‘THE LIBERAL REFORMS Britain in 1906 was the richest country in the world, Income from land, industry and trad; across the enormous British Empire brought some People huge wealth. The ‘Upper Ten Thousand (whe 10,000 people with an income over £100,000 a year) owned several houses and could afford to ‘entertain on a lavish scale 7) SOURCE 1A - Special Depth Study: Britain 1906-1919 7 SOURCE 1B On a lawn of brilliant green, one could see the sprinkled figures of the guests, some sitting under the trees, some strolling about, Round the garden spread the park: a herd of deer stood flicking their short tails in the shade of the beech trees. [or tea] one just had scones and ‘egg sandwiches, and paté sandwiches and cucumber sandwiches and chocolate cake and walnut cake and coffee cake. There were little plates Tea onthe lwn at Knol Hous, Severotks Kent, in 1899,Special Depth Study: Britain 1906-1919 SOURCE 1€ Disiibution of wealth in Britain in 1900, Cass Income Atleast £100,000 a year ‘Atleast £400. year Atleast £1508 year Atleast £80 a year Upper Upper-mide Lower-middle Skilled. working Casual workers ‘and farm labourers” Less than £53 year ‘with china handles to match from ‘which people ate jam and toast ‘The butler, the groom of the chambers, the under-butler and the footmen would move about offering fo0d. Vita Sackeille-West the lite gil siting on the grass described ta party at Knole Below the very rich were the middle classes, living comfortably on about £400 — £600 a year. Even lower-middle class families, people like teachers, police sergeants clerks and shopkeepers could live in a well-urnished house and hire a servant on an income of £150 a year. But most people earned far less than this. In ‘aet, large numbers of people lived in poverty (see Source IC). @ QUESTIONS @ Whar can you learn from Sources [A and 1B bout the number of servants rich families ‘employed? 'b Compare Sources 1A and ID and fist all the differences betweed them, € Which of these four sources, 1A to 1D, is most useful for finding out about peoples lives in Britain in the early 20th century? Why were the Liberal Reforms passed? ‘The Liberal government of 1906-1914 passed a whole series of laws to deal with different aspects of poverty. Why did they do this? 1 Information In the first few years of the 20th century there was ‘a great deal of interest in poverty. Many could not believe that poverty still existed in Britain. The Percentage of population Percentage of national wealth 1 8 2 2 8 ul 36 8 3 ' ¥ SOURCE 1D_ Poor family in London Victorians had passed laws to provide better housing, education and health and to help trade unions ~ all intended to remove poverty. Could there still be people in prosperous Britain whe were poor? If so, there couldn't be many of them and it must be their own fault A umber of surveys were published which provided accurate information about poverty; they also caused some surprises (Charles Booth was a wealthy shipowner who could not believe there were as many people in poverty’as some people claimed, He began a hhuge survey of London's poor, published from 1889 to 1903, Far from the number being exaggerated, he found that as much as 38% of London's population lived on wages that were only just enough to live on or less. i) Seebohm Rowntree carried out a big survey of ‘working-class people in York, published in 1901, He realised it was important to decide ‘what level of income was just enough to livefon, Anyone below that could be defined as living in poverty, He calculated that a family ‘of two parents and three children needed £1,08% pence a week to live on. By his very strict definition (see Source 2A), 10% of the population were in poverty all the time, and ‘another 18% were below it for some part of their lives. He deseribed a life cyele in whieh ‘working people hovered just above or below the poverty line all their lives. A young unmarried person could live on the low wages, ‘but marrying and having children pushed. people below the poverty line, When the children began to earn and left home, the ‘worker passed above the poverty line, but could easily fall below i illness or unemployment struck, Finally, old age brought poverty through loss of work or lower earnings. 