How to Design a Sociology Research Project

A Brief Guide Through the Process

Undertaking a research project can be a bit daunting if you’ve never done one before or if you are embarking on an
entirely new subject or research method. Fortunately, the steps of a research project are nearly the same across all
disciplines and fields of study. This brief overview of the steps will get you started, but students conducting sociological
research for the first time should do so under the guidance of an experienced teacher.

1. Define The Purpose Of Your Study

Before you design your study, you must define the purpose of your project. For example, what kind of study will you
undertake – exploratory, descriptive, explanatory? Are you writing a research paper for a course or thesis requirement, or
are you writing an article for an academic journal, or something else? You need to define why you are conducting the
study and what your purpose is. This will help you choose an appropriate research design and think through what exactly
you hope to examine.

2. Conceptualization

Once you have a well-defined purpose and a clear description of what you want to achieve, you can proceed to the next
step: conceptualization. Conceptualization is the process of producing specific, agreed-upon meanings for concepts for
the purposes of research. This involves describing the indicators you will be using to measure your concepts as well as
the different aspects to the concepts. For example, if you want to studywhether men are more effective politicians than
women, you can’t meaningfully study the question or agree on the answer without first defining and agreeing on the
meaning of "effective" within the political context.

3. Choose a Research Method

Once you define the purpose of your study and the concepts that you wish to research, you need to choose a research
method to use. For some studies, a survey might be the most appropriate method, while in other studies, field
research, content analysis, or interviews would be the most appropriate.

4. Operationalization

Operationalization involves deciding on which measurement techniques you are going to use in your research--it is the
development of specific research procedures that will result in empirical observations. For example, what is the exact
wording you are going to use in a questionnaire, and what are the answer choices you are going to provide to
respondents for each question? Operationalization involves specifying exactly how you are going to measure your
research concepts.

5. Population And Sampling

You must now decide whom or what you are going to study. The population for a study is the group (usually people)
about whom you want to draw conclusions. We are rarely ever able to study all the members of a population, however,
so instead we choose a sample from the population of interest. Here you must define your population and then
decide how you are going to sample them and how many you are going to sample.
6. Collect Data

You are now ready to collect data and make observations. You will have already determined which research method you
are going to use, so now is the time to implement that choice. For example, if you are conducting asurvey, you might
print questionnaires and mail them to your sample, or you might have a team of interviewers conduct the survey over the
telephone.

7. Processing Data

Once all of your data is collected, you are ready to process it. During the data processing step, you transform the
collected data into a form that is appropriate to manipulate and analyze. Raw data, after it is first collected, will need to
be cleaned. For example, incorrect responses will need to be removed, corrected, or set to missing. It will also need to
be coded, or transformed into a standardized form. For example, responses to survey questions will need to be given
numbers (such as 0 for “no” and 1 for “yes”) so that they can be entered into a computer program for analysis.

8. Analysis

Once the data is in suitable form, you are ready to interpret them for the purpose of drawing conclusions. The analysis
done will be determined by what kind of study you are doing (exploratory, descriptive, explanatory), what questions you
want to answer, and what methods you used. Quantitative data can be analyzed using statistical programs that generate
tests and measures like frequencies and crosstabs, regression analyses,correlations, or ANOVA, to name a
few. Sometimes researchers code qualitative data in ways that allow for these same kinds of analysis, and sometimes,
we analyze our data ourselves, by looking at the the themes, patterns, and connections that emerge from interview and
ethnographic fieldwork data.

9. Draw Conclusions

Once you have analyzed your data, found any patterns, trends, and relationships, and answered your research
questions, you can draw conclusions from your research. Answering the following questions will help you in this process:
What do your data show? Do they tell us something new about society, and/or confirm things we already knew? Did they
answer your research questions? If not, why not? Do they raise further questions that require additional research? And
overall, what are the implications of your findings?

10. Write and Publish Your Findings

A wise research mentor will tell you that your research is not complete until it is published. If you are conducting research
for a course, it is possible that this rule may not apply to you, and simply writing a report that you share with your
instructor and classmates will suffice. However, many important research findings have emerged out of class projects,
and this might be the case for you. The reason this rule is embraced by many is because the purpose of sociological
research is to understand social trends and problems, and to provide informed suggestion for response to them.
Publishing and publicizing the results of research is thus a necessary part of the research process.
 The Purposes Of Research
Exploration, Description, And Explanation
Social research serves many purposes. Three of the most common and useful purposes, however, are exploration,
description, and explanation. Many studies can and often do have more than one of these purposes, however each have
different implications for other aspects of research design.
Exploration
A great deal of social research is conducted to explore a topic or familiarize oneself with a topic. This typically occurs
when a researcher becomes interested in a new topic or when the subject of study itself is relatively new. Often times,
exploratory research is done through the use of focus groupsor small group discussions, which are frequently used
in market research.
Exploratory studies are typically done for three purposes: to satisfy the researcher’s curiosity and desire for better
understanding, to test the feasibility of undertaking a more extensive study, and to develop the methods to be employed
in any subsequent studies.

Exploratory studies can be extremely valuable in social research.

They are essential when a researcher is breaking new ground and they typically yield new insights into a topic for
research. They are also a source for grounded theory.
Exploratory studies do have a few downsides, however. The main shortcoming is that they rarely provide satisfactory
answers to research questions, although they can hint at the answers and provide direction as to which research
methods could provide definitive answers. The reason why exploratory studies themselves are rarely definitive is
because the people studied in exploratory research may not be typical of the larger population of interest. That is, the
sample is likely not a representative one.

Description
Another major purpose of social research is to describe situations and events. The researcher observes and then
describes what he or she observed. One great example of descriptive social research is the U.S. Census. The goal of the
census is to describe accurately and precisely several characteristics of the U.S. population, including race/ethnicity,
age, sex, household size, income, etc.

Other examples of descriptive social research studies include the calculation of crime rates for various cities, the
computation of age-gender profiles of populations by demographers, and a product-marketing survey that describes who
uses, or would use, a certain product.

Many qualitative studies set out with the primary goal of description. For example, an ethnography might try to detail the
culture of a particular society. At the same time, however, such studies are rarely purely descriptive purposed.
Researchers usually go on to examine why the observed patterns exist and what the implications are.
Explanation
A third major purpose of social research is to explain things. While descriptive studies attempt to answer
the what, when, where, and how, explanatory studies attempt to answer the why. For example, reporting the crime rates
of different cities is descriptive. Identifying the variables that explain why some cities have higher crime rates than others
involves explanation. Likewise, reporting the frequency of church attendance is descriptive, but reporting why some
people attend church while others don’t is explanatory.
Conclusion
While there are three distinct purposes of social science research, most studies will have elements of all three. For
example, suppose a researcher sets out to evaluate the effectiveness of a new form of psychotherapy. The study will
have exploratory aspects as he or she explores possible relevant variables and their effects on the therapy. The
researcher will also likely want to describe things such as recovery rate. In addition, he or she will likely want to explain
why the new form of therapy works better for some types of people or problems than others.
Surveys: Questionnaires, Interviews, and Telephone Polls
A Brief Overview of Three Types of Survey Methods

Surveys are valuable research tools within

sociology and are commonly used by social
scientists for a wide variety of research projects.
They are especially useful because they enable
researchers to collect data on a mass scale, and to
use that data to conduct statistical analyses that
reveal conclusive results about how the variety of
variables measured interact.
The three most common forms of survey research
are the questionnaire, interview, and telephone poll

Questionnaires
Questionnaires, or printed or digital surveys, are
useful because they can be distributed to many people, which means they allow for a large and randomized sample--the
hallmark of valid and trustworthy empirical research. Prior to the twenty-first century it was common for questionnaires to
be distributed through the mail. While some organizations and researchers still do this, today, most opt for digital web-
based questionnaires. Doing so requires less resources and time, and streamlines the data collection and analysis
processes.
However they are conducted, a commonality among questionnaires is that they feature a set list of questions for
participants to respond to by selecting from a set of provided answers. These are closed-ended questions paired with
fixed categories of response.

While such questionnaires are useful because they allow for a large sample of participants to be reached at low cost and
with minimal effort, and they yield clean data ready for analysis, there are also drawbacks to this survey method. In some
cases a respondent may not believe that any of the offered responses accurately represents their views or experiences,
which may lead them to not answer, or to select an answer that is inaccurate. Also, questionnaires can typically only be
used with people who have a registered mailing address, or an email account and access to the internet, so this means
that segments of the population without these cannot be studied with this method.

Interviews
While interviews and questionnaires share the same approach by asking respondents a set of structured questions, they
differ in that interviews allow researchers to ask open-ended questions that create more in-depth and nuanced data sets
than those afforded by questionnaires. Another key difference between the two is that interviews involve social
interaction between the researcher and the participants, because they are either conducted in person or over the phone.
Sometimes, researchers combine questionnaires and interviews in the same research project by following up some
questionnaire responses with more in-depth interview questions.
While interviews offer these advantages, they too can have their drawbacks. Because they are based on social
interaction between researcher and participant, interviews require a fair degree of trust, especially regarding sensitive
subjects, and sometimes this can be difficult to achieve. Further, differences of race, class, gender, sexuality, and culture
between researcher and participant can complicate the research collection process. However, social scientists are
trained to anticipate these kinds of problems and to deal with them when they arise, so interviews are a common and
successful survey research method.

Telephone Polls
A telephone poll is a questionnaire that is done over the telephone. The response categories are typically pre-defined
(closed-ended) with little opportunity for respondents to elaborate their responses. Telephone polls can be very costly
and time-consuming, and since the introduction of the Do Not Call Registry, telephone polls have become harder to
conduct. Many times respondents are not open to taking these phone calls and hang up before responding to any
questions. Telephone polls are used often during political campaigns or to get consumer opinions about a product or
service.

Survey
Definition: A survey is a method used to gather data from a sample of a population or, in the case of a census, the
entire population. In studies of individuals, information is gathered either through written questionnaires that respondents
fill out themselves, face-to-face interviews, or telephone interviews.

What Is a Survey and When Should You Use One?

A survey is a data collection tool used to gather information about individuals. Surveys are commonly used in
psychology research to collect self-report data from study participants. A survey may focus on factual
information about individuals, or it might aim to obtain the opinions of the survey takers. Surveys are one of
the most commonly used research tools and can be utilized to collect data and describe naturally occurring
phenomena that exist in the real-world.

How Are Surveys Used in Psychology Research?

A survey can be used to investigate the characteristics, behaviors, or opinions of a group of people.

A survey can be administered in a couple of different ways. In one method known as a structured interview, the
researcher asks each participant the questions. In the other method known as a questionnaire, the participant
fills out the survey on his or her own.

Surveys are generally standardized to ensure that they havereliability and validity. Standardization is also
important so that the results can be generalized to the larger population.

Advantages of Using Surveys

One of the big benefits of using surveys in psychological research is that they allow researchers to gather a
large quantity of data relatively quickly and cheaply. A survey can be administered as a structured interview or
as a self-report measure, and data can be collected in person, over the phone, or on a computer.

 Surveys allow researchers to collect a large amount of data in a relatively short period.
 Surveys are less expensive than many other data collection techniques.
 Surveys can be created quickly and administered easily.
  Surveys can be used to collect information on a broad range of things, including personal facts,
attitudes, past behaviors and opinions.

Disadvantages of Using Surveys

One potential problem with written surveys is the nonresponse bias. Experts suggest that return rates of 85
percent or higher are considered excellent, but anything below 60 percent might have a severe impact on the
representativeness of the sample.

 Poor survey construction and administration can undermine otherwise well-designed studies.
 The answer choices provided on a survey may not be an accurate reflection of how the participants
actually feels.
 While random sampling is generally used to select participants, response rates can bias the results of a
survey.
 The social desirability bias can lead people to respond in a way that makes them look better than they
really are. For example, a respondent might report that they engage in more healthy behaviors than they
do in real life.

Types of Survey Data Collection

Surveys can be implemented in a number of different ways. The chances are good that you have participated in
a number of different market research surveys in the past.

Some of the most common ways to administer survey include:

 Mail - An example might include an alumni survey distributed via direct mail by your alma mater.
 Telephone - An example of a telephone survey would be a market research call about your experiences
with a certain consumer product.
 Online - Online surveys might focus on your experience with a particular retailer, product or website.
 At home interviews - The U.S. Census is a good example of an at-home interview survey
administration.
What is Participant Observation Research?
An Introduction to an Important Qualitative Research Method

The participant observation method, also known as ethnographic

research, is when a sociologist actually becomes a part of the group
they are studying in order to collect data and understand a social
phenomenon or problem. During participant observation, the
researcher works to play two separate roles at the same time:
subjective participant and objective observer. Sometimes, though
not always, the group is aware that the sociologist is studying them.
The goal of participant observation is to gain a deep understanding
and familiarity with a certain group of individuals, their values,
beliefs, and way of life. Often the group in focus is a subculture of a
greater society, like a religious, occupational, or particular community group. To conduct participant observation, the
researcher often lives within the group, becomes a part of it, and lives as a group member for an extended period of time,
allowing them access to the intimate details and goings on of the group and their community.

This research method was pioneered by anthropologists Bronislaw Malinowski and Franz Boas, but was adopted as a
primary research method by many sociologists affiliated with the Chicago School of Sociology in the early twentieth
century. Today, participant observation, or ethnography, is a primary research method practiced by qualitative
sociologists around the world.
Subjective Versus Objective Participation
Participant observation requires the researcher to be a subjective participant in the sense that they use knowledge
gained through personal involvement with the research subjects to interact with and gain further access to the group.
This component supplies a dimension of information that is lacking insurvey data. Participant observation research also
requires the researcher to aim to be an objective observer and record everything that he or she has seen, not letting
feelings and emotions influence their observations and findings.
Yet, most researchers recognize that true objectivity is an ideal, not an actuality, given that how we see the world and
people in it is always shaped by our previous experiences and our positionality in the social structure relative to others.
As such, a good participant observer will also maintain a critical self-reflexivity that allows her to recognize the way she
herself might influence the field of research and the data she collects.

