Reviewer in Science- 4th Mid Qtr. b.

b. Digestion- mechanical and chemical breakdown whereby large food molecules are broken
Chapter 6- Digestive System down into soluble and diffusible molecules that can be absorbed by body parts
Living organisms require food for energy in order to function c. absorption- the process whereby digested food materials are taken into the body cells and
potential chemical energy- stored energy found in food => converted into kinetic energy in are converted into new protoplasm used to provide energy
bodily activities d. elimination- passing of digestive material out of the digestive tract
Calorie- to the amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water by 1 o C e. assimilation- the process of transport and use of absorbed nutrients
Kilocalories- equals to 1000 calories, amount of energy found in food; we need 500 kcal every Physical Digestion- mechanical breakdown of food into smaller particles
day ex: chewing, swallowing and peristalsis
Chemical Digestion- breakdown of complex molecules into soluble molecules
basal metabolism- is the amount of energy needed to carry on the vital activities of the body ex: digestive enzymes (catalysts)
when in rest Alimentary Canal- main part of the digestive system
Females= 1,800-2,000 calories per day A. Mouth- where the intake of food starts; chewing of food
Males= 2, 200- 2, 500 calories per day boli- food rolled into small, slippery masses
Nutrients- molecules found in food that nourish the body by providing energy and materials - food stays in here for 5-30 seconds
essential to growth and development B. Pharynx- common passage for food and air
a. Carbohydrates- main source of energy; structural component of cells; used by mitochondria C. Esophagus- narrow muscular tube that carries food you have swallowed to the stomach;
b. Proteins- amino acids are building blocks for proteins; growth and repair of worn out body comes from a Greek word meaning to carry what is eaten
cells peristalsis- rhythmic, wavelike contractions of the gut
kwashiorkor- a deficiency in proteins - food stays in here for 7-10 seconds
c. Fats- energy providing foods D. Stomach-
atherosclerosis- fat accumulated on the walls of the blood vessels - j-shaped organ
d. Vitamins- complex organic molecules needed in small amounts and cannot be - thick 3- layered muscles that have gastric glands which release gastric juices
manufactured by the body - food undergoes chemical and physical digestion
Fat- Soluble Vitamins- can be stored in the fats of the body - Gastric Juice- dilute solution of hydrochloric acid (stops effect of salivary amylase) and pepsin
Water Soluble Vitamins- cannot be stored in the body (secreted by the cells of the gastric glands), and kills germs
e. Minerals- do not provide energy, but are needed in body functions; some are needed in - chyme- liquefied partly digested food
large amounts but others in smaller quantities - food stays in here for 2-24 hours
macronutrients- are minerals needed in large amounts E. Small Intestine-
trace elements- minerals needed in small amounts - food is now a soft, watery substance
f. Water- man cannot survive without water; 8 glasses every day; we are 75% made of water - composed of three parts- duodenum, jejunum, and ileum
g. Fiber or Roughage- provide bulk to intestinal content and help peristalsis - 6 meters (20 ft.) long
balanced diet- contains the right amount of carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, minerals, - walls contains glands which secrete several digestive enzymes
water and fiber to supply the body with energy and materials for its activities - most digestion starts in the first 0.3 meters of the SI
malnutrition- do not take the right amount of food - food stays in here for 3-5 hours
overnutrition- eating too much F. Large Intestine
My Pyramid- science-based advice on food and physical activity choices - absorb water and mineral salts
Digestion- the breakdown of food into simpler substance for the use of the body - 1.5 meters long
nutrition- the intake of food from these sources and the processes that convert food rectum- where feces is stored
substances into living matter anus- opening where feces is expelled
holozoic nutrition- mode of feeding found in humans and animals - food stays in here for 18 hours to 2 days
a. Feeding/ Ingestion- intake of food into body
Accessory Organs/ Glands- digestive helpers; have other functions other than digestion
1. Saliva
2. Liver-
- largest gland in the body
- dark red and is made up of five lobes- 3 on the right and to on the left
- produces bile an alkaline greenish, yellow liquid, containing bile salts and liquids
- gallbladder- a yellow bag attached to the liver, where bile is stored
3. Pancreas-
- soft triangular gland lying between the small intestine and the stomach
- connected to the duodenum of the small intestine by means of the pancreatic duct
- produces pancreatic juice, a mixture of digestive enzymes
- insulin- controls the sugar levels in the body
villi- inner lining of the small intestine, which is covered with millions of tiny finger- like
structures
feces- materials not absorbed formed into a solid waste
Gastrointestinal Diseases- diseases of the digestive system
Diarrhea- occurs when the large intestine cannot maintain the normal water level
Constipation- peristalsis moves the stool in the colon too slowly and reabsorbs the water too
much and the stool becomes hard and compacted
Hepatitis- inflammation of the liver caused by excessive consumption of alcohol or a viral