7 SOURCE 2A A family living upon the scale allowed for must never spend one penny on a railway fare, or a busfare. They must never go out into the country unless they walk. They must never buy a halfpenny newspaper, or go to a concert. They must write no letters to absent children because they cannot afford the postage. The children must Ihave no pocket money for dolls, marbles or sweets. The father must ‘smoke no tobacco and drink no beer. ‘The mother must never buy herself pretty clothes, Finally, the wage-earner ‘must never be'absent from his work for a single day. Rowntree describes life on his poverty ine @ QUESTIONS @ Why did Rowntree make such a precise definition of poverty? b_ Why did he draw itso strictly? Look at the five causes of poverty shown in Source 2B. Explain why each situation led to poverty, Special Depth Study: Britain 1906-1919 ¥ SOURCE 2B Causes of povers, cording to Rowntree of wage-eamer ‘or paral 2 Defence Government and army leaders were worried about the physical health of the British people. They were shocked to find, when they were recruiting for the Boer War (1899-1902), that so many young men were too small, too under-nourished oF too ill to be taken into the army. How was Britain going to fight its wars in future? 3 The Labour Party ‘The Liberal Party had always tried to speak for working men (women did not have the vote at all) There were several working-class MPs by 1906, who were in the Liberal Party and called them- selves ‘Lib-Labs'. But in 1900 some Socialists and some trade unions set up a new party to represent working people, It took the name “The Labour Party’ and won 29 seats in the 1906 election. They were keen to point out that the other parties had failed to deal with poverty and called for higher ‘wages and stiffer taxes on the rich to help the poor. ‘They were a small group in 1906, but the Liberals were worried that they would lose working-class votes to them. They had to show that they cared about poverty too. 4 Other countries Other countries, for example Germany, had set up schemes to help people in poverty and workers on Tow wages a few years earlier.The Reforms. Many Liberals believed people had to choose to look after themselves, and not rely on the govern: ‘ment to help them, But younger Liberals, like David Lloyd George and Winston Churchill, pointed out that the poor people revealed by Booth and Rowntree had no freedom to choose, The government should intervene to provide basic sccurity in their lives, Later in the century this ‘dea was known as the welare state, Children 1906 School Meals started 1907 School Medicals introduced, to check on the health ofall children. 1908 Children’s Act: children in touble with the Jaw to be treated diferent from adults, ld people 1909 Old Age Pensions introduced for people ‘over 70:25 pence a week fora single person, 37.5 pence for a married couple, if theit income was less than 60 pence a woek, Working people 1908 Compulsory §-hour day for miners 1909 Trade Boars Act controlled working hours for ‘sweated labour’ Labour Exchanges 1911 Shop Act guaranteed hall a day a week off for shop workers. ‘Miness andl unemployment: The National Insurance Act, 1911 This major piece of law-making was put forward by David Lioyd George, Chancellor of the Exchequer in the Liberal government. © Part One: Hness: Every worker earning under £160 a year (about £3 a week) paid 4 pence (2 pence) into an insurance scheme, The employer added 3 pence (LS pence) and the government 2 pence (1 pence). The worker thus got 9 pence worth of insurance for his 4 pence. If he was too ill © work, he could claim 50 pence a week for up to 26 weeks. © Part Two: Unemployment. This scheme covered 2 million workers in seven trades. The worker, the employer and the government each paid 2 pence (1 pence) a week. the became unemployed the worker could claim 35 pence a week for up to 15 weeks. SOURCE 3A Cartoon of 1909. The giant is Lioyd George A“plutocrt’ ke the man hiding under the tables Someone who is very rch. Sia 7 SOURCE 3B Labour Party poster, 1908, Kei Har, the man on the right, was leader of the Labour Pats, TES at(Note that although this amounts to a huge ‘move to help poor working people, itis an insurance scheme ~@ Liberal idea ~ not a handout to the poor, which Socialists favoured). QUESTIONS ‘How reliable is Source 3A for finding out about Lloyd George? How reliable is Source 3A for finding out about attitudes to Lloyd George? What does Source 3B tell you about the Labour Party’s attitude to these Liberal reforms? How successful were the Liberal Reforms? 1. The amounts paid to workers in times of illness or unemployment were small, and were not enough to live on, The system was intended only as a ‘lifebelt’, or a ‘net over the abyss’, as Liberals deseribed it at the time. 2. The payments lasted only for 26 weeks or 15 weeks. It would only help someone over a temporary crisis. But after the First World ‘War, especially in the 1930s, economic depres- sion hit British industry. Some men were out of work for years on end and the system the Liberals set up was no help to them. 3. The system was based on the stereotype of a ‘working man being the breadwinner for family. This was indeed the norm at the time, but became less suitable as the 20th century went on, 4. There was no_health coverage for other members of the family, who were often in dire need of better health care, especially women. 