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Studies on glass facades morphologies

Article  in  ce/papers · October 2018

DOI: 10.1002/cepa.915

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Studies on glass facades morphologies

Marcin Brzezicki1

1 Faculty of Architecture, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology, Poland,

marcin.brzezicki@pwr.edu.pl

The wealth of geometrical variations of glass facades calls for a thorough study of glass facade mor-
phology. The term ‘morphology’, which is typically associated with biological sciences, is also com-
monly used in urban and architectural design to describe the appearance and physical structure of
the building’s volume and its envelope. In many cases the morphology of the façade is closely related
to its physiology, i.e. the manner in the facade works (e.g. a layered construction resulting from ven-
tilation requirements), while in other cases, the form of the façade functions strictly as aesthetic ex-
pression.
The presented brief study of façade morphology investigates the effects of two and three dimensional
transformations made to a planar surface and the resulting complexity of façade variants. On the
highest level the facades are grouped according to the geometrical modification of the original planar
façade: (i) its spatial deformations which preserve the continuity of the surface (single or double
curved continuous surfaces) or (ii) segmented iterations which break the continuity of the surface
(serrated, folded, prismatic, triangulated). Two and three dimensional spatial deformations as well as
iterations such as: translation, rotation, division, and multiplication produce a multitude of different
solutions, which are grouped in the following table, which illustrates the possible options of façade
geometry.

Keywords: glass façade, façade geometry, plane transformations, façade typology.

1 Introduction

The prevailing trend in façade technology is characterized by increasing com-

plexity, not only from the technological perspective (e.g. the increasing amount
of components), but also in terms of façade geometry – a high variety of the forms
are used. The aim of this study is to briefly analyze the geometrical forms that
can be obtained using flat, cold and hot bent glass. The presented typology is
briefly illustrated with case studies.

2 Background

The first curtain walls were flat. This facilitated the production of mullion and tran-
som elements and the assembly of flat glass sheets. The invention of the curtain
wall significantly influenced the image of many contemporary cities. The ease of
installation and durability made the curtain wall system a popular choice for a
 Studies on glass facades morphologies

variety of applications, regardless of the function or prestige of the building. How-

ever, after a period of initial admiration, flat glass facades became ubiquitous and
were commonly seen as monotonous. In contrast to the original assumptions, the
use of large areas of flat glass did not always translate into an aesthetical suc-
cess. Glass has specific optical qualities, e.g. it is transparent only when illumi-
nated from beneath. In other circumstances glass partially functions as a reflec-
tive surface and blocks the views into the building. Early requirements of energy
efficiency (prevention of heat gain) imposed further modifications of optical qual-
ities of glass. As a necessity glass was covered with reflective coatings to protect
against overheating. These coatings reflected even more light than untreated
glass, thereby changing the buildings into impermeable mirrored solids. The fol-
lowing description of geometrical transformations made to originally flat façades
are widely recognized as the architect’s attempt to spatially diversify the surface
of the glazed wall, provide more variety and make new transparent facades vis-
ually appealing in the urbanscape. Contemporary façades are not seen merely
as an isolated building component but as an integral component of the building’s
appearance.

3 Previous approaches

The issue of facade morphology has been addressed by many researchers over
the last two decades. The term "morphology" was used for the first time in refer-
ence to urban morphology in spatial planning. Seadman in his book titled “Archi-
tectural morphology…” puts emphasis on exploring the “possible range of plan
forms within geometric limits” (Steadman [1]). Moloney writes, that “morphology
is typically associated with the field of biology, and refers to the outward appear-
ance and physical structure of an organism, as opposed to physiology, which
primarily deals with functional processes” (Moloney [2]). The most comprehen-
sive study presented so far was published in the book titled “Facade Construction
Manual” (Herzog, Krippner, & Lang [3]), where simplified diagrams of possible
spatial forms of glass facades were presented (see fig. A 2.1.6).

4 Presented approach

The presented typology is based on façade geometry and divides facades into
two groups of spatially deformed flat facades with surface continuity (and their
variations), which produce various types of curves (single or double-curved), and
segmented iterations, which consist of single facets that form the folded/ser-
rated/protruded surface of the facade. The analysis of existing case studies
shows that more types can be distinguished based on regular iterations of spatial
elements that create facades. As Herzog states “every facade is made up of sev-
eral flat or curved surface units which intersect or make contact with each other”
(Herzog, Krippner, & Lang [3]). This makes it possible to concentrate on the fa-
çade’s design principles in a more fundamental manner.

5 Possible 3D geometrical options of the façade

There are many methods of shaping the building's volume. Architects tend to
choose the one that best suits the functional program, reflects the relationship
with the surroundings and corresponds with individual aesthetic sensitivity
(unique architectural style). Briefly speaking, transformations that vary in scale
are generally made to: the entire volume of a building (in 3D), the depth of the
façade (in 2,5D – relief) and the surface of the façade – pattern (in 2D –also called
façade decoration). Spatial deformations of a façade usually affect the entire vol-
ume of the building, while segmented iterations are applied at the scale of the
façade’s surface, at a depth that is relatively small compared to the entire volume
– analogically to global and local spatial deformations defined by (Barr [4]). The
pattern is also an interesting tool to achieve depth, especially in double leaf fa-
çades, but as it is basically a flat technique, it is beyond the scope of this paper.