Strengths And Weaknesses

The strengths of participant observation include the depth of knowledge that it allows the researcher to obtain, and the
perspective of knowledge of social problems and phenomena generated from the level of the everyday lives of those
experiencing them. Many consider this an egalitarian research method because it centers the experiences, perspectives,
and knowledge of those studied. This type of research has been the source of some of the most striking and valuable
studies in sociology.

Some drawbacks or weaknesses of this method are that it is very time consuming, with researchers spending months or
years living in the place of study. Because of this, participant observation can yield a vast amount of data that might be
overwhelming to comb through and analyze. And, researchers must be careful to remain somewhat detached as
observers, especially as time passes and they become an accepted part of the group, adopting its habits, ways of life,
and perspectives. Questions about objectivity and ethics were raised about sociologist Alice Goffman's research
methods because some interpreted passages from her book On the Run as admission of involvement in a murder
conspiracy.
Students wishing to conduct participant observation research should consult these excellent books on the
subject: Writing Ethnographic Fieldnotes by Emerson et al., and Analyzing Social Settings, by Lofland and Lofland.
Content Analysis
Understanding Society Through Cultural Artifacts
Researchers can learn a great deal about a society by analyzing cultural artifacts such as newspapers, magazines,
television programs, or music. This is called content analysis. Researchers who use content analysis are not studying the
people, but are studying the communications the people produce as a way of creating a picture of their society.
Content analysis is frequently used to measure cultural change and to study different aspects of culture. Sociologists also
use it as an indirect way to determine how social groups are perceived. For example, they might examine how African
Americans are depicted in television shows or how women are depicted in advertisements.

In conducting a content analysis, researchers quantify and analyze the presence, meanings, and relationships of words
and concepts within the cultural artifacts they are studying. They then make inferences about the messages within the
artifacts and about the culture they are studying.

At its most basic, content analysis is a statistical exercise that involves categorizing some aspect of behavior and
counting the number of times such behavior occurs. For example, a researcher might count the number of minutes that
men and women appear on screen in a television show and make comparisons. This allows us to paint a picture of the
patterns of behavior that underlie social interactions portrayed in the media.

Strengths And Weaknesses

Content analysis has several strengths as a research method. First, it is a great method because it is unobtrusive. That is,
it has no effect on the person being studied since the cultural artifact has already been produced. Second, it is relatively
easy to gain access to the media source or publication the researcher wishes to study. Finally, it can present an objective
account of events, themes, and issues that might not be immediately apparent to a reader, viewer, or general consumer.

Content analysis also has several weaknesses as a research method. First, it is limited in what it can study. Since it is
based only on mass communication – either visual, oral, or written – it cannot tell us what people really think about these
images or whether they affect people’s behavior. Second, it may not be as objective as it claims since the researcher must
select and record data accurately. In some cases, the researcher must make choices about how to interpret or categorize
particular forms of behavior and other researchers may interpret it differently. A final weakness of content analysis is that
it can be time consuming.
Types of Sampling Designs Used in Sociology

An Overview of Probability and Non-Probability Techniques

When conducting research, it is hardly ever possible to study the

entire population that you are interested in. This is why
researchers use sampleswhen they seek to collect data and answer
research questions.
A sample is a subset of thepopulation being studied. It represents the
larger population and is used to draw inferences about that population.
It is a research technique widely used in the social sciences as a way
to gather information about a population without having to measure
the entire population.
Within sociology, there are two main types of sampling techniques: those based on probability and those that are not.
Here we will review the different kinds of samples that you can create using both techniques.

Non-probability Sampling Techniques

Non-probability sampling is a sampling technique where the samples are gathered in a process that does not give all
individuals in the population equal chances of being selected. While choosing one of these methods could result in
biased data or a limited ability to make general inferences based on the findings, there are also many situations in which
choosing this kind of sampling technique is the best choice for the particular research question or the stage of reserach.

There are four kinds of samples that you can create this way.

Reliance On Available Subjects. Relying on available subjects, such as stopping people on a street corner as they
pass by, is one method of sampling, although it is extremely risky and comes with many cautions. This
method, sometimes referred to as a convenience sample, does not allow the researcher to have any control over the
representativeness of the sample. However, it is useful if the researcher wants to study the characteristics of people
passing by on a street corner at a certain point in time, for example, or if time and resources are limited in such a way
that the research would not be possible otherwise. For the latter reason, convenience samples are commonly used in the
early or pilot stages of research, before a larger research project is launched. Though this method can be useful, the
researcher will not be able to use the results from a convenience sample to generalize to a wider population.
Purposive or Judgmental Sample. A purposive or judgmental sample is one that is selected based on the knowledge
of a population and the purpose of the study. For example, when sociologists at the University of San Francisco wanted
to study the long-term emotional and psychological effects of choosing to terminate a pregnancy, they created a sample
that exclusively included women who had had abortions. In this case, the researchers used a purposive sample because
those being interviewed fit a specific purpose or description that was necessary to conduct the research.
Snowball Sample. A snowball sample is appropriate to use in research when the members of a population are difficult to
locate, such as homeless individuals, migrant workers, or undocumented immigrants. A snowball sample is one in which
the researcher collects data on the few members of the target population he or she can locate, then asks those
individuals to provide information needed to locate other members of that population whom they know. For example, if a
researcher wishes to interview undocumented immigrants from Mexico, she might interview a few undocumented
individuals that she knows or can locate, and would then rely on those subjects to help locate more undocumented
individuals. This process continues until the researcher has all the interviews she needs, or until all contacts have been
exhausted. This is a technique that is useful when studying a sensitive topic that people might not openly talk about, or if
talking about the issues under investigation could jeopardize their safety. A recommendation from a friend or
acquaintance that the researcher can be trusted works to grow the sample size.
Quota Sample. A quota sample is one in which units are selected into a sample on the basis of pre-specified
characteristics so that the total sample has the same distribution of characteristics assumed to exist in the population
being studied. For example, if you are a researcher conducting a national quota sample, you might need to know what
proportion of the population is male and what proportion is female, as well as what proportions of members of each
gender fall into different age categories, race or ethnic categories, and educational categories, among others. The
researcher would then collect a sample with the same proportions as the national population.
Probability Sampling Techniques
Probability sampling is a technique wherein the samples are gathered in a process that gives all the individuals in the
population equal chance of being selected. Many consider this to be the more methodologically rigorous approach to
sampling because it eliminates social biases that could shape the research sample. Ultimately, though, the sampling
technique you choose should be the one that best allows you to respond to your particular research question.

Let's review four kinds of probability sampling techniques.

Simple Random Sample. The simple random sample is the basic sampling method assumed in statistical methods and
computations. To collect a simple random sample, each unit of the target population is assigned a number. A set of
random numbers is then generated and the units having those numbers are included in the sample. For example, let’s
say you have a population of 1,000 people and you wish to choose a simple random sample of 50 people. First, each
person is numbered 1 through 1,000. Then, you generate a list of 50 random numbers--typically with a computer
program--and the individuals assigned those numbers are the ones you include in the sample. When studying people,
this technique is best used with a homogenous population--one that does not differ much by age, race, education level,
or class--because with a heterogeneous population, one runs the risk of creating a biased sample if demographic
differences are not taken into account.
Systematic Sample. In a systematic sample, the elements of the population are put into a list and then every nth
element in the list is chosen systematically for inclusion in the sample. For example, if the population of study contained
2,000 students at a high school and the researcher wanted a sample of 100 students, the students would be put into list
form and then every 20th student would be selected for inclusion in the sample. To ensure against any possible human
bias in this method, the researcher should select the first individual at random. This is technically called a systematic
sample with a random start.
Stratified Sample. A stratified sample is a sampling technique in which the researcher divides the entire target
population into different subgroups or strata, and then randomly selects the final subjects proportionally from the different
strata. This type of sampling is used when the researcher wants to highlight specific subgroups within the population. For
example, to obtain a stratified sample of university students, the researcher would first organize the population by college
class and then select appropriate numbers of freshmen, sophomores, juniors, and seniors. This would ensure that the
researcher has adequate amounts of subjects from each class in the final sample.
Cluster Sample. Cluster sampling may be used when it is either impossible or impractical to compile an exhaustive list
of the elements that make up the target population. Usually, however, the population elements are already grouped into
subpopulations and lists of those subpopulations already exist or can be created. For example, let’s say the target
population in a study was church members in the United States. There is no list of all church members in the country.
The researcher could, however, create a list of churches in the United States, choose a sample of churches, and then
obtain lists of members from those churches.
Crosstabulations
A Common Technique Used In Sociological Analyses

A crosstabulation (crosstab for short) is a combination of two or more frequency tables arranged such that each cell in
the resulting table represents a unique combination of specific values of the included variables. Crosstabs allow us to
identify relationships between variables. Only categorical or nominal variables or continuous variables with a small
number of values should be crosstabulated so that the table is easy to analyze and interpret.

Crosstabs are a great way to familiarize yourself with the data you are working with and to get a rough idea of how the
variables in your data set are related, if at all. Crosstabs are useful for exploring the data, exploring relationships in your
data, and determining future analyzes.

2x2 Tables
The simplest form of a crosstab is the 2x2 table in which two variables, each with only two distinct values, are crossed.
For example, if we conducted a survey and asked people which they would rather have for a pet, a dog or a cat, and
then analyzed the data by gender, the crosstab would look something like this:

Dog Cat
Female 20 (40%) 30 (60%)
Male 30 (60%) 20 (40%)
Each cell represents a unique combination of the two crosstabulated variables (in this case, Gender and Pet Preference)
and the numbers in each cell tell us how many observations fall into each combination of values. For example, this table
shows us that more males than females prefer dogs as pets and more females than males prefer cats as pets. Thus,
gender and pet preference may be related, although we would need to conduct a statistical test to see if this relationship
is significant.

Multi-Way Tables
You can also use crosstabs to analyze relationships between more than two variables or variables with more than two
response categories. Using the same example from above, we could include a third variable into the crosstab for the type
of dwelling that respondents lived in (house vs. apartment/condominium).

House Apartment/Condo
Dog Cat Dog Cat
Female 20 30 10 40
Male 30 20 40 10
Theoretically, you could create a crosstab with an unlimited number of variables. However, it is usually difficult to
examine and understand tables that involve more than three or four variables. Once you surpass about four variables, it
is best to use other statistical or modeling techniques to examine relationships.

Pearson Chi-square
Although crosstabs can give us a general idea of whether or not a relationship exists between two or more variable, a
statistical test is needed to determine if any relationship is a significant one. There are several tests that can do this,
however the Pearson Chi-square is the most commonly used.

Using our example above, if there is no relationship between gender and pet preference, then we would expect roughly
an equal number of males and females to choose a dog versus a cat. The chi-square test increases in significance as
the numbers deviate from this equal distribution. That is, the greater the difference between males and females choice of
pet preference, the higher the significance level in the chi-square test.
 Linear Regression Analysis
Linear Regression And Multiple Linear Regression

Linear regression is a statistical technique that is used to learn more about the relationship between an independent
(predictor) variable and a dependent (criterion) variable. When you have more than one independent variable in your
analysis, this is referred to as multiple linear regression. In general, regression allows the researcher to ask the general
question “what is the best predictor of…?”
For example, let say we were studying the causes of obesity, measured by body mass index (BMI). In particular, we
wanted to see if the following variables were significant predictors of a person’s BMI: number of fast food meals eaten
per week, number of hours of television watched per week, the number of minutes spent exercising per week, and
parents’ BMI. Linear regression would be a good methodology for this analysis.
The Regression Equation
When you are conducting a regression analysis with one independent variable, the regression equation is Y = a + b*X
where Y is the dependent variable, X is the independent variable, a is the constant (or intercept), and b is the slope of the
regression line.
For example, let’s say that GPA is best predicted by the regression equation 1 + 0.02*IQ. If a student had an IQ of 130,
then, his or her GPA would be 3.6 (1 + 0.02*130 = 3.6).

When you are conducting a regression analysis in which you have more than one independent variable, the regression
equation is Y = a + b1*X1 + b2*X2 + … +bp*Xp. For example, if we wanted to include more variables to our GPA
analysis, such as measures of motivation and self-discipline, we would use this equation.

R-Square
R-square, also known as the coefficient of determination, is a commonly used statistic to evaluate the model fit of a
regression equation. That is, how good are all of your independent variables at predicting your dependent variable? The
value of R-square ranges from 0.0 to 1.0 and can be multiplied by 100 to obtain a percentage of variance explained. For
example, going back to our GPA regression equation with only one independent variable (IQ)…Let’s say that our R-
square for the equation was 0.4. We could interpret this to mean that 40% of the variance in GPA is explained by IQ. If
we then add our other two variables (motivation and self-discipline) and the R-square increases to 0.6, this means that
IQ, motivation, and self-discipline together explain 60% of the variance in GPA scores.
Regression analyses are typically done using statistics software, such as SPSS or SAS and so the R-square is
calculated for you.

Interpreting The Regression Coefficients (b)

The b coefficients from the equations above represent the strength and direction of the relationship between the
independent and dependent variables. If we look at the GPA and IQ equation, 1 + 0.02*130 = 3.6, 0.02 is the regression
coefficient for the variable IQ. This tells us that the direction of the relationship is positive so that as IQ increases, GPA
also increases. If the equation were 1 - 0.02*130 = Y, then this would mean that the relationship between IQ and GPA
was negative.

