Leung Chung Hong PDF

The Particle-based Learning of English Phrasal Verbs:
A Conceptual Metaphor and Image Schema Based Approach
LEUNG Chung-hong
A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree of
Master of Philosophy
in
Applied English Linguistics
The Chinese University of Hong Kong

June 2004
The Chinese University of Hong Kong holds the copyright of this thesis. Any
persor;(s) intending to use a part or whole of the materials in the thesis in a proposed
publication must seek copyright release from the Dean of the Graduate School.
iQii^l
^HL^RARY SYSTEMy^
PBL of Phrasal Verbs i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Upon completion of this thesis and the accomplishment in my M.Phil, study, I

would like to express my gratitude to all those who granted me the opportunity to
study in my interested field and those who helped me survive all the hardship in these
two years. Particularly, I would like to thank the Department of English of the
Chinese University of Hong Kong for providing me with a tutorship in the department
for two years and all sorts of support in my journey as an M.Phil..
First and foremost, I am deeply indebted to my thesis supervisor Dr. Peter Crisp
for his professional expertise, insightful comments and stimulating encouragement.
His great care and patience in reading, correcting and embellishing my thesis draft
from chapter to chapter made me feel more and more confident to my thesis and
always at ease along my writing path. I am also impressed by his brainstorming
discussions and valuable suggestions in every regular thesis meeting during the past
year. I truly believe that this thesis would never have a chance to be completed
without his guidance.
I would also like to sincerely thank Prof. Joseph Hung and Prof. George Braine.
Being my thesis committee member, Prof. Joseph Hung was the pioneer who inspired
me to propose and pursue the "particle-based learning" (PBL) in the light of his
knowledgeable explanation of its possibility in providing a better pedagogy of phrasal
verbs. The current study would not be able to take its initial shape without his
optimism, encouragement and innovation. I am also indebted to Prof. George Braine
for his kindness in guiding me to write my thesis, reading the chapters and giving me
valuable comments.
Last but not least, I would like to express my gratitude to those English major
students who had been subjects in my study. Especially, I wish to give my special
thanks to the tutors who kindly lent their precious lessons to me for conducting the
experimental tests.
PBL of Phrasal Verbs ii
ABSTRACT
English phrasal verbs, a phraseological component which has recently attracted

considerable attention among SLA researchers, create a special problem for many ESL/EFL
students. One of the reasons is the enormous number of phrasal verbs. The Collins
COBUILD Dictionary of Phrasal Verbs (2002) lists over three thousand phrasal verbs with
over five thousand five hundred different meanings. Added to this is the traditional phrasal
verb listing method adopted in ESL/EFL textbooks, which makes the combination of verb
and particle seem random. Students are told to leam phrasal verbs by heart, thereby implying
that there is no system. As a result, there is a widespread avoidance of phrasal verbs among
ESL/EFL students.
A cognitive linguistic approach to phrasal verbs suggests that there is a great deal of
systematicity in the meaning of particles which designates the overall meaning of phrasal
verbs. The present study, therefore, aims at pursuing a promising line founded on cognitive
linguistics in order to propose a new pedagogy, namely the "particle-based learning" (PBL),
of phrasal verbs. PBL builds on the theoretical assumptions of cognitive semantics in general
and the notions of conceptual metaphors and image schemas in particular. It helps students
understand the spatial, prototypical senses of particles abstracted in image schemas on the
one hand and see how these schemas can provide the systematic conceptual motivation for
the figurative meaning of most phrasal verbs on the other.
To empirically verify the practical soundness of PBL, this study has conducted an
experimental test with seventy advanced Chinese L2 learners of English. In the test, the
control group was treated with the traditional phrasal verb listing method whereas the
experimental group with PBL. Each student in both groups was given a pre-test, a post-test, a
one-week delay test and a questionnaire. Results from SPSS (11.5) confirm that the
experimental group receiving PBL performed much better in all the three test papers, thus
implying the practicality of this new method. Moreover, feedback from the questionnaire
shows that students generally agreed on the newness and attractiveness of PBL as well as its
effectiveness, compared with the traditional method, in enhancing their phrasal verb
knowledge, thus suggesting the pedagogical promise of PBL for phrasal verb learning.
PBL has been proven successfully in this study as a systematic, interesting and
effective method of learning phrasal verbs. Its actual implementation, however, in ESL/EFL
classrooms in Hong Kong will depend largely on 1) a change of the existing curriculum; 2)
the publishers of ESL textbooks; and 3) the willingness of teachers to experiment with this
new approach.
PBL of Phrasal Verbs iii
摘錄
英語片語動詞，作為成語詞彙一種，於近年來獲得了從事第二語言研究工作的
學者的漠大關生很多以學習英語為第二或外語的學生都對片語動詞產生了問題，
而其中一個原因相信是它們龐大的數量。The Collins COBU/LD Dictionary of
Phrasal Verbs (2002)編列了為數約3000個片語動詞。這3000個片語動詞亦
涵蓋了將近5500個不同的意義。而另外一個原因則相信是來自一種廣泛應用於
英語課本內以表列方式教授片語動詞的方這種方法令學生感到片語動詞內組
合動詞與質詞的方式是胡亂隨意的。再加上無系統導引的學習,大部份學生都迴
避運用片語動詞。
認知語言學提出片語動詞內的質詞本身的含意對整個片語動詞的意義理解
反映著相當程度的系統性。對於以上的論點，本研究提出一個薪新的方法來學習
片語動詞，此方法被命名為「質詞學習法」（以下簡稱「質法」）。質法的理念建基
於一般認知語意學的理論上,並再加以引用「概念隱喻」以及「形象圖式」的概
念。一方面，質法旨在幫助學生理解質詞於概念化後的空間原型意義；另一方面，
它能提供學生一個有系統性的概念法去啟發他們對於一些含比喻性的片語動詞
的理解。
為了驗証質法的實用性，本研究以70位擁有高等英語程度的中國學生作為
對象，並對他們進行了一個實驗性的測試。於測試內,對比組沿用傳統表列式的片
語動詞教學法；而實驗組則採用了本研究中的質法。兩組內的每一位學生均要完
成一個學前測試，學後測試，一週後測試以及一份問卷。SPSS (11.5)的結果肯定
了實驗.組於各測試內的成績均較對比組為佳，此引証了質法的實用性。再者,問卷
反映出學生普遍地同意質法較傳統法更能給予他們一個全新並且有效的片語動
詞學習法，這一點帶出了質法於教學上的可行性。
縱使質法被証實為一個有系統,有趣味以及有效的片語動詞學習法，其實施則
大力依靠：1)現行英語課程的更改；2)各英語課本的出版商；以及3)老師們對實踐
此法的意欲。
r
PBL of Phrasal Verbs iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT i
ABSTRACT (English version) ii
ABSTRACT (Chinese version) iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS iv
LIST OF TABLES x
LIST OF FIGURES xi
LIST OF APPENDICES xii
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Phraseology and second language acquisition 1
1.3 Phrasal verbs in ESL/EFL students 3
1.4 The proposed particle-based learning (PBL) of phrasal verbs 5
1.5 Cognitive semantic framework for PBL 6
1.5.1 The theory of conceptual metaphors 6
1.5.2 The theory of image schemas 7
1 ;5.3 A cognitive semantic approach to teaching phrasal verbs 8
1.6 Research gaps and research implications 9
1.7 Organization of this thesis 10
CHAPTER TWO: ESL/EFL LEARNING OF ENGLISH PHRASAL VERBS 13
2.1 Introduction 13
2.2 General views on phrasal verbs in ESL/EFL learning 14

PBL of Phrasal Verbs v
2.2.1 Phrasal verbs in SLA research 14
2.2.2 ESL/EFL learners' phraseological incompetence and ignorance 15
2.2.3 Summary 口
2.3 Avoidance behaviour of phrasal verbs in ESL/EFL learners 17
2.3.1 Definition of avoidance 18
2.3.2 Causes of avoidance 20
2.3.3 Four previous studies on avoidance of phrasal verbs 22
2.3.3.1 Dagut and Laufer's study (1985) 24
2.3.3.2 Hulstijn and Marchena's study (1989) . 25
2.3.3.3 Laufer and Eliasson's study (1993) 26
2.3.3.4 Liao and Fukuya's study (2002) 27
2.4 Avoidance of figurative phrasal verbs 28
2.5 Summary �1
CHAPTER THREE: PHRASAL VERBS, CONCEPTUAL METAPHORS AND IMAGE

SCHEMAS 33
3.1 Introduction ^^
3.2 Phrasal verbs as a category of multi-word verbs 34
3.3 Multi-word verbs 34
3.3.1 The syntactic frame of multi-word verbs 36
3.3.2 The semantic frame of multi-word verbs 37
‘3.3.3 Summary
3.4 Defining phrasal verbs ^^
3.4.1 "VPC and literal + figurative" as phrasal verbs 41
3.4.2 "VPC + VPP and literal + figurative" as phrasal verbs 46
3.5 A cognitive approach to the understanding of phrasal verbs (Part I) 49

PBL of Phrasal Verbs vi
3.5.1 The meaning of the particles in phrasal verbs 50
3.5.2 The metaphorical extension of the spatial, prototypical particles 51
3.5.3 A cognitive schematic representation of particles in phrasal verbs 54
3.5.4 Summary 58
3.6 The theory of conceptual metaphors 59
3.6.1 Metaphor as ordinary everyday language 59
3.6.2 Conceptual metaphor as a cross-domain mapping 61
3.7 The theory of image schemas 64
3.7.1 Image schemas as the basis for thought and understanding 65
3.7.2 Examples of image schemas 66
3.7.2.1 The PATH schema 66
3.7.2.2 The CONTAINER schema 68
3.7.3 Image schemas as the underlying logic of conceptual metaphors 69
3.7.4 Image schemas in relation to words 71
3.7.5 Summary: A hierarchical framework 72
3.8 A cognitive approach to the understanding of phrasal verbs (Part II) 74
3.8.1 A new classification of phrasal verbs based on the cognitive semantic
framework 74
3.8.2 Rationale for the particle-based learning (PBL) 77
3.8.3 The particle-based learning model (PBLM) 80
3.8.4 Conclusion 86
CHAPTER FOUR: RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND METHODOLOGY 87
4.1 Introduction 87
4.2 Metaphorical competence and motivation 87
4.3 Research questions and hypotheses 89

PBL of Phrasal Verbs vii
4.4 Research methodology 91
4.4.1 Subjects 91
4.4.2 Materials 91
4.4.2.1 Elicitation of phrasal verbs for test 91
4.4.2.2 Materials design 95
4.4.2.2.1 Pre-test paper 95
4.4.2.2.2 Teaching and learning paper 96
4.4.2.2.3 Post-test paper 98
4.4.2.2.4 Questionnaire 99
4.4.2.2.5 One-week delay test paper 99
4.4.3 Procedures 99
4.4.4 Scoring system 103
CHAPTER FIVE: GENERAL RESULTS FROM SPSS 105
5.1 Introduction 105
5.2 Results of pre-test and pro-test 106
5.2.1 The output of SPSS 106
5.2.2 General description 107
5.3 Results of Hypothesis 1 108
5.3.3 Conclusion 110
5A Results of Hypothesis 2 110

PBL of Phrasal Verbs viii
5.5 Results of Hypothesis 3 . 112
5.5.1 The mean score for each question 113
5.6 Summary "5
CHAPTER SIX: GENERAL DISCUSSIONS OF RESULTS 117
6.2 Discussion of Hypothesis 1 117
6.2.1 General evaluation of Hypothesis 1 117
6.2.2 Conceptual metaphors and image schemas as embodied motivation 119
6.2.3 English as a satellite-framed language 123
6.2.4 Visualization and dual coding theory 124
6.2.5 Consolidation and elaboration in vocabulary acquisition 127
6.3.2 The cognitive linguistic view on polysemous words 132
6.3.3 Effective guessing based on core meaning 135
6.4.2 Discussion of six questions of questionnaire 137
6.4.3 Fallacies in traditional phrasal verb learning 140
6.4.4 Metaphoric triangle for phrasal verb learning 142
6.5 Summary 144

PBL of Phrasal Verbs ix
CHAPTER SEVEN: PEDAGOGICAL IMPLICATIONS AND CONCLUSION 149
7.2 Traditional approach to phrasal verbs in Hong Kong English textbooks 150
7.3 Pedagogical implications of PBL on phrasal verb learning 155
7.3.1 Forewords to pedagogical application of PBL 156
7.3.2 Sample learning materials 158
7.3.2.1 Sample One (lower intermediate to intermediate level) 159
7.3.2.2 Sample Two (upper intermediate to advanced level) 165
7.3 Conclusion to pedagogical implications 171
7.4 An overall conclusion of the present study 173
7.4.1 Limitations 173
7.4.2 Suggestions for future research 175
7.4.3 Author's expectation of PBL on phrasal verb learning 176
REFERENCES 178
APPENDICES 1-19 194

PBL of Phrasal Verbs x
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1: Avoidance of literal and figurative phrasal verbs in the tests in various studies 29
Table 2.2: Summary of four studies on avoidance of phrasal verbs in ESL/EFL students 32
Table 3.1: Classification of similar structures as a category in previous studies 40
Table 3.2: Summary of publications dealing with phrasal verbs 48
Table 3.3: Four combinations of phrasal verbs 75
Table 4.1: Summary of teaching and testing procedures of both groups 101
Table 4.2: Rationale for scoring the meaning written by students 104
Table 5.1: Comparison of the differences between results in pre-test and post-test
for both groups 106
Table 5.2: Comparison of means and P values for Hypothesis 1 108
Table 5.4: Comparison of the mean score of each question in questionnaire 113
Table 6.1: Comparison of the mean score of each question in questionnaire 138
Table 7.1: Summary of phrasal verb presentation methods adopted in
Hong Kong English textbooks and exercise books 153

