AUTOMOTIVE BATTERIES 101

JULY 2018
WMG, University of Warwick
Professor David Greenwood, Advanced Propulsion Systems
 The battery is the defining
component of an
electrified vehicle
Cost Power
Range

Package
Life

Ride and Handling

© 2018
2
Primary functions of
the battery across
vehicle types

ENGINE MOTOR ‘BATTERY’ BATTERY FUNCTION

CONVENTIONAL 100kW Starter motor 12V Engine starting

(ICE) Full transient Stop/start 3kW, 1kWh (3kW, 2-5Wh) Ancillary
loads (400W average,
4kW peak, ~1kWh)

Increasing power to energy ratio

MILD HYBRID 90-100kW 3-13kW 12-48V Absorb regenerated
(MHEV) Full transient Torque boost/re-gen 5-15kW, 1kWh braking energy

FULL HYBRID 60-80kW 20-40kW 100-300V Support acceleration

(HEV) Less transient Limited EV mode 20-40kW, 2kWh

PLUG-IN HYBRID 40-60kW 40-60kW 300-600V Provide primary power

(PHEV) Less transient Stronger EV mode 40-60kW, 5-20kWh and energy

RANGE-EXTENDED 30-50kW 100kW 300-600V Provide primary power

(REEV) No transient Full EV mode 100kW, 10-30kWh and energy

ELECTRIC VEHICLE No Engine 100kW 300-600V Provide sole power

(EV) Full EV mode 100kW, 30-80kWh and energy source

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3
 Biggest challenge for
mass market uptake is cost
COMPONENT COSTS FOR ELECTRIFICATION OF POWERTRAIN

BATTERY
Conventional
COST IS
THE SINGLE
MHEV BIGGEST
FACTOR
HEV Engine/Transmission
Battery
Power Electronics
Motor
PHEV
Charger
E-ancillaries

EV

0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000

Bill-of-Materials Component Cost €

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4
 Lithium-ion batteries are
improving rapidly 18650 CELL CAPACITY (MAH)

• 
Costs have fallen dramatically due to technology,
production volume and market dynamics
4000
• 
Pack cost fallen from $1,000/kWh to <$250/kWh
in less than 8 years
3000

2,000
2000
95% conf interval whole industry
1,900
95% conf interval market leaders
1,800
Publications, reports and journals
1,700
News items with expert statements
1,600
Log fit of news, reports, and journals: 12 ± 6% decline
1,500
1,400
Additional cost estimates without clear method 1000
Market leader, Nissan Motors, Leaf
1,300
2014 US$ per kWh

Market leader, Tesla Motors, Model S

1,200
Other battery electric vehicles
1,100
Log fit of market leaders only: 8 ± 8% decline
0
1,000
Log fit of all estimates: 14 ± 6% decline
900
800
Future costs estimated in publications
1995 2000 2005 2010 2015
<US$150 per kWh goal for commercialization
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
• 
Volumetric energy density is increasing due to better
0
2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030
materials and cell structure
• Doubled in 15 years
Year

• 
Requires continuous chemistry and materials
innovation to continue

Graph credit: Nkyvist et al 2014

Lithium-ion batteries are © 2018

improving rapidly 5
 What makes up an
automotive battery?

Lithium-ion cell Module Pack

e.g. pouch or cylindrical cell e.g. module for pouch cells (Nissan Leaf) e.g. pack for pouch cells (Nissan Leaf)

As a single unit, a ‘cell’ performs the A ‘module’ is formed by connecting A ‘pack’ is formed by connecting
primary functions of a rechargeable multiple ‘cells’, providing them with multiple ‘modules’ with sensors
‘battery’. Cells come in varied formats: a mechanical support structure and and a controller and then
thermal interface and attaching housing the unit in a case.
• Cylindrical Cells
terminals. Modules are designed Electric vehicles are equipped
• 
Pouch Cells according to cell format, target pack with batteries in a ‘pack’ state
voltage and vehicle requirements. which are connected to
• Prismatic Cells the powertrain.