Assumptions
There are several assumptions about the data that must be met in order to conduct a linear regression analysis:

 Linearity: It is assumed that the relationship between the independent and dependent variables is linear.
Though this assumption can never be fully confirmed, looking at a scatterplot of your variables can help make
this determination. If a curvature in the relationship is present, you may consider transforming the variables or
explicitly allowing for nonlinear components.
 Normality: It is assumed that the residuals of your variables are normally distributed. That is, the errors in the
prediction of the value of Y (the dependent variable) are distributed in a way that approaches the normal curve.
 You can look at histograms or normal probability plots to inspect the distribution of your variables and their
residual values.
 Independence: It is assumed that the errors in the prediction of the value of Y are all independent of one
another (not correlated).
 Homoscedasticity: It is assumed that the variance around the regression line is the same for all values of the
independent variables.

What Is Correlation?
Correlations indicate relationships
between variables.. Kiatdd /
Wikimedia Commons

Correlation is a statistical
measurement of the relationship
between two variables. Possible
correlations range from +1 to –1. A
zero correlation indicates that there is
no relationship between the variables.
A correlation of –1 indicates a perfect
negative correlation, meaning that as
one variable goes up, the other goes down. A correlation of +1 indicates a perfect positive correlation, meaning
that both variables move in the same direction together.

Questions About Correlations

One reader writes: "I just finished taking the research methods quiz, and I think the answers to two of the
questions might be wrong. On the one question, I am thinking that the weakest relationship is indicated by -
0.74 (c), and not +0.10 (a) as given in the quiz answers. For the other question, I am thinking that the
strongest relationship is indicated by +0.79 (b), and not -0.98 (d) as given in the quiz answers. Or maybe I am
simply missing a point."

When it comes to correlations, be careful not to equate positive with strong and negative with weak. A
relationship between two variables can be negative, but that doesn't mean that the relationship isn't strong.

Remember, correlation strength is measured from -1.00 to +1.00. The correlation coefficient, often expressed
as r, indicates a measure of the direction and strength of a relationship between two variables.

When the r value is closer to +1 or -1, it indicates that there is a stronger linear relationship between the two
variables. A correlation of -0.97 is a strong negative correlation while a correlation of 0.10 would be a weak
positive correlation. When you are thinking about correlation, just remember this handy rule: The closer the
correlation is to 0, the weaker it is, while the close it is to +/-1, the stronger it is.

So, for the first question, +0.10 is indeed a weaker correlation than -0.74, and for the next question, -0.98 is a
stronger correlation than +0.79.
Of course (and you've probably heard this a million times in all your psychology classes), correlation does not
equal causation.

Just because two variables have a relationship does not mean that changes in one variable cause changes in the
other.

What Is a Zero Correlation?

A zero correlation suggests that the correlation statistic did not indicate a relationship between the two
variables. It's important to note that this does not mean that there is not a relationship at all; it simply means
that there is not a linear relationship. A zero correlation is often indicated using the abbreviation r=0.

What Is an Illusory Correlation?

An illusory correlation is the perception of a relationship between two variables when only a minor or
absolutely no relationship actually exists. For example, people sometimes assume that because two events
occurred together at one point in the past, that one event must be the cause of the other.

These illusory correlations can occur both in scientific investigations and in real-world situations.

Stereotypes are a good example of illusory correlations. Research has shown that people tend to assume that
certain groups and traits occur together and frequently overestimate the strength of the association between the
two variables. For example, let's suppose that a man holds a mistaken belief that all people from small towns
are extremely kind. When the individual meets a very kind person, his immediate assumption might be that the
person is from a small town, despite the fact that kindness is not related to city population.
What is Correlation Analysis?
Review of A Common Statistical Technique Used In Sociological Research

Correlation is a term that refers to the strength of a

relationship between two variables. A strong, or high,
correlation means that two or more variables have
a strong relationship with each other, while a weak,
or low, correlation means that the variables are
hardly related. Correlation analysis is the process of
studying the strength of that relationship with
available statistical data.
You can use statistical software like SPSS to
determine whether a relationship between two
variables is present, and how strong it might be. The
statistical process will produce a correlation
coefficient that tells you this information.

The most widely used type of correlation

coefficient is the Pearson r. This analysis assumes
that the two variables being analyzed are measured
on at least interval scales, meaning they are
measured on a range of increasing value. The coefficient is calculated by taking the covariance of the two variables and
dividing it by the product of their standard deviations.
Correlation coefficients can range from -1.00 to +1.00. The value of -1.00 represents a perfect negative correlation,
which means that as the value of one variable increases, the other decreases. While a value of +1.00 represents a
perfect positive relationship, meaning that as one variable increases in value, so does the other. Values like these--of +
or - 1.00--signal a perfectly linear relationship between the two variables, so that if you plot the results on a graph it
would make a straight line. A value of 0.00 means that there is no relationship between the variables being tested.

Take for example the case of the relationship between education and income, which is demonstrated in the
accompanying image. This shows thatthe more education one has, the more money they will earn in their job. Put
another way, these data show that education and income are correlated, and that there is a strong positive correlation
between the two. As education rises, so too does income. The same kind of correlation relationship is found between
education and wealth too.
A recent study of marriage and education found a strong negative correlation between level of education and the divorce
rate. Data from the National Survey of Family Growth show that as education level increases among women, the divorce
rate for first marriages decreases.
Statistical analyses like these are useful because they can show us how different trends or patterns within society might
be connected, like unemployment and crime, for example; and they can shed light on how experiences and social
characteristics shape what happens in a person's life. Correlation analysis lets us say with confidence that a relationship
does or does not exist between two different patterns or variables, which allows us to predict the probably of an outcome
among the population studied.

It's important to keep in mind though that correlation is not the same as causation. Stay tuned for a discussion of the
difference between the two.
 Correlational Studies
A Closer Look at Correlational Research
Correlational studies are used to investigate relationships
between variables.. Image: Spiritia / Wikimedia Commons

A correlation refers to arelationship between two

variables. Correlations can be strong or weak, as well as positive or negative. In other cases, there might be no
correlation at all between the variables of interest.

Correlational studies are a type of research often used in psychology as a preliminary way to gather
information about a topic or in situations where performing an experiment is not possible.

The correlational method involves looking at relationships between two or more variables. While researchers
can use correlations to see if a relationship exists, the variables themselves are not under the control of the
researchers.

Another important thing to note is that while correlational research can reveal if a relationship exists between
variables, this kind of research cannot prove that changes to one variable lead to changes to another variable. In
other words, correlational studies cannot prove cause-and-effect relationships.

The Purpose of Correlational Research

Correlational studies are used to look for relationships between variables. There are three possible results of a
correlational study: a positive correlation, a negative correlation, and no correlation. The correlation
coefficient is a measure of correlation strength and can range from –1.00 to +1.00.

 Positive Correlations: In this type of correlation, both variables increase or decrease at the same time. A
correlation coefficient close to +1.00 indicates a strong positive correlation.

 Negative Correlations: This type of correlation indicates that as the amount of one variable increases, the other
decreases (and vice versa). A correlation coefficient close to -1.00 indicates a strong negative correlation.
 No Correlation: This indicates no relationship between the two variables. A correlation coefficient of 0
indicates no correlation.

Limitations of Correlational Studies

While correlational research can suggest that there is a relationship between two variables, it cannot prove
that one variable causes a change in another variable.

In other words, correlation does not equal causation.

For example, a correlational study might suggest that there is a relationship between academic success
and self-esteem, but it cannot show if academic success actually causes changes in self-esteem. Other variables
might play a role, including social relationships, cognitive abilities, personality, socio-economic status, and
myriad other factors.

Types of Correlational Research

1. Naturalistic Observation

Naturalistic observation involves observing and recording the variables of interest in the natural environment
without interference or manipulation by the experimenter.

Advantages of Naturalistic Observation:

 Gives the experimenter the opportunity to view the variable of interest in a natural setting.
 Can offer ideas for further research.
 Might be the only option if lab experimentation is not possible.

Disadvantages of Naturalistic Observation:

 Can be time consuming and expensive.

 Does not allow for scientific control of variables.
 Experimenters cannot control extraneous variables.
 Subjects may be aware of the observer and may act differently as a result.

2. The Survey Method

Surveys and questionnaires are among the most common methods used in psychological research. In this
method, arandom sample of participants completes a survey, test, or questionnaire that relates to the variables
of interest. Random sampling is a vital part of ensuring the generalizability of the survey results.

Advantages of the Survey Method:

 It’s fast, cheap, and easy. Researchers can collect large amounts of data in a relatively short amount of time.
 More flexible than some other methods.

Disadvantages of the Survey Method:

 Can be affected by an unrepresentative sample or poor survey questions.

 Participants can affect the outcome. Some participants try to please the researcher, lie to make themselves look
better, or have mistaken memories.

3. Archival Research

Archival research is performed by analyzing studies conducted by other researchers or by looking at historical
patient records. For example, researchers analyzed the records of soldiers who served in the Civil War to learn
more about PTSD ("The Irritable Heart").
Advantages of Archival Research:

 The experimenter cannot introduce changes in participant behavior.

 Enormous amounts of data provide a better view of trends, relationships, and outcomes.
 Often less expensive than other study methods. Researchers can often access data through free archives or
records databases.

Disadvantages of Archival Research:

 The researchers have no control over how data was collected.

 Important dates may be missing from the records.
 Previous research may be unreliable.

Correlational methods have a number of strengths and weaknesses, so it is important to determine which
research method is best for a particular situation. Explore more resources and answers to questions about
correlations.

What Is ANOVA?
Analysis of Variance
Many times when we study a group, we are really comparing two populations. Depending upon the parameter of this
group we are interested in and the conditions we are dealing with, there are several techniques available.
Statistical inference procedures that concern the comparison of two populations cannot usually be applied to three or
more populations. To study more than two populations at once, we need different types of statistical tools. Analysis of
variance, or ANOVA, is a technique from statistical interference that allows us to deal with several populations.

Comparison of Means

To see what problems arise and why we need ANOVA, we will consider an example. Suppose we are trying to determine
if the mean weights of green, red, blue and orange M&M candies are different from each other. We will state the mean
weights for each of these populations, μ1, μ2, μ3 μ4 and respectively. We may use the appropriate hypothesis test several
times, and test C(4,2), or six different null hypotheses:

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 H0: μ1 = μ2 to check if the mean weight of the population of the red candies is different than the mean weight of
the population of the blue candies.
 H0: μ2 = μ3 to check if the mean weight of the population of the blue candies is different than the mean weight of
the population of the green candies.
 H0: μ3 = μ4 to check if the mean weight of the population of the green candies is different than the mean weight of
the population of the orange candies.
 H0: μ4 = μ1 to check if the mean weight of the population of the orange candies is different than the mean weight
of the population of the red candies.
 H0: μ1 = μ3 to check if the mean weight of the population of the red candies is different than the mean weight of
the population of the green candies.
 H0: μ2 = μ4 to check if the mean weight of the population of the blue candies is different than the mean weight of
the population of the orange candies.
There are many problems with this kind of analysis. We will have six p-values. Even though we may test each at a
95% level of confidence, our confidence in the overall process is less than this because probabilities multiply: .95 x .95 x
.95 x .95 x .95 x .95 is approximately .74, or an 74% level of confidence. Thus the probability of a type I error has
increased.
At a more fundamental level, we cannot compare these four parameters as a whole by comparing them two at a time.
The means of the red and blue M&Ms may be significant, with the mean weight of red being relatively larger than the
mean weight of the blue. However, when we consider the mean weights of all four kinds of candy, there may not be a
significant difference.

Analysis of Variance

To deal with situations in which we need to make multiple comparisons we use ANOVA. This test allows us to consider
the parameters of several populations at once, without getting into some of the problems that confront us by conducting
hypothesis tests on two parameters at a time.
To conduct ANOVA with the M&M example above, we would test the null hypothesis H0:μ1 = μ2 = μ3= μ4. This states that
there is no difference between the mean weights of the red, blue and green M&Ms. Thealternative hypothesis is that
there is some difference between the mean weights of the red, blue, green and orange M&Ms. This hypothesis is really a
combination of several statements Ha:
 The mean weight of the population of red candies is not equal to the mean weight of the population of blue
candies, OR
 The mean weight of the population of blue candies is not equal to the mean weight of the population of green
candies, OR
 The mean weight of the population of green candies is not equal to the mean weight of the population of orange
candies, OR
 The mean weight of the population of green candies is not equal to the mean weight of the population of red
candies, OR
 The mean weight of the population of blue candies is not equal to the mean weight of the population of orange
candies, OR
 The mean weight of the population of blue candies is not equal to the mean weight of the population of red
candies.
In this particular instance in order to obtain our p-value we would utilize aprobability distribution known as the F-
distribution. Calculations involving the ANOVA F test can be done by hand, but are typically computed with statistical
software.

Multiple Comparisons

What separates ANOVA from other statistical techniques is that it is used to make multiple comparisons. This is common
throughout statistics, as there are many times where we want to compare more than just two groups. Typically an overall
test suggests that there is some sort of difference between the parameters we are studying. We then follow this test with
some other analysis to decide which parameter differs.
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
Analysis of Variance, or ANOVA for short, is a statistical test that looks for significant differences between means. For
example, say you are interested in studying the education level of athletes in a community, so you survey people on
various teams. You start to wonder, however, if the education level is different among the different teams. You could use
an ANOVA to determine if the mean education level is different among the softball team versus the rugby team versus
the Ultimate Frisbee team.
ANOVA Models
There are four types of ANOVA models. Following are descriptions and examples of each.