PBL of Phrasal Verbs xi
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1: Phraseological categories 2
Figure 1.2: Metaphorical mapping of LOVE IS A JOURNEY 7
Figure 1.3: Graphical representation of the CONTAINER schema 8
Figure 3.1: Degrees of figurativeness 45
Figure 3.2: The spatial, prototypical meaning of the most frequent particles
found in phrasal verbs 53
Figure 3.3a-c: Graphical representations of different schemas 55
Figure 3.4: Basic image schema of particle OUT 57
Figure 3.5: Cross-domain mapping from concrete source domain to abstract
target domain 62
Figure 3.6: The hierarchical structure of conceptual metaphor and some of
its major linguistic expressions 63
Figure 3.7: Graphical representation of the PATH schema 67
Figure 3.8: Graphical representation of the CONTAINER schema 69
Figure 3.9: The hierarchical model of image schemas, conceptual metaphors
and linguistic expressions 73
Figure 3.10: The particle-based learning model of phrasal verbs (PBLM) 81
Figure 3.11: PBLM of run up 84
Figure 5.1: Means comparison between pre-test and post-test for Group I
and Group 2 107
Figure 5.2: Comparison of means and P values for Hypothesis 1 109
Figure 5.3: Comparison of means and P values for Hypothesis 2 111
Figure 6.1: Metaphoric triangle for phrasal verb learning . 143

PBL of Phrasal Verbs xii
LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix 1: Phrasal verbs elicited and their meanings 194
Appendix 2: English phrasal verbs: Particle test 197
Appendix 3: Pre-test paper 200
Appendix 4: Post-test paper 202
Appendix 5: Teaching and learning material for control group 205
Appendix 6: Teaching and learning material for experimental group 207
Appendix 7: One-week delay test paper 211
Appendix 8: Questionnaire 214
Appendix 9: Teaching and learning of conceptual metaphors and image schemas 215
Appendix 10: Detailed SPSS output for Table5.1 217
Appendix 11: Detailed SPSS output for Table 5.2 219
Appendix 14: Particle Index in the Collins COBUILD Dictionary of Phrasal Verbs 230
Appendix 15: Semantic category "finishing and completing" of particle off
in Particle Index 233
Appendix 16: Phrasal verb teaching in English Express 234
Appendix 17: Phrasal verb teaching in Easy Grammar 236
Appendix 18: Phrasal verb teaching in Grammar Explained (Book 2) 240
Appendix 19: Phrasal verb teaching in Grammar Explained (HKCEE) 245

PBL of Phrasal Verbs 1
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
This introductory chapter serves as an opening for the theoretical discussions
and experimental study. It aims at highlighting, on the one hand, the reasons for the
researcher to propose a new learning method of phrasal verbs, and, on the other hand,
the theoretical rationale for establishing such a method. Section 1.2 discusses
phraseology in relation to second language acquisition. Section 1.3 briefly mentions
the difficulties encountered by ESL/EFL students in learning phrasal verbs and the
avoidance behaviour of phrasal verbs generally manifested among them. Following
this, Sections 1.4 and 1.5 explicates the proposal of the particle-based learning (PBL)
as a new method of learning phrasal verbs as well as its theoretical soundness drawn
from the cognitive semantic points of view. There will be a discussion of the research
gap and some possible implications of PBL on phrasal verb learning in Section 1.6.
This chapter will close with Section 1.7 which outlines the overall organizational
structure of this thesis.
1.2 Phraseology and second language acquisition
Currently, vocabulary competence has been brought to the foreground in second

language acquisition (SLA) research with the emphasis on communicative
approaches in second language teaching. As Sjoholm (1998) suggests, one subset of
lexicon that has been receiving a considerable amount of attention is phraseology or
conventionalized forms. The term "phraseology" refers the study of word
combinations. The following figure, which is partially adapted from Howarth (1998),
illustrates the categorization in the study of word combinations based on a close
examination of their internal forms and external functions:
Figure 1.1: Phraseolosical categories
word combinations
functional expressions composite units
八
non-idiomatic idiomatic grammatical composites
^^^ lexical composites
八
non-idiomatic idiomatic
八
non-idiomatic idiomatic
I I • I
proverbs; phrasal verbs;

metaphorical expressions idioms
Functional expressions are identified by their role in discourse and some may be
complete utterances in themselves such as proverbs and metaphorical expressions.
Composite units, on the other hand, have syntactic function in the clause or sentence
and are generally seen as realizations of phrase structures such as phrasal verbs and
idioms. As reported by Howarth (1998)，phraseologists generally agree that native
speaker (NS) linguistic competence displays a large and significant phraseological
competence. Non-native speakers of English (NNS), on the contrary, show a
widespread incompetence in English phraseological structures. Li (2001b; 2001c)
reveals in his empirical study about Chinese EFL students' lexical competence that
the tertiary Chinese EFL students manifest a general lack of idiomatic expressions.
That is to say, even the advanced learners of English lack the phraseological
competence.
1.3 Phrasal verbs in ESL/EFL students
To further investigate NNS's phraseological incompetence, the present study
focuses on one of the phraseological components that have recently attracted
considerable attention among SLA researchers: phrasal verbs. Phrasal verbs in the
present study are structurally defined as multi-word verbs composed of a verb proper
plus an adverbial particle or preposition (details of such a definition will be explicated
in Section 3.4.2). Phrasal verbs can be semantically either literal (e.g. He pulled down
\
the chimney) or figurative (e.g. She played up the fact). According to Cornell (1985),
phrasal verbs which are semantically figurative are not easy for ESL/EFL students to
leam. It is because in figurative phrasal verbs, the whole combination of verb and
particle has received a new meaning which is different from the meaning of the
constituent parts.
Another reason for the learning difficulty of phrasal verbs in ESL/EFL students
is that there are so many of them (Side, 1990). McArthur and Atkins (1974) reported
that there are at least 3,000 established phrasal verbs in English. According to
Bywater (1969), there are several hundred of them in ordinary, everyday use of
English. The Collins COBUILD Dictionary of Phrasal Verbs (2002) lists over three
thousand combinations of verbs and adverbial particles or prepositions with over five
thousands five hundred different meanings (Sinclair et al. 1989).
The abovementioned difficulties are sometimes enhanced by the way in which
phrasal verbs are presented in ESL/EFL textbooks and exercise books. According to
Side (1990), there are quite a number of problems with the traditional approach to
teaching phrasal verbs. First, phrasal verbs are listed based on the verb proper
together with a definition and an example given for each one. Students are then
encouraged to leam the phrasal verbs by heart. Second, the combinations of verb and
particle are not explained; the particle always seems random. As a result, students are
confused with the number of combinations of verb and particle as well as the meaning,
especially the figurative meaning, of the whole combinations. ESL/EFL students are
often told by their teachers to rote-memorize phrasal verbs, thereby implying that
there is no system. All in all, phrasal verbs, due to various syntactic, semantic and
pedagogical reasons, have been found to constitute learning problems. It has also
been attested in several studies that there is general avoidance of phrasal verbs found
in many ESL/EFL students (Dagut and Laufer, 1985; Hulstijn and Marchena, 1989;
Laufer and Eliasson, 1993; Liao and Fukuya, 2002).
1.4 The proposed particle-based learning (PBL) of phrasal verbs
Motivated by the failure of the traditional treatment of phrasal verbs in genuinely
helping ESL/EFL students leam phrasal verbs, this researcher aims to shed light on
phrasal verb learning by proposing a brand new pedagogy of phrasal verbs, namely
the "particle-based learning" (PBL) of phrasal verbs. PBL of phrasal verbs aims at
providing a systematic and interesting learning method of phrasal verbs by making
students aware of the underlying pattern governing the combinations of verb and
particle and the figurative meaning of phrasal verbs. The proposed method builds on
ideas in cognitive semantics in general and makes congruent references to the
notions of conceptual metaphors and image schemas in particular. It is hoped, by
introducing these concepts in phrasal verb learning, that students will be able to
establish meaningful links between literal and figurative senses of particles via
metaphorical mappings, which are crucial for students to understand the figurative
meaning of phrasal verbs as a whole. It is also speculated that these meaningful links
not just contribute to a more systematic learning of phrasal verbs, but also a better
recall and longer retention of the leamt phrasal verbs and a more precise anticipation
(i.e. correct guessing of meaning) of the novel phrasal verbs.
1.5 Cognitive semantic framework for PBL
The proposed particle-based learning of phrasal verbs is, as mentioned before,
founded on cognitive semantics in general and the two notions in cognitive semantics,
conceptual metaphors and image schemas, in particular. The following discussion
briefly highlights the gist of the captioned theoretical framework for PBL while an
extensive literature review of the theories will be delineated in Chapter Three of this
study.
1.5.1 The theory of conceptual metaphors
In Lakoff's (1993) words, metaphor has come to mean "a cross-domain
mapping in the conceptual system" (p.203). As suggested, metaphors are pervasive
in the ordinary conceptual system in which we both think and act. Therefore, our
everyday language contains a lot of metaphors. In other words, language is
metaphoric in nature. In the conceptual metaphor LOVE IS A JOURNEY, words used
in the source domain JOURNEY are systematically mapped onto the target domain
严
LOVE. What can be seen this conceptual metaphor is that people try to understand
the abstract concept LOVE in terms of the more concrete concept JOURNEY. The
following diagram serves to illustrate this metaphorical mapping:
Fisure 1.2: Metaphorical mapmns of LOVE ISA JOURNEY
LOVE IS A JOURNEY
/ JOURNEY \ /LOVE . \
/ Travelers —V 卜 Lovers \
Vehicles • Love relationships
VDestinations Goals /
etc... j \ etc... /
concrete source domain abstract target

domain
1.5.2 The theory of image schemas
The concept of image schemas states that much of our knowledge about the
world is not static, prepositional and sentential, but is grounded in and structured by
various recurring patterns such as our perceptual interactions, bodily experience and
manipulations of the objects in the real world (Johnson, 1987; Lakoff, 1987; Talmy,
1988). These recurring patterns of embodied experience form the experiential gestalts
called image schemas. An example of image schema is the CONTAINER schema and
it is graphically represented below:

Figure 1.3: Graphical representation of the CONTAINER schema
W W
X 今 X
(Johnson, 1987, p.23)
The CONTAINER schema is derived from our experience of the human body as
a container and from our experience of being located within or out of certain
boundaries. More importantly, image schemas can be metaphorically elaborated to
provide our understanding of the more abstract domains. For example, we can say
someone is "out of control" where "control" is treated as a container which someone
can be in or out of.
1.5.3 A cognitive semantic approach to teaching phrasal verbs
Based on ,the notions of conceptual metaphors and image schemas, the present
study drew on different cognitive semantic views on phrasal verbs. First and foremost,
Lindner's (1983) insight on the polysemous but related nature of different senses of
particles out and up was adopted. In her discussion, Lindner has shown that the
spatial, prototypical senses of particles are metaphorically elaborated to give rise to
figurative senses based on the same image schema. Second, the author adopted the
suggestion of lingerer and Schmid (1996) that English belongs to a satellite-framed
language in which expressions of PATH are rendered by particles. Since it is the
PATH which establishes a relation between FIGURE, GROUND and MOTION in an
event frame, particles, which designate the PATH, perform a framing function for the
overall motion event denoted by phrasal verbs. Last but not least, phrasal verbs are
semantically decomposable. In other words, the overall meaning of phrasal verbs is
directly related to the individual meanings of the component verb and particle.
According to Morgan (1997)，the figurative meaning of the whole phrasal verb is
contributed by the figurative meaning(s) denoted either by the verb/particle singly or
both. That is to say, the overall figurative meaning of a phrasal verb can be easily
comprehended if the figurative meaning(s) of its constitute parts is/are unraveled.
1.6 Research gaps and research implications
Up to this point, it seems that there is an ample amount of theoretical soundness
of the particle-based learning of phrasal verbs (PBL). This researcher embarked on an
extensive literature review and discovered that many linguists of the field (e.g.
Sansome，2000; Side, 1990) touched on the notion of particle-based learning of
phrasal verbs. For example, Side (1990) stated that "if one looks closely at the
particle, .patterns start to emerge which suggest that the combinations are not so
random after all" (p. 144). Sansome (2000) pointed out that "research into one prolific
subgroup of phrasal verbs (verb combinations in which the verb's meaning is
subordinated to a new meaning introduced by the [particle]) has yielded insights
which appear to have practical applications" (p.59). However, there has not been any
empirical evidence to support the effectiveness of the particle-based learning. In other
words, no experimental studies have been conducted so far to verify the practical
soundness of the particle-based learning of phrasal verbs. Motivated by, on the one
hand, the theoretical soundness, and, on the other hand, the lack of empirical studies
on the practical soundness of PBL, the present study, therefore, designed a set of
particle-based learning materials and an experimental study for the sake of verifying
empirically the practical soundness of PBL. It is hoped that PBL will lead the way to
a more effective learning method of phrasal verbs and hence shed light on a brand
new pedagogy of phrasal verbs as a whole.
1.7 Organization of this thesis
There are in total seven chapters in this thesis. Chapter One, as seen above,
contains an introductory discussion of phrasal verbs, the phrasal verb incompetence
and avoidance in ESL/EFL students, the theoretical framework for PBL and its
I
potential soundness in bettering students phrasal verb learning as a whole. Chapters
Two and Three are both extensive literature reviews of the theories and ideas relevant
to the present study. In Chapter Two, there will be a general reviews on phrasal verbs
in ESL/EFL vocabulary learning. Special attention will be paid to the avoidance
behaviour of phrasal verbs in ESL/EFL students. Factors accounting for the
avoidance suggested by four empirical studies will be compared and contrasted.
Following this, Chapter Three starts its theoretical discussion by having phrasal verbs
defined syntactically and semantically. We then go into the discussion of the theories
of conceptual metaphors and image schemas and other supporting theories well
established in the field of cognitive semantics. To end this chapter, the particle-based
learning of phrasal verbs will be proposed and its graphical representation, entitled
"Particle-based Learning Model" (PBLM), will be explained. Chapter Four explicates,
on the one hand, the three research questions and the three subsequent null
hypotheses formulated, and, on the other, the methodology employed in the
experimental study. Chapter Five presents the results generated from the output of
SPSS. Discussion of each research question and hypothesis will be based on the
results obtained. Chapter Six is a following chapter of Chapter Five. It aims to
provide a thorough explanation of the falsification of the three hypotheses by making
congruent references to some well-established linguistic theories. Chapter Seven,
which is the last chapter of this thesis, take one step forward by delineating how PBL
can be implemented in ESL/EFL classrooms based on the formerly-proven theoretical
and practical soundness of PBL. It then ends with the discussion of some limitations
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CHAPTER TWO
ESL/EFL LEARNING OF PHRASAL VERBS
2.1 Introduction
This chapter contains a review of the literature on the phraseological
incompetence of EFL students in general and the avoidance of one of the English
phraseological structures, phrasal verbs, in particular. English phrasal verbs create a
considerable amount of learning difficulty for many ESL/EFL students. SLA
researchers have been investigating the matter in the recent years, looking for the
possible causes of the difficulties of such phraseological structures for ESL/EFL
students. Section 2.2，therefore, is devoted to the discussion of some general views on
ESL/EFL learning of phrasal verbs by making congruent references to the SLA
research conducted in this area. Following the discussion in Section 2.2, Section 2.3
opens by defining the term "avoidance" and shows how it can be legitimately and
practically "applied to the present research in describing the ESL/EFL students'
behaviour with regard to English phrasal verbs. Four empirical studies concerning
phrasal verb avoidance in ESL/EFL students with different LI are provided in
Sections 2.3.3.1 to 2.3.3.4. They are presented to explicate the widespread avoidance
of phrasal verbs in ESL/EFL students. Section 2.4 highlights the greater avoidance of
the figurative phrasal verbs than the literal ones. It helps make a bridge from this
chapter to the next which discusses the motivation for the understanding of figurative
phrasal verbs in details. Section 2.5 is a summary of Chapter 2.
2.2 General views on phrasal verbs in EFL learning
2.2.1 Phrasal verbs in SLA research
English phrasal verbs constitute a subset of the lexicon that has been emphasized
and brought to the fore in various disciplines concerned with the second language
acquisition research. Based on his studies of all sorts of English phraseology and
conventionalized forms, Cornell (1985) concluded that phrasal verbs have received a
considerable amount of attention in recent years and have been "discovered" to play a
central role in curricula for English as a foreign language. Although phrasal verbs
have been given a place in the second language classroom, they are, ironically enough,
one of the perennial sources of confusion and frustration found in many second
language classrooms. As reported by researchers in the field (Cornell, 1985; Dagut
and Laufer, 1985; Hulstijn and Marchena, 1989; Laufer and Eliasson, 1993; Sjoholm,
1995，Kurtyka, 2001), phrasal verbs have been identified as constituting a significant
amount of learning and teaching problems for ESL/EFL students and teachers
respectively.
2.2.2 EFL learners' phraseological incompetence and ignorance
The ironic situation in which phrasal verbs are recognized to be an important
component in curricula for English as a second or foreign language but are frequently
commented on by teachers and students as problematic, provides a good ground for
the researchers of the field to look into the matter. According to Cornell (1985) and
Sjoholm (1995), phrasal verbs occur on the whole more frequently in the spoken than
in the written language and have been alleged to be stylistically more informal and
colloquial. Bywater (1969) believed that 700 phrasal verbs out of a total of 3000 are
used in everyday ordinary English. Phrasal verbs also constitute a large proportion of
native speakers' real-life verb use. As reported by Yorio (1989), two-word verbs
(similar to phrasal verbs) contribute as much as 20% of the total conjugated verb use
in native speakers of English. Despite the fact that phrasal verbs are so widely and •
commonly used by native speakers of English in the everyday language, Sjoholm
(1995) stated in his research that "one of the major problems in advanced L2
acquisition is connected with vocabulary learning in general and more particularly
with the phraseological component of lexis" (p.40). Indeed, the assertion that
advanced L2 learners of English are generally inadequate in the phraseological
component of lexis is also reflected in Bywater，s (1969) book. In the discussion of
proficiency in English as a second language, he commented;