© 2018
6
How a Lithium-ion
Charging

cell works NiO6

Li+

e-
e-

Li+
Charge

Cathode

• 
Lithium-ion (Li-ion) is a
general term for a variety of
batteries whose properties
rely on lithium as the
charge carrier. Li-ion offers
advantages over other
chemistries such as weight
• 
and voltage. For automotive
purposes, rechargeable
cells are used
• 
There are many types of
Li-ion battery depending
on the exact combination
of materials used for the
anode and cathode
Anode
negative electrode to the
Discharge
positive through the outer
Li+ e-
circuit (the power supply).
When no more lithium-ions Li e- Li+
will flow, the battery is
Cathode Material Anode Material
fully charged e.g. LiCoO2 e.g. graphite
During discharge, the
lithium-ions flow back
Anode/cathode materials: specific capacities and
through the electrolyte/
operating voltages vs pure lithium
separator to the cathode.
Electrons flow back to the Different chemistries suit specific requirements
anode through the outer
circuit. When all ions have 5 LiMn1.5Ni0.5O4
ENERGY DENSITY
moved back, the battery is 4.5
LiMn2O4 LiMn1/3Co1/3Ni1/3O2
4 Cathode
fully discharged and needs LiNiO2
recharging 3.5 LiCoO2
Anode

Voltage vs Li(V)
• 
During charging, the 3 LiFePO4
2.8V
3.5V
positively charged lithium- • 
A motor converts the 2.5
3.7V
Li2FeS2
ions flow from the cathode, electrical energy from the 2 3.2V
LTO
through the electrolyte/ battery into mechanical 1.5
2.0V
TiO2-B
separator, to the anode energy to turn the wheels 1
Hard Carbons
Metal Nitrides
where they are stored. 3.8V
Silicon
• 
Electricity from the grid is Graphite Lithium
Electrons flow from the 0
M alloys
used to charge the battery 0 200 400 600 3500 4200
141 mAh/g
Specific Capacity (mAh/g)
3.7 V x 141 Ah/kg = 512 Wh/kg

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 Current lithium-ion
battery chemistries:
CATHODE/ANODE MATERIAL STRENGTHS WEAKNESSES

Lithium Cobalt Oxide • High energy • 

Thermally unstable
(LCO) Cathode • High power • 
Relatively short life span
• 
Limited load capabilities
Lithium Manganese Oxide Spinel • High power and thermal stability • Low capacity compared to other cathode materials
(LMO) Cathode • Enhanced safety • Limited life cycle
• Low cost • Need advanced thermal management
Lithium Nickel Cobalt Aluminium • 
High specific energy • Safety issues
Cathode

Oxide (NCA) Cathode • 

Lithium Nickel Manganese Cobalt
Oxide (NMC) Cathode
Lithium Iron Phosphate
(LFP) Cathode
Graphite/Carbon-based
Anode
Good specific power • Cost
• 
Long life cycle
• 
Ni has high specific energy; Mn adds low • 
Nickel has low stability
internal resistance • 
Manganese offers low specific energy
• 
Can be tailored to offer high specific energy
or power
• 
Inherently safe; tolerant to abuse • 
Lower energy density due to low operating
• 
Acceptable thermal stability voltage and capacity
• 
High current rating
• 
Long cycle life
• Good mechanical stability • 
Low volumetric capacity
• Good conductivity and Li-ion transport
• Good gravimetric capacity

Lithium Titanate • Withstands fast charge/discharge rates • Lower energy density compared to
Anode

(LTO) Anode • Inherently safe graphitic anodes

• Long cycle life • Cost

Silicon Alloy • High gravimetric/volumetric capacity • 

High degree of mechanical expansion
(Si) Anode • Low cost on charging
• Chemical stability

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Promising battery chemistries:
early stage research
CHEMISTRY* PROPERTIES/BENEFITS RESEARCH CHALLENGES

Solid State Batteries • 

Solid electrolyte and separator components; no concerns over • 
Improving poor conductivity
‘leakage’ • 
High volume manufacturing at
• 
Improved safety due to lack of liquid electrolyte acceptable cost
• 
High operating voltages increase potential
energy density
• 
Lighter and more space efficient; less need for cooling

Metal Air Batteries • Pure metal anode and ambient air/O2 cathode • Short life cycle
e.g. Li, Al, Zn, Na • Very high theoretical capacity • Issues with practical rechargeability
• Increased safety vs Li-ion • Air handling
• No use of heavy metals • Energy density reduces at high power

Lithium Sulphur • 
High theoretical gravimetric energy density • Poor volumetric energy density
(Li-S) • 
Sulphur is a low cost, abundant material • Issues with power density and
• 
Improved safety discharge rate
• Issues with cycle life stability

Sodium-ion • 
Sodium is a low cost, abundant material • 
Issues of volumetric/gravimetric energy
(Na-ion) • 
Improved safety for battery transportation density compared to Li-ion

Silicon-based Electrodes • 
Si has ~x10 gravimetric capacity compared to graphite • 
Does not offer long cycle life
(Si) • 
Could be lighter and/or store more energy • 
Practical application constraints

*Promising chemistries included are those demonstrating suitable

application potential for automotive requirements at lab scale.