One-way between groups ANOVA. A one-way between groups ANOVA is used when you want to test the difference
between two or more groups. This is the simplest version of ANOVA. The example of education level among different
sports teams above would be an example of this type of model. There is only one grouping (type of sport played) that
you are using to define the groups.
One-way repeated measures ANOVA. A one-way repeated measures ANOVA is used when you have a single group
on which you have measured something more than one time. For example, if you wanted to test students’ understanding
of a subject, you could administer the same test at the beginning of the course, in the middle of the course, and at the
end of the course. You would then use a one-way repeated measures ANOVA to see if students’ performance on the test
changed over time.
Two-way between groups ANOVA. A two-way between groups ANOVA is used to look at complex groupings. For
example, the students’ grades in the previous example could be extended to see if students abroad performed differently
to local students. So you would have three effects from this ANOVA: the effect of the final grade, the effect of abroad
versus local, and the interaction between the final grade and overseas/local. Each of the main effects are one-way tests.
The interaction effect is simply asking if there is any significant difference in performance when you test he final grade
and overseas/local acting together.
Two-way repeated measures ANOVA. Two-way repeated measures ANOVA uses the repeated measures structure but
also includes an interaction effect. Using the same example of one-way repeated measures (test grades before and after
a course), you could add gender to see if there is any joint effect of gender and time of testing. That is, do males and
females differ in the amount of information they remember over time?
Assumptions of ANOVA
The following assumptions exist when you perform an analysis of variance:
 The expected values of the errors are zero.
 The variances of all errors are equal to each other.
 The errors are independent from one another.
 The errors are normally distributed.
How an ANOVA is Done
 The mean is calculated for each of your groups. Using the example of education and sports teams from the
introduction in the first paragraph above, the mean education level is calculated for each sports team.
 The overall mean is then calculated for all of the groups combined.
 Within each group, the total deviation of each individual’s score from the group mean is calculated. This is
called within group variation.
 Next, the deviation of each group mean from the overall mean is calculated. This is call between group variation.
 Finally, an F statistic is calculated, which is the ratio of between group variation to the within group variation.
If the between group variation is significantly greater than the within group variation, then it is likely that there is a
statistically significant difference between the groups. The statistical software that you use will tell you if the F statistic is
significant or not.
All versions of ANOVA follow the basic principles outlined above, but as the number of groups and the interaction effects
increase, the sources of variation will get more complex.

Performing an ANOVA
It is very unlikely that you would do an ANOVA by hand. Unless you have a very small data set, the process would be
very time consuming. All statistical software programs provide for ANOVA. SPSS is okay for simple one-way analyses,
however anything more complicated becomes difficult. Excel also allows you to do ANOVA from the Data Analysis Add-
on, however the instructions are not very good. SAS, STATA, Minitab, and otherstatistical software programs that are
equipped for handling bigger and more complex data sets are all better for performing an ANOVA.

Example of an ANOVA Calculation

The mean lengths of the flower petals of three varieties of a species can be compared
using ANOVA. ANOVA answers the question, "Is the variation in these lengths due to
chance from the sample, or does it reflect a difference from the population?". C.K.Taylor

One factor analysis of variance, also known as ANOVA, gives us a way

to make multiple comparisons of several population means. Rather than
doing this in a pairwise manner, we can look simultaneously at all of the
means under consideration. To perform an ANOVA test, we need to
compare two kinds of variation, the variation between the sample means,
as well as the variation within each of our samples.
We combine all of this variation into a single statistic, called
the F statistic because it uses the F-distribution. We do this by dividing
the variation between samples by the variation within each sample. The
way to do this is typically handled by software, however there is some
value in seeing one such calculation worked out.
It will be easy to get lost in what follows. Here is the list of steps that we
will follow in the example below:

1. Calculate the sample means for each of our samples as well as the mean for all of the sample data.
2. Calculate the sum of squares of error. Here within each sample, we square the deviation of each data value from
the sample mean. The sum of all of the squared deviations is the sum of squares of error, abbreviated SSE.

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1. Calculate the sum of squares of treatment. We square the deviation of each sample mean from the overall
mean. The sum of all of these squared deviations is multiplied by one less than the number of samples we have.
This number is the sum of squares of treatment, abbreviated SST.
2. Calculate the degrees of freedom. The overall number of degrees of freedom is one less than the total number of
data points in our sample, or n- 1. The number of degrees of freedom of treatment is one less than the number
of samples used, or m - 1. The number of degrees of freedom of error is the total number of data points, minus
the number of samples, or n -m.
3. Calculate the mean square of error. This is denoted MSE = SSE/(n - m).
4. Calculate the mean square of treatment. This is denoted MST = SST/m - `1.
5. Calculate the F statistic. This is the ratio of the two mean squares that we calculated. So F = MST/MSE.
Software does all of this quite easily, but it is good to know what is happening behind the scenes. In what follows we
work out an example of ANOVA following the steps as listed above.
Data and Sample Means

Suppose we have four independent populations that satisfy the conditions for single factor ANOVA. We wish to test the
null hypothesis H0: μ1 = μ2 = μ3= μ4. For purposes of this example, we will use a sample of size three from each of the
populations being studied. The data from our samples is:
 Sample from population #1: 12, 9, 12. This has sample mean of 11.
 Sample from population #2: 7, 10, 13. This has sample mean of 10.
 Sample from population #3: 5, 8, 11. This has sample mean of 8.
 Sample from population #4: 5, 8, 8. This has sample mean of 7.
The mean of all of the data is 9.

Sum of Squares of Error

We now calculate the sum of the squared deviations from each sample mean. This is called the sum of squares of error.

 For the sample from population #1: (12 – 11)2 + (9– 11)2 +(12 – 11)2 = 6
 For the sample from population #2: (7 – 10)2 + (10– 10)2 +(13 – 10)2 = 18
 For the sample from population #3: (5 – 8)2 + (8 – 8)2 +(11 – 8)2 = 18
 For the sample from population #4: (5 – 7)2 + (8 – 7)2 +(8 – 7)2 = 6.
We then add all of these sum of squared deviations and obtain 6 + 18 + 18 + 6 = 48.

Sum of Squares of Treatment

Now we calculate the sum of squares of treatment. Here we look at the squared deviations of each sample mean from
the overall mean, and multiply this number by one less than the number of populations:

3[(11 – 9)2 + (10 – 9)2 +(8 – 9)2 + (7 – 9)2] = 3[4 + 1 + 1 + 4] = 30.

Degrees of Freedom

Before proceeding to the next step, we need the degrees of freedom. There are 12 data values and four samples. Thus
the number of degrees of freedom of treatment is 4 – 1 = 3. The number of degrees of freedom of error is 12 – 4 = 8.

Mean Squares

We now divide our sum of squares by the appropriate number of degrees of freedom in order to obtain the mean
squares.

 The mean square for treatment is 30 / 3 = 10.

 The mean square for error is 48 / 8 = 6.

The F-statistic

The final step of this is to divide the mean square for treatment by the mean square for error. This is the F-statistic from
the data. Thus for our example F = 10/6 = 5/3 = 1.667.

Tables of values or software can be used to determine how likely it is to obtain a value of the F-statistic as extreme as
this value by chance alone.

__________________________________________________________________________________
 Methodology
Definition: Methodology refers to the practices and techniques in research used to gather, process, and manipulate
information that can then be used to test ideas and theories about social life.
Examples: Types of methodologies include ethnographies, secondary data analysis, survey data collection, interviews,
etc

Introduction to Market Research - Data Collection

Step 3. Collect the Data or Information

In this introduction to the basic steps of market research, the reader can
find help with framing the research question, figuring out which approach
to data collection to use, how best to analyze the data, and how to structure
the market research findings and share them with clients.

The market research process consists of six discrete stages or steps. They
are as follows:

 Step 1 - Articulate the research problem and objectives

 Step 2 - Develop the overall research plan

 Step 3 – Collect the data or information
 Step 4 – Analyze the data or information
 Step 5 – Present or disseminate the findings
 Step 6 – Use the findings to make the decision

The third step of market research - - Collect the Data or Information - entails several important decisions. One
of the first things to consider in this stage is how the research participants are going to be contacted. There was
at time when survey questionnaires were sent to prospective respondent via the postal system. As you might
imagine, the response rate was quite low for mailed surveys, and the initiative was costly.

Telephone surveys were also once very common, but people today let their answering machines take calls or
they have caller ID, which enables them to ignore calls they don't want to receive. Surprisingly,the Pew
Foundation conducts an amazingly large number of surveys, many of which are part of longitudinal or long-
term research studies.

Large-scale telephone studies are commonly conducted by the Pew researchers and the caliber of their research
is top-notch.

Some companies have issued pre-paid phone cards to consumers who are asked to take a quick survey before
they use the free time on the calling card. If they participate in the brief survey, the number of free minutes on
their calling card is increased.

Some of the companies that have used this method of telephone surveying includes Coca-Cola, NBC, and
Amaco.
Methods of Interviewing
In-depth interviews are one of the most flexible ways to gather data from research participants. Another advantage of
interviewing research participants in person is that their non-verbal language can be observed, as well as other attributes
about them that might contribute to a consumer profile. Interviews can take two basic forms: Arranged
interviews and intercept interviews.

Arranged interviews interviews are time-consuming, require logistical considerations of planning and scheduling, and
tend to be quite expensive to conduct. Exacting sampling procedures can be used in arranged interviews that can
contribute to the usefulness of the interview data set. In addition, the face-to-face aspect of in-depth interviewing can
result in exposure to interviewer bias, so training of interviewers necessarily becomes a component of an in-depth
interviewing project.

Intercept interviews take place in shopping malls, on street corners, and even at the threshold of people's homes. With
intercept interviews, the sampling is non-probabilistic. For obvious reasons, intercept interviews must be brief, to the
point, and not ask questionsthat are off-putting. Otherwise, the interviewer risks seeing the interviewee walk away. One
version of an intercept interview occurs when people respond to a survey that is related to a purchase that they just made.
Instructions for participating in the survey are printed on their store receipt and generally the reward for participating is a
free item or a chance to be entered in a sweepstakes.

Online data collection is rapidly replacing other methods of accessing consumer information. Brief surveys and polls are
everywhere on the Web. Forums and chat rooms may be sponsored by companies that wish to learn more from
consumers who volunteer their participation. Cookies and clickstream data send information about consumer choices
right to the computers of market researchers. Focus groups can be held online and in anonymous blackboard settings.
Market research has become embedded in advertising on digital platforms.

There are still many people who do not regularly have access to the Internet. Providing internet access for people who do
not have connections at home or are intimidated by computing or networking can be fruitful. Often, the novelty of
encountering an online market research survey or poll that looks like and acts like a game is incentive enough to convert
reticent Internet users.

Characteristics of Data Collection

Data collection strategies are closely tied to the type of research that is being conducted as the traditions are quite
strong and have resilient philosophical foundations. In the rapidly changing field of market research, these traditions are
being eroded as technologymakes new methods available. The shift to more electronic means ofsurveying consumers is
beneficial in a number of ways. Once theinfrastructure is in place, digital data collection is rapid, relatively error-free,
and often fun for consumers. Where data collection is still centralized, market researchers can eliminate the headache
ofcoding data by inputting responses into computers or touch screens. The coding is instantaneous and the data analysis
is rapid.

Regardless of how data is collected, the human element is always important. It may be that the expert knowledge of
market researchers shifts to different places in the market research stream. For example, the expert knowledge of a
market researcher is critically important in the sophisticated realm of Bayesian Networkssimulation and structured
equation modeling -- two techniques that are conducted through computer modeling. Intelligently designed market
research requires planning regardless of the platform. The old adage still holds true: Garbage in, garbage out.

Now you are ready to take a look at the market research process Step 4. Analyze the Data.
 Analyzing Quantitative Data
Statistical Software Programs For Use With Quantitative Data

There are many different software programs designed for use

with quantitative data. This article will take a look at the programs that are
most commonly used among social science researchers.
SPSS. SPSS, which stands for Statistical Package for Social Science, is
the most popular quantitative analysis software program used in social
science research. It is comprehensive and flexible and can be used with
almost any type of file. It can be used to generate tabulated reports,
charts, and plots of distributions and trends, as well as generate
descriptive statistics and more complex statistical analyses. SPSS
provides a user interface that makes it very easy and intuitive for all levels of users. Menus and dialogue boxes make it
possible to perform analyses without having to write command syntax, like in other programs. It is also simple and easy
to enter and edit data directly into the program. There are a few drawbacks, however, which might not make it the best
program for some researchers.
For example, there is a limit on the number of cases you can analyze. It is also difficult to account for weights, strata, and
group effects with SPSS.

STATA. STATA is an interactive data analysis program that runs on a variety of platforms. It can be used for both simple
and complex statistical analyses. STATA uses a point-and-click interface as well as command syntax, which makes it
easy to use. STATA also make it easy to generate graphs and plots of data and results.
Analysis in STATA is centered around four windows: the command window, the review window, the result window, and
the variable window. Analysis commands are entered into the command window and the review window records those
commands. The variables window lists the variables that are available in the current data set along with the variable
labels, and the results window is where the results appear.

SAS. SAS, short for Statistical Analysis System, is also used by a great deal of businesses because, in addition to
statistical analysis, it also allows programmers to perform report writing, graphics, business planning, forecasting, quality
improvement, project management, and more. SAS is a great program for the intermediate and advanced user because
it is very powerful, can be used with extremely large data sets, and can perform complex and advanced analyses. SAS is
good for analyses that require you to take into account weights, strata, or groups. Unlike SPSS and STATA, SAS is run
largely by programming syntax rather than point-and-click menus, so some knowledge of the programming language is
required.
Analyzing Qualitative Data
Statistical Software Programs For Use With Qualitative Data
When we talk about computer programs used in sociological research, most people think about programs designed for
use with quantitative data, such as SAS and SPSS that are used for generating statistics with large data sets of
numbers. Qualitative researchers, however, also have several options of computer programs that can help analyze non-
numerical data.
Computers are great note-taking devices for qualitative research, allowing you to edit and duplicate easily. Beyond basic
recording and storage of data, however, simple word processing programs can also be used for some basic data
analysis. For example, you can use the "find" or "search" command to go directly to entries containing key words. You
can also type code words alongside entries in your notes so that you can search for those keywords later.