"The plain fact is that what distinguishes the writing and, above all, the speech
of a good foreign student from those of an Englishman is that what an
Englishman writes or says is full of these expressions, whereas most foreigners
are frightened of them, carefully avoid them, and sound stilted in consequence.
Foreign students who enjoy being flattered on their English can best achieve
this by correctly using masses of these compound verbs" (p.6).
In addition to the descriptions of the problems mentioned above, Cornell (1985)
reported the result of his research (conducted in 1980) about the use of phrasal verbs
by a group of L2 learners of English. The study aims to provide some useful empirical
evidence on the issue of phrasal verb use among L2 learners of English. To
summarize the results briefly and precisely, Cornell discovered that 67 students of
English, who study English as a second language at university level, revealed a
widespread ignorance of 60 phrasal verbs tested. It was found that over two thirds of
the phrasal verbs tested for exhibited a facility value (i.e. percentage of correct
answers) of 30% or less, and over one third of 10% or less. Echoing Cornell's
research is that done by Yorio (1989). It was found in Yorio's study that even
advanced learners of English used fewer phrasal verbs than English native speakers
(14% to 20%). This research provides empirical support to the belief that advanced L2
learners of English are generally ignorant of phrasal verbs.

2.2.3 Summary
To conclude, it seems that a good mastery of the English phraseological lexis in
general and phrasal verbs in particular is essential for the L2 learners of English to
have the native-like competence of English. One crucial reason is that phrasal verbs
are frequently found in everyday ordinary English and they constitute a large
proportion of native speakers' real-life verb use. Unfortunately, L2 learners of English,
even advanced learners, are found to have difficulties in learning and using phrasal
verbs. Worse still, phrasal verbs have been considered as an important component in
the second language classrooms in which the L2 students are, however, still ignorant
of phrasal verbs.
2.3 Avoidance behaviour of phrasal verbs in EFL learners
In Section 2.2, we have reviewed various literature on the knowledge and use of
phrasal verbs in L2 learners of English. It is generally commented that ESL/EFL
learners are inadequate in both the knowledge and use of phrasal verbs when
compared to native speakers of English. As quoted, ESL/EFL learners are
"incompetent" and "ignorant" of phrasal verbs. In this section, we will bring in the
term "avoidance", which is supposed to be a more precise and thorough term than
"ignorance", to describe the knowledge-lack and use-lack phenomenon of phrasal
verbs observed in ESL/EFL learners.

2.3.1 Definition of avoidance
The phenomenon of avoidance behaviours in SLA was first brought to light by
Schachter (1974). In her discussion of error analysis, Schachter drew attention to the
importance of examining the L2 forms which L2 learners seem consistently to avoid
using. She concluded in her research concerning the lack of use of English relative
clauses for Chinese and Japanese students that "if a student finds a particular
construction in the target language difficult to comprehend it is very likely that he will
try to avoid producing it" (1974, p.213). Despite the important revelation of the
avoidance behaviors suggested by Schachter, her study of avoidance, and more
importantly, the basis for her to interpret what avoidance is, was inconclusive in the
sense that neither the subjects' L2 proficiency level nor their ability to use English
relative clauses were controlled. Therefore, as argued by Kleinmann (1977), the
subjects' so-called avoidance of producing English relative clauses may have resulted
simply from their ignorance of such L2 forms rather than the conscious avoidance.
Kleinmann (1977), based on what he observed in Schachter,s study, suggests that
avoidance should not be equated with ignorance. According to Kleinmann, complete
ignorance is a state of mind and should be seen as the end point of a scale or
continuum relating to the amount of mentally stored or memorized information in a

given area. Avoidance, on the other hand, is a process for L2 learners to handle
information and that can be applied anywhere along the scale. In other words,
avoidance is one of the strategies that L2 learners may resort to in order to
overcome what may be perceived as difficult in the target language. Thus,
according to Laiifer and Eliasson (1993), avoidance explains the phenomenon that
learners tend to "communicate by those linguistic means that make them feel safe
from error" (p.36). Following their interpretation, it is clear now that avoidance
presumes a kind of awareness and familiarity, though sometimes rather faint, of a
given L2 form, and it always involves an intentional choice to replace the target form
by something else.
It is a crucial step for the present research to recognize and state clearly the
interpretation of avoidance. The defintion of the term "avoidance" mentioned above is
needed to understand the stance on avoidance of phrasal verbs in ESL/EFL learners
adopted in this research. "Avoidance" should by no means be identified with
"ignorance." Kleinmann (1977) points out that "avoidance" refers to the situation in
which the L2 form in question is known to the learners, but not freely used by them.
Any situation in which there is a failure to use an L2 form unknown to the learners is
an indication merely of "ignorance", not of learning difficulty.

产
If this research is to develop an approach for dealing with L2 learners' lack of
knowledge of and avoidance of the use of phrasal verbs, it must answer two questions:
1) what are the learners' difficulties in learning phrasal verbs; and 2) how can we help
them overcome these difficulties? The prime purpose of the present research is to
identify the sources of the learners' difficulties in learning phrasal verbs and, more
importantly, provide an important aid, the conceptual metaphor and image schema
based approach, to help Chinese L2 learners of English overcome their difficulties in
learning and using phrasal verbs. This researcher believes that “the genuine [phrasal
verbs] avoidance phenomenon, when properly identified, can throw light on what
would otherwise remain hidden recesses of uncertainty in the learner's mind" (Dagut
and Laufer, 1985, p.73). The "hidden recesses of uncertainty in the learner's mind" is,
as this research paper suggests, due to the lack of a systematic presentation of phrasal
verbs to ESL/EFL learners. It is, hence, proposed by the writer of this research paper
that the particle-based learning founded on conceptual metaphors and image schemas
can point the way to a more systematic presentation of phrasal verbs to ESL/EFL
learners.
2.3.2 Causes of avoidance
What are the possible causes of avoidance of phrasal verbs in ESL/EFL learners?
Many researchers interested in this question have attempted to find out the answers.
Phrasal verb structure is a peculiarity of the Germanic languages (Dagut and Laufer,
1985; Darwin and Gary, 1999). English, being one of the descendants of the Germanic
family, has a verbal lexicon that is rich in phrasal verbs which thus constitute
structures that are unfamiliar, or even awkward, to many ESL/EFL learners. To be
specific, various attempts have been made to investigate and examine the causes of
such learners' avoidance of these structures. Two possible areas have been identified:
1. Structural causes
2. Semantic causes
Structural causes of avoidance arise from the traditional cross-linguistic views
which state that avoidance occurs in areas that are perceived as different in the target
language and therefore difficult to leam (Schachter, 1974; Kleinmann, 1977; Dagut
and Laufer, 1985; Laufer and Eliasson, 1993). Some researchers, however, have
observed that similarity between LI and L2 may be no less problematic since the
learners may doubt that such likenesses can exist and, hence, avoid the L2 forms
resembling those in LI (Jordens, 1977; Kellerman, 1977). As for the semantic causes,
Hulstijin and Marchena (1989) claimed after a phrasal verb experiment conducted
with a group of Dutch EFL learners that the avoidance may as well be caused by the
inherent semantic complexity of the English phrasal verbs. In the following discussion,
we will look into four studies and see how the researchers attribute the claimed
structural and semantic avoidance of English phrasal verbs in advanced L2 learning to
one or more of the following factors:
a. L1-L2 similarity
b. L1-L2 difference
c. L2 inherent complexity
2.3.3 Four previous studies on avoidance of phrasal verbs
There are several points which are worth noting and explaining here before
reviewing the four studies concerning phrasal verb avoidance in ESL/EFL learners:
1. In many of the following experiments, an effort was made to present a choice
situation between a phrasal verb and a synonymous one-word equivalent verb
option.
2. The learners' preferences were compared to those of native speakers of
English with the same test items. Thus, the ESL/EFL learners were judged to
have an under-use or avoidance of phrasal verbs when they exhibited a lower
rate of phrasal verb choice compared to that of the native speakers in the same
test items.
3. There were altogether three test types administered though not every study
r-
included all of them. The three test types were: multiple choice test,
memorization task and translation task.
4. Although there will be a thorough discussion on the definition and types of
phrasal verbs in Section 3.4, a brief definition and classification of phrasal
verbs is necessary for the following discussion. According to Collins
COBUILD Dictionary of Phrasal Verbs (2002)，a phrasal verb is composed of
a verb proper and a morphologically invariable adverbial or prepositional
particle. Despite the fact that some linguists have differed over whether
phrasal verbs are by definition figurative (e.g. Dixon, 1982) or whether some
are literal (e.g. Bolinger, 1971), Lindstromberg (1998) opted for the latter view,
which includes both literal and figurative two-word verbs as phrasal verbs,
since he stated that "some literal verb-plus-particle combinations tend to be
stored in memory much like single verbs" (p.243). This is also the
classification adopted in the following discussion since all the studies took
both figurative and literal two-word verbs into consideration when deploying
• the phrasal verb tests. The following illustrates the definition and classification
of phrasal verbs adopted before any further elaboration is made in Section 3.4:
r
Definition:
Phrasal Verb = Verb Proper + Adverbial / Prepositional Particle
Classification:
Literal: put up your hand ("put up" = "raise")
Semi-figurative: hand in your assignment ("hand in" = "submit")
Figurative: do someone in ("do in" = "kill")
(adopted from Lindstromberg, 1998, p.244)
2.3.3.1 Dagut and Laufer's study (1985)
Dagut and Laufer's (1985) study was one of the first experimental studies
reporting the under-use or avoidance of English phrasal verbs in EFL learners. The
aim of their research was to investigate whether L2 learners of English tend to avoid
using English phrasal verbs, when this lexicosyntactic form is lacking in their LI, in
trying to express themselves in English. Their subjects were 60 Hebrew-speaking
university students. The avoidance behaviour experiment was administered through
three tests (i.e. a multiple choice test, a verb translation test and a verb memorizing
test). The researchers observed in all the three tests that the majority of the learners
preferred the one-word verbs and avoided using the semantically equivalent phrasal
verbs. Such avoidance was most evident with the figurative phrasal verbs. Dagut and
Laufer concluded that instead of any intralingual factors such as "over-generalization",