5. However, “having made’ the four criticisms above, it was a start. The government was now involved to help the poor and further improve- ments took place later in the century, notably in the 1940s, Passing the National Insurance Act ‘The schemes outlined above would obviously cost a lot of money. In 1909 Lloyd George prepared what, he called a ‘war budget’ to wage war on poverty. ‘The rich would have to pay more tax. The House of Lords threw out the budget, so the Liberals called an election, which they won. The new king, George Y, threatened to create lots more new Liberal peers if the House of Lords threw out the budget again, This time they backed down and the budget was Specel Depth Sut: Brian 505-1519 agreed. The National Insurance Act was eventually passed in 1911 The Liberals passed a Parliament Act in 1911 so that this long crisis could not happen again, it stated that: © The House of Lords could not reject a money bill, such as the budget. © The House of Lords could only delay a bill for two years, not reject it completely. © MPs should be paid a salary, so ordinary people could afford to enter Parliament. i QUESTION In what ways did the Parliament Act of 1911 make Britain more democratic? WOMEN AND THE VOTE Women in Victorian Britain ‘There was great inequality of the sexes in 19th century Britain. Men were held to be superior in all things. It was widely believed that women were too weak to study and incapable of making decisions. Women did not vote or receive more than a basic education. They were not expected to work, and ‘many jobs were completely closed to them. All of a woman's own property and possessions became her husband's on marriage. The ideal Victorian woman stayed at home and raised the children, This was not possible for working-class women who often had to work, but in worse jobs than working-class ‘men and for less pay. SOURCE 1 | Mother would teach, by action and | words, that girls and women should submit to husbands and brothers. Their Joseph Ashby describes ow he was brought up in the 19th century. By the late 19th century things were changing, ‘Some women were getting educated and qualifying for important jobs, Elizabeth Garrett Anderson, for example, became the first woman doctor in Britain in 1865. There were women teachers {although they were paid less ~ £127 a year for aDER seit De snd: rian 1005-119 man, £92 a year fora woman). New inventions, like job opportunities. Women gained the right to vote in local elections. But the big decision, the right 10 n Parliamentary elections, was still closed to the telephone and the typewriter, also brougl them, y SOURCE 24, Millicent Fawcett, eading suf rally n Hyde Park, London. MO WOHENS SUFFRAGE ogee eer ie MS FAWCE FRAGI ¥ SOURCE 2B Suni opts postcard Suffragists and Suffragettes ‘Women had been campaigning for the right to vote (suffrage) from the 1860s They could see that their other concerns (fair divorce laws, bett health care for women, fair education, ete depended on having a say in the place where big decisions were made — Parliament. This meant trying to persuade the all-male Parliament to change, which was not an In 1897 the National Union of Women’s Suf= frage Societies (NUWSS) was set up, led by Millicent Fawcett, Elizabeth Garrett Anderson's sister. They were called suffragists and campaigned. peacefully, writing letters, holding meet lobbying MPs Members were m: except in Lancashire where femalé cotton-mill workers had a long tradition of independence There were over 500 branches of the NUWSS all over the country, but still women did not have the vote. QUESTIONS Why were most of the NUWSS groups made up of middle-class women? Wihiat can you learn from Souree 2B about their campaign?Special Depth Sti: Brian 1906-1919 Frustrated with the lack of success of the NUWSS, fj SOURCE 3B Mrs Emmeline Pankhurst and her daughters Mrs Pankhurst being arrested after chaining herself Christabel and Sylvia formed the Women’s Social __1© th railings outside Buckingham Palace. and Political Union (WSPU) in 1903. They were soon called suffragettes. They thought the NUWSS. was too polite It was being ignored so they decided to step up the campaign using more forceful tactics, including breaking the law. 7 SOURCE 3A Bad laws made without due authority ‘ought not to be obeyed, but: ought to be resisted by every honest man and ‘woman. It is such laws that militant suffragettes have broken. CChristabel Pankhurst, Suiragettes deliberately tried to get arrested and attract publicity. They interrupted political meet- ings shouting “Votes for women'’, they smashed