Database and spreadsheet programs, such as Excel, can also be used for analyzing qualitative data. Columns can be
used to represent categories, the "sort" command can be used to organize data, and cells can be used for coding data.

There are many possibilities and options, depending on what makes the most sense for each individual.

There are also several software programs designed specifically for use with qualitative data. The following are the most
commonly used by social science researchers:

NUD-IST. At the most basic level, NUD-IST (short for Non-numerical Unstructured Data Indexing Searching and
Theorizing) keeps text organized and portable. It is good for simple analyses like text manuscript from focus groups or
open-ended survey data to more complex theory construction and analysis. It automates much of the tedious work that
normally comes with qualitative data analysis by auto coding signified text data, importing table data, and using
command files to regulate processes. NUD-IST also contains a comprehensive indexing system for coding documents,
which can be anything from text files to newspaper clippings to books, photographs, maps, music, and videos.
ATLAS-ti. ATLAS.ti is a software program that contains tools to help the user locate, code, and annotate findings in the
data, weigh and evaluate their importance, and visualize the relationships among them. It can consolidate large volumes
of documents while keeping track of all notes, annotations, codes and memos in all fields of the data. ATLAS.ti can be
used with text files, images, audio files, video files, or geo data.
Ethnograph. Ethnograph software is good for people who need to analyze large amounts of text, including interview
transcripts, field notes, open-ended surveys, etc. It is used mostly for coding and compiling patterns in data that is
collected during fieldwork or from interviews. When you import the data, the program automatically gives your text line
numbers and formats the file. You can nest codes within the files, mark codes with memos, create a hierarchy of codes,
and perform various types of searches on codes together with filters.
The Difference Between Primary Research and Secondary Research
Market Research is Pivotal for Your Business' Success

If you're starting a new business, launching a new product or opening a new location, market research is essential for
your success. There are two core forms of research: primary research and secondary research.

What is Primary Research?

Primary research is designed to meet your unique and specific needs. The research is conducted by you, or by a research
firm you hire for the project. The research can include focus groups, surveys, interviews and observations.

Unlike other forms of research, where you apply the work of others to your business, primary research aims to answer
questions relevant solely to your company. For instance, if you are launching a new website and want feedback on its
design and efficacy, your research firm would share it with focus groups to gauge their responses to the site.

Primary research gives you more specific results. Usually, the research firm will use statistical models to come up with a
sample group that is representative of your target audiences, making it very relevant to your business needs.

Primary research provides two basic forms:

1. Exploratory: Exploratory research does not aim for a specific result or data point; it is more open-ended. It can
help you identify problems and usually involves interviews or focus groups with extensive input from
participants. For example, if you noticed your website was not producing any sales but you do not know why,
you would interview a focus group to see what the problem was. They might say they found it hard to navigate
or they found it overwhelming; without open-ended discussion, you would not get that valuable feedback.

1. Specific: Specific research is very targeted in its scope. It is used to solve the problem that you discovered
through exploratory research. Usually done through interviews, specific primary research usually involves
interviews and is very precise. In the example of your website, once the exploratory research identified the
problem, that your website sales were down due to difficulties navigating the site, you would use specific
research to test reactions to new layouts.

One major downside to primary market research is cost. Running a study yourself or hiring a research form can cost
thousands of dollars, making it inaccessible for many small business owners.

What is Secondary Market Research?

Secondary market research is when you use previously completed studies and apply the results to your own situation. It's
easy to find using the internet or research journals and is usually free or low cost. The drawback for businesses is that the
results are not specific to your business, and you may not be aware of all of the variables involved. The results may also
be broader than your company's niche, making to more difficult to help inform your business decisions.

What Kind of Research Should I Use?

For many business owners, the best approach is to start with secondary research. By looking at regional data, community
surveys and other available information, you can help identify your audience and market. Once you have narrowed down
your target group, you can do lower cost versions of primary market research, such as sending out surveys or
questionnaires.

Secondary research gives you a foundation to build on, while the primary research helps you identify specific needs.
Secondary Data Analysis
In social science research, you may often hear the terms primary data and secondary data. Primary data is data that was
collected by the researcher, or team of researchers, for the specific purpose or analysis under consideration. Here, a
research team conceives of and develops a research project, collects data designed to address specific questions, and
performs their own analyses of the data they collected. The people involved in thedata analysis therefore are familiar with
the research design and data collection process.
Secondary data analysis, however, is the use of data that was collected by someone else for some other purpose. In this
case, the researcher poses questions that are addressed through the analysis of a data set that they were not involved in
collecting. The data was not collected to answer the researcher’s specific research questions and was instead collected
for another purpose. The same data set can therefore be a primary data set to one researcher and a secondary data set
to a different researcher.
Using Secondary Data
When using secondary data in an analysis, there are some important things that must be done beforehand. Since the
researcher did not collect the data, he or she is usually not familiar with the data. It is important for the researcher to
become familiar with the data set, including how the data was collected, what the response categories are for each
question, whether or not weights need to be applied during the analysis, whether or not clusters or stratification needs to
be accounted for, who the population of study was, etc. Basically, the researcher needs to become as familiar as
possible with the data set and the data collection process used.

There are a great deal of secondary data resources and data sets available for sociological research, many of which are
public and easily accessible. Read more about commonly used secondary data sets.
Advantages of Secondary Data Analysis
The biggest advantage of using secondary data is economics. Someone else has already collected the data, so the
researcher does not have to devote money, time, energy, and other resources to this phase of research. Sometimes the
secondary data set must be purchased, but the cost is almost always certainly lower than the expense of collecting a
similar data set from scratch, which usually entails salaries, travel/transportation, etc. There is also a huge savings in
time. Since the data is already collected and usually cleaned and stored in electronic format, the researcher can spend
most of his or time analyzing the data instead of getting the data ready for analysis.
A second major advantage of using secondary data is the breadth of data available. The federal government conducts
numerous studies on a large, national scale that individual researchers would have a difficult time collecting. Many of
these data sets are also longitudinal, meaning that the same data has been collected from the same population over
several different time periods. This allows researchers to look at trends and changes of phenomena over time.

A third major advantage of using secondary data is that the data collection process is often guided by expertise and
professionalism that may not be available to individual researchers or small research projects. For example, data
collection for many federal data sets is often performed by staff members who specialize in certain tasks and have many
years of experience in that particular area and with that particular survey. Many smaller research projects do not have
that level of expertise available, as data is usually collected by students working at a part-time or temporary job.
Disadvantages of Secondary Data Analysis
A major disadvantage of using secondary data is that it may not answer the researcher’s specific research questions or
contain specific information that the researcher would like to have. Or it may not have been collected in the geographic
region desired, in the years desired, or the specific populationthat the researcher is interested in studying. Since the
researcher did not collect the data, he or she has no control over what is contained in the data set. Often times this can
limit the analysis or alter the original questions the researcher sought out to answer.
A related problem is that the variables may have been defined or categorized differently than the researcher would have
chosen. For example, age may have been collected in categories rather than as acontinuous variable, or race may be
defined as “White” and “Other” instead of containing every major race category.
Another major disadvantage to using secondary data is that the researcher/analyst does not know exactly how the data
collection process was done and how well it was done. The researcher is therefore not usually privy to information about
how seriously the data are affected by problems such as low response rate or respondent misunderstanding of specific
survey questions. Sometimes this information is readily available, as is the case with many federal data sets. However,
many other secondary data sets are not accompanied by this type of information and the analyst must learn to read
between the lines and consider what problems might have been encountered in the data collection process.

Primary source (research)

Glossary of Grammatical and Rhetorical Terms

The Library of Congress in Washington, D.C., has two of the five known manuscripts of President
Abraham Lincoln's Gettysburg Address. These manuscripts are both original sources
andprimary sources. (Diane Diederich/Getty Images)

Definition

In research activities, primary source refers to information collected firsthand

from such sources as historical documents, literary texts, artistic works,
experiments, surveys, and interviews. Also called primary data. Contrast with secondary source.

The Library of Congressdefines primary sources as "actual records that have survived from the past, such as letters,
photographs, or articles of clothing," in contrast tosecondary sources, which are "accounts of the past created by people
writing about events sometime after they happened"

Examples and Observations

 "[Primary sources] provide the 'raw data' that you use first to test the working hypothesis and then as evidence to
support your claim. In history, for example, primary sources include documents from the period or person you
are studying, objects, maps, even clothing; in literature or philosophy, your main primary source is usually
the text you are studying, and your data are the words on the page. In such fields you can rarely write a
research paper without using primary sources."
(Wayne C. Booth et al. The Craft of Research. University of Chicago Press, 2008)

 Characteristics of Primary Sources

"The chief characteristics of primary sources are: (1) being present during the experience, event or time and
(2) consequently being close in time with the data. This does not mean that data from primary sources
are always the best data. . . . Data from human sources are subject to many types of distortion because of such
factors as selective recall, selective perceptions, and purposeful or nonpurposeful omission or addition of
information. Thus data from primary sources are not necessarily accurate data even though they come from
firsthand sources."
(Natalie L. Sproull, Handbook of Research Methods: A Guide for Practitioners and Students in the Social
Sciences, 2nd ed. Scarecrow Press, 2002)
 Methods of Collecting Primary Data
"If the information you need is unavailable or hasn't yet been gathered, you'll have to gather it yourself. Four
basic methods of collecting primary data are field research, content analysis, survey research, and
experiments. Other methods of gathering primary data include historical research, analysis of existing statistics, .
. . and various forms of direct observation."
 (H. Dan O'Hair et al. Business Communication: A Framework for Success. South-Western, 2001)

 Secondary Sources and Primary Sources

"By identifying basic facts, such as year of construction, secondary sourcescan point the researcher to
the best primary sources, such as the right tax books. In addition, a careful reading of the bibliography in a
secondary source can reveal important sources the researcher might otherwise have missed."
(Alison Hoagland and Gray Fitzsimmons, "History." Recording Historic Structures, 2nd. ed., edited by John A.
Burns. Wiley, 2004)

 Primary Sources and Original Sources

"The distinction also needs to be made between primary and original sources. It is by no means always
necessary, and all too often it is not possible, to deal only with original sources. Printed copies of original
sources, provided they have been undertaken with scrupulous care (such as the published letters of the
Founding Fathers), are usually an acceptable substitute for their handwritten originals."
(E. J. Monaghan and D. K. Hartman, "Undertaking Historical Research in Literacy," in Handbook of Reading
Research, ed. by P. D. Pearson et al. Erlbaum, 2000)

 Finding and Accessing Primary Sources

"This one is entirely dependent on the assignment given and your local resources; but when included, always
emphasize quality. . . . Keep in mind that there are many institutions such as the Library of Congress that make
primary source material freely available on the Web."
(Joel D. Kitchens, Librarians, Historians, and New Opportunities for Discourse. ABC-CLIO, 2012)

Research (essays and reports)

Glossary of Grammatical and Rhetorical Terms
 Research Paper Writing

 Research and Studies

 Research Survey

 Research Study

 Research Journal

 Research Education

 Research Essay

"Research is formalized curiosity. It is poking and prying with a purpose" (Zora Neale Hurston, Dust Tracks on a Road, 1942

Definition

Research is the collection and evaluation of information about a particular subject. The overarching purpose of research
is to answer questions and generate new knowledge.
Two broad approaches to research are commonly recognized, though these different approaches may overlap. Put
simply,quantitative research involves the systematic collection and analysis of data, while qualitative researchinvolves
"the studied use and collection of a variety of empirical materials," which may include "case study, personal experience,
introspection, life story, interviews, artifacts, [and] cultural texts and productions" (The SAGE Handbook of Qualitative
Research, 2005). Finally, mixed-method research (sometimes called triangulation) has been defined as the incorporation
of various qualitative and quantitative strategies within a single project.
There are other ways of classifying different research methods and approaches. For example, sociology
professor Russell Schutt observes that "[d]eductive research begins at the point of theory, inductive researchbegins with
data but ends with theory, and descriptive research begins with data and ends with empirical generalizations"
(Investigating the Social World, 2012).
In the words of psychology professor Wayne Weiten, "No single research method is ideal for all purposes and situations.
Much of the ingenuity in research involves selecting and tailoring the method to the question at hand" (Psychology:
Themes and Variations, 2014).
See the observations below. Also see:

 Research Paper
 The Advantages of Slow Reading and Slow Writing
 Annotation
 Choosing a Style Manual and Documentation Guide
 Citation
 Confirmation Bias
 Critical Analysis and Critical Essay
 Critique
 Discovery Strategies (Heuristics)
 Documentation
 Interview
 Literature Review
 "Look at Your Fish!" by Samuel H. Scudder
 Note-Taking
 Plagiarism
 Primary Source
 "Quote . . . Misquote": The Challenge of Verifying Quotations
 Review
 Secondary Source
 Summary and Synopsis
 Writer's Notebook

Etymology
From the Old French, "to search, examine"

Observations

 "Talent must be stimulated by facts and ideas. Do research. Feed your talent. Research not only wins the war
on cliche, it's the key to victory over fear and its cousin, depression."
(Robert McKee, Story: Style, Structure, Substance, and the Principles of Screenwriting. HarperCollins, 1997)

 College Research Assignments

"College research assignments are an opportunity for you to contribute to an intellectual inquiry or debate. Most
college assignments ask you to pose a question worth exploring, to read widely in search of possible answers,
to interpret what you read, to draw reasoned conclusions, and to support those conclusions with valid and well-
documented evidence. Such assignments may at first seem overwhelming, but if you pose a question that
intrigues you and approach it like a detective, with genuine curiosity, you will soon learn how rewarding research
can be. . . .