"wrong application of rules" or "fossilization" causing the avoidance of phrasal verbs,
an interlingual approach, that is, the structural differences between LI and L2, results
in the avoidance. It is stated clearly in the end of their paper that since "the syntactic
and semantic functioning of the 'particle' in [phrasal verbs]...appears bewildering,
even incomprehensible, to Hebrew-speaking learners of English...[there is a] natural
tendency to avoid using what they do not properly understand and to prefer the more
familiar one-word verb" (p.78).
2.3.3.2 Hulstijn and Marchena's study (1989)
Hulstijn and Marchena's study was a follow-up study of Dagut and Laufer's
(1985). The subjects were intermediate and advanced Dutch learners of English. A
corollary was derived from the previous study saying that Dutch learners of English
would tend not to avoid English phrasal verbs since phrasal verbs exist in Dutch, a
Germanic language. However, it was hypothesized that the subjects would still avoid
using phrasal verbs due not to structural reasons, but semantic ones. The three tests
were administered with each test containing 15 sentences and eliciting a preference
for either a phrasal verb or an equivalent one-word verb. The results suggested that
the Dutch learners of English also avoided using phrasal verbs. As explained by the
researchers, however, the Dutch learners of English, who were different from the
Hebrew learners of English in Dagut and Laufer's study (1985), did not avoid the
phrasal verbs categorically (i.e. as a form class), but semantically. The researchers
concluded that there are two situations in which such avoidance takes place. First,
Dutch learners avoid those figurative phrasal verbs that they perceive as too
Dutch-like. This implies that the avoidance does not result from structural differences
between LI and L2. Instead, it results from the similarities between LI and L2.
Second, the Dutch learners tended "to adopt a play-it-safe strategy, preferring
one-word verbs with general, multi-purpose meanings over phrasal verbs with
specific, sometimes idiomatic, meanings" (p.241). This implies that the similarity in
(idiomatic) meaning between LI and L2 may result in avoidance of the L2 items.
2.3.3.3 Laufer and Eliasson's study (1993)
In this study, two types of tests (a multiple choice test and a verb translation test)
were administered to 87 advanced Swedish learners of English, whose Germanic L1
contains phrasal verbs. Taking the previous two studies as their theoretical and
experimental background, Laufer and Eliasson (1993) identified three possible
syntactic and semantic causes of avoidance of phrasal verbs; there are: 1) L1-L2
differences, 2) L1-L2 similarities, or 3) L2 complexity. The aim of the study was to
investigate how these three factors interact in the occurrence of avoidance and
whether they contribute to it in equal measure. In order to do so, the examination was
carried out along three dimensions. First, the results from the Swedish learners (LI
related to English) were compared to those from the Hebrew learners (LI unrelated to
English). Second, the subjects' treatment of the figurative and non-figurative phrasal
verbs was contrasted. Third, the subjects' treatments of two sets of phrasal verbs
(L1-L2 similar phrasal verbs and L1-L2 different phrasal verbs) were compared.
Avoidance of phrasal verbs as such was found in the Hebrew learners, but not in the
Swedish learners. However, inherent L2 complexity and idiomatic similarity between
LI and L2 did not induce avoidance in the Swedish learners. As concluded by the
researchers, therefore, "the best predictor of avoidance is L1-L2 difference. Neither of
the other two factors alone triggers avoidance, nor will necessarily the combination of
those two" (P.46).
2.3.3.4 Liao and Fukuya's study (2002)
Based on the previous three studies, Liao and Fukuya (2002) studied the
avoidance of English phrasal verbs in a group of intermediate and advanced Chinese
learners of English. In addition to the three possible causes of avoidance investigated
before, Liao and Fukuya also took into consideration whether the L2 proficiency level
would be a significant factor in causing the avoidance of phrasal verbs. A total of 85
students, who were divided into three groups (native speakers of English, advanced
Chinese learners of English and intermediate Chinese learners of English), took part
in the study. Three observations were found after the three tests. First, results showed
that Chinese learners of English in both groups exhibited a lower tendency to use
phrasal verbs compared with the native speakers. It was explained that L1-L2
difference may play a role in the avoidance since the kind of syntactic and semantic
functioning of the particles that we find in English phrasal verbs is, if not absent, at
least syntactically and semantically very restricted in the Chinese language. Second,
when comparing advanced and intermediate learners, the latter group was found to
use fewer phrasal verbs than the former. The researchers suggested that a better
interpretative framework than the L1-L2 difference seems to be a developmental
manifestation of interlanguage (IL) from avoidance to non-avoidance. Finally, in line
with the previous studies, learners tended to use fewer figurative than literal phrasal
verbs. The greater avoidance of figurative phrasal verbs, as the study concluded,
offers additional evidence for inherent L2 complexity in the Chinese learners'
avoidance of phrasal verbs.
2.4 Avoidance of figurative phrasal verbs
One point worth highlighting before summarizing this section is the widespread
tendency of avoiding figurative phrasal verbs in all the four studies above. The
following table shows the avoidance of figurative phrasal verbs in interaction with the
three test types:

Table 2.1: Avoidance of literal and figurative phrasal verbs in the tests in various studies
Multiple Choice Test Translation Test Memorization Test
Literal Figurative Literal Figurative Literal Figurative
Dagut and Laufer + +
(1985)
Hulstijn and Marchena �,

NA NA NA NA NA NA
(1989)
Laufer and Eliasson

+ + NA NA
(1993)
Liao and Fukuya + +
(2002) [ _
Index: “ + “ stands for a greater avoidance being found in that phrasal verb type
"NA" stands for not applicable
(adapted from Liao and Fukuya, 2002, p.95)
Dagut and Laufer (1985) concluded in the research that Hebrew learners of
English, whose LI lacks phrasal verb structures, manifested a greater avoidance of
figurative than literal phrasal verbs in all three tests. Hulstijn and Marchena (1989),
though they did not provide any statistics to prove the greater avoidance of figurative
phrasal verbs, mentioned in their conclusion that the Dutch learners of English
seemed to prefer one word verbs with general and multi-purpose meanings over
phrasal verbs with specific and idiomatic meanings. This implies that figurative
phrasal verbs were more avoided than literal ones. In both Laufer and Eliasson's
(1993) and Liao and Fukuya's (2002) studies, both Swedish learners (whose LI has
phrasal verbs) and Chinese learners (whose LI does not have phrasal verbs) exhibited
a greater avoidance of figurative phrasal verbs.
It is believed that the difficulty of figurative phrasal verbs in contrast with literal
ones may reside in their semantic nature (i.e. L2 inherent complexity) (Dagut and
Laufer, 1985; Hulstijn and Marchena, 1989; Laufer and Eliasson, 1993). Liao and
Fukuya (2002) identified two ways in which such complexity induces avoidance. First,
figurative phrasal verbs, such as back up and give in (Laufer and Eliasson, 1993, p.38),
have idiomatic meanings (i.e. back up support; give in — surrender). It is hard for
L2 learners of English to map onto these meanings from the phrasal verb forms.
Therefore, learners always "complain" that figurative phrasal verbs are opaque in
meaning. On the other hand, the meanings of literal phrasal verbs, such as “put in ->
insert" and “take away remove" (Laufer and Eliasson, 1993, p.38), can be
understood by simply combining the meaning of the verb proper {take) and the
particle {away). Second, for learners whose LI lacks phrasal verb structures, such as
the Hebrew learners in Dagut and Laufer's study (1985) and the Chinese learners in
Liao and Fukuya's study (2002)，the difficulty lies in the control of the verb and
particle components, their immensely numerous and confusing combinations with the
seemingly random attachment of the particle to the verb, and phrasal verbs'
polysemous nature. The researcher of this study, thus, feels there is a pressing need to
find a means for L2 learners of English to leam figurative phrasal verbs effectively
and systematically. In order to achieve this, the present research proposes to use
conceptual metaphors and image schemas to aid the learning of particles in particular
and whole phrasal verbs in general.
2.5 Summary
It is unanimously agreed by all the studies mentioned above that there is a
widespread tendency for ESL/EFL learners to avoid using phrasal verbs. There is both
descriptive and empirical evidence revealing the avoidance of English phrasal verbs
by ESL/EFL learners with their tending not to use a phrasal verb if they can find a
one-word equivalent. As reviewed, the causes of avoidance are found to be multiple.
Various studies have been conducted with ESL/EFL students, whose LI may or may
not include the phrasal verb structures, in order to explore the possible causes of
avoidance, which are 1) L1-L2 similarity; 2) L1-L2 difference; 3) L2 inherent
complexity; and 4) IL development. Statistical results obtained from the three test
types also indicated that there is a greater avoidance of figurative phrasal verbs than
of literal ones. This interesting finding has stimulated the author of the present paper
to look further into the matter, hoping thereby to provide a better method of learning
figurative phrasal verbs. To conclude, the following is a table summarizing all the
information and data of the four avoidance studies:

Table 2.2: Summary of four studies on avoidance of phrasal verbs in ESL/EFL

students
Subjects' Phrasal
‘ Existence of
English Test Types Cause(s) Verb Tvpe
Subjects' LI Phrasal
Proficiency Included Identified More
Verbs in LI
Level Avoided
MC
Dagut and Laufer L1-L2
Hebrew No Advanced TR Figurative
(1985) difference
ME
MC
Hulstijn and Intermediate; L1-L2
Dutch Yes TR Figurative
Marchena (1989) Advanced similarity
ME
L1-L2
Laufer and Eliasson MC difference;

Swedish Yes Advanced Figurative
(1993) TR L2
complexity
IL
development;
MC
Liao and Fukuya Intermediate; L1-L2
Chinese No TR Figurative
(2002) Advanced difference;
ME
L2
complexity
Index: "MC" stands for Multiple-Choice Test; "TR" stands for Translation Test;
"ME" stands for Memorization Test
CHAPTER THREE
PHRASAL VERBS, CONCEPTUAL METAPHORS

AND IMAGE SCHEMAS
3.1 Introduction
This chapter begins with a discussion of some possible alternative definitions of
the term "phrasal verb" in the literature. The definition of what structural
combinations should be regarded as phrasal verbs is not unanimously agreed on by
linguists of the field; therefore, various terminological suggestions, as well as
semantic and syntactic features, of phrasal verbs will be reviewed (Section 3.2 to 3.4)
before the definition adopted in and applied to this study is revealed and explained.
Following the traditional and structural approaches to studying phrasal verbs, the
cognitive schematic approach (Part I) will be introduced in Section 3.5. This section
will generally touch on how the particles contribute to the overall meaning of phrasal
verbs. More specifically, there will be discussions of how the figurative senses of the
particles are patterned based on the conceptual metaphors and image schemas. Section
3.6 and 3.7 will be devoted to the exposition of the theories of conceptual metaphors
and image schemas respectively. The last section of this chapter, Section 3.8, will
constitute Part II of the cognitive schematic approach to studying phrasal verbs. This
section will explain the rationale for the particle-based learning of phrasal verbs based
on the literature review given in the previous sections.
3.2 Phrasal verb as a category of multi-word verbs
To define what a phrasal verb is is not an easy task. Darwin and Gary (1999) use
the term "slippery" (p.69) to describe the classification of phrasal verbs. The term
"phrasal verb" is indeed problematic for two reasons: on the one hand, the category in
question has not always been called that but, for instance, "two-word verb" (Taha,
1960)，"compound word" (Kruisinga, 1925), "verb-particle combination" (Fraser,
1976), "verb-adverb compound" (Kennedy, 1920)，"discontinuous verb" (Live, 1965),
etc. One the other hand, the term "phrasal verb" has not been used to refer to a
category with identical structural components, but has sometimes served as a cover or
inclusive term encompassing also prepositional verbs (e.g. Sroka, 1972) and maybe
even other categories (e.g. Dixon, 1982). Therefore, Bolinger (1971), in his discussion
of which kinds of lexical verbs should be treated as phrasal verbs, states that he
"adopts the term phrasal verb purely for convenience, as the most generally accepted”
t •
(P.3).
r
3.3 Multi-word verbs
Before any definition of phrasal verbs is given, it is necessary for the present
research to provide some examples which explicate the possible structural
components of "multi-word verbs." The term "multi-word verbs" is used here since
we do not want to create any confusion that the term itself "phrasal verb” is already
being defined. Nor should the temporary use of the term "multi-word verb，’ here be
seen as expressing the author's preference for certain linguists' terminology of the
category in question. Let's look at the following four sentences in which four
two-word verbs (the bolded and italicized ones) are incorporated:
a. She got on a bus which was already over-crowded.
b. He was forced to play on the fears of others.
c. I grabbed hold of the front and held on for dear life.
d. She could never have carried on without his support.
In a number of cases, but not in all, phrasal verbs have an equivalent, or more or
less synonymous, one-word counterpart. The multi-word verbs illustrated above can
be substituted with a one-word verb without altering too much the original meaning of
the sentences (i.e. get on board., play on exploit., hold on grasp., carry on
continue). Although this is so, the multi-word verbs and their one-word counterparts
are only very rarely identical in meaning. According to Sjoholm (1998), a comparison
between such seemingly identical verb pairs will often show that the multi-word verbs
are collocationally, semantically and syntactically more restricted, in other words

more specific, than their one-word counterparts. The following two subsections will
briefly show how the multi-word verbs mentioned above are syntactically and
semantically more specific.
3.3.1 The syntactic frame of multi-word verbs
Referring back to our examples, we can see that on is a preposition in sentences
(a) and (b). Both of them form an adverbial prepositional phrase of position on a bus
and on the fears of others. Therefore, the ons in (a) and (b) are syntactically more
associated with the noun complement following them. The ons in (c) and (d) are,
however, more associated with the preceding verbs and modify in certain ways the
action performed by the verbs. That is why the ons in (c) and (d) are no longer called
prepositions, but particles. It is also because the particles are attached to the verbs
preceding and having a kind of adverbial force (Sweet, 1955; Fraser, 1965; Bolinger,
1971), that they are also known as "adverbial particles." Following the above
discussion, two well-known terms can be introduced; they are: verb-preposition
constructions (VPPs) and verb-particle constructions (VPCs). As can be seen, the
multi-word verbs get on and play on in (a) and (b) respectively are VPPs whereas
hold on and carry on in (c) and (d) respectively are VPCs.