shop windows, set light to letter boxes and dug up (all-male) golf courses. One suffragette, Emily Wilding Davison, tried to grab the King’s horse at the Derby in 1913 and was killed When they were arrested Suffragettes went on hunger strike. Prison officals fed them by force, a very painful and disgusting experience, so in 1913 the government passed the ‘Cat and Mouse’ Act. This allowed them to release Sulffragetes who were illand then re-arrest them when they had recovered. FYSOURCE SC _ Death of Emily Wilding DavisonSpecial Depth Study: Britain 1906-1919 ” SOURCE 3D Sullragette poster about the Cat and Mouse Act QUESTIONS In what ways do Sources 3B and 3C put CChristabel Pankhurst’ ideas in Source 3A into practice? ‘What do you think would be the effect of the Suffrageties campaign? ‘Many Sulfgragists were angry with the Suflragettes. Why? Opposition to votes for women ‘The Suffragettes received lots more publicity than the Suffragists, but still women did not get the vote Why? Some men still held the old 19th century attitude that women were not fit to vote. Some were also angered, rather than won over, by the Sulfragettes' violence. But it is important to remember that only about 60% of men had the vote at this time. The rest did not, usually because they were too poor ‘The Labour Party and many Liberals wanted ail ‘men as well as al women to have the right 10 vote. However, the person who really mattered in this decision was Asquith, the leader of the party im power, the Liberals. He was unwilling to give the vote to women on the same restricted basis as men because he feared, probably rightly, that wealthier women would be likely to vote for the Conserva- tives. Nor was he prepared to consider votes forall ‘men and all women, He was also unwilling 10 be seen to give in to violence. So, as war broke out in August 1914, women sill did not have the vot. ‘THE FIRST WORLD WAR AND THE BRITISH PEOPLE Recruiting, If you have read Chapter 2 you will know how young men rushed to join the army when war began on August 3, 1914, They all believed it would bbe a short, exciting war, which would be over by Christmas and they wanted to get some glory while they could, You will also know that it was certainly not over by Christmas 1914 but had become & massive struggle between the two sides which was 10 g0 on for over four years. ‘The British had always assumed that any war would be short, so had only a small professional army in 1914. Only a few weeks into the war, Lord Kitchener, the Secretary for War, realised it was a new kind of war. Britain would have o build up 2 now, large army of at least a million men, Most people in the early part of the war were against conscription (the automatic call-up of all men of military age). This new British army would have to be built up from volunteers. Kitchener led a massive propaganda campaign to persuade young men to volunteer. Leaflets and posters were designed. The three posters on page 18 show the three main themes of the campaign: 1. Patriotism (see Source 7A, p18) ‘This poster, perhaps one of the most famous posters ever, shows Kitchener himself. He was 2 ‘great British war hero, famous for his exploits for British glory all over the world, and here he was calling on you to join up on behalf of Britain ‘Other patriotic posters showed St. George.Speci Depth Sb: tan 6-199 2, Shame (see Source 7G, p18) SOURCE 1B “The purpose of these posters was to make British P| ROUROE UB cre Yorkshire ‘men who had not joined up feel ashamed in front gata town of Searborough vas shelled by German of their mothers, wives sisters or piririends. Girls gunboatsin December 1914, Sever cvians were Were encouraged not to go out with young men kill) who had not joined up, and to hand white feathers (the symbol of cowardice) to young men in eviian clothes (see also Source 1A). 3. Hatred of Germany (see Source 7B, p18) Horror stories about the Germans, lke the one shown here, were distributed. Other stories described German soldiers bayonetting Belgian babies (soe also Source 1B), ‘Tho poster campaign was very successful. By the end of 19152.5 million men had joined up. 7 SOURCE 1A Poster "Dads, what did you do in the Great War” ‘Total war ‘This new kind of war needed even more from Britain than millions of young volunteers. It was clear that vitory would not goto the country with the bravest arm, but to the coustry which could organise its industry to keep the bigest, best ‘quipped army at war for longest (see Source 2). It b ae twas fora war. Everyone inthe country was total i nhl CAAA volved with the war from solders on the Front Line to the factory-workers who supplied them QUESTIONS ‘with guns and ammunition. In what different ways do Sources 1A and 1B In January 1916 