with the austenite to martensite transforma-
distortion is surface chemistry variation. ring the load. Preferably, the parts should tion. Maraging steels are supplied by pro-
For example, when lower or higher carbon be placed on trays that can be grasped to ducers in a soft martensitic condition, ap-
concentrations exist, as in decarburization remove the load. If the individual part must proximately 28 to 35 HRC, referred to as
or carburization, the surface transformation be handled with tongs, avoid holding it at the solution treated or solution annealed
temperature will be changed. The difference the thinner sections, which will lose heat condition. In this solution treated condition,
between the surface and the subsurface rapidly and might bend more easily. the alloy can be formed, machined, and
766 / Heat Treating of Tool Steels

68
~67 P/M bar, 125mm diam

I
I Water atomize Gas atomize ~ t i o n a l
bar, 19 mm diam

I I I ' Conventional "

I Angular powder ] I spherical p°wder I bar" 125 7m diam
0 1 2 3 4 5
I I Time at austenitizingtemperature,min
Comparison of response to hardening for P/M
Fig 4 and conventionally produced bars of M25
I I (HC) tool steel. Hardness at midradius was evaluated
for bars oil quenched from 1200 °C (2200 °F) and
tempered 2 + 2 + 2 h at 550 °C (1025°F).

Vacuum sinter aging treatment. Choice of a specific grade

will dictate that hardness. It is typically not
I m I recommended to under- or overage the al-
I
I
Hot forge i i Hotextru0e II "°t r°'' I loy because some degradation of properties
I I I can occur. The system for identification of
I I I the various maraging grades incorporates a
I I I three digit number and a letter (C or T)
Powder ]
Powder forging Modified Direct I designating the approximate tensile strength
sintering I Powder HIP HIP (in ksi) and the principal alloy strengthener
process process extrusion process process
i (cobalt or titanium), respectively. For ex-
ample, 18Ni C (250) is an 18% Ni maraging
Fig 3 Current manufacturing processes for P/M tool steels. Source: Metals Handbook, Volume 1, 10th Edition steel alloyed with cobalt that has a tensile
strength of - 2 5 0 ksi (-1720 MPa). More
detailed information on these alloys can be
conventionally fabricated. The full hardness minimal shrinkage and essentially no distor- found in the article " H e a t Treating of Ma-
of the alloy is achieved by a simple aging tion. raging Steels" in this Volume.
treatment, usually 3 to 6 h at approximately Decarburization, another cause of stress
480 °C (900 °F) followed by air cooling. This and distortion in conventional tool steels, is SELECTED REFERENCES
aging or precipitation hardening treatment not a factor with 18Ni maraging steels be-
is not accompanied by an austenite/mar- cause they contain only low residual carbon • P.D. Harvey, Ed., Heat Treatment of
tensite phase change and therefore is not levels (less than 0.025%). Tool Steels, Metals Engineering Institute,
prone to the distortion prominent with other Several maraging steels are available and American Society for Metals, 1981
tool steels. A uniform predictable shrinkage provide a wide variety of hardness or • G. Hoyle, High Speed Steels, Butter-
does occur in the amount of approximately strength levels (Table 5). The 18Ni marag- worths, 1988
0.025 mm/25 mm (0.001 in./in.). Because the ing steels are alloyed to obtain a specific • G. Krauss and H. Nordberg, Ed., Tool
development of hardness is essentially inde- hardness level and are given a standard Materials for Molds and Dies, Colorado
pendent of the cooling rate from the aging School of Mines Press, 1987
temperature, full through hardness can be • B.S. Lement, Distortion in Tool Steels,
achieved even in massive sections with only American Society for Metals, 1959
Table 5 Typical hardening (aging) • Properties and Selection: Irons, Steels,
treatments and resultant hardnesses for and High-Performance Alloys, Vol 1,
maraging steels 10th ed., Metals Handbook, ASM Inter-
Table 4 Out-of-roundness distortion in
large-diameter bars of M2S tool steel Aging Nominal national, 1990
treatment(a) hardness,
Typical Grade *C *F I-/RC • F.R. Palmer et al., Tool Steel Simplified,
Bar diameter out-of-roundness(a) Chilton Book Company, 1978
Production 18Ni C (200) 480 (900)(b) 44
mm in. method mm in. 18Ni T (200) 480 (900)(b) 44
• P. Payson, The Metallurgy of Tool Steels,
18Ni C (250) 480 (900)(b) 50 John Wiley & Sons, 1962
75 3 P/M 0.008 0.0003
Conventional 0.020 0.0008
18Ni T (250) 480 (900)(b) 50 • G.A. Roberts and R.A. Cary, Tool Steels,
18Ni C (300) 480 (900)(b) 53 American Society for Metals, 1980
125 5 P/M 0.013 0.0005
18Ni T (300) 480 (900)(b) 53
Conventional 0.033 0.0013
18Ni C (350) 480 (900)(b) 58
• M.G.H. Wells and L.W. Lherbier, Ed.,
190 7.5 P/M 0.015 0.0006 Processing and Properties of High Speed
Conventional 0.051 0.0020 (a) 3 to 6 h + 1 h per additional in. (25 mm) of cross section.
(b) Aging treatment of 530 °C (990 °F) is recommended for Tool Steels, TMS-AIME, 1980
(a) Maximum diameter minus minimum diameter after normal aluminum die casting dies which result in hardness values slightly • R. Wilson, Metallurgy and Heat-Treat-
hardeningtreatment lower (-2 HRC) than indicated.
ment of Tool Steels, McGraw-Hill, 1975