infection
- causes jaundice yellowing of the skin or part of the eye
- Hepatitis A (infectious hepatitis)- caused by hepatitis A virus (HAV); caused by contaminated
water or food
- Hepatitis B (serum hepatitis)- caused by hepatitis virus (HBV); caused by blood transfusions
or sexual contact
Gallstones- crystals formed by too much cholesterol, bile salts, and calcium in the gall bladder
Peptic Ulcers- open sores found in the esophagus (esophageal), stomach (gastric), or
duodenum (duodenal)
Hemorroids (piles)- occur when rectal veins are inflamed or inlarged after straining and
removing hard stools
- first- degree- within the anus
- second- degree- extend outward on defecation
- third- degree- outside the anal opening
- treatment- surgical removal
Appendicitis- inflammation of the appendix
Malnutrition- broad category of disorders associated with improper or insufficient diet
Undernutrition- cannot meet the daily nutrient needs
Overnutrition- consumes too much calories in food and does not exercise
- Obesity- exceeds 20% of his ideal body weight; accumulation of fats
- Body Mass Index (BMI)- determines if your weight is within the normal range of your height
- apple-shaped- fats concentrated in the stomach
- pear- shaped- fats concentrated in the midrift or the hips or thighs
Eating Disorders- caused by self-control, life stresses and peer pressure
Anorexia (nervosa)- restrict their food and drink intake under dangerous levels
- intense fear of gaining weight
- teenage girls age 14- 25
Bulimia (nervosa)- secretive excessive eating followed by self- induced vomiting, overuse of
laxatives or excessive exercise
Chapter 7- Divide and Conquer (Mitosis)
“Cells come from pre-existing cells”- cells are essential to the perpetuation of life; proposed
by Rudolf Virchow through the third tenet of the cell theory
Cellular Reproduction- means to multiply or increase in number
cell division- the means by which humans cells reproduce
binary fission- the means by which bacteria reproduce
In multicellular organisms, cellular reproduction is the means for the production of new
tissues or body parts during growth and development.
Cellular Reproduction- complex process that is divided into two distinct processes- cellular
growth and maturation and cell division
First stage- growth and maturation of the cell refers to the important processes the cell must
undertake before cell division starts
Second Stage- the genetic material in the form of chromosomes systematically and equally
divides into two daughter cells
Organelles Involved in Cell Division
chromatin fibers- genetic materials of the cell in forms of long, thin threads of DNA wrapped
around histone proteins
chromosomes- carry the genes of the organisms which are responsible for the observed
characters; there are 25,000 genes in the 46 chromosomes of a human
mitochondria- where few genes are located (animals); the powerhouse of the cell
chloroplast- where genes are located (plants)
centromere- a region containing the kinetochore
kinetochore- serves as an attachment of the spindle fibers where the chromosomes are pulled
to opposite poles during cell division
centrioles- paired organelles found in the cytoplasm near the nucleus that become visible
during cell division; they duplicate themselves and anchor to another structure called spindle
fibers
spindle fibers- formed from microtubules
microtubules- miniature tubes that support the cell
nuclear membrane- spindle fibers that stretch between centrioles; disintegrate during cell
division
nucleus>chromosomes>DNA>genes
Cycle is divided into interphase and m- phase.
interphase- cell grows, accumulates nutrients and
replicates its genetic material; 90% of the entire cell
cycle is devoted to the interphase
a. G1 phase
- rapid growth, organelles are formed, proteins are
produced, longest phase
- cells that do not divide stay in this cycle for their
whole life cycle
b. S- phase
- replication- DNA is doubled (replicated)
c. G2 phase - cleavage furrow formation- occurs in the exterior of cells that lack cell walls
- preparations for cell division and assembly of proteins like microtubules - plate formation- occurs in the middle of cells with a cell wall
d. M-phase- cell undergoes division cell cycle checkpoints- a group of proteins used to check if the cell is capable of proceeding
- karyokinesis- division of nucleus; cytokinesis- division of cytoplasm into the next stage or not
Mitosis- type of cell division in which the nucleus of the cell divides into two nuclei with a. G1 checkpoint
- ensures that the cell is ready to undergo S phase or DNA synthesis
identical genetic material
b. G2 checkpoint
- resulting two daughter cells have the same number of chromosomes similar to the parent
- makes sure the cell is mature enough to divide or undergo M phase
cells
c. M checkpoint
- diploid- parent cell containing two sets of chromosomes (46 chromosomes) - will see to it that the cell is ready to complete cell division
- occurs in multicellular, eukaryotic organisms for growth, development, repair of tissues apoptosis- programmed cell death if the cell is abnormal or damage is beyond repair
and asexual reproduction Prokaryotes vs. Eukaryotes
a. Prophase
- long and thread like chromatids during an interphase start to coil and become visible
under a microscope as individual chromosomes
- -Centrioles migrate at
each cell contains twothe opposite
identical poles
sister of the cells(two chromosomes), as a result of DNA
chromatids
- synthesis
Nucleolus disappears from view.