conscription was introduced. ‘ry to persuade young men to volunteer for the Every unmarried male aged between 18 and 41 army? hhad to join the army, oF do ‘work of national How useful are these two sources for finding importance’. From now on the state could take ‘out about Britain during the First World War? over your life.DERN i De sty rian 505-1919 RPSCCROR 8 sie aay resuinmeny 1914 and 1918 compared No.of men Lorries Cars. i914 120,000 au 133 isis, 2,500,000 3170 7,964 Defence ofthe Realm Aet (DORA), 1914 This Act was passed very early in the war. It gave the government powers to control people’ lives in some entirely new ways and these powers increased as the war went on, By the end of the war DORA regulate: © Pub licensing hours Weaker beer ‘Wages in many industries British Summer Time ‘Taking over land to grow food Censorship of leters, newspapers et. ‘Talking about military matters Wasting food Ringing church bells (the signal that an invasion had taken place) ‘There was a widespread obsession with German spies, and people believed they were everywhere, DORA regulations included controls on: © Buying binoculars Lighting bonfires isible ink “* . © Using i © Flying kites QUESTION ‘What was the point of each of the items listed here? Food rationing Britain does not grow enough food to feed al of ts Population, It imports what it cannot grow from overseas. With deadlock on the Western Front, Germany began using submarines (U-boats) to sink supply ships coming to Britain. The govern- ment responded by trying to grow more food Many parks and games pitches were taken over for food production Motorbikes Field guns Aircraft 166 300 6 M404 6437 1.782 However, by 1917 the food situation was des- perate, U-boats were sinking one in four merchant ships on their way to Britain. The result was a shortage of food, and rising prices (food prices had doubled since the war began, while wages had stood stil). This meant that richer people bought up food and poorer people went hungry. Many food shops closed at lunchtime as they had nothing left to sel. There were strikes in some areas over the high cost of food. ‘The government knew that they depended on the willingness of workers to contribute to the war effort. Everyone was supposed to be in this war ‘SOURCE 3 | Noluntary bread rationing postertogether, So the government agreed to some wage rises, They also brought in voluntary rationing, which involved trying to persuade people to use less flour (see Source 3), However, this situation did not work and was fel to be unfair, So early in 1918 rationing was intro- duced. Everyone, regardless of wealth, gota ration book, which entitled them to a limited amount of Duiter, sugar and meat and no more. This was ‘popular, although it came rather late in the war. In the Second World War this system of rationing was introduced only $ months into the War. Did the war change women’s lives? Women were, of course, swept up in the wave of wartime propaganda just as much as men. As soon as war broke out the Suffragettes stopped their ‘campaign forthe vote and campaigned instead for men to join the army. Women collected and sent ‘comforss' to the troops (232 million cigarettes, 16 million books and 4 million pars of socks had been sent by 1915). Women demanded to be able to serve their country in more active ways. Volunteers ould join the Women's Auxiliary Army Corps (WAAC), which provided cooks, secretaries and F)SOURCE 48 ‘Wonten aking shells Spec Dept Sut: Brain 905-919 cleaners to the army in France, More glamorous was the Voluntary Aid Detachment (VAD), which carried out Front Line nursing. But these were hardly new roles for women. ‘The crisis came in 1915, the army needed stil ‘more men and industry needed still more workers “The government calculated that Britain was over a million workers short and a campaign was launched to attract women into jobs which had avays been closed to them (see Source 9, page 20), Trade unions relaxed their bans on women oing men’s jobs and employers changed their attitudes ‘The most famous industry o take on women in ‘big way was the munitions industry. The army gen- ‘rals were convinced that if they had enough guns and shells they could win the wat. As Table 2-1 on page 20 shows, the number of women working in ‘munitions inreased from 212,000 to 947,000. It was hard and dangerous work and they often worked 2-hour shifts. There was permanent danger from explosions, and the poisonous chemicals in the ‘explosives tumed them yellow and caused perma- nent injures, They were known as “the girs with yellow hands.7) SOURCE 4B The first time you go round you think, what an interesting place. Then the evil smell became more notioeable. ‘The particles of acid land on your face and Grive