5.1 Spatial deformations

Spatial deformations preserve the continuity of the surface. Such surfaces are
characterized by smooth transitions and the absence of acute angles (mild/soft
angles are more common). Spatial deformations produce regular and irregular
shapes. The former sub-group includes single curved surfaces (cylindrical, coni-
cal, elliptical and rotational geometry) and double curved ones (synclastic and
anticlastic shapes, e.g. hyperbolic paraboloid) while the latter covers all free-form
transformations (including twisting, bending, tapering, free-forming). The charac-
teristic feature of this type of façade geometry is the unbroken continuity of sur-
face.

At the technical/manufacturing level curved or free-form geometry is usually

achieved by using flat or curved glass.

 The use of flat glass requires the approximation of the curved surfaces by flat
faces/panels (triangles or planar quads). Thus a mesh is created which rep-
resents the curvature or free-from geometry of the facade. The issue of mesh
geometry and the definition/optimization of mesh nodes has recently evolved
and currently constitutes a separate discipline of science, both in mathemat-
ics, geometry and façade engineering. The most comprehensive lecture on
the topic is given in the book “Architectural geometry” (Pottmann, Asperl, Ho-
fer, & Kilian [5]).
 The use of curved glass in regular and free-form facades is rare because its
production costs are very high. Glass can be hot or cold bent. Hot bent glass
 Studies on glass facades morphologies

can be bent at smaller radii, while cold bent glass allows for much smaller
curvatures and thus requires large radii – the minimum cold-bending radius
is approximately 1500 times the thickness of the glass. Cold bent glass re-
quires a rigid sub-frame to maintain its shape.

Both sub-types of façades (i.e. those approximated by facets/panels as well as

smoothly curved facades) can be designed as single or double layer structures.
In double layer facades, one of the few available optimization solutions is to make
the internal layer of the façade of flat glass, and the external of bent glass. Such
a solution was implemented in the IAC building (O’Gehry, 2007) and Quai Ouest
office building in Boulogne Billancourt (Brenac & Gonzalez, 2017). This method
reduces the number of curved panels and increases performance of IGU, that
constitutes the internal glazed layer of the façade.

Figure 1-# Surface transformation phases (schematic diagram by author).

5.2 Segmented iterations

Iteration breaks the continuity of the façade surface and divides it into individual
facets which might be oriented in different directions (the above-mentioned ap-
proximation also divides façades into individual facets by creating mesh but those
facets are used as smooth transitions that represent the curve). The general ge-
ometrical rule regarding the creation of a segmented facade (general scenario)
requires two consecutive spatial operations. First, the fragmentation/division of
the façade’s surface into segments (either regular or not), and then the geomet-
rical transformation of the segments obtained in the previous operation (e.g.
translation, rotation, scaling, skewing). Segmented iterations are characterized
by right and/or acute angles between the facets. Many different variations of ar-
rangement of iterated facets are possible. Facets can be rotated around the ver-
tical and horizontal axis (which is how zigzagged, folded or serrated facades are
produced) or can protrude and retract along the surface of the façade, forming
e.g. the so-called “checkered facades” where every second panel protrudes from
the background.

All iterated/segmented facades are generally characterized by “depth”, i.e. the

distance from the “back plane formed by the (back) ground (…) and the frontal
plane created by the outermost protrusions” (Arnheim [6]). Regular iterations are
also described by the “pitch”, which is the measure of the module of the façade
(i.e. the modular distance in repetitive geometry facades). Both values can vary
depending on the visual effect required by the architect and the client or can be
conditioned by other engineering aspects.

Among the most popular iterated solutions are facades with:

 protruding and retracting segments, where parts of the façade form oriels that
project forwards and backwards, e.g. Bürogebäude Haus 1 in Munch (arch.
Ganzer-Hajek-Unterholzner/Louvieaux, 2010);
 serrated/folded segments, which are basically characterized by the zig-
zagged geometry in the vertical or horizontal section (horizontal section ser-
ration being much more frequent) and parallel fold lines. This produces rec-
tangular façade facets/panels. Serrated facades are also characterized by
the “angle of serration” which describes the angle between the panel and the
overall surface of the facade. In repetitive/rhythmical solutions the angles are
usually of the same measure, e.g. in Oskar von Miller Forum in Munich (arch.
Herzog + Partner, 2009), while when arbitrary geometry is applied, the angles
are random e.g. Osaka Fukoku Seimei Building (arch. Dominique Perrault
Architecture, 2010). Arbitrary serration requires much more labor-intensive
detailing, as all the junctions at unique angles have to be solved/designed
separately. Serration can also be applied to the entire façade, or can be lim-
ited to a single storey. Very interesting visual effects can be achieved when
 Studies on glass facades morphologies

the serration on the upper and lower stories is different e.g. Conservatorium
of Amsterdam(arch. van Dongen – Koschuch, 2005).
 pleated segments, similar to the ones mentioned above but with arbitrary fold
lines, e.g. Tokyu Plaza Ginza (arch. Nikken Sekkei, 2016), which produce
arbitrary polygonal facets/panels on the façade.