3.3.2 The semantic frame of multi-word verbs
As mentioned before, get on means board and hold on means grasp. Multi-word
verbs of this kind have retained the meanings of their individual verbs and
preposition/particles. There are many VPPs and VPCs in English of which the
meaning as a whole is readily understood by combining the meaning of the
constituent parts (e.g. sit down, take out, put up, rush away). Such VPPs and VPCs
which are semantically transparent are known as literal multi-word verbs. On the
other hand, there are many VPPs and VPCs having a new meaning (play on exploit;
carry on — continue) which is different from the meaning of the constituent parts.
Some more examples are give in meaning surrender, go off meaning explode and turn
up meaning appear. These semantically non-transparent VPPs and VPCs, which are
also known as figurative multi-word verbs, create an immense learning problem for
many EFL students (e.g. Rudzka-Ostyn, 2003; Celce-Murcia and Larsen-Freeman,
1999; Sjoholm, 1998; Side, 1990). The meaning of the figurative VPPs and VPCs is
not strictly compositional; that is one is able to understand the meaning of the verb
and the particle, but when they are put together, a unique and new meaning is derived.
3.3.3 Summary
Four terms related to the multi-word verb classification have been introduced and
are, as a partial conclusion, reinforced here; they are: verb-preposition constructions

(VPPs), verb-particle constructions (VPCs), literal and figurative. A summary of
how the four terms interact with each other based on the four example sentences is as
follow:
a. She got on a bus which was already over-crowded. (literal VPP)
b. He was forced to play on the fears of others. (figurative VPP)
c. I grabbed hold of the front and held on for dear life. (literal VPC)
d. She could never have carried on without his support, (figurative VPC)
However, there is still one prime question in head; that is, which of the above four
types of two-word verbs should be treated as belonging to the category of phrasal
verbs? According to Lindner (1983)，linguists differ in two parameters (i.e. VPP vs.
VPC and literal vs. figurative) in respect to which similar structures are to be grouped
into such a category. Linguists, on the one hand, differ in their opinions whether both
VPCs and VPPs should be treated as a single category of phrasal verbs or only the
former. On the other hand, they also differ as to whether this category should include
only figurative constructions or both figurative and literal constructions. These two
parameters generally produce four different groupings. The next section will be
dedicated to the discussion of the four groupings. More importantly, the definition of
phrasal verbs adopted in the present study will be explained on the basis of the
discussion of the four groupings.

3.4 Defining phrasal verbs
This section aims at providing a clear definition of phrasal verbs to be adopted in
this research paper. The following table outlines the two parameters which produce
the four different groupings concerning which types of structures should be classified
as a single category and hence studied as a group. Though the table was not designed
for defining phrasal verbs in the original study where it appeared (Lam, 2003), the
present author, after reviewing the gist of different groupings, will attempt to choose a
particular category among the four for the sake of defining phrasal verbs in the
present study.
Table 3.1: Classification of similar structures as a category in previous studies
Figurative only Literal + Figurative

• Mitchell (1958) "phrasal verb”
• Live (1965) "discontinuous verb" ,
� • Fairclough (1965) “phrasal verb”
• Palmer (1965) "phrasal verb" ^ \ “ , ,。，
^ • Bolinger 1971 "phrasal verb"
• Quirk et al. (1972) "phrasal verb" , , , ’，
^ ^ ^ • Declerck (1976) "phrasal verb"
• Hiltunen (1999) "phrasal verb" ., ；
^ ^ • Lipka (1972) "verb-particle
construction"
• Meyer (1971) “verbalpartikel”
• Curme (1914) “(separable) verbal
compound"
• Wood (1955) "(separable) verbal
compound"
• Van Dongen (1919) “verbal phrase”
VPC • Van Draat (1921) “group verb”
• Pelli(1976) "verb+particle"
only • Brinton and Akimoto (1999)
. "phrasal verb"
• Celce-Murcia and Larsen-Freeman
(1999) "phrasal verb"
• Dikken (1995) "complex particle
constructions"
• Aarts (1989) "verb-preposition
constructions"
• Kayne (1984) "small clause,，
• Stowell (1981) “particle incorporated
V
- in verb"
• Radford (1988) "V NP PP"
‘ • Smith (1925) "phrasal verb" • Kennedy (1920) "verb adverb

VPC • Sweet (1955) "group verb" combination"
J-
• Woody (1974) "class phrasal • Konishi (1958) "verb adverb

+ verb" construction"
• Dalle (1983) "v+particle" and • Roberts (1958) "verb-adverb
VPP "phrasal verb" locution"
• !• Sroka (1965) “phrasal verb”
Which combination of the two parameters is then to be regarded as constituting
the category of phrasal verbs? According to Table 3.1, linguists differ in their opinions
about classifying similar structures into a category. The classification ranges from the
least inclusive (VPC only and figurative only) to the most inclusive (VPP + VPC and
literal +figurative). Due to the time limit and relatedness to the present study, we will
focus our discussion on two of the four groupings; they are Group 1: treating "VPC
and literal + figurative" as a category and Group 2: treating "VPP + VPC and literal +
figurative" as a category.
3.4.1 "VPC and literal + figurative" as phrasal verbs
A majority of linguists agree that structures with this combination should be
grouped as a category and studied as a group. Quite a number of them use the term
"phrasal verb" to name the grammatical structures with such a combination (e.g.
Bolinger, 1971; Brinton and Akimoto, 1999; Celce-Murcia and Larsen-Freeman, 1999;
Declerck, i976; Fairclough, 1965; Mitchell, 1958). According to their analysis, the
term "phrasal verb" is defined as a unitary combination of a verb and a particle,
which is best described as an adverb but not as a preposition. A formula for the
syntactic components of a phrasal verb defined in this way is illustrated as follows:
Phrasal verb = Verb + Adverbial Particle

This definition of phrasal verbs corresponds to that of verb-particle constructions
(VPCs) used in Under (1983). As observed by Claridge (2000), "the word following
the verb in a phrasal verb/VPC belongs to a relatively closed class of invariable
items" (p.46). Darwin and Gary (1999) also suggest that "a phrasal verb consists of a
verb proper and a morphologically invariable particle that function together as a
single unit both lexically and syntactically" (pp.76-77). Based on the definition given,
Quirk et al. (1985, p.ll51), Cowie and Mackin (1975, Ixxx) and Bolinger (1971, 17f)
supplied a list of possible particles in phrasal verbs/VPCs; they are:
aback, aboard, about, above, across, after, ahead, along, apart,
around, ashore, aside, astray, asunder, away, back, behind, by,
counter, down, forth, forward(s), home, in, o f f , on, out, over,
past, round, through, to, together, under, up
The italicized items in the list can also be used as prepositions of which their
combinations with the preceding verb proper are not regarded, by definition given
above, as VPCs nor phrasal verbs, but verb preposition constructions (VPPs) or
prepositional verbs. The following sentences are taken from the British National
Corpus (BNC) as illustrations of the syntactic differences between VPCs and VPPs:
a. The next day a high-tech caption machine broke down. (BNC A4N 10)
We can see from (a) that the particle down cannot be a preposition as it is not
followed by a noun phrase and it has the ability to stand alone. Therefore, broke clown
in (a) is a VPC/phrasal verb. With a VPP, by contrast, the particle is a preposition:
b. These pieces, on view in London, also went along the smugglers' network.
(BNCA1Y492)
In (b), go along is not a VPC/phrasal verb but a VPP since along is the head of a
prepositional phrase (i.e. along the smugglers' network) whose prepositional
complement is the noun phrase constituent (i.e. the smugglers' network). Compared
with go along in (b), buy up in (c) is a VPC/phrasal verb:
c. From 1624 to 1640 Dutton bought up the land round Sherborne Park...
(BNC Ab4 367)
The discussion above has served to shed light on the differentiation of
VPCs/phrasal verbs from VPPs. A more thorough and systematic differentiation is
provided by Bolinger (1971) who deployed nine tests', including both syntactic and
phonological ones, for distinguishing between VPCs and VPPs. But due to time
constraints and relatedness to the present study, these tests will not be discussed here.
“ B o l i n g e r (1971) has listed nine tests for distinguishing VPCs (or what is called in the book "phrasal
verbs") from VPPs. The nine tests are: 1) Passivization; 2) V-Nominalization; 3) NP insertion; 4)
Adverb insertion; 5) Phrase fronting; 6) Wh-fronting; 7) Replacement (from two-word verb to
one-word verb); 8) Accent (particles receive stress); and 9) Listing (phrasarverbs can be defined by
simply listing them).
As for including both literal and figurative VPCs as phrasal verbs, Claridge
(2000) gives a very concise explanation. In her discussion of phrasal verbs, Claridge
states that figurativeness appears as a regular pattern of the language. Literal phrasal
verbs are the core from which figurative types are ultimately derived. Thus, as
Claridge says, figurative phrasal verbs cannot be understood without their literal
background. Furthermore, there is also a pragmatic reason for including both literal
and figurative VPCs as phrasal verbs: being literal or figurative is not a strict
dichotomy. Instead, there is a gradience or dine ranging from the completely literal to
the totally figurative, with both shading into the other. Lindstromberg (1998) suggests
that idiomaticity (figurativeness) is a matter of degree. Figure 3.1 is adapted from
Lindstromberg (1998) to explicate how phrasal verbs range across the figurativeness
continuum:
Fi2ure 3.1: Desrees of fisurativeness
completely literal: overall meaning readily guessable from component words |
/ \ pull down the chimney / \
fill up the bag
break up the ice
\/ make up with your girl/boyfriend \J
completely figurative: overall meaning difficult to guess from component words
While it is easy to understand the more literal phrasal verb pull down, much the
same can be said to fill up, though learners may wonder about the word up since if
you fill something, it is the level of its content that goes up, not the thing itself.
Moving downwards we have break up of which the up does not have the literal
meaning of an upward vertical movement as in go up. Thus, break up is somewhat
figurative. Lastly, even though you may know the meaning of make and up, the
meaning of the whole phrasal verb (i.e. re-establish good relations) is not the sum of
its constituents.
Actually, there are still many other phrasal verbs entering into the continuum,
which may possess a degree of figurativeness between any of the four captioned
examples. That is why it is, as suggested by Bolinger (1971), very difficult to draw a
clear dividing line anywhere, nor would it be very helpful for the matter in hand
(Lindstromberg, 1998; Kroch, 1979). More importantly, it is hypothesized by Lindner
(1983) that both literal and figurative phrasal verbs represent in fact the same
underlying schema and correspondences. Such a notion is in line with the present
study which believes that the underlying logic of phrasal verbs is that of conceptual
metaphors and image schemas.
3.4.2 "VPC+VPP and literal + figurative" as phrasal verbs
Although there are various syntactic reasons given for excluding “verb +
preposition" combinations (i.e. VPPs or prepositional verbs) from the category of
phrasal verbs in the literature (e.g. Bolinger, 1971; Claridge, 2000; Lindner, 1983), the
present study will still include such combinations in the category of phrasal verbs.
Before going to the reasons for this, let us first look at the formula for phrasal verb
defined in this way.
In this study, phrasal verbs will be defined as follows:
Phrasal Verb = Verb Proper + Adverbial Particle / Preposition ( + Preposition )
Examples of phrasal verbs based on the above definition are given below:
a. He brought me down with the shocking news.

[bring (verb) + down (adverbial particle)] + [figurative]今 Phrasal Verb
b. He put up his hand.

[put (verb) + up (adverbial particle)] + [literal] — Phrasal Verb
c. The old boys started on a freshman.

[start (verb) + on (preposition)] + [figurative] -> Phrasal Verb
d. He walked down the road.

[walk (verb) + down (preposition)] + [literal] -> Phrasal Verb
e. She could not put up with him anymore.

[put (verb) + up (adverbial particle) + with (preposition)] + [figurative] Phrasal Verb
The reasons for adopting this maximally inclusive definition of phrasal verbs here are
as follows: .
1. Since the present study is concerned with developing a more effective method for
learning phrasal verbs in general and figurative phrasal verbs in particular, the
omission of VPPs in defining phrasal verbs would lead to the exclusion of
figurative "verb + preposition" combinations (e.g. start on meaning verbally
attack), which will probably create learning difficulties for many ESL/EFL
students. If, due to the "conventional" definition of phrasal verbs (i.e. VPPs
should not be regarded as phrasal verbs), the present study omitted VPPs as
phrasal verbs, the proposed new learning method for phrasal verbs could not be
claimed to be all-round because a lot of the figurative cases in question would be
left untouched.
2. Many books dealing with phrasal verbs and authoritative dictionaries specialized
for phrasal verbs include VPPs as their entries. The following table summarizes a
number of publications which take VPPs into consideration as phrasal verbs:

Table 3.2: Summary of publications dealing with phrasal verbs
„ . .. IT Definition i
Publications Nature Examples given
of phrasal verbs
A book helping
^ , ”， h . bank o n r e l y on
Prepositions students leam 參 Verb + Particle
Illustrated (1995) prepositions through (adverb/preposition) ^ a e
. draw on use
exercises
A book explaining
, the meaning of 參 Verb + Particle;
Word Power: slow down
the verbs and particles 參 Verb + Particle +
Phrasal Verbs and come up with
_ , … … or prepositions in Preposition
Compounds (2003) think of
phrasal verbs from a • Verb + Preposition
cognitive approach
Oxford ADVANCED A dictionary including turn down -> reject
• Verb + Particle
LEARNER'S a special study page for eat into use a lot
� . … … ， 1 , (adverb/preposition)
Dictionary (2003) phrasal verbs put up with tolerate
A dictionary
… t t t … specialized for phrasal go up ^ explode
Collins COBUILD ^ • Verb + Adverbial / ^ ^ ^
.. verbs extracted from a refer to
Dictionary of Phrasal Prepositional
vast database of go alone
Verbs (2002) Particles 长呂
contemporary English,
Bank of English
Very rarely are VPPs found to be excluded in dictionaries of phrasal verbs, not
because the lexicographers merely wish to expand the number of entries in their
dictionaries, but because it is necessary to do this as these dictionaries are
designed so that ESL/EFL students can look up the meaning of any multi-word
verbs which is semantically non-transparent (i.e. figurative). Such a definition
does not blur, nor is it opposed in any theoretical way to the "conventional"
definition of a phrasal verb; instead, it allows editors, as well as the author of this
• PBL of Phrasal Verbs 49
Study, to encompass more occurrences of multi-word verbs which are figurative
and, hence, potentially problematic for many ESL/EFL students.
3. It is admitted that the inclusive definition of phrasal verbs may be seen as too
simplistic in terms of their syntactic treatment of phrasal verbs. It is, on the other
hand, simple and straightforward enough in terms of the semantic treatment,
which is the focus of the present study, of phrasal verbs. As mentioned by
Lindstromberg (1998) in his discussion of types of phrasal verbs, "[he has] never
found it useful to bear this terminology in mind when explaining meaning, and
so in this book [he uses] the term 'phrasal verb' to include all three syntactic
types just mentioned" (p.23). The three syntactic types, as stated by
Lindstromberg, are "prepositional verb" (VPPs), "phrasal verbs" and
"phrasal-prepositional verbs."
3.5 A cognitive approach to the understanding of phrasal verbs (Part I)
We have gone through a brief but concise survey of how to define phrasal verbs in
the literature based on the traditional and structural approaches. Starting from this
section, the author will bring forth the cognitive approach, which was established later
and has been developed recently, to understanding phrasal verbs.