"Admittedly, the process takes time: time for researching and time fordrafting, revising, and documenting the
 paper in the style recommended by your instructor. Before beginning a research project, you should set a
realistic schedule of deadlines."
(Diana Hacker, The Bedford Handbook, 6th ed. Bedford/St. Martin's, 2002)

 A Framework for Conducting Research

"Beginning researchers need to start by using the seven steps listed below. The path is not always linear, but
these steps provide a framework for conducting research. . . .
1. Define your research question
2. Ask for help
3. Develop a research strategy and locate resources
4. Use effective search techniques
5. Read critically, synthesize, and seek meaning
6. Understand the scholarly communication process and cite sources
7. Critically evaluate sources"
(Leslie F. Stebbins, Student Guide to Research in the Digital Age. Libraries Unlimited, 2006)

 Write What You Know?

"I refer to [the writing motto] 'Write what you know,' and problems emerge when it’s interpreted to mean that first-
grade teachers should (only?) write about being a first-grade teacher, short-story writers living in Brooklyn
should write about being a short-story writer living in Brooklyn, and so forth. . . .

"Writers who are intimately familiar with their subject produce more knowing, more confident and, as a result,
stronger results. . . .

"But that command is not perfect, implying, as it does, that one’s written output should be limited to one’s
passions. Some people don’t feel passionate about one given subject, which is regrettable but shouldn’t consign
them to the sidelines of the world of prose. Fortunately, this conundrum has an escape clause: you can actually
acquire knowledge. In journalism this is called 'reporting,' and in nonfiction, 'research.' . . . [T]he idea is to
investigate the subject till you can write about it with complete confidence and authority. Being a serial expert is
actually one of the cool things about the very enterprise of writing: You learn ’em and leave ’em."
(Ben Yagoda, "Should We Write What We Know?" The New York Times, July 22, 2013)

 The Lighter Side of Research

- "Poking a dead raccoon is not research."
(Bart Simpson, The Simpsons)

- "'Google' is not a synonym for 'research.'"

(Dan Brown, The Lost Symbol, 2009)

- "I find that a great part of the information I have was acquired by looking up something and finding something
else on the way."
(Franklin Pierce Adams, quoted in Reader's Digest, October 1960)
Pronunciation: ri-SERCH or REE-serch
Research paper
Glossary of Grammatical and Rhetorical Terms
 Research Paper Writing

 Academic Essay Writing

 Term Paper

 Writing Topics

 How to Writing

 Writing Ideas

 Research Report

Jane E. Simonsen compares writing a research paper to building a house. "The work and design are your own," she says, "but you cannot do it without
relying on the efforts and wisdom of others" (Making a Home Work, 2006).

Definitions

(1) A research paper is a form of academic writing, usually between five and fifteen pages long, composed by students in
colleges and universities. A research paper requires students to locate information about a topic (that is, to
conduct research), take a stand on that topic, and provide support (or evidence) for that position in an organized report.
(See tips and guidelines below.) Also called a term paper, research project, or research report.
(2) The term research paper may also refer to a scholarly article that contains the results of original research or
an evaluation of research conducted by others. Most scholarly articles must undergo a process of peer review before
they can be accepted for publication in an academic journal.
See Steps in Conducting Research below. Also see:

 Research
 Bibliography
 Book Report
 Choosing a Style Manual and Documentation Guide
 Citations
 Critical Essay and Critique
 Discovery Strategies (Heuristics)
 Documentation
 Focusing
 Interview
 Literature Review
 "Look at Your Fish!" by Samuel H. Scudder
 Plagiarism
 Primary Sources and Secondary Sources
 Research Paper Checklist (Guide to Homework & Study Tips)
 Research Timeline (Guide to Homework & Study Tips)
 Summary
 Three Good Reasons Not to Buy an Online Essay
 Write a Research Paper (Guide to Homework & Study Tips)
Steps in Conducting Research

 Reasons for the Research Paper

"One obvious reason for the research paper is that writing it forces you to learn lots about your chosen subject.
. . . Another reason is that writing the paper teaches you the conventions of scholarly writing, among them the
accepted styles of documentation and the ethics of research.

"A third reason is that you will become familiar with the library through the 'learning by doing' method. . . . Writing
a research paper may also meaninterviewing experts about your subject and blending their ideas with your own
distinct point of view. . . .

"There are other benefits as well. Writing the research paper is an exercise in logic, imagination, and common
sense. As you chip away at the mass of data and information available on your chosen topic, you learn
- How to track down information
- How to organize
- How to use the Internet in your research
- How to discriminate between useless and useful opinions
- How to summarize
- How to budget your time
- How to conceive of and manage a research project from start to finish"
(Anthony C. Winkler and Jo Ray Metherell, Writing the Research Paper: A Handbook, 8th ed. Wadsworth
Publishing, 2011)
 The Seven Steps of Research

1. Define your research question

2. Ask for help
3. Develop a research strategy and locate resources
4. Use effective search techniques
5. Read critically, synthesize, and seek meaning
6. Understand the scholarly communication process and cite sources
7. Critically evaluate sources
(Leslie F. Stebbins, Student Guide to Research in the Digital Age. Greenwood, 2006)
 Defining Your Research Question: Finding and Focusing a Topic
"The first step in composing a research paper is finding a subject to write about. If your instructor assigns
a topic, this step will take care of itself. More often, however, you will be offered a range of general subjects, one
of which you must investigate and then narrow down to a specific topic.

"As you begin your investigations, keep these four factors in mind:

1. Instructor's guidelines. Make sure your topic falls within the limits of subject, topic, and approach set by your
instructor.
2. Your interests. Find a topic that interests you. You may wish to learn more about a subject you are already
familiar with or explore for the first time a subject that promises to be interesting.
3. Time. Find a topic that you can both research and write about within the time available.
4. Adequate resources. Be sure that you can find sufficient sources of information on your topic. Surveying
your primary and secondary sourceswill enable you to decide whether the topic is worth pursuing.
Don't be troubled if at first you have some difficulty in formulating a precise topic. As you carry out your research, you
should find it easier to focus and define the topic more clearly. But don't delay. To meet the deadline for submitting the
final paper, you'll have to budget your time carefully. So, if you have questions about a topic, consult with your instructor
as soon as possible."
(Richard Nordquist, Passages: A Writer's Guide, 3rd ed. St. Martin's Press, 1995)
 Mapping Out a Research Strategy
"A search strategy is a systematic plan for tracking down sources. To create a search strategy appropriate for
your research question, consult a reference librarian and . . . take a look at your library's Web site, which will
give you an overview of available resources.

"Reference librarians are information specialists who can save you time by steering you toward relevant and
reliable sources. With the help of an expert, you can make the best use of electronic databases, Web search
engines, and other reference tools."
(Diana Hacker, The Bedford Handbook, 6th ed. Bedford/St. Martin's, 2002)
 Qualitative and Quantitative Research
"Often the distinction between qualitative and quantitative research is framed in terms of using words
(qualitative) rather than numbers (quantitative), or using close-ended questions (quantitative hypotheses) rather
than open-ended questions (qualitative interview questions). A more complete way to view the gradations of
differences between them is in the basic philosophical assumptions researchers bring to the study . . ..

"Qualitative research is a means for exploring and understanding the meaning individuals or groups ascribe to a
social or human problem. The process of research involves emerging questions and procedures, data typically
gathered in the participant's setting, data analysis inductively building from particulars to general themes, and
the researcher making interpretations of the meaning of the data. . . .

"Quantitative research is a means for testing objective theories by examining the relationship among variables.
These variables, in turn, can be measured, typically on instruments, so that numbered data can be analyzed
using statistical procedures. . . .

"Mixed methods research is an approach to inquiry that combines or associates both qualitative and quantitative
forms. It involves philosophical assumptions, the use of qualitative and quantitative approaches, and the mixing
of both approaches in a study."
(John W. Creswell, Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches, 3rd ed. Sage,
2008)
 Evaluating Sources
"You will need to evaluate your sources on two levels. First, is the information reliable? Second, how useful will a
source be for your paper? . . .

"[P]ublication does not make something reported as a fact true or an opinion valid. Composing research
paper provides a good opportunity to learn how to judge the reliability of souurces and to extract relevant
material from them."
(William Coyle and Joe Law, Research Papers, 15th ed. Wadsworth, 2010)

___________________________________________________________________________
Market Research 101 - Problems, Alternatives, and Questions
Step 1. Articulate the Research Problem and Objectives

Market research begins with a definition of the problem to be solved or

the question to be answered. Typically, there are several alternative
approaches that can be used to conduct the market research.

The market research process consists of six discrete stages or steps.

Quick access to the other steps of the market research process follows:

 Step 1 - Articulate the research problem and objectives

 Step 2 - Develop the overall research plan

 Step 3 – Collect the data or information

 Step 4 – Analyze the data or information
 Step 5 – Present or disseminate the findings
 Step 6 – Use the findings to make the decision

What Is the Purpose of Step 1?

The task of the first stage of market research is to articulate the problem that the research will
address. This includes defining thedecision alternatives, and the research objectives. At first blush,
this seems like an easy step. Aren't marketing problems easy to spot and easy to articulate?
Beginning a research project falls into the category described as it looks easier than it is

It is important not to define the market research problem too narrowly or too broadly. In the first
instance, a market researcher may find that the actual problem has been missed because the focus
was too narrow. Or even if the right research question has been addressed, other important
variables may not have been considered, such as barriers to prevent copying by other competitors.

In the second instance, too much information is likely to be collected - at considerable cost - and
most of that data will never be used. The information is simply not sufficiently germane to the
problem.

It is important to realize that it is not always possible to know thesweet spot in terms of scope until
the data collection has begun or has been underway for a time.

A change in the problem statement in qualitative research does not necessarily reflect poor
planning. In fact, it may indicate new learningand the iterative nature of qualitative research.

Why Is a Problem Statement Useful?

Writing a problem statement to guide the research is both practical and important. A problem
statement clearly tells what is intended to be accomplished by the research, and so it is a very
practical step with regard to obtaining resources to be used to conduct the research. Writing a
problem statement is important because it points to how open or closed the research can be in it
approach.

 Open research is associated with qualitative research approaches and closed research is associated
with quantitative research approaches.
 Quantitative research seeks to identify the relation among a set of variables.
 Qualitative research aims to gain some understanding of a phenomenon.

A market research project attempts to fill some gap in the knowledge about a phenomenon. In
conventional research, this task is begins with a formal literature review.

In market research, research questions tend to come from internal clients about how to achieve a
certain marketing objective or another.

How Do Market Researchers Identify Meaningful Research Questions?

One of the best ways to identify the knowledge gap is to jot down all the questions that the market
researcher or others have with regard to the research topic or situation. When the stream of
questions dries up to a trickle, it is time to look for categories under which the questions can be
grouped. These become the sub-categories. Either before or after creating the subcategories, look
for an overarching question. This overarching question will be the first draft of the problem
statement or research question.

An important difference between conventional research and market research is that the later is
decision driven. Backward-mapping from the business decisions can assist the business
manager and the market researcher to be on the same page with regard to priorities and aims of
the research. That said, it is not unusual for a market research project to be exploratory, descriptive,
or causal rather than decision-mapped research.

 Exploratory market research seeks to provide insights about the nature of a marketing problem, come
up with new ideas, or suggest a range of possible solutions to be considered. These, then, might drive
the identification of the business decisions.
 Descriptive market research might attempt to determine the magnitude of a marketing variable.
 Some market research is experimental in form and aims to test a cause-and-effect relationship.

Now you are ready to take a look at step two of the market research process: Research
Instruments.
Develop the Overall Research Plan: Market Research

Step 2. Selecting Data Sources and Research Tools

Of all the research steps discussed in this series, Step 2

has undergone the most change. Innovative technology
has enabled research tools to move to digital
environments.

6 Steps in the Market Research Process

The market research process consists of six discrete stages or steps. They are as follows:

 Step 1 - Articulate the research problem and objectives

 Step 2 - Develop the overall research plan
 Step 3 – Collect the data or information

 Step 4 – Analyze the data or information

 Step 5 – Present or disseminate the findings
 Step 6 – Use the findings to make the decision

Stage 2: Develop the Overall Research Plan

The task of the second stage of market research is to determine the most efficacious way to collect
the information that is anticipated to provide answers to the research questions. Designing a
research plan is a complex undertaking because it involves so many different decisions. A market
researcher must determine what data sources to use, the type of research approaches to take, how
to limit distortions of the data, what research instruments to employ, how a sampling plan should
be configured, how to protect participants' privacy, and what methods will be used to contact
research participants. An critical concern is how much it will cost to implement the research plan.

Primary and Secondary Data Sources

Before the market researcher can determine what research instruments to use, a decision must be
made about the data sources to use.

A market researcher can choose to collect primary data, secondary data, or both types of
information. Primary data are gathered for the first time for a particular research project or for a
specific purpose. Secondary data exists prior to the initialization of a new research project, having
been collected for another purpose.

The distinction between primary data and secondary data is that freshly gathered data is
associated with primary research. A common form of primary research data is syndicated research
in which a group of researchers who are interested in the same research problem commission an
independent market research provider to conduct a study and share the results with the purchasing
participants.