b. Metaphase
- Chromosomes move and align themselves at the center of the cell called the metaphase Chapter 8- Meiosis
plate. The human life cycle starts with union of two sex cells- a sperm cell (spermatozoon) and an
- Spindle fibers connect each chromosome on its centromere to the centrioles located at egg cell (ovum).
opposite poles. Meiosis- the process where spermatozoon and ovum are produced.
c. Anaphase - only haploid cells are produced, because they contain half the no. of chromosomes
- Proteins that bind the two sister chromatids of each chromosome divide. haploid cells- cells which contain half the no. of chromosomes (23) and is represented by n
- Movement of separated chromosomes due to the shortening of the spindle fibers. zygote- is formed when the spermatozoon and ovum unite
d. Telophase - contains two sets of chromosomes- 1 set from mother and another from the father
- Chromosomes are now located on opposite poles. - 23 from mother+ 23 from father= 46 chromosomes, thus a diploid (46 chromosomes)
- Nuclear membrane uncoils. somatic cells- ac body cells that contain the normal no. of chromosomes (46), thus are diploid
- Spindle fibers dissolve and disappear. spermatogenesis- process in which sperm is formed in the testis
oogenesis- the process in which egg cell are produced in the ovary
diploid- cells which contain the normal no. of chromosomes, rep. by 2n epididymis- where matured sperm cells are stored temporarily till they are released through
***Reduction in the no. of chromosomes is essential to maintain the no. of chromosome the urethra
when the sperm and egg cell unite. Without meiosis, the no. of chromosomes would double *** This whole process takes 10 weeks.
in each gen. Oogenesis
homologues- are 23 pairs chromosomes formed by the 23 pairs of maternal and paternal - gamete or sex cell formation in females, which occur in the ovaries
chromosomes ***After Meiosis I and II, there are 2 unequally divided cells, 1 smaller than the other
- must be of the same size, shape and gene content bigger cell- will become the egg or ovum, because of the bigger share of cytoplasm
- pair during Prophase I and separate during Anaphase I polar body- remaining small cell that will eventually die
autosomes-any of the other chromosomes that are not sex cells, 22 pairs of chromosomes; are oogonia- many immature egg cells
the same in males and femals Trisomy 13- Pataus’ Disease
sex chromosomes- the last pair of chromosomes that carry the genes responsible for the Klinefelter- when a male chromosome has an extra X chromosome (XXY)
gender Turner- when a female chromosome has an extra X chromosome (XXX)
- XX in females and XY in females Trisomy 21- Down syndrome
karyogram- when the chromosomes are arranged from largest to biggest monosomy- missing a chromosome
karyotyping- the process of preparing a karyogram Importance of Meiosis
synapsis- dance-like movement of the chromosomes until they meet each other and pair Genetic variations- reason why meiosis is important; reason why no two organisms are
synaptonemal complex- zipper-like connection identical
Meiosis- a type of cell division used by multicellular organisms in the formation of rep. cells genes- genetic information that give specific traits
- divided into two successive cell divisions loci- where genes are found
Meiosis I- reduces the no. of chromosomes ac reductional division Independent Assortment- takes place during the alignment of homologous chromosomes
Meiosis II- equational division Crossing Over- exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes
*** Both are subdivided into four stages Random Fertilization- the sperm and egg cell are produced in a random process
Similarities w/ Mitosis ***There are 64 trillion possible combinations after these are considered.
- divided into four steps
- karyokinesis is followed by cytokinesis
Differences between
- Meiosis produces haploids.
- Daughter Cells are not alike.
- Four daughter cells are produced.
Gametogenesis- process of gamete formation
**READ THE STEPS OF MEIOSIS**
Spermatogenesis
- gamete or sex cell reproduction among male animals, which occurs in the testes, housed in
the scrotum, because the temp. is 4 degrees lower than the core body temp.
seminiferous tubules- specific sites where sperm are produced
sertoli and nurse cells- support the maturation of spermatogonia
spermatogonia- the diploid cells lying near the wall of seminiferous tubules
1. primary spermatocyte- large immature germ cell
2. secondary spermatocyte- the form that the spermatocyte is after meiosis I
3. spermatids- after meiosis II and produces 4 haploid cells
4. sperm- matured spermatids with a tail