3.5.1 The meaning of the particles in phrasal verbs
According to Stauffer (1996), native speakers of English coin new phrasal verbs
and can understand them readily since there is an underlying logic of the language. In
her discussion of how to teach phrasal verbs to ESL/EFL students, Sansome (2000)
speculates that students learning phrasal verbs and finding them difficult seem to be
unaware of the underlying pattern of the phrasal verbs. Echoing the above two
linguists is Side (1990). He mentions that a more flexible approach to the
relationships between phrasal verbs enables the outline of a system to establish itself.
What is actually "the underlying logic", "the underlying pattern" and "the system?”
The question is believed to be unanswerable if we pursue the traditional and structural
approaches. From the cognitive point of view, however, the answer resides in the
particles^.
There are many linguists who have realized the importance of the particles in
contributing to the overall meaning of phrasal verbs (e.g. Lindstromberg, 1998; Boers
and Demecheleer, 1998; Sansome, 2000; Rudzka-Ostyn, 2003; Side, 1990). Most of
them have suggested that the combination of verb and particle in a phrasal verb is not
random; instead, new combinations are, according to Side (1990), formed by analogy
2 "Particles" here encompass both "adverbial particles" and "prepositions." This terminology is,
according to Lindstromberg (1998), customary in discussions of phrasal verbs. Therefore, whenever the
term "particles" is mentioned in this section, it is important to remember that the author is referring to
both adverbial particles and prepositions.
with existing phrasal verbs in which the particles are integral to the meaning of the
phrasal verbs and in some cases even carry more weight of meaning than the verbs.
He stresses that "the main communicative function of [the] particular phrasal verb is
carried by the particle" (p. 146). An example given by Side is that when someone is
told to bog oJ}\ that person is well aware that the utterance has nothing to do with bogs,
but beating a retreat, a meaning conveyed by the particle o f f . While one may think
that such an analysis is made on a rather ad hoc basis, the Collins COBUILD
Dictionary of Phrasal Verbs (2002) includes an index of the particles at the back of
the dictionary, showing their different meanings and listing the phrasal verbs with
particles containing those meanings (see Appendix 13 for some excerpted pages of the
Particles Index in the dictionary). In this way, one can see the patterns underlying the
combinations as a whole and the particles in particular, and identify the relationship in
the meaning between phrasal verbs, for example, cool o f f , ease off and wear o f f ,
having the same particle.
3.5.2 The metaphorical extension of the spatial, prototypical particles
The questions to be raised now are: how are the particles organized into an
underlying pattern and what is the underlying pattern? In other words, under what
circumstances are, for example, cool o f f , ease off and wear off grouped under the same
r
semantic category "Decreasing" in the Particles Index? The answer is twofold. Firstly,
if the meaning of the verb is known and the meaning of the particle is its primary or
central or prototypical meaning, then the meaning of the phrasal verb is literal, and
hence easily understood. Let us look at the following examples:
a. All the students put up their hands to volunteer.
b. The villagers ran up the hill to attack the wolves.
c. I looked up to the sky and thought of my past.
There should be no difficulty in understanding the meaning of the above phrasal
verbs as the particles (both adverbial particles and prepositions) retain their primary
spatial meanings. According to Lindstromberg (1996), particles are likely to have a
relatively small number of related literal meanings which are spatial. As emphasized
by Boers and Demecheleer (1998) after reviewing certain empirical studies on
particles (e.g. Brugman, 1983; Hill, 1982; Pederson, 1995; Taylor, 1988), the meaning
of spatial lexis such as that of the particles is based on people's conception,
experience and perception of space, which are essentially unchanging and universal
throughout the world. The following figure adopted from Rudzka-Ostyn (2003, p.4)
visualizes how the prototypical spatial meanings of particles are perceptionally and
conceptionally realized:
Figure 3.2: The spatial prototypical meanins of the most frequent particles found in
phrasal verbs
over • — out
— ^
�n - f t
up “ ott ^ through
Ib^
• —
— ^ — inside across by
c r ： - y
back under
along • - • - j j ^
Secondly, the primary spatial meanings of particles can be extended
metaphorically. As Rudzka-Ostyn (2003) has stated, spatial particles are used
metaphorically in many phrasal verbs "when their literal meanings are extended to
abstract, non-visible domains such as thoughts, intentions, feelings, attitudes, relations,
social and economic interaction, etc" (p.4). Let us look at the following examples
whose metaphorical phrasal verbs contrast with the literal phrasal verbs of previous
three examples:
a. "She could no longer put up with him anymore.
b. He ran up a heavy bill and failed to pay it back.
c. He consulted his dictionary to look up the meaning of a word.
It is clear that the ups here are different from those in put up their hands, ran up
the /j///"and looked up to the sky. The prototypical meaning of up, which is spatial and
directional in the former examples, are metaphorically extended here to abstract
domains such as toleration in (a) and accumulation in (b).
3.5.3 A cognitive schematic representation of particles in phrasal verbs
In answering the question of the underlying pattern and logic of phrasal verbs,
we have briefly delineated in the precious section the possibility of understanding
figurative phrasal verbs by metaphorically extending the spatial, prototypical meaning
of the particles. In this section, another question is raised; that is, on what basis are the
spatial, prototypical meanings of the particles metaphorically extended?
Lindner (1983) gives a developed picture of how the particles in phrasal verbs
can be interpreted using a cognitive schematic approach. Following Lindner,
Rudzka-Ostyn (2003) states that one can visualize the meaning of the particles in
phrasal verbs by creating a visual representation of a schema. A schema is a mental
representation of the spatial and directional relationships between objects which are
moving or located with respect to other objects in the background as reference points.
A relationship like this may for example consist of something being in or out of a
container, or being in contact with something, or being somewhere on a vertical scale.
The following figures are some examples of how the meanings of particles can be
given such graphic or visual representations:

Fisure 3.3 a-c: Graphical representations of different schemas
a.
f one student in five:
厂 a set of five students is viewed as a container (the
( \ circle), when one of them is picked out, he/she
• corresponds to special criteria
V ^ J
b. 广 ^ the plane took o f f .
(2) • the plane was first on the ground (1) and then lost
contact with it (off) and went into the air (2)
/
/
/
/
i d )
v - * ^ J
c. A • (2) ) to speed up production:
j • the production is higher (2)，is increased; more items are
I being produced than before (1)
i�
i •
i I
V " y
(All of the above are adopted from Rudzka-Ostyn, 2003, pp.8-9)
In order to understand the schemas of particles more thoroughly, learners have to
be equipped with knowledge of two notions which are at the basis of our spatial and
directional perception of the world; they are: 1) trajector, which is the moving or
conceptually movable entity being focused on; and 2) landmark, which may be a
point, a container or a surface serving as the background. Lindner (1983), by making

use of the notions of schema, trajector and landmark, provides the insight that the
particles of the figurative phrasal verbs are not meaningless; instead, they contribute
subtle senses to the overall phrasal verb meanings by modifying in some ways the
action portrayed by the verbs. The figurative senses of the particles are then
metaphorically extended from the spatial, prototypical senses of the particles. Lindner
even emphasizes that both the literal and figurative senses of a particular particle are
connected and related to each other as they share the same image schema.
Image schemas, which are similar to somewhat more specific schemas defined
just now, are the most general and abstract representations of the locative and
directional relationships between moving or conceptually movable objects and the
static objects that constitute their background. The following figure demonstrates the
image schema of the particle OUT.
r
Fisure 3.4: Basic imase schema of particle OUT
background
enclosure/container
trajector
(adopted from Lam, 2003 and based on Lindner, 1983)
Figure 3.4 shows the image schema for what is the most basic and prototypical
sense of out. It is hypothesized by Lindner that the more prototypical uses of out, or
phrasal verbs with prototypical out, are directly related to this schema. For example,
in the sentence "The bird flew out of the window", the trajector is "the bird", which is
moving along a path (the action of flying) from a point within the specified boundary
(the window) of an unspecified background (probably a room). This
trajector-path-background pattern is identical to the basic image schema of OUT
introduced above.
The same schema is thought to be present in the figurative phrasal verbs in
which the particle out is extended metaphorically to mean something going away
from some enclosure/container where these no longer represent concrete entities, but
abstract ones such as thoughts, intentions, feelings, attitudes, relations, etc. For
example, in the sentence "John has figured out the answer", "the answer" is the
sub-trajector^ in the schema of OUT. In other words, "the answer” is thought to be
moving figuratively out of the boundary of a container (which may be a difficult
calculus question) with response to John's effort of "figuring out." Needless to say
one should not misunderstand "the answer" as really carrying out the spatial
movement specified by the literal sense of the particle. Rather, what we are doing here
is to understand the abstract in terms of the concrete. In this case, the ‘‘difficult
question" is understood metaphorically as a container in the conceptual metaphor A
DIFFICULT QUESTION IS A CONTAINER. "The answer" is treated like a concrete
object as if it could come out of the container along the path as a result of the question
being answered. The image schema of OUT is seen to apply outside its spatial,
prototypical domain to an abstract domain through the conceptual metaphor in which
we map the concrete domain onto the abstract one.
3.5.4 Summary
. T o summarize this section, we can see that the underlying logic of phrasal verbs
resides in the meaning of their particles. Each particle has its spatial, prototypical
3 According to Lindner (1983)，there are two layers of figure-ground organizations in the sentence
"John has figured out the answer." While "answer" is the figure with respect to its own trajectory, it
constitutes the ground against which John's trajectory is defined. There are two LMs relative to which
the trajector's path is calculated: one of these is an object and one is a relation. A trajectory which
serves as a LM to another will be called a sub-trajectory. Therefore, “John” is the trajector while
"answer" is the sub-trajector.
meaning which is used directly in literal phrasal verbs. In a figurative phrasal verb,
the spatial, prototypical sense of its particle is metaphorically extended by a
metaphorical mapping onto an abstract domain. Before we explicate the rationale for
the particle-based learning of phrasal verbs in Part II of this section, we will first have
to provide a concise exposition of the theories of conceptual metaphors and of image
schemas in Sections 3.6 and 3.7 respectively.
3.6 The theory of conceptual metaphors
It is important to stress at the outset of this section that the following discussion of
conceptual metaphors will not be a detailed account of all the existing metaphor
theories, but a succinct one in which emphasis is put on how conceptual metaphors
contribute to the acquisition of figurative language in general and phrasal verbs in
particular. In other words, the author is going to focus on how conceptual metaphors,
which operate at the learners' conceptual level, may help second language learners
construe the meaning of figurative language (e.g. phrasal verbs, idioms), which is at
the linguistic level.
3.6.1 Metaphor as ordinary everyday language
Since Aristotle, metaphor has been thought of novel poetic language in which
words are not used in their normal everyday senses. In classical theories of language,
metaphor was seen as a matter of language, not thought. It was believed that there
were no true metaphors, only "dead", in everyday language because of their mutual
exclusiveness with the realm of ordinary everyday language. This theory, which had
already been significantly attacked by literary critics and philosophers such as
Richards (1936) and Black (1962), was overthrown by the ground-breaking paradigm
in metaphor study introduced by Lakoff and Johnson in their book Metaphors We Live
by (Lakoff and Johnson, 1980). They proposed that metaphors should not be seen
merely as a matter of language; instead, metaphors are pervasive in the ordinary
conceptual system in which we both think and act. Our thought and concepts, from
which our everyday language springs, are metaphorical in nature. Therefore, our
everyday language should also contain a lot of metaphors. In order to explicate the
notion that our conceptual system is highly metaphorical in nature, Lakoff and
Johnson (1980) listed some everyday expressions which exemplify the concept
ARGUMENT and the conceptual metaphor ARGUMENT IS WAR:
Your claims are indefensible.
‘ He attacked every weak point in my argument.
His criticisms are right on target.
I've never won an argument with him.
He shot down all of my arguments.
(Lakoff and Johnson, 1980, p.4)