A common and prudent practice is for a market researcher to explore possible secondary sources
of data to determine if the research questions can be partly or completely answered without the
expense of primary data collection. The advantages of secondary data are that it is generally of low
cost or even available for free, and it is immediately available without having to wait for a research
study to be completed. A fundamental disadvantage of secondary data is that it will generally not
have been configured precisely to fulfill a research agenda. As such, secondary data may be
incomplete, inaccurate, dated, or unreliable.

In such cases, a market researcher will necessarily need to commit to some type of primary data
collection process.

Pilot Testing
Typically, primary data collection begins with some type of pilot testing, even if it is as simple as
interviewing people in groups or individually to get the feel for how people perceive some topic or
question. Then a formal research instrument is developed, pilot-tested again for problems, and then
used in the field to conduct the desired research, all according to the research plan.

4 Instruments to Best Collect Primary Research Data

There are four main types of research instruments available to market researchers:
(1) Questionnaires or surveys, (2) psychological tools, (3) mechanical devices, and (4) qualitative
measurements.

1. Questionnaires or surveys - For gathering primary research data, surveys are the most
commonly used of the instruments. Althoughthe survey instrument is flexible and relatively
inexpensive, it requires careful attention during development. All surveys should be pilot tested, at
least to some degree, before they are released and administered to a target sample. The forms that
the questions take should be carefully considered to ensure they perform as expected and that they
fit well into the survey document as a whole.Developing survey questions is both an art and a
science. Fortunately, many guidelines to survey construction, administration, and scoring are
available.

2. Psychological Tools - Three commonly used psychological tools used to collect primary data
are:
(1) Laddering questions techniques, (2) in-depth interviews, and (3)Rorschach-like tests.

 Laddering questions continue to probe deeper into the perspectives and opinions of respondents.
The technique is iterative, so that each subsequent question is generated according to the response
to the previous question. Laddering is a technique that has been widely used in creative problem-
solving methods and workshops.In-depth interviewing consists of probing ever deeper into the
customer experience.
 The technique of in-depth interviewing was developed by Earnest Dichter —at which he excelled—and
differentiated betweenqualitative research and quantitative research by referring to the former
as head shrinking and the latter as nose counting. Needless to say, Dichter was a proponent of
qualitative research.An interview technique similar to what is done inRorschach testing has been
developed for market research by Gerald Zaltman of Olson Zaltman Associates.
 Rorschach-like tests. The instrument is known as the Zaltman Metaphoric Elicitation Technique
(ZMET) and uses metaphoric images to access the associations that consumers have with certain
product types. Typically, a participant in a ZMET-based study will collect images from a wide array of
pictures that have no verbal content in order to express the associated feelings and thoughts they
have with regard to a product type.

3. Mechanical devices are sometimes used to measure physiological responses of research

participants to product attributes or advertisements. Generally, what is measured is interest or
emotions in response to what is seen, heard, felt, or smelled. Mechanical devices used in primary
research data collection include Galvanometers, eye cameras, eye gaze recorders, audiometers, and
tachistoscopes that show an image or ad for a brief flash.

4. Qualitative measures are becoming more common in primary research as advanced in

technology support different approaches, such as online surveys are enabled by SurveyMonkey.
Consumers are being turned loose with sophisticated technology on which they can record their
impressions of product or aspects of their consumer experience. Some market research provider
agencies even go into the homes of consumers to film their interactions with products. These
videos are trimmed down to a highlight reel that is used toanalyze consumer behavior. One of the
primary reasons for preferring qualitative measures to surveys or interviewing is that the expressed
beliefs and intentions of consumers often fail to match their actual behavior in the realm of brand
engagement or purchase decisions.
Itroduction to Market Research - Data Collection
Step 3. Collect the Data or Information
Surveys by mail? Not anymore.. Courtesy Arianne van Noordt, Photographer. © October 24, 2010 Stock.xchng

In this introduction to the basic steps of market research, the reader can find help with framing the
research question, figuring out which approach to data collection to use, how best to analyze the
data, and how to structure the market research findings and share them with clients.

The market research process consists of six discrete stages or steps. They are as follows:

 Step 1 - Articulate the research problem and objectives

 Step 2 - Develop the overall research plan

 Step 3 – Collect the data or information
 Step 4 – Analyze the data or information
 Step 5 – Present or disseminate the findings
 Step 6 – Use the findings to make the decision

The third step of market research - - Collect the Data or Information - entails several important
decisions. One of the first things to consider in this stage is how the research participants are going
to be contacted. There was at time when survey questionnaires were sent to prospective
respondent via the postal system. As you might imagine, the response rate was quite low for mailed
surveys, and the initiative was costly.

Telephone surveys were also once very common, but people today let their answering machines
take calls or they have caller ID, which enables them to ignore calls they don't want to receive.
Surprisingly,the Pew Foundation conducts an amazingly large number of surveys, many of which
are part of longitudinal or long-term research studies.

Large-scale telephone studies are commonly conducted by the Pew researchers and the caliber of
their research is top-notch.

Some companies have issued pre-paid phone cards to consumers who are asked to take a quick
survey before they use the free time on the calling card. If they participate in the brief survey, the
number of free minutes on their calling card is increased.

Some of the companies that have used this method of telephone surveying includes Coca-Cola,
NBC, and Amaco.
Methods of Interviewing

In-depth interviews are one of the most flexible ways to gather data from research participants.
Another advantage of interviewing research participants in person is that their non-verbal language
can be observed, as well as other attributes about them that might contribute to a consumer profile.
Interviews can take two basic forms: Arranged interviews and intercept interviews.

Arranged interviews interviews are time-consuming, require logistical considerations of planning

and scheduling, and tend to be quite expensive to conduct. Exacting sampling procedures can be
used in arranged interviews that can contribute to the usefulness of the interview data set. In
addition, the face-to-face aspect of in-depth interviewing can result in exposure to interviewer bias,
so training of interviewers necessarily becomes a component of an in-depth interviewing project.

Intercept interviews take place in shopping malls, on street corners, and even at the threshold of
people's homes. With intercept interviews, the sampling is non-probabilistic. For obvious reasons,
intercept interviews must be brief, to the point, and not ask questionsthat are off-putting.
Otherwise, the interviewer risks seeing the interviewee walk away. One version of an intercept
interview occurs when people respond to a survey that is related to a purchase that they just made.
Instructions for participating in the survey are printed on their store receipt and generally
the reward for participating is a free item or a chance to be entered in a sweepstakes.

Online data collection is rapidly replacing other methods of accessing consumer information. Brief
surveys and polls are everywhere on the Web. Forums and chat rooms may be sponsored by
companies that wish to learn more from consumers who volunteer their participation. Cookies
and clickstream data send information about consumer choices right to the computers of market
researchers. Focus groups can be held online and in anonymous blackboard settings. Market
research has become embedded in advertising on digital platforms.

There are still many people who do not regularly have access to the Internet. Providing internet
access for people who do not have connections at home or are intimidated by computing or
networking can be fruitful. Often, the novelty of encountering an online market research survey or
poll that looks like and acts like a game is incentive enough to convert reticent Internet users.

Characteristics of Data Collection

Data collection strategies are closely tied to the type of research that is being conducted as
the traditions are quite strong and have resilient philosophical foundations. In the rapidly changing
field of market research, these traditions are being eroded as technologymakes new methods
available. The shift to more electronic means ofsurveying consumers is beneficial in a number of
ways. Once theinfrastructure is in place, digital data collection is rapid, relatively error-free, and
often fun for consumers. Where data collection is still centralized, market researchers can eliminate
the headache ofcoding data by inputting responses into computers or touch screens. The coding is
instantaneous and the data analysis is rapid.

Regardless of how data is collected, the human element is always important. It may be that the
expert knowledge of market researchers shifts to different places in the market research stream.
For example, the expert knowledge of a market researcher is critically important in the
sophisticated realm of Bayesian Networkssimulation and structured equation modeling -- two
techniques that are conducted through computer modeling. Intelligently designed market research
requires planning regardless of the platform. The old adage still holds true: Garbage in, garbage
out.

Now you are ready to take a look at the market research process Step 4. Analyze the Data.

Market Research 101 - Data Analysis

Step 4. Analyze the Data

The market research process consists of

six discrete stages or steps. They are as
follows:

 Step 1 - Articulate the research problem

and objectives
 Step 2 - Develop the overall research
plan
 Step 3 – Collect the data or information
 Step 4 – Analyze the data or
information
 Step 5 – Present or disseminate the
findings
 Step 6 – Use the findings to make the
decision

In the market research process, the fourth step is: Analyze the Data or Information.

The amount of data that can be collected and assembled in a market research study can
be astronomical. Data organization and data reduction are two very important aspects of data
analysis that is seldom highlighted. Yet, these steps are crucial to the ability to make sense out of
data and to the ability to make cogent and insightful data interpretation. An impressive array of
methods for data organization and data reduction are available.
A market researcher may tabulate data or compile frequency distributions. The means or averages
and other measures of dispersion are common ways of analyzing data for which frequency
distributions are available. Very often, advanced statistics and decision models are used to
maximize the information that can be extracted from research data. The following section provides
a brief description of several commonly used statistical tools, decision support models, and
optimization routines

Quantitative Market Research Decision Support Tools

Statistical Methods

 Multiple Regression - This statistical procedure is used to estimate the equation with the best fit for
explaining how the value of a dependent variable changes as the values of a number of independent
variables shift. A simple market research example is the estimation of the best fit for advertising by
looking at howsales revenue (the dependent variable) changes in relation to expenditures on
advertising, placement of ads, and timing of ads.

 Discriminant Analysis - This statistical technique is used to for classification of people, products, or
other tangibles into two or more categories. Market research can make use of discriminant analyses
in a number of ways. One simple example is to distinguish what advertising channels are most
effective for different types of products.
 Factor Analysis - This statistical method is used to determine which are the strongest underlying
dimensions of a larger set ofvariables that are inter-correlated. Where many variables are
correlated, factor analysis identifies which relations are strongest. A Using factor analysis, a market
researcher who wants to know what combination of variables or factors are most appealing to a
particular type of consumer can use factor analysis to reduce the data down to a few variables are
most appealing to consumers.
 Cluster Analysis - This statistical procedure is used to separate objects into a specific number of
groups that are mutually exclusive but that are also relatively homogeneous in constitution. This
process is similar to what occurs in market segmentation where the market researcher is interested
in the similarities that facilitate grouping consumers into segments and is also interested in the
attributes that make the market segmentsdistinct.

 Conjoint Analysis - This statistical method is used to unpack thepreferences of consumers with
regard to different marketing offers. Two dimensions are of interest to the market researcher
inconjoint analysis: (1) The inferred utility functions of each attribute, and (2) the relative
importance of the preferred attributes to the consumers.
 Multidimensional Scaling - This category represents a constellation of techniques used to produce
perceptual maps of competing brands or products. For instance, in multidimensional scaling, brands
are shown in a space of attributes in which distance between the brands represents dissimilarity. An
example of multidimensional scaling in market research would show the manufacturers of single
serving coffee in the form of "K-cups." The different K-cup brands would be arrayed in the
multidimensional space by attributes such as strength of roast, number of flavored and specialty
versions, distribution channels, and packaging options.

You can explore more data reduction and decision support models that are used in step four of the
market research process. Or you can move on to Step 5. Present the Findings.
Market Research 101 - Share the Findings
Step 5. Present or Disseminate the Research Findings

This is the step that everyone waits for when conducting market research: Sharing the research
findings.

The market research process consists of six discrete stages or steps. The other steps may be
accessed quickly by clicking on the following links.

 Step 1 - Articulate the research problem and objectives

 Step 2 - Develop the overall research plan
 Step 3 - Collect the data or information
 Step 4 - Analyze the data or information

 Step 5 - Present or disseminate the findings

 Step 6 - Use the findings to make the decision

In the market research process, the fifth step is: Present or Disseminate the Findings.

There are a number of questions that a market researcher should ask before writing a report or
creating a presentation to share research findings. And these questions should be asked and
answered every time there are outcomes to report or disseminate. Many of these questions are the
same considerations that speakers automatically apply to their oral communications when they are
in a face-to-face situation. The main difference is that instead of being able to actually see the
recipients of the research findings communication, the market researcher has to imagine the
recipient.

 Know your audience. When the research findings will be presented in written form, the
concept of audience is a bit sketchier than it will be if the research outcomes will
bepresented to a live audience. If the audience is live, then the market researcher will want to
know in advance who will be in attendance at the presentation.
 A sign of a customization is relating the research findings to the purposes people
would have for accessing the findings. In other words, typically the market researcher
must obliquely tell the audience why they are going to find the research
findingsrelevant to their work and interests.
 The other parts of customization are a bit softer. For instance, the vocabulary should
be easy on the listeners' ears and brain. Unless the audience is only going to contain
technological experts, the market researcher should eschew highly technical jargon.
Most audience members will only remember three things that you reported.

 Make salient that which is significant. Place the main reasons for the research at the top. If
there is a policy problem or a practice context that the research is addressing, put this at the
very top. Don't make the listener wait for the end of the presentation or cause the reader to
skip to the bottom of the report to find out what is significant. This does not mean that the
methodology andtheoretical grounding not important. It only means that these are typically
of lesser interest to most consumers of market research. Rest assured, if someone is a
methods hound or a theory debater, they will find what they are looking for in the report or
the presentation and ask you about it.
  Ensure that recommendations are actionable. Clearly highlight any policy
recommendations or practice recommendations. Report readers and presentation attendees
do not want to do this work. They rely on the market researcher to know what the findings
indicate and how these outcomes can be transformed into actionable insights. The bottom
line for most external and internal consumers of market research is a demonstration that the
findings are evidence-based or sufficiently robust to supportbusiness decision-making.
When recommendations include the expenditure of additional resources, explicitly point to
the way those resources would be used.
 Measure twice, cut once. This old carpenter's adage applies to broadcast time as well as
board feet. It is important to practice the presentation of the research findings, whether the
presentation will be a formal structured affair or whether it will be an informal discussion
during a meeting. Know what you have to say, and know how long it will take to say it. Then
speed it up and low it down. Account for the impacts of different audiences and identify
ahead of time what you will cut-should the need arise-and how you will fill enhance the
presentation if people are interested in hearing more MORE than they are interested in
ending the meeting and getting back to their real work.