© 2018

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 Automotive battery:
cell components +ve/-ve Terminals

Electrolyte

Active electrodes: Thinly wound or stacked into alternating sheets of material

following a pattern: cathode – separator – anode.
Quality and purity of material has an impact on charge efficiency and battery life.
• C
 athode: Positively charged electrode in the battery cell, often made of a
lithium metal oxide and coated on to a current collecting aluminium (Al) foil.
Metallised
• Anode: Negatively charged electrode in the battery cell, often made of foil pouch
graphite and coated on to a current collecting copper (Cu) foil. Anode
• Terminals: positive and negative contacts to connect the cells and module. Separator Cathode

Separator: Thin layer of polymer electrically isolates the cathode and anode
• 
from one another to prevent short circuit. Its structure allows lithium ions to
+ve/-ve Electrolyte
pass through, allowing current to flow through the cell (microporosity)
Terminals
Electrolyte: A liquid transport medium which surrounds the electrodes and
• 
soaks into the separator, allowing lithium ions to flow freely
Additives: Electrode and electrolyte properties can be improved by adding
• 
small amounts of other components, e.g. conductive additives
Metal
• C
 urrent Interrupt Device: A pressure valve disables the cell in case of
case
over-charge/over-heating
Anode
Separator Cathode

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Production steps for electrode/
cell manufacturing

Powder Mixing Coating Drying Calendering Slitting

Electrode manufacturing

Cell stacking Tab welding Packaging Electrolyte Filling Formation/ageing EoL Testing

Cell assembly/electrical formation

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 Cell formats
Cylindrical cells
• Highly developed
• Standard sizes
• U
 sed widely in consumer
goods (well standardised)
• Mechanically self-supporting
• H
 igh volumes and price
competitive market
Challenges:
• Relatively heavy
• 
Shape reduces packaging
density
© 2018
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Pouch cells Prismatic cells
• H
 ighest power and energy • B
 enefits lie part-way between
density at cell level cylindrical and pouch cells
• N
 eeds volume for • L
 ayered approach improves
commercialisation space utilisation
• R
 elatively lightweight and easy to • A
 llows highly flexible module
package for effective use of space design for differing requirements
Challenges: Challenges:
• Little standardisation of format (VDA) • L
 ittle standardisation of format
(VDA)
• 
Requires supporting structure within
a module • Can be expensive to manufacture
• Some cooling constraints • 
Large format cells contain high
energy (safety issues if damaged)
• L
 arge format cells contain high
energy (safety issues if damaged)
Image credit: Panasonic
Cell supply chain: materials content
Breakdown by relative weight and cost of cell materials shows the value is spread across components,
not just from the primary electrochemical materials.

TYPICAL MATERIAL VOLUME (CYLINDRICAL CELL) MATERIAL COMPONENT COST BREAKDOWN

(CYLINDRICAL CELL)
Cathode
Electrolyte 12% Material Electrolyte 9%
e.g. NCA 42%

Separator 2% Separator 14%

Anode
Current
Collector
(Cu) 9% Anode Current
Collector (Cu)
Anode 5%
Binders Anode
1% Binders 1%

Anode Material
Cathode e.g. graphite 29%
Binder 0%
Cathode Conductors 1%
Cathode Current Cathode Material
Anode Material Cathode Current Collector Collector (Al) 1% e.g. NCA 53%
e.g. graphite 29% (Al) 4%
Cathode Binder 0% Cathode Conductors 0%

Cathode Material e.g. NCA Cathode Current Collector (Al) Anode Binders Separator Figures source:
Cathode Conductors Anode Material e.g. Graphite Anode Current Collector (Cu) Electrolyte ITRI, Taiwan

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 Cell supply chain: materials sourcing

Image credit: Institut

francais des relations
internationales (ifri)

© 2018
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 6 1 2 Image credit:

Automotive battery: Nissan UK

module components
1 Casing: Metal casing provides mechanical
support to the cells and holds them under slight
compression for best performance
2 Clamping frame: Steel clamping frames secure the
modules to the battery case
3 Temperature sensors: Sensors in the modules 3
4 6 5
monitor the cell temperatures to allow the battery
management system to control cooling and power Pouch cell module (Nissan Leaf)
delivery within safe limits
4  ells: Each module in a pack contains the same
C 1 3 4 6 7
number of cells. The number of cells varies by
format and usage requirements
5  erminals: Two terminals on the module allow it to
T
be electrically connected to other modules via the
bus bars
6 Cell interconnects: Each cell has two tabs – one 5
positive and one negative. These are welded
together in series then connected to the terminals
7 Cooling channels: Liquid coolant runs between
rows of cells to withdraw heat and avoid thermal
runaway. Other packs, such as Nissan Leaf, instead
use air cooling
Cylindrical cell module (Tesla)

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 Module assembly - manufacturing process
MODULE ASSEMBLY LINE

Module BoL Cell Module Welding Contact Welding Module EoL

Test Insertion Welder Verification Welder Verification Test
Cell
Delivery Storage

Storage Module
Delivery

Handling
Assembly
Test

Primary tasks:
• Assembling the cells into a carrier • 
Installing the module control unit with • 
Testing the system
• 
Joining the conductors in voltage and temperature sensors functionality
architecture (typically welded) • 
Inserting cooling system components Lower cost achieved through
if required increased automation.

© 2018
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Automotive battery:
pack components
1 Upper case: Provides fire protection
and watertight casing for the
battery components and protects
it from dirt ingress. Also shields
service personnel from high voltage
components
2 Battery modules: A ‘module’ is
formed by connecting multiple
‘cells’, supporting those cells in
a structural frame and then
attaching terminals. Modules are
designed according to cell format
and vehicle requirements
3 Bus bars: Electrically connect
the battery modules together,
and connect the modules to
the contactors
4 Contactors: Electrically isolate
the battery pack from the vehicle.
Closed upon completion of safety
tests and opened in the event of a
crash or battery fault
 pack and protects it from damage
3 4
1
2
5 Fusing: Fuses protect expensive
components from damage due to
power surges and faults
6 Disconnect: Used to electrically
isolate the battery from the vehicle
during servicing or maintenance
7 Cooling: Modules require
cooling. Packs may be cooled
using air, water or vehicle air
conditioning system
8 Battery management system
(BMS): The BMS ensures the cells
remain within their safe operating
temperatures and voltages. It
measures the remaining charge 9 8 7 6 5
in the battery and reports on
state of health. It also ensures
the battery is correctly connected
and isolated before closing
the contactors
9 Lower case: Structural casing
supports the mass of the battery
Image credits: Nissan UK
© 2018
17
 Battery management
system (BMS)
 ells need to be monitored and
C
controlled, e.g. temperature, voltage.
The BMS is an electronic system that
manages cells in a battery pack.

key off: store data

key on: initialize
• The BMS monitors and controls:
Meas. voltage Estimate state
- State of charge (SOC) Estimate state Balance Compute
current of health
of charge (SOC) cells power limits
temperature (SOH)
- State of health (SOH)
- State of function (SOF) Loop each measurement interval while pack is active
- Safety and critical safeguards
- Load balancing/individual
BATTERY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
cell efficiency
 dvances in BMS can provide
• A Traction CAN Vehicle CAN Battery
improved cell usage and efficiency Inverter Controller Charger
and reduce the amount of battery CAN
content required
Interface Module
 equires highly skilled electronics
• R CAN
CAN
and software engineering talent BMM Core Module BMM Core Module CAN BMM Core Module Current
Sensor

8 Cell Stack 8 Cell Stack 8 Cell Stack

Cell
Cell
Cell
Cell
Cell
Cell
Cell
Cell

Cell
Cell
Cell
Cell
Cell
Cell
Cell
Cell

Cell
Cell
Cell
Cell
Cell
Cell
Cell
Cell
Battery Pack

© 2018
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Electrical Distribution
System (EDS)
The primary function of the EDS is to provide +VE sensor
the electrical conduction path through the HV
Main Fuse Connector
battery pack. MCB
It also: MCB Pre-CH Fuse Pre-CHARGE Contactor
• Isolates the conduction path Pre-CH registor
MCB
 easures current and voltage in the
• M Battery
HV +VE
Manual Service
high voltage (HV) line Disconnect Management
System
 rovides pre-charge function when
• P MCB (BMS)
HV -VE
energising HV line
MCB LV
• Fuses the HV line in case of over-current Connector
MCB
 rovides manual disconnect of the
• P
HV line for vehicle servicing Current sensor +VE Contactor

 onitors effectiveness of the

• M
electrical insulation
 he Low Voltage (LV) wiring also provides
• T
• T
power for the battery control functions and
allows communication between the battery
and vehicle (CAN protocol). The LV wiring
also carries a signal (HVIL) to confirm all
external connectors are correctly in place
and to ensure that HV conductors can not
be contacted externally
 he BMS receives inputs from
• E
voltage and temperature
sensors in the modules. In
some packs, the BMS may also
provide outputs to drive other
components such as fans,
pumps or valves for the battery
cooling system
 xternal connectors enable
robust and safe connection
between the battery pack and
other vehicle systems. These
are typically split into HV and LV
connectors and potentially other
auxiliary connectors (to chargers
or HV accessories)

