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The Unified Comminution Model - a Conceptually New Model

Article · January 2006

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The unified comminution model - a conceptually new model

M. S. Powell
Mineral Processing Research Unit, University of Cape Town, Rondebosch, 7700, South Africa

ABSTRACT: The Unified Comminution Model (UCM) endeavours to provide a framework for all
comminution devices. It is based on the premise that comminution is a fundamental process, and that the same
processes apply in all comminution devices, only in different proportions and at different intensities. Unlike
the models in common use, this one models the process, not the outcomes of a particular device. This is a
particle property based model, based on a series of probability functions that control the rate, types, energy,
force of contacts, and contact partners. This intrinsically allows for multi-component modelling, preferential
breakage, and liberation. The UCM is underpinned by computational modelling, and the DEM is currently the
prime tool. It is envisaged that the model structure will be used to model novel comminution devices, and
provide true full circuit comparison simulations, that include the key parameter of liberation. This paper
presents the structure of such a model and details the type of information that will be integral to the
development.

1 INTRODUCTION 3 CURRENT COMMINUTION MODELS

A novel comminution model is proposed, that will
integrate all comminution models under one
structure, called the Unified Comminution Model
(UCM). This will provide a step change in the
predictive power of comminution models, and
include a wide range of particle properties that will
enable it to be linked to the upstream and
downstream process of mining and recovery. Major
advances over current models will be the capability
to predict liberation, preferential grinding,
performance of new and novel devices, and to have
energy as the integral driver of the comminution
simulation process, rather than as an independently
calculated output.
2 VISION
It is proposed that comminution should be modelled
in an integrated manner utilising a single theory that
can be applied to all comminution devices. The
vision is to:
• Unify all comminution models.
• Improve the predictive power of current models.
• Incorporate liberation.
• Link to up-stream and down-stream processes.
• Predict liner and media wear.
• Be able to model novel comminution devices.
To contextualise this proposed model, and to
understand the implications of its potential outputs,
one needs to first revisit the status of the current
models.
The existing models have been developed over
many years by many different researchers. The
JKMRC models (Napier Munn et al. 1999) and
general process models, for example those of Austin
et al. (1984), are primarily based on simple
conceptual models which are calibrated using data
from site test work, pilot scale grinding work and
single particle breakage tests. That is, the equipment
is fed ore and the outputs are measured in response
to varying available control parameters, such as feed
rate, speed, dilution, etc. These are fitted to semi-
empirical relationships, which in part usually have
an underlying structure based on the intuitive or
deductive reasoning of the investigator. Arising from
the relationships being fitted to real data, the models
are usually rugged, realistic, and useful, and they
cover the principal range of operation of industrial
devices. Through the AMIRA P9 project the
JKMRC models have been integrated into the
JKSimMet simulator, to provide an extremely useful
tool for data analysis and simulation.
However, the current comminution models suffer
from a range of limitations:
 As they are semi-empirical, they should not be
applied beyond their window of development. Multi-
parameter, empirical equations can deviate wildly
from reality outside the boundaries within which
they were derived. This is well-acknowledged in
commercial simulators such as JKSimMet, and the
manuals clearly warn of this danger.
As the models are derived from measurement,
they can only apply to existing equipment. Thus the
models tend to appear a number of years after
equipment has come into common use. The
drawback is not so much the time lag, but that they
cannot be used to predict the performance of novel
devices. Thus they are of limited use in accelerating
the development of potentially useful devices, or
halting the development of ineffectual devices.
The models are single component. They do not,
and indeed cannot, incorporate liberation in their
predictive outcomes. There is thus no way of
explicitly linking them to downstream recovery
processes. Dual or multi-component ores cannot be
explicitly modelled, they must be dealt with in an
“average” manner. Thus preferential breakage
cannot be incorporated, and this is known to be
critical in ores that contain components with widely
different breakage properties and/or specific
gravities.
Due to the historic nature of their development
(and the many researchers involved), the models for
each piece of equipment are quite different. There
are some points of similarity in structure, in that
many use an underlying population balance model,
but in general the inputs and outcomes are not
directly comparable. There is thus an intrinsic
uncertainty in comparing different circuit
configurations.
Power draw (energy usage) is not an input to any
of the models. Although some models do estimate
power as an output, it is usually independently
calculated from the breakage outputs, and only
provides information by which a user can judge the
predictions. There is thus no direct correlation to
power draw, and it is left to the user to
independently conduct calculations by which to
assess the predictions, and predict circuit power
consumption.
Because the models are based on collecting
production data, it is impractical to account for finer
design details which are overshadowed or hidden by
fluctuations in other operating variables. Thus liner
design, discharge geometry, and refinements to