The above expressions illustrate that a metaphorical concept, namely
ARGUMENT IS WAR, structures what we do and how we understand what we are
doing when we argue. Besides talking about arguments in terms of war, we can win
and lose arguments. We can treat the person arguing with us as an opponent. We can
even attack his positions and defend ours. That is why Lakoff and Johnson stated that
"the essence of metaphor is understanding and experiencing one kind of thing in
terms of another" (p.5). Though argument and war are two distinct concepts,
ARGUMENT is partially understood, performed, and talked about in terms of WAR.
In the conceptual metaphor ARGUMENT IS WAR, the concept, the activity, and then
the language are all metaphorically structured.
3.6.2 Conceptual metaphor as a cross-domain mapping
In The contemporary theory of metaphor (Lakoff, 1993), Lakoff, developing
what he and Johnson had proposed in Metaphors We Live by, characterized the
general nature of metaphor as a kind of cross-domain mapping. In Lakoff's words,
metaphor has come to mean "a cross-domain mapping in the conceptual system"
(P.203). Therefore, the term "metaphorical expression" refers to the linguistic
expression (i.e. phrasal verbs in the present research) that is the surface realization of
the cross-domain mapping which operates at the underlying conceptual level. In the
conceptual metaphor LOVE IS A JOURNEY, words used in the source domain
JOURNEY are systematically mapped onto the target domain LOVE. Such kind of
mapping is illustrated in the following figure:
Fisure 3.5: Cross-domain mapping from concrete source domain to abstract target
domain
LOVE IS A JOURNEY
/ JOURNEY \ / LOVE \
/ Travelers \ t> Lovers \
Vehicles — • Love relationships
VDestinations ~ j V-> Goals /
etc... J \ etc... /
concrete source domain abstract target domain
We can see from the above figure that LOVE IS A JOURNEY maps a set of
ontological correspondences of the concrete source domain onto those of the abstract
target domain. Such correspondences permit us to reason about love using the
knowledge we use to reason about journeys; therefore, metaphor is not just a matter of
language, but of thought and reason in our conceptual system, or in Lakoff's words,
"The language is secondary. The mapping is primary" (1993，p.208). From Lakoff's
point of view, it seems there is a hierarchical structure of metaphors and language:
metaphor is an underlying system governing and characterizing the manifestation of

language. The author here adopts the hierarchical structure of conceptual metaphor
and some of its major linguistic expressions designed by Li (2002) to delineate the
relationship between metaphor and language:
Fisure 3.6: The hierarchical structure of conceptual metaphor and some of its major
linguistic expressions
Conceptual level: Conceptual metaphor (e.g. LOVE IS JOURNEY)
Linguistic level:
7 � \
Idioms Proverbs Phrasal verbs
It can be seen from the above figure that idioms and proverbs, which are forms
of figurative language, are seen as the linguistic expression of conceptual metaphors,
which operate at the conceptual level. Relating this notion to the present study, the
category "phrasal verbs" is added to the figure and put together with idioms and
proverbs. Based on the hierarchical relationship between metaphor and its linguistic
expressions portrayed by the figure, Li (2002) has successfully shown that L2
acquisition of the superficial level (i.e. figurative linguistic expressions such as idioms
and proverbs) can be greatly improved by making explicit reference to the underlying
level (i.e. the conceptual metaphors). Phrasal verbs, many of which have been shown
to possess significant degrees of figurativeness in the previous sections, are
introduced into this figure to see whether their acquisition can be enhanced by
conceptual metaphors.
3.7 The theory of image schemas
As discussed in the previous section, the understanding of love in terms of a
journey seems to be unconscious and automatic. The reason given by Lakoff (1993) is
that LOVE IS A JOURNEY is a conventionalized metaphor conceptualized in our
conceptual system. It is because of such conventionality that the conceptual metaphor
is readily understood by everyone. But this explanation cannot account for the
numerous typological occurrences under the conceptual metaphor LOVE IS A
JOURNEY such as "the lovers are travelers" and "the love relationship is a vehicle"
(Lakoff, 1993，p.224). As explained by Lakoff further, the numerous typological
occurrences are due to the ontological mapping across conceptual domains, from the
source domain of journeys to the target domain of love. That is to say, the abstract
reasoning involved in the metaphorical mapping is based on the logic that both love
and journey are seen as a path in which sources are mapped onto sources, goals onto
goals, trajectors onto trajectors, and so on. In other words, conceptual metaphors are
not arbitrary. Instead, they are，in the case of LOVE IS A JOURNEY, controlled by
the same PATH image schema in which the source domain (JOURNEY) is mapped
onto the target domain (LOVE). In the following sections, we are going to look at
what image schemas actually are in cognitive semantics and see how they act as the
underlying logic of and are associated with conceptual metaphors.
3.7.1 Image schemas as the basis for thought and understanding
The concept of image schemas is implicit in Lakoff and Johnson (1980). The
theory was then further developed and embellished by Johnson (1987). According to
cognitive semantics, much of our knowledge is not static, prepositional and
sentential, but is grounded in and structured by various recurring patterns such
as our perceptual interactions, bodily experience and manipulations of objects in
the real world (Johnson, 1987; Lakoff, 1987; Talmy, 1988). These patterns form the
experiential gestalts called image schemas. They structure our thought and emerge
throughout sensorimotor activity as we manipulate objects and orient ourselves
spatially and temporally (Johnson, 1991). Over two dozen different image schemas
appear regularly in people's everyday thinking, reasoning and imagination (Johnson,
1987; Lakoff, 1987). Among these are the schematic structures of CONTAINER,
BALANCE, PATH, CYCLE, etc"^. These image schemas encompass a wide range of
4 There are many other image schemas which are considered by Johnson (1987) to be the more
important ones. The following list includes those image schemas listed in Johnson's book (1987，p. 126):
CONTAINER, BALANCE, COMPULSION, BLOCKAGE, COUNTERFORCE, RESTRAINT
REMOVAL, ENABLEMENT, ATTRCATION, MASS-COUNT, PATH, LINK,
CEENTER-PERIPHERY, CYCLE, NEAR-FAR, SCALE, PART-WHOLE, MERGING, SPLITTING,
FULL-EMPTY, MATCHING, ‘ SUPERIMPOSITION, ITERATION, CONTACT, PROCESS,
SURFACE，OBJECT, COLLECTION
experiential structures which are pervasive in experience and, more importantly, can
be metaphorically elaborated to provide for our understanding of the more abstract
domains.
3.7.2 Examples of image schemas
In order to understand how image schemas can be metaphorically elaborated to
understand the abstract domain, we will first consider two image schemas, PATH and
CONTAINER, and see how these schemas reflect our everyday experience of moving
around the world and experiencing the movements of other entities.
3.7.2.1 The PATH schema
In our everyday-life experience, there are numerous motion events involving a
starting point and an ending point. The following sentences illustrate such encounters:
a. David traveled from Hong Kong to England.
b. There is a long queue lining up from the shop to the end of the street.
c. Sally is now recording her debut album and she is nearly there.
d. I meant to finish everything yesterday, but I was side-tracked in the middle.
e. The bridge links Hong Kong and Macau together.

All of the above demonstrate a spatial (a, b and e) or temporal (c, d) path linking
one point to another. Indeed, the sentences are understood based on the PATH schema
which possesses a starting point A and an ending point B:
Fmire 3.7: Graphical representation of the PATH schema
A B
• •
(Johnson, 1987,p.ll4)
Sentences a-e are all understood based on the above schema. The elements
constituting the sentences all fit into the physical and spatial world. In other words,
they are from the physical and concrete domains. Let's look at the following
sentences:
f. John felt very happy as he had carried off a very difficult task.
g. Drug addicts are walking from life to death.
h. She sees her success as mercy from the heaven.
Although there are not any concrete entities fitting into the normal physical and
spatial sense of the world, we are still able to understand sentences f-h by perceiving
conceptually a starting point ("life" in sentence g) and an ending point ("death" in
sentence g). In this case, the spatial sense of the PATH schema is acquired and then
further extended to other abstract domains through metaphorical mappings. This

corresponds to the notion proposed by various cognitive linguists that image schemas
motivate abstract metaphorical concepts, such as causation, death and morality
(Johnson, 1993; Lakoff, 1990; Lakoff and Turner, 1989; Turner, 1991).
3.7.2.2 The CONTAINER schema
According to Johnson (1987), the CONTAINER schema is derived from our
bodily experience of the human body as a container and from our experience of being
physically located ourselves within or out of certain boundaries. Our physical
experience of being in or out of the boundaries can be explicated by the following
sentences designating concrete physical boundaries:
a. I took the toy car out from the box.
b. She put the washed clothes back into the wardrobe.
c. He poured some water into the glass.
"The box", "the wardrobe" and "the glass" in sentences a-c form a physical
concrete boundary of which the concrete entities "the toy car", "the washed clothes”
and “some water" can be treated as in or out. The graphical representation of the
CONTAINER schema is as follow:
r
Figure 3.8: Graphical representation of the CONTAINER schema
w w
X X
(Johnson, 1987, p.23)
By the same token, the image schema can be metaphorically extended to abstract
domains. For example, we can say someone is "out of control" where we treat the
abstract concept "control" as a container which someone can be in or out of. Also,
someone can be "in trouble" which means that the person is involved in a certain
difficulty which is again seen as a container.
3.7.3 Image schemas as the underlying logic of conceptual metaphors
In the examples we have just considered, the image schemas characterizing the
concrete source domains (containers, paths) are mapped onto the abstract target
domain (matter, control). In this way, we can see that the cross-domain mapping of
conceptual metaphors is, indeed, not arbitrary in nature; instead, it is controlled and
governed by image schemas. Based on the relationship that image schemas are the
underlying logic of conceptual metaphors, Lakoff (1993) formulated "The
Invariance Principal" which states that:

Metaphorical mappings preserve the cognitive typology (that is, the
image-schema structure) of the source domain, in a way consistent with the
inherent structure of the target domain.

(1993,p.215)
The Invariance Principal contributes a lot to the present study since it suggests
that the source domain and the target domain in the metaphorical mapping should be
structured by, if not exactly the same, more or less similar image schemas. Take the
example of LOVE IS A JOURNEY, both the source domain (LOVE) and the target
domain (JOURNEY) share the same image schema (PATH schema).
Relating to our present study concerning the particles in phrasal verbs, although
the instances of the particle out in phrasal verbs like go out, spread out, fill out and die
out differ in meaning as some are more literal whereas some more figurative, the
different senses of out share the same CONTAINER image schema in which the
concepts of source domain (e.g. interiors, exteriors, boundaries) are mapped onto
those of target domain. The only difference between the literal out and figurative out
is that the latter requires the metaphorical mapping while the former does not. To
support this empirically, Lindner (1983) successfully analyzed over one thousand
phrasal verbs with up and out and found that they all fall into different CONTAINER
schemas that could be metaphorically extended to cover nearly all occurrences of the
phrasal verbs under study. That is to say, image schemas represent the underlying
meaning that relates the seemingly disparate, polysemous senses of particles
(Brugman and Lakoff, 1988; Vandeloise, 1993).
3.7.4 Image schemas in relation to words
There is a glimpse of how words, such as the particle out illustrated in the
previous section, are related to image schemas. To further elaborate the point,
however, we need some theoretical support. According to Langacker (1987)，there are
two types of domain: locational and configurational. Following Langacker, Clausner
(1999) suggests that it is the concepts in domains that are locational and
configurational, not the domains themselves. He then analyzes image schemas and
shows how they function like domains in which concepts are found both locational
and configurational. For example, the concepts BEGINNING and END are locational
in the PATH image schema whereas the concepts of CONTENTS, INSIDE and
OUTSIDE are configurational in the CONTAINER image schemas. Based on the
examples given, Clausner (1999) asserts that:
Concepts must be profiled in some semantic domains. Yet the semantic
structures which provide the domains for these concepts are what we have been
calling image schemas. We take this as central evidence that image schemas are a
special kind of domain, which we call image schematic domain (1999, p.16).
产
This notion explains that image schemas constitute domains, or in Clausner's
words, image schematic domains, which profile concepts. Words like "day", "week",
"month" and "year" are thought to be semantically close and related to each other
since the words designate and constitute the concepts of DAY, WEEK, MONTH and
YEAR which are in the same domain of TIME. In other words, mental lexicons exist
and are organized as image schematic domains which profile concepts in the
conceptual system. It can be shown therefore that there is a strong link existing
between image schemas and words.
3.7.5 Summary: A hierarchical framework
In the field of cognitive semantics, research has examined how image schemas
are used to create grammatical forms (Langacker, 1987，1991), to represent the
polysemous particles (Brugman and Lakoff, 1988; Vandeloise, 1993), to motivate
verb-particle constructions (Lindner, 1983), adverbs (Brugman, 1984), and verbs
(Norvig and Lakoff, 1987). It is suggested in the research that image schematic
domains are able to profile concepts. In other words, polysemous words, the particles
in phrasal verbs for instance, can be analyzed with image schemas since conceptual
metaphors make it possible for the abstract domain to be understood in terms of the
concrete domain. It is, thus, believed that there is a huge number of lexical items
possessing image schematic properties. It is due to the existence of these properties

that the particle-based learning of phrasal verbs is being proposed in the present study.
To summarize, a hierarchical framework adapted from Li (2002) is used to link
the notions of bodily experience, image schemas, conceptual metaphors and
metaphorical expressions together. The category of phrasal verbs has been added to
Li's framework to express the hypothesis that conceptual metaphors and image
schemas are available to assist in the learning of phrasal verbs in the same way that
they are with idioms and proverbs (Li, 2002).
Figure 3.9: The hierarchical model of imase schemas, conceptual metaphors and
linguistic expressions
Level 1: Bodily experiences e.g. to travel from here to there
I T
Level 2: Image schemas e.g. PATH schema
t T
Level 3: Conceptual metaphors e.g. LIFE IS A JOURNEY
n � � � � � � •
Level 4: Linguistic expressions Idioms Proverbs Phrasal verbs
3.8 A cognitive approach to the understanding of phrasal verbs (Part II)
The prime purpose of this section is to advocate and deploy the proposed new
learning method for phrasal verbs: the particle-based approach. In Part I of this
section, we have come across discussions of how particles contribute to the overall
meaning of phrasal verbs by either retaining their spatial, prototypical senses in the
literal examples or being metaphorically extended to the non-spatial, but
image-schematically related, senses in the figurative examples. Combining the
captioned notions together with those mentioned in conceptual metaphors and image
schemas, the following discussion will be centered on the application of conceptual
metaphors and image schemas in revealing still more degrees of motivated semantic
systematicity in phrasal verbs with a particular particle. It is hoped that the
particle-based approach will be able to be a superior alternative to the traditional
rote-leaming of phrasal verbs by offering a more systematic form of learning.
3.8.1 A new classification of phrasal verbs based on the cognitive semantic

framework
, I n Part I，phrasal verbs were classified as literal and figurative according to the
semantic features manifested by the whole phrasal verbs. It was stressed that being
literal and figurative should not be seen as a clear-cut dichotomy, but a matter of
degree. What makes a phrasal verb more literal, or more figurative? The present study
draws its inspiration from Morgan's (1997) four possible combinations of phrasal
verbs. According to Morgan (1997), the semantics of phrasal verbs is not arbitrary;
instead, the overall meanings are directly related to the individual meanings of the
component verbs and particles, by inheritance (in case of the literal phrasal verbs)
and/or by metaphorical extension (the figurative ones). In other words, the meaning of
the phrasal verb as a whole is derived from the individual meanings of the verb and
the particle. Based on this assumption, four possible combinations of phrasal verbs are
listed in Table 3.3:
Table 3.3: Four combinations of phrasal verbs
Combination Example sentence Verb Particle

1 I took the mug out of the box. literal literal
2 We fished out the ring (from the bowl). figurative literal
3 We handed out the brochures literal figurative
4 He has filled out a lot since we last met. figurative figurative
(adopted from Morgan, 1997, p.555)
The present research will take this approach to classifying phrasal verbs).
Reasons for the choice are twofold. First, this classification explains why the
figurativeness of phrasal verbs is a matter of degree. Referring back to Figure 3.1
5 The present study has omitted several features for classifying phrasal verbs; they are 1) transitivity;
and 2) separability. Although many books, textbooks and exercises concerning the linguistic theories
and practices on phrasal verbs include transitivity (i.e. whether the phrasal verb is a transitive one or an
intransitive one) as well as separability (i.e. whether the verb and particle has to/can be separated) in
their discussions, the author here puts aside the two features since they are more related to syntax, but
not to the cognitive semantic framework generally adopted in this research.
showing the figurativeness continuum, phrasal verbs towards the extreme of
"completely literal" correspond to the ones with combination I (literal verb + literal
particle) in the above table. In contrast, phrasal verbs located at the opposite extreme,
namely "completely figurative", are ones with combination 4 (figurative verb +
figurative particle). Those coming between these two extremes are the phrasal verbs
with combination 2 and 3 (either component, but not both, being figurative).
Second, the classification above has, according to Morgan (1997), provided
additional support for the position (adopted by Lindner, 1983) that phrasal verbs are
not only largely systematic in nature but also reflect degrees of semantic
compositionality and therefore are not merely "idiomatic." What is meant by "degrees
of semantic compositionality" is the extent to which a phrasal verb can be
decomposed so as to make it more analyzable. This "extent" is believed to be due to
the different combinations of phrasal verbs in Morgan's classification. The above
notion offers a promising line of research for proposing and pursuing the
particle-based learning of phrasal verbs based on conceptual metaphors and image
schemas. The next section will outline a general rationale for the new approach to
learning phrasal verbs.