you nearly mad with a feeling like pins and needles. We all went bright yellow — all our front hair and all our faces ... This doctor, he was looking at us girls one day and he said, ‘half you girls will never have babies and the other haif are too sick. God ‘help you! A woman worker at Woolwich Arsenal described her experiences 7 SOURCE 40 Woman bus conductor Apart from munitions, other new jobs tackled by ‘women were bus driving and bus conducting, road- ‘mending, farming and all other kinds of manual work. Altogether over 1.3 million more women were working in 1918 than in 1914, as Table 2-1 on page 20 shows. QUESTIONS What can you learn from Source 4 about women's jobs in a munitions factory? How reliable is Source 4B for finding out about women’s work in munitions? Do Sources 4/4, 4B and 4C prove that the war changed women’ lives in Britain? Use Sources 44, 4B, 4C and Table 2-1 on page 20 to make an argument for giving all ‘women the right to vote. But did the war lead to a permanent change in ‘women’s lives? Some women gained the respect of their male workmates and employers, but many were resented, Other workers felt threatened by women coming in and taking the jobs the had spent many years learning how to do. When the war ended the female workers weie rapidly fired to make way for returning soldiers. By 1921 only 31% of all women ‘were working, in 1911 it had been 32%, : SOURCE 5 There is no reason to feel sorry for the young woman who has been earning pocket money while the men have been fighting. Women who left domestic "service to enter a factory are now required to return to their pots and pans. ‘The Southamypron Tomes What were the attitudes of the British people after the war? 1. Ho: Wartime hostility towards Germany and the Germans could not be switched off overnight on November 11, 1918, This attitude, encouraged by four years of government propaganda, continued in the 1918 election. Lloyd George promised to “make Germany pay’, and “to squeeze Germany until the pips squeak’. The results of this can be seen in the cartoon in Source 1, and in the British contribution to the Treaty of Versailles (see Chapter Three). The punitive terms (the destruc- tion of the German fleet, the ‘War Guilt” Clause, the massive reparations) were all seen in Britain as no less than Germany deserved. It was these terms on which Hitler was soon to play so successfully to ‘win power in Germany (see Chapter Six) ity to Germany.7 SOURCE 1 Detail on an-German poste fom 1919 2. Changes in the suffrage Everybody could see that in this “total war’ every man and woman had taken part. It was no longer fair that some could vote for the government that had called on them to sacrifice their lives and some could not. The Representation of the People Act, 1918, gave the vote to: (all men over 21, except peers, criminals, ‘mentally ill and Conscientious Objectors; i) women over 30 who were eligible to vote in local elections or were married to a man who ccould vote in these elections. This was about ‘two-thirds of all women, Note that: (Conscientious Objectors lost the right to vote for six years, until 1924, Gi) In 1928 women gained the right to vote on the same basis as men, Special Deph Sid: Bota 906-1919 7 SOURCE 2 ‘My opposition to women’s right to vote is well-known. However, for three years now the Suffragettes have not restarted that horrible campaign of violence. Not only that, but they have contributed to every service during this war except that of fighting. I therefore believe some measure of women's suffrage should be given. ‘An exteact from a speech by Herbert Asquith in the House of Commons in 1917 (by this time he was no longer leader of the Liberals) QUESTIONS “The First World War had no permanent effect on the position of Women in Britain’, Use all the Sources here and Table 2-1 on page 20, along with your own knowledge, to comment on the accuracy of this statement “Tt was their war service, not their peacetime ‘campaigning, which gained women the vote’. Useall the Sources here and your own nomibige to comment ow de assuraey ov thie statement, How effective was British wartime propaganda? This is not an easy question to answer. How would you measure its effectiveness? One way would be to Jook at its aims. These were © to persuade the British people that they were, fighting a just and worthwhile war, © to persuade the British people that their enemy was wicked: © to persuade millions of young men to volunteer for the army; to persuade women to take jobs they had not been allowed to do before; to persuade the British people not to waste or hoard food, QUESTION Taking each of these five points in turn, use this chapter to investigate whether the wartime propaganda achieved its aims in each case,