equipment geometry, are generally missing from the
models.
Despite these limitations the current models have
proven their usefulness over many years, and are not
to be underestimated. Indeed, they continue to be the
most effective tools available for comminution
circuit optimisation and design.
What is absolutely clear from an analysis of the
structure of the existing models, is that modifying
current models cannot achieve the outputs desired in
the new model vision. Thus an entirely new
approach is required.
4 MODEL AIMS
The followings are the key envisaged outputs of the
new model. It should:
• Apply to all mechanical comminution devices,
• have excellent predictive capability,
• interface with upstream process models – mining
e.g. blasting,
• interface with downstream process models -
recovery via e.g. flotation, leaching, hydromet,
• have liberation incorporated in an integral
manner,
• allow for the synergistic/antagonistic interaction
of different ore types, i.e. preferential breakage,
• be applicable to novel devices,
• account for details of equipment geometry, such
as liner design, discharge geometry,
• provide the outputs to predict media and liner
wear,
• be based on, and therefore predict, energy/power
input and consumption,
• be dynamic.
5 NEW COMMINUTION MODEL
It is proposed to develop a single structure for all
comminution models. The desired outputs and the
motivation for them are listed below:
5.1 Model novel comminution devices
Current models can not predict the performance
of new or novel devices as they have to be
developed on existing equipment, so the models
usually appear about 10 years after the equipment.
Modelling potential new devices will cut down on
lengthy testing, which comes at a high cost and risk
and can result in potentially useful and efficient
equipment not making it into production.
5.2 Liberation integral to the model
Liberation can not be genuinely incorporated into
current models. Predicting liberation is the key to
linking comminution to the recovery process. This
will allow true integrated plant simulation for design
and optimisation.
5.3 Full comparison of circuit configurations
Current models are inadequate to give a true full
process comparison. It is necessary to predict a
product size distribution that is equipment specific,
and integrally incorporates liberation (recovery).
The models should give reliable predictions of
power consumption for power comparison between
circuits. Utilising models that give a consistent
prediction of power, throughput, product size
distribution, and liberation, will allow a proper
assessment of what process route suits an ore,
taking into account overall circuit performance,
which includes recovery.
5.4 Blends of different ore types
Current models can only treat an average ore, and to
accommodate a mixture of ores a blending factor is
applied. However, there is a strong
synergistic/antagonistic grinding effect between
different ores, with competent ores preferentially
grinding away the softer ores, resulting in the
accelerated milling of soft ore and the reduced
milling of hard ore. Thus 10% of hard ore in the feed
to a mill can result in a mill load which contains
95% of hard ore. It is therefore important that
models can respond realistically to changes in feed
composition, as commonly experienced on mines.
5.5 Separate machine and ore characteristics
This separation has always been an objective of
modelling. However, the models can only scale from
one ore type to another if the ores are similar. Being
unable to reliably scale to different ore types, can
lead to major design errors. Using a standard ore
characterisation protocol and a single underlying
comminution model should allow this objective to
be achieved.
5.6 Single underlying model
It is far preferable to develop, refine, and fix one
model, rather than refining and patching many
different models of different devices. This
concentrates research effort, and ensures a consistent
improvement of all unit models as the single
underlying model is upgraded.
This also provides a consistency between the
different unit model predictions, whereas currently
as one switches from ball mill to SAG to HPGR the
model outputs are not directly comparable.
5.7 Currently power and breakage are independent
Current models are fundamentally inadequate to
predict power consumption, as it is not an integral
part of the breakage prediction. Even for the crusher
models that have an integrated power prediction
based on the ore breakage tests, the product size and
power input are independently calculated and
calibrated outputs. Designers still rely on Bond
Work Index (BWI) numbers to test all predictions,
and give an overall mill power prediction. This issue
is especially acute for ball mill modelling, as one
can get a 40% variation in power draw based on
simulation alone, when allowing the re-circulating
load to vary over the full possible range.
Furthermore the BWI is only suited to ball and rod
milling, and is completely insensitive to run-of-mine
feed size to a SAG mill. Basically in design and
expansion studies, user bias can drive results to the
users liking.
The models should be underpinned and driven by
power consumption, as is the real equipment.
6 HYPOTHESES
It is hypothesised that:
Comminution is a generic process of ore
breakage in a range of modes, which is independent
of the equipment that imparts the comminution, and
should therefore be modelled as a fundamental
process.
Different equipment just imparts the fundamental
range of comminution processes in different ratios
and intensities, and by understanding these, the
outputs of the equipment can be predicted.
In conducting breakage characterisation tests, if
an ore is broken according to the fundamental modes
of breakage that exist in comminution devices, the
overall product for any given device can be
calculated from correctly combining the products of
the individual breakage modes.
The conceptual basis of the new model is:
Model the comminution process, not the
comminution equipment outcomes.
Everything grinds and crushes everything else.