 Optimize visual data display. Think like an advertiser. When a market researcher makes data
available to internal and external clients, the goal is make the presentation as clear and
attractiveas possible. Data can be beautiful. A list of links to resources and examples is
provided below. Try your hand at infographics. Ensuredata tables are readable from 10 feet
away from the screen, not just 10 feet away from the podium. Use Google Docs to share your
data tables so that those who want a closer look can hone in on the data.
 Pull back on the reins when it comes to creating PowerPoint slides. Much of the appeal
of PowerPoint is to the slide creator. There is something decidedly appealing about seeing
one's own thinking detailed in lovely fonts, headed by attractive bullets, and tied together
with an edgy slide deck theme. Its like having your drawings from first grade on
the classroom bulletin board. Everyone can see your brilliance, and if they like one slide, you
have many others to show them. Only, don't. PowerPoint slides should be like movie slug
lines. They make you want to know more, but you still have to watch the movie. No
paragraphs of text allowed. Use the PowerPoint notes section to write the details, then
create the slides from those notes. Try to be stunningly cogent and entirely brief on the
actual slides. If you must make slides, share them privately on SlideShare.

A Few Resources to Try When Sharing Research Findings

Prezi. A new way to build presentation slides.

Information Is Beautiful. The website of David McCandless, who is known as a data journalist.

Got that report hammered out and that presentation ready to roll? Now its time to move on to Step
6. Use the Findings to Make a Business Decision.

Market Research 101 - Implement - Use the Findings

Step 6. Use the Findings to Make the Business Decisions

What Can Go Wrong When Implementing Market Research Findings?

Despite the fact that market research is an intensive and expensive initiative, internal and external
consumers ofmarket research insights may not use the findings accurately, appropriately, or
completely. Some of the reasons for this are discussed below, as a prelude to considering the
attributes of goodmarket research.

Market Research is Not Fact-Finding

Managers and business decision-makers may not always holdinformed perspectives with regard to
market research.

For some managers, who have limited exposure to research design and scientific theoretical
background, market research is a fact-finding endeavor, at best. These managers and business
decision-makers request market research in a particular and often familiar format. But they
typically fail to understand the need for a thoughtful consideration of the research problem to be
addressed.

When market researchers return with the deliverables that have been requested, often after
protracted protest and attempts to explain the inadequacies of such a misconceived plan, they are
often discouraged. Questionnaires are cobbled together, samples are thrown together, and
interviews are poorly conducted. Finally, reports filled with limitations of the research and requests
for additional funds and more time are disseminated. Is it any wonder that such a manager
concludes that fact-finding is of limited usefulness, just as he always suspected?

You Get What You Pay For - Even in Market Research

The caliber of market researchers, as in most professions, will reflect their perceived value to the
company that hires them. When market researchers receive low pay and market research is seen as
basically a clerical activity, the research outcomes are very likely to reflect the results of New Coke.

The Coca-Cola company did not identify the research problem accurately since the marketing team
at Coca-Cola was focused ontaste and not on brand. But consumers of Coca-Cola are highly
engaged in their brand and, as such, they were not eager for change to their favorite beverage.

Comprehensive Conventional Market Research

The market research process consists of six discrete stages or steps. They are as follows:

 Step 1 - Articulate the research problem and objectives

 Step 2 - Develop the overall research plan
 Step 3 - Collect the data or information
 Step 4 - Analyze the data or information
 Step 5 - Present or disseminate the findings
 Step 6 - Use the findings to make the decision

In the market research process, the sixth step is: Use the Findings to Make the Business Decisions.

If Its Tuesday, It Must Be Belgium

Timing is everything in market research, too. Sometimes research findings are produced too late for
the changes in the market. Occasionally, the findings are erroneous. When business managers or
decision-makers are impatient for a market research project to conclude, they may apply pressure
that results in premature release of data and inconclusive findings.

It is reasonable for managers and business decision makers to expect accurate and conclusive
research findings. But it is not always reasonable for them to expect those outcomes yesterday-or
tomorrow. As well as they are able, market researchers must press for a collaboratively developed
research plan that will specify a reasonable end date.

What Can Go Right? Criteria of Good Market Research

 Scientific Method - When a quantitative research approach is used in market research, the
principles and procedures of evidence-based, empirical methods are employed. These
include systematic and careful observation, appropriate sampling procedures, hypothesis
formulation and testing, prediction and forecasting, and pilot testing. Even when the market
research is qualitative in approach, proven, established, and conventional research methods
are employed.
 Research Creativity - Market research must be innovative and keep up with the disruptive
technologies that overtake the creation and sharing of information, including market
research information.
 Multiple Methods - Some of the strongest and most credible market research uses multiple
approaches to a research problem. The confidence of consumers of market research is
increased when the research outcomes are confirmed through multiple methods.
 Interdependence of Models and Data - The interpretation of market research stems from the
underlying models, theoretical perspectives, and philosophical groundings that guide and
inform the type of data that is collected and the methods used to gather and analyze the
information.
 Value and Cost of Information> - Market researchers strive to estimate the value and cost of
information. The perceptions of the research consumers play an important part in this
valuation as their willingness to accept and act on the outcomes has value, even though it
may be difficult to quantify. For quantitative market research, the validity and reliability of the
data add to the valuation; for qualitative market research, the trustworthiness of the
information has value.
 Healthy Skepticism - Market researcher are alert to the havoc that marketing myths can
perpetuate. Market researchers are known to express a healthy skepticism for glib
assumptions conveyed by managers and other consumers of market research about how the
market works. Market researchers are aware of and guard against the conventional wisdom,
particularly from sales teams who assert that market research cannot tell them anything
new about their customers or potential customers.
 Ethical Marketing - Effective market research holds benefit for both the customers and
the company commissioning the market research. Market researchers hold to standards
that diminish the prospect that market research data will be misused. The perceptions of
consumers with regard to market research are of paramount concern to market researchers
who work to guard consumers against annoying procedures, unauthorized violations of
privacy, and disguised sales pitches masquerading as market research.
What Is Ethnography?
What It Is and How To Do IT

Ethnography is both a social science research method and its final

written product. As a method, ethnographic observation involves
embedding oneself deeply and over the long-term in a field site of
study in order to systemically document the everyday lives,
behaviors, and interactions of a community of people. As a written
product, an ethnography is a richly descriptive account of the social
life and culture of the group studied.

Any field site can serve as a setting for ethnographic research. For
example, sociologists have conducted this kind of research in
schools, churches, rural and urban communities, around particular street corners, within corporations, and even at bars,
drag clubs, and strip clubs.

Overview
Ethnography was developed by anthropologists, most famously, by Bronislaw Malinowki in the early 20th century. But
simultaneously, early sociologists in the U.S., many affiliated with the Chicago School, adopted the method as well as
they pioneered the field of urban sociology.
Since then ethnography has been a staple of sociological research methods, and many sociologists have contributed to
developing the method and formalizing it in books that offer methodological instruction.
The goal of an ethnographer is to develop a rich understanding of how and why people think, behave, and interact as
they do in a given community or organization (the field of study), and most importantly, to understand these things from
the standpoint of those studied (known as an "emic perspective" or "insider standpoint). Thus, the goal of ethnography is
not just to develop an understanding of practices and interactions, but also what those thingsmean to the population
studied. Importantly, the ethnographer also works to situate what they find in historical and local context, and to identify
the connections between their findings and the larger social forces and structures of society.
To conduct ethnographic research and produce an ethnography, researchers typically embed themselves in their chosen
field site over a long period of time. They do this so that they can develop a robust dataset composed of systematic
observations, interviews, and historical and investigative research, which requires repeated, careful observations of the
same people and settings. Anthropologist Clifford Geertz referred to this process as generating "thick description," which
means a description that digs below the surface by asking questions that begin with the following: who, what, where,
when, and how.
From a methodological standpoint, one of the important goals of an ethnographer is to have as little impact on the field
site and people studied as possible, so as to collect data that is as unbiased as possible. Developing trust is an important
part of this process, as those observed must feel comfortable having the ethnographer present in order to behave and
interact as they normally would.

Pros
 Provide insight into aspects of social life, including perception and values, that other research methods are
unable to capture.
 Illuminate that which is taken for granted and which goes unspoken within a community.
 Develop a rich and valuable understanding of the cultural meaning of practices and interactions.
 Disprove negative biases or stereotypes about the population in question.
Cons
 Sometimes difficult to gain access to and establish trust within desired field site.
 Difficult to dedicate the time required to conduct a rigorous ethnography, given limits on research funding and the
demands of teaching.
  Potential bias on the part of the researcher that could skew the data and insights gained from it.
 Potential ethical and interpersonal issues and conflicts due to the intimate nature of the research.
 Storytelling nature of an ethnography can seem to bias the interpretation of the data.
Notable Ethnographers and Works
 Street Corner Society, William F. Whyte
 Black Metropolois, St. Clair Drake and Horace Clayton, Jr.
 Slim's Table, Mitchell Duneier
 Home Bound, Yen Le Espiritu
 Dude, You're a Fag, C.J. Pascoe
 Punished, Victor Rios
 Academic Profiling, Gilda Ochoa
 Learning to Labour, Paul Willis
 Women Without Class: How Working Class Chicas Get Working Class Lives, Julie Bettie
 Code of the Street, Elijah Anderson
You can learn more about ethnography by reading books on the method like Writing Ethnographic
Fieldnotes by Emerson et al., and Analyzing Social Settings, by Lofland and Lofland; and by reading the
latest articles in the Journal of Contemporary Ethnography.

Macro- and Microsociology

Understanding These Complementary Approaches

Though they are often framed as opposing approaches, macro- and

microsociology are actually complementary approaches to studying society,
and necessarily so. Macrosociology refers to sociological approaches and
methods that examine large-scale patterns and trends within the overall
social structure, system, and population. Often macrosociology is
theoretical in nature too. On the other hand, microsociology focuses on
smaller groups, patterns and trends, typically at the community level and in
the context of the everyday lives and experiences of people. These are
complementary approaches because at its core, sociology is about
understanding the way large-scale patterns and trends shape the lives and experiences of groups and individuals, and
vice versa.

Extended Definition
Between macro- and microsociology are differences like which research questions can be addressed at each level, what
methods one can use to pursue these questions, what it means practically speaking to do the research, and what kinds
of conclusions can be reached with either.

Let's examine these differences to learn more about each and how they fit together.

Research Questions

Macrosociologists will ask the big questions that often result in both research conclusions and new theories, like these,
for example.

 In what ways has race shaped the character, structure, and development of U.S. society? Sociologist Joe Feagin
poses this question at the beginning of his book, Systemic Racism.
  Why do most Americans feel an undeniable urge to shop, even though we have so much stuff already, and are
cash-strapped despite working long hours? Sociologist Juliet Schor examines this question in her classic book of
economic and consumer sociology, The Overspent American.
Microsociologist tend to ask more localized, focused questions that examine the lives of smaller groups of people. For
example:

 What effect does the presence of police in schools and communities have on the personal development and life
paths of Black and Latino boys who grow up in inner-city neighborhoods? Sociologist Victor Rios addresses this
question in his celebrated book, Punished: Policing the Lives of Black and Latino Boys.
 How do sexuality and gender intersect in the development of identity among boys in the context of high school?
This question is at the center of sociologist C.J. Pascoe's widely popular book, Dude,You're a Fag: Masculinity
and Sexuality in High School.

Research Methods

Macrosociologists Feagin and Schor, among many others, use a combination of historical and archival research, and
analysis of statistics that span lengthy time periods in order to construct data sets that show how the social system and
the relationships within it have evolved over time to produce the society we know today. In addition, Schor employs
interviews and focus groups, more commonly used in microsociological research, to make smart connections between
historical trends, social theory, and the way people experience their everyday lives.

Microsociologists, Rios and Pascoe included, typically use research methods that involve direct interaction with research
participants, like one-on-one interviews, ethnographic observation, focus groups, as well as smaller-scale statistical and
historical analyses. To address their research questions, both Rios and Pascoe embedded in the communities they
studied and became parts of the lives of their participants, spending a year or more living among them, seeing their lives
and interactions with others firsthand, and speaking with them about their experiences.

Research Conclusions

Conclusions born of macrosociology often demonstrate correlation or causation between different elements or
phenomena within society. For example, Feagin's research, which also produced the theory of systemic racism,
demonstrates how white people in the U.S., both knowingly and otherwise, constructed and have maintained over
centuries a racist social system by keeping control of core social institutions like politics, law, education, and media, and
by controlling economic resources and limiting their distribution among people of color. Feagin concludes that all of these
things working together have produced the racist social system that characterizes the U.S. today.
Microsociological research, due to its smaller-scale, is more likely to yield the suggestion of correlation or causation
between certain things, rather than prove it outright. What it does yield, and quite effectively, is proof of how social
systems effect the lives and experiences of people who live within them. Though her research is limited to one high
school in one place for a fixed amount of time, Pascoe's work compellingly demonstrates how certain social forces,
including mass media, pornography, parents, school administrators, teachers and peers come together to produce
messages to boys that the right way to be masculine is to be strong, dominant, and compulsively heterosexual.

Summation

Though they take very different approaches to studying society, social problems, and people, macro- and microsociology
both yield deeply valuable research conclusions that aid our ability to understand our social world, the problems that
course through it, and the potential solutions to them.