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 Battery pack assembly - manufacturing process
PACK ASSEMBLY LINE

Module Module Module Lower Case Module

Delivery BoL Test Acceptance Pre-assembly Insertion

Bus bar
Assembly
Handling Electrical
Assembly Integrity Test
Test Cooling System
Assembly

BMS/EDS
Connection

Battery EoL Acceptance Cooling Case Top Cover

Shipping Testing System Test Pressure Test Assembly

Primary tasks:
• 
Assembling the modules into • 
Connecting and testing power • 
Testing pack quality and
the pack electronics system functionality
• 
Joining the modules in pack • 
Inserting cooling system Lower cost achieved through
architecture components if required increased automation.

© 2018
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Typical R&D timeline for potential
chemistries/technologies
New chemistries at proof of concept stage in the lab will take typically 10
years to emerge as market products.

MATERIAL PROOF OF MATERIAL INDUSTRIAL OEM

PLANT
PRODUCT
CONCEPT DEVELOPMENT
DEVELOPMENT SCALE UP DEVELOPMENT VALIDATION
RESEARCH CYCLE

• Investigating new  eveloping

• D  cale up of
• S  roving out
• P  alidation of
• V  EM ready to
• O
chemistries promising promising at-volume cell R&D at the cell bring technology
materials at materials manufacturing stage into 3-year
• 
Understanding gram scale from lab to application development
properties and commercially  t-volume
• A cycle
characterisation • 
Testing and viable cell  upply chain
• S testing of cells
analysing validation of to industrial • OEM led activity
• 
Chemical lab- properties for  esting and
• T R&D standards
based/university application analysis of
-led activity impact of scale  ptimisation of
• O  EM
• O
• 
Lab-based/ up on chemistry industrial scale validation
• 
No limit to university-led manufacturing of required
potential timescale activity  alidation of
• V quality,
for breakthrough manufacturing • Industry and reliability and
to occur • 
Timescale processes university led safety levels
dependent upon activity
chemistry maturity  niversity and/
• U • Industry-led
or industry led activity/OEM
activity

Min. 3 Years
??? 2 Years 3 Years 1-1.5 Years 2-3 Years
decades

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 Where should batteries be in 20 years?

© 2018
22
The UK Battery Industrialisation
Centre (UKBIC)
UKBIC is part of the UK Government’s
Faraday Battery Challenge.
UK BIC: SCHEMATIC VISION
The establishment of this new facility
is being led by Coventry City Council,
Coventry and Warwickshire Local Enterprise
Partnership, and WMG, at Electrodes
Electrodes
in
the University of Warwick. The consortium out

were awarded £80 million, through

Anode coating
a competition led by the Advanced lines Cylinder cell assembly

Drying
Powders Electrode Formation
Propulsion Centre and supported by in mixing Cathode coating Pouch cell assembly
Innovate UK. lines

UKBIC will be an open access facility, Cell EoL

Cells
out
opening early 2020 in the Coventry/ testing

Warwickshire area. Module BoL

Cells
in
testing

The UK Battery Industrialisation Centre will:

 e a ‘Learning factory’ for high speed,
• B
high quality manufacturing of cells,
Packs
Pack assembly Module assembly
out
modules and packs at GWh/year scale
• 
Enable users to develop and prove Modules
Modules in out
manufacturing processes, and train staff
• 
Be capable of bespoke cell development
/prototype/low volume manufacture

© 2018

23
 Glasgow
Edinburgh

Newcastle
Belfast

Dublin

DOI number: 10.31273/978-0-9934245-5-7

Manchester
Liverpool
Nottingham

Birmingham

Coventry

Leamington Spa

Cardiff

London

APC Electric Energy Storage Spoke

WMG, International Manufacturing Centre,
University of Warwick,
Coventry, CV4 7AL www.wmg.warwick.ac.uk