This intrinsically allows the synergistic interaction
of different ore types in the feed.
7 MODEL STRUCTURE
The model is a description of the breakage
processes, and computational modelling provides the
key input data that underpins this. Computational
techniques such as the Discrete Element Method
(DEM), Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD),
Discontinuous Deformation Analysis (DDA), the
Discrete Finite Element Method (DFEM), meshless
methods such as Smoothed Particle Hydrodynamics
(SPH), etc., will be required to provide the particle
interaction histories that the model will depend
upon. The entire model will be a probability / rate
function in which particle interaction is calculated
by:
• particle type,
• interaction energy,
• impact mode.
The model will be a generic description of the
comminution process, and the actions of a specific
device will be derived by overlaying the physical
outputs of that equipment. These outputs include:
• energy distributions,
• impulse (integral of force over time),
• probability of interaction according to particle
type with particle type,
• transport,
• probability of discharge,
• fluid / suspension mode.
The model formulation is conceptually: Product is
a function of computational outputs applied to
breakage properties, plus a discharge function
determining what leaves the equipment.
7.1 Key model parameters
A wide range of parameters, inputs, and concepts
underpin the new model. Some exist in current
models, and are familiar to comminution modellers,
many are new to this science, but all the concepts
and methods that are envisaged have been applied in
various fields and only require adaptation or
refinement to be applied here. However, the task of
formulating these into one coherent model should
not be underestimated.
7.2 Particle types
The model is a particle property model, that is
individual particles and their progeny are transported
through the process. The particle properties that will
define each particle type include:
• size,
• shape,
• density,
• mineral class,
• grindability,
• mineralogy,
• liberation,
• ball or ore,
• slurry /suspension status,
The comminution device contents will be defined by
the number and distribution of each particle type in
the device. Although not all the information is
necessarily required by the comminution model, it
will carry all the information required by the
upstream and downstream processes.
7.3 Breakage mode
The key output of the computational modelling into
the model will be the types of interactions between
particles, which will determine the mode of
breakage of the particles. The frequency or rate at
which each particle is subjected to each impact
mode is required. This is simulated for many
particles and the overall frequency and intensity is
determined for each mode. This does not provide
one number, but rather a distribution that is in
essence a probability function.
7.4 Equipment type
The type and operation of the comminution device
determines the energy and interaction modes present
in the equipment. The key equipment parameters
include:
• geometry,
• shape,
• size,
• liner profile,
• discharge geometry and mode,
• type of motion,
• rate of motion,
• …..
7.5 Ore breakage characterisation
The models will produce a range of classes of
interaction. Practical breakage testing is used to
simulate the derived classes of interaction. Breakage
can be independently characterised for any particular
ore. This determines the response of the ore to the
comminution environment to which it is subjected.
At this stage it is not envisaged that breakage will be
modelled, but rather derived directly from physical
measurement. The key to this approach being
successful is that breakage testing must be linked to
the interaction types and intensities found in the
comminution devices. Thus the breakage must be
tested in the modes that occur in comminution
devices, and then recombined according to the range
of modes found in any given comminution machine.
Although the model does not have to intrinsically
model breakage, in time these processes can be
incorporated. At present, computational capability is
a serious limit to detailed modelling of breakage of
very many individual particles.
The current breakage testing techniques are too
crude for the model requirements, so it is envisaged
that there will be an interactive modification of
testing techniques that will be designed to simulate
the breakage modes found in comminution devices.
Specifically:
• impact forces,
• angle of impact,
• chipping abrasion of angular rocks,
• spalling and chipping,
• sliding abrasion,
• cumulative damage leading to breakage,
For any particular impact a rock particle has a
probability of breaking into a range of sizes. So the
breakage distribution will be determined, not just the
average product size. This should enhance the
predictive capability of the model.
7.6 Liberation
Liberation should be integrated into the breakage
testing. The measurement of breakage products will
incorporate liberation data – where this should be
wider than the limited concept of liberation of
valuables, and encompass liberation by mineralogy.
That is, the breakage products should be
characterised by the key mineralogical components
that carry breakage and liberation information.
Liberation will then “drop out” of the breakage
modelling – i.e. it will be integral and fully
predictive. However, to collect the initial data may
involve lots of expensive Mineral liberation
Analysis work to establish the procedure and its
validity. To cope with this overhead, complementary
techniques such as micro-tomography, and judicious
use of assays will be incorporated.
7.7 Transport / classification
Transport and classification functions must be
integral to the model. These are essential to move
material through a device, control residence time in
specific regions, and discharge of the product from
the comminution equipment. The current dry DEM
computational models that are being used, do not
simulate the transport of fines, and flow of slurry.
Fluid models, such as CFD and SPH, are being
targeted for this purpose, and then the particulate