In serrate/folded/pleated facades the facets must have a common edge to satisfy

wind and water tightness requirements.

 shingled segments, where the panes of glass are positioned analogously to

fish scales or shingles. Glass shingles are frequently used to introduce air
into the space of the façade because the manner in which panes are ar-
ranged rarely provides a tight connection between the panes (as in the case
of roof tiles): e.g. in H 19 Office Building in Duesselfor (arch. Petzinka Pink
und Partner, 2002) or Steiermärkische Sparkasse in Graz (arch. Szysz-
kowitz–Kowalski, 2006). In Ghent’s market hall (arch. Robbrecht en Daem
and Marie-José van Hee, 2013) glass plates virtually mimic ceramic roof tiles,
providing additional quality of light transmission through the glazed envelope
of the roof. Glass shingles also vary in how they overlap (one or two edges)
and in the angle of orientation, which can be diagonal e.g. planned Dancing
Dragons Towers (arch. Adrian Smith + Gordon Gill).
 finned segments, which are not a pure example of a segmented iteration, but
– once the fins are added – they are visually divided into separate parts and
alter the surface of what is basically a flat façade.

Figure 2-# Segmented iterations (schematic diagram and selected case-studies for illustration).
Photographs by author.
6 The technological rationale behind the design

The application of a curved or folded/serrated geometry to the façade requires

much more effort in the designing, proofing and manufacturing stages. Apart from
the aesthetical reasons discussed above the rational engineering reasons should
also be mentioned. The main advantage of curved geometries comes from their
stiffening effect, because the “arching actually makes it (glass) highly load re-
sistant” (Äppelqvist [7]). When used properly, arching also minimizes deflections.
An example of impressive stiffness of the hot-bent glass façade elements are the
undulating glass plates used in Casa da Musica in Porto (OMA, 2005) and in
MASS Museum in Antwerp (Neutelings Riedijk, 2010).

Bent panels are also less prone to defects during transport. Bent and tempered
glass “offers excellent mechanical strength and durability against temperature
variations” (Äppelqvist [7]). The unique advantage of cold bending of laminated
glass rests primarily in its better optical quality resulting from fewer distortions
and reflections.

Figure 3-# Serrated facades case studies (description given on the figure). Photographs by author

Due to their geometry, folded multifaceted facades are much more rigid and re-
sistant to e.g. wind blows. The fact that the façade uses more glass to cover the
same area could be regarded as a disadvantage, but a detailed analysis shows
that folding and serration allows for the optimization of the transparent part of the
façade in order to avoid direct solar gain (e.g. transparent panels might face
north, non-transparent – south). Moreover, the aerodynamic analysis shows that
serrated façades can utilize the prevailing wind direction for the purpose of the
building’s natural ventilation. This was the case in KfW Westarkade in Frankfurt
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Studies on glass facades morphologies

am Mein (Sauerbruch Hutton, 2010). It should also be stated that segmented

façades require careful water run-off management, as the multifaceted geometry
can allow for easy water ingress.

7 Summary

The abundance of solutions in the field of glass façades calls for their extensive
description and classification in order to provide an overview of available options.
This paper is an attempt to conduct a preliminary study and offers a division of
facades into those that maintain surface continuity and those that do not. De-
pending on the chosen option both the visual and engineering aspects of a façade
design are affected. This paper is planned as a preliminary study of facade ge-
ometry and can serve as the basis for more detailed research.

8 References

[1] Steadman P. Architectural morphology : an introduction to the geometry of

building plans. London: Pion; 1983. 276 p. p.
[2] Moloney J. Designing Kinetics for Architectural Facades: State Change.
Florence, UNITED STATES: Taylor & Francis Group; 2011.
[3] Herzog T, Krippner R, Lang W. Facade construction manual. 1st ed. Basel;
Boston: Birkhauser-Publishers for Architecture; 2004. 320 p. p.
[4] Barr AH. Global and local deformations of solid primitives. Proceedings of
the 11th annual conference on Computer graphics and interactive tech-
niques. 808573: ACM; 1984. p. 21-30.
[5] Pottmann H, Asperl A, Hofer M, Kilian A. Architectural geometry. 1st ed.
ed. Bentley D, editor. Exton, Pa.: Bentley Institute Press; 2007.
[6] Arnheim R. The dynamics of architectural form: based on the 1975 Mary
Duke Biddle lectures at the Cooper Union. Berkeley: University of Califor-
nia Press; 1977. vi, 289 p. p.
[7] Äppelqvist M. Curved glass: an obstacle or opportunity in glass architec-
ture? 2015, Retrived from: https://www.glastory.net/curved-glass-an-ob-
stacle-or-an-opportunity-in-glass-architechture/