and fluid models have to be linked to form a realistic
transport regime. The Solid-fluid coupling is not a
straightforward task, and is at the cutting edge of
computational development. While these models are
being developed and improved, more empirical
models can provide simple classification and flow
models that will give the correct gross effects.
7.8 Media and liner wear
So far as the model is concerned balls and liners are
equivalent to ore components, i.e. objects subjected
to a range and frequency of impact interactions.
Ideally the balls and liners should be subjected to the
same breakage tests as for the ore, and the material
loss derived in the same manner. However, steel has
a considerably lower wear rate and different
response to impact, so will need to be subjected to a
suite of tests better suited to predicting its wear. This
is being pursued in separate work by Radziszewski
(1993, 2001) with which the author has links. This
approach uses the same types of outputs as the new
model, and the two should be seamlessly integrated
as the model develops. The technique is also
considering the effect of corrosion. The wear
prediction of liners will also need to incorporate the
additional geometric effects required to evolve the
profile of a wearing liner.
7.9 Applying the model
The computational part of the model has to be run in
advance of conducting any UCM simulations, as
these calculations are computationally expensive,
i.e. slow. Simulations of the motion of particles in
real applications currently requires weeks of
computation per condition. Instead it is proposed
that a wide range of conditions will be simulated and
the outputs used to develop overarching
relationships and probability matrices that will form
the heart of the model. The UCM simulator then
uses these outputs in combination with the ore
breakage information to conduct rapid desktop
simulation, similar to the existing JKSimMet
simulator.
The model is particle based, so tracks the
production of new particles. In order to conserve
mass, both total and by mineral type that is tracked
in the model, this requires the rigorous application of
population balancing techniques. A generic
framework, such as that proposed by Hounslow et
al. (2005), that can track the creation and
disappearance of different species and track the
conservation of a number of properties is required.
As the model is not machine specific it can be
applied to all current comminution devices and used
to investigate novel devices of any geometry one
may envisage – once the breakage and flow
interactions inside the device have been defined by
detailed numerical simulation.
7.10 Application to existing models
It is not proposed that the existing models be
discarded. The outputs from the new model will be
used to inform the existing models, and to improve
on weak areas of the models. Regardless of
outcomes of the UCM the accuracy and the range of
applicability of existing models will be improved
through this input. The new comminution model will
only be applied in practice when it supersedes the
predictive capability of the existing models of each
specific piece of equipment.
7.11 Plant data
It is planned that plant data will remain the basis for
understanding and validation of models. However, 10 REFERENCES
to make the collection of plant data pertinent to these
more detailed models will require more detailed data Austin, L.G., Klimpel, R.R., and Luckie, P.T.
to be collected during survey work. These data Process Engineering of size reduction: ball
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• liner profiles, Generic Crystallizer Model: I. A Model
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• feed ore types, AIChE, 51, 11, pp. 2942-2955. (2005).
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• acoustic measurements, operation and optimisation, 1999, JKMRC,
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Radziszewski, P., Determining Impact, abrasive,
and corrosive contributions to total media wear.
8 CONCLUSIONS
In vol. IV of Proceedings International autogenous
It is proposed that a new Unified Comminution and semiautogenous grinding technology 2001,
Model (UCM) be developed to make possible a step Sep. 30 - Oct. 3, Ed. D.J. Barratt, M.J. Allan, A.L.
change to the predictive capabilities of comminution Mular, Published CIM. 2001, pp. 252-259.
models. Computational modelling will be used to Radziszewski, P., and Tarasiewicz, S. Simulation of
provide a substantially improved quantitative Ball Charge and Liner Wear. International Journal
understanding of the physical interactions taking on Wear, Friction and Lubrication., 169, 77-85.
place in a comminution device. The proposed (1993).
structure is dramatically different from that of the
current models as it is based on probability functions
and interaction modes of individual particles.
It is aimed to make the new model both
mechanistically correct and mathematically
consistent. One underlying model will apply to all
comminution devices. However, the “application
shell” for each equipment specific application of the
model will provide an efficient way for the user to
input key machine parameters and to output key
performance parameters. This contrasts with the
detailed numerical models which utilise computer
aided design packages for detailed machine
definition.
Development of the UCM requires improved
breakage testing and understanding to provide the
information required by such a detailed model.
Liberation and classification will be integral to the
model. The early outputs will be used to reinforce
and improve the current models. Practical site work
will remain a key component of model development
and validation. The model will be of a form that can
be integrated into the total operational process,
linking with upstream and downstream processes
such as mining and concentrating.

9 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The input and enthusiasm Dr Rob Morrison of the
JKMRC during discussions of the UCM concept,
and his suggestions are gratefully acknowledged.

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