3.8.2 Rationale for particle-based learning (PBL)
Before introducing the particle-based learning (hereinafter referred to as PBL) for
phrasal verbs, a few assumptions have to be made clear to readers at the outset of this
section. These assumptions are all related to the theoretical foundations on which the
PBL model is built. They are:
1. Hierarchical structure: There is a hierarchical relationship among bodily
experiences, image schemas, conceptual metaphors and linguistic expressions.
The hierarchy starts with the bodily experiences which we experience in various
actions in the physical world. These experiences give rise to semi-abstract gestalts
called image schemas. Different linguistic expressions are produced through the
metaphorical mappings which are structured by these image schemas (Li, 2002).
2. Polysemy: Particles are polysemous in nature. The spatial, prototypical senses of
particles are metaphorically elaborated to give rise to figurative senses based on
the same image schema. In other words, different senses of the same particle can
‘actually be realized via the same image schema (Lindner, 1983).
3. Image schematic domain: Image schemas can be thought of the abstract
semantic structures which provide domains for concepts (Clausner, 1999; cf.
Section 3.7.4). To exemplify, the word "arc" designates the concept ARC
conceptualized in the image schematic domain of CIRCLE. In other words, it is
because of the CIRCLE schema that we are able to understand the concept ARC,
which is a part if it, and hence the word "arc", which is the linguistic expression of
the corresponding concept. One may find a set of words which are semantically
close to each other. The reason is they share, while elaborating it in their own
individual ways, the same image schema. When metaphorically extended, the
image schema (e.g. PATH schema), which has been abstracted from concrete
everyday experience, is mapped into the abstract target domain. This explains why
we can understand the meaning of travel, journey, tour, proceed, transfer, move,
etc as a group of semantically-related words.
4. PATH designated by particles: As stated by lingerer and Schmid (1996) in An
Introduction to Cognitive Linguistics and supported by Talmy (1985, 1991), all the
languages of the world can probably be categorized in terms of verb-framing and
satellite-framing. In their discussion, a motion event can be characterized by
MOTION, MANNER and PATH. In the satellite-framed languages, such as
English and Chinese, expression of MOTION and MANNER is canonically
rendered by the verb whereas that of PATH, which is one of the central elements
of the motion event, is expressed by the particle (or "satellite" in Talmy's words).
It is the PATH that ultimately establishes a relation between FIGURE, GROUND

and MOTION in an event frame. Therefore, PATH performs a framing function
for the motion event and it is rendered by particles in English, Chinese and all the
satellite-framed languages. Conversely, there is another way of expressing the
framing function of PATH through the verb. Languages of this kind, French and
Spanish for instances, are called verb-framed languages. Expression of
MANNER in these languages is conveyed by separate adverbial phrases or
clauses. Such an account offers theoretical support for the proposed particle-based
learning in two ways: First, particles rendering the expression of PATH are proven
to be the central element which performs the framing function of the motion event.
In other words, it is crucial for ESL/EFL students to recognize the meaning of
particles for the sake of understanding the motion event carried by the overall
semantics of phrasal verbs. Second, Chinese is also a satellite-framed language in
which particles carry the meaning of PATH. As suggested by Lam (2003), there
are semantic correspondences between the Chinese particles “ 上 ” and “出” and
the English up and out. Since subjects in the present study are all Chinese L2
learners of English, the proximity in the semantic function of particles inherited in
their LI and L2 may, as explicitly brought forth by the PBL, assist in their
learning of phrasal verbs.
p
5. Particle first; Verb second: Although particles, as mentioned above, render the
meaning of PATH in the English motion events, PBL, taking the gist of particles
performing the framing function of the motion events, should not be seen as a
method which completely denies the significance of the verb component in
contributing to the semantics of the motion event. As can be seen, the verbs, in the
case of combinations 2 and 4 (refer to Table 3.3)，are also for example
metaphorically extended and so contribute, together with the particles, to the
overall meaning of the phrasal verbs. By the same token, the verbs in
combinations 1 and 3 contribute to the overall structure semantically through the
contribution of their literal meaning. PBL is best therefore termed a "particle-first
and verb-second" learning method.
3.8.3 The particle-based learning model (PBLM)
Founded on the five theoretical bases for the PBL, a new learning model for
phrasal verbs, the particle-based learning model (hereinafter referred to as PBLM)
is proposed. The following figure designed by the author aims at explicating and
highlighting in what ways the verb and particle components within a phrasal verb
make different contributions to the overall image schema of a phrasal verb and to its
conceptual metaphors when such a phrasal verb is metaphorical:

Figure 3.10: The particle-based learning model of phrasal verbs fPBLM)
Phrasal verb (SD)
1 2
t i
Verb 3 ! Particle /
(SD) Ir-T^ (SD) /
\\
6\
/ Particle
乙--[^)-」'’
V-^-J
/ , /
�-V^rb I ^
j (TD) l ^ T
1 n
i Phrasal verb (TD) ；
Index: "SD" stands for "source domain"; "TD" stands for "target domain";
"CM" stands for "conceptual metaphor"; "IS" stands for "image schema”
The above figure illustrates the schematic assumption of the particle-based
learning of phrasal verbs. It should be seen as a model which visually outlines the
semantic pattern of phrasal verbs. In order to unravel the pattern and make it clear to
learners, the figure can be thought of consisting of different "steps" numbered 1 to 10.
However, it is emphasized here that there are not such "steps" in patterning the
semantics of phrasal verbs. Nor does the term denote any sequential order of the
pattemization. The author here uses "steps" simply for the sake of explaining the
PBLM. The following points delineates the details of each step:
(1) According to Morgan (1997)，the overall meaning of phrasal verbs is directly
related to the individual meanings of the verb and particle components. For
the first step of the model, therefore, the verb stands alone as indicated by the
"Verb (SD).”
(2) By the same token, the "Particle (SD)" is taken from the overall phrasal verb
and then stands alone as the verb component does. It is reminded that both
the verb and the particle retain their literal senses at this stage. They are,
therefore, enclosed by solid-lined frames.
(3) As suggested by Morgan (1997) in her schematic analysis of phrasal verbs,
which is similar to the present analysis with the PBLM, "the particle of the
[phrasal verbs] is the expression of a cognitive image schema (e.g.
containment, verticality), which may be instantiated literally or
metaphorically" (p.329). Step 3 here resembles what Morgan has suggested
and the arrow indicates the provision of the cognitive image schema by the
.particle.
(4) The verb component, if being figurative, is then understood via ‘ the
metaphorical mapping from its source domain onto its target domain. The
image schema plays a vital role here for providing the means for the
metaphorical extension.
(5) The particle component, if being figurative, is also metaphorically
instantiated in the way the verb.
(6) The verb is now understood metaphorically. Therefore, it is labeled as "Verb
(TD)" and enclosed by a dotted-lined frame.
(7) By the same token, the particle is metaphorically extended. It is then labeled
as "Particle (TD)" and enclosed by a dotted-lined frame.
(8) According to Ungerer and Schmid (1996) and the explanation offered in
Section 3.8.2, particles perform the framing function of the motion event and
designate the PATH, which is the central element of the motion event, of the
whole verb. The metaphorically understood particle here provides the PATH
for the understanding of the whole phrasal verb.
(9) Based on the captioned rationale, the verb here designates the expression of
. MOTION and MANNER.
(10) Added to the framing function (PATH) rendered by the particle, the verb and
the particle, which are both metaphorically extended, contribute to the overall
figurative meaning of the phrasal verb.

In order to further delineate the PBLM, a phrasal verb run up is taken from the
test items used in the experimental study for exemplification.
Fisure 3.11: PBLM of run up
Phrasal verb (SD) run up
5 T
running Verb / Particle ~1 upward movement
(SD) I f — ( S D ) /
A CCUMULA TING,.^—^^--^^ / \ WHAT
IS ^ C M ^ /丨 j\ � C M \ INCREASES
RUNNING V V IS I K' J GOES
: — - . . . - -
\ / Particle ！^ /
\ / (TD) / Increase
…� �
I Verb I \y
Accumulating I (TD) 1
i��一-'-'一一’
.• 丨--………--<> ：
； Phrasal verb (TD) mn up |
Run up is a figurative phrasal verb according to our classification adopted from
Morgan (1997). The image schema provided and expressed by the particle up is that
， of POSITIVE VERTICALITY of which the basic schematic meaning denotes an

upward movement. Both the verb and the particle are metaphorically extended from
the source domain (i.e. upward movement) provided by the image schema to mean
someone who fails to pay their bills and, thus, starts to owe a lot of money. The literal
designation of the verb run is an action of fast movement from one point to another by
means of a specific form of leg movement. The particle up has the spatial,
prototypical sense of an upward movement. In order to reach from owing nothing to
owing a lot of bills or debts, two conceptual metaphors, one involving the verb and
the other the particle, are necessary:
Metaphorical extension of verb: ACCUMULATING IS RUNNING ‘
Metaphorical extension of particle: WHAT INCREASES GOES UP
First, the conceptual metaphor of the particle is easy to understand since it is well
supported by the orientational metaphor MORE IS UP which is well documented by
Lakoff and Johnson (1980). In contrast, one may think that the metaphor of the verb
ACCUMULATING IS RUNNING is difficult to comprehend. Making reference to
the image schema, however, helps one make sense of the metaphor. That is, running
upwards usually brings a person from a lower position to a higher one. This image
corresponds to the experience of accumulating physical things constituting a pile that
goes up. The overall meaning of run up is then understood by the PATH rendered by
the metaphorically extended particle together with the MANNER and MOTION
designated by the metaphorically extended verb.
3.8.4 Conclusion
It is clear enough that the image schema supplied by the particle not only
motivates the metaphorical understanding of the particle itself, but also that of the
verb. In other words, the conceptual metaphors of the verb and the particle are
structured and controlled by the commonly shared image schema. The overall
figurative meaning of the phrasal verbs is proven to be decomposable and analyzable
from the figurative senses of the constituent parts. While image schemas and
conceptual metaphors are needed to establish the theoretical soundness of PBL, the
next step we have to do is to find out the empirical evidence for the practical and
pedagogical soundness of PBL.

CHAPTER FOUR
RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND METHODOLOGY
4.1 Introduction
We have gone through enough in the previous chapters to make a case for the
cognitive semantic treatment of phrasal verbs with respect to the PBLM. What needs
to be done at this point is to show that this approach to phrasal verbs based on
conceptual metaphors and image schemas is able to point the way to a better
teaching/learning of phrasal verbs than does the traditional view. This section opens
with the discussion of some important methodological assumptions (Section 4.2).
Research questions and the subsequent hypotheses are formulated in Section 4.3.
Following this, Section 4.4 contains a detailed explication of the methodology
employed in the present study.
4.2 Metaphorical competence and motivation
The pedagogical implications of the line of research we have described in this
paper are evident. Metaphorical conceptualization is an "intrinsic feature" (Kovecses
and Szabo, 1996, p.345) of discourse. What is meant by "intrinsic" here is what
Danesi (1993) has in mind with his concept of the "metaphorical competence" on
which the "programming of discourse in metaphorical ways is a basic feature of
native-speaker competence" (ibid.: 493). Therefore, the application of the PBLM in
the teaching and learning of phrasal verbs in the present study is based on the
assumption that learners possess the knowledge of conceptual metaphors and image
schemas. The PBLM does not teach conceptual metaphors and image schemas to
learners as a kind of new information. Rather, it reminds learners of what they have
already learned through their everyday bodily experience and its metaphorical
extensions.
The question posed here is: Can the PBLM actually facilitate the learning of
figurative phrasal verbs in the classroom if we use the cognitive semantic framework
described in the previous chapters? In other words, our main hypothesis concerning
this issue is that stressing the metaphorical motivation of the meaning of phrasal verbs
should produce better results in the learning of these phrasal verbs. According to
Kovecses and Szabo (1996)，this is a commonsensical view, which is also shared by
Irujo (1993, P.217)，who states:
Teaching students strategies for dealing with figurative language will help them
to take advantage of the semantic transparency of some idioms. If they can figure
out the meaning of the idiom by themselves, they will have a link from the
r idiomatic meaning to the literal words, which will help them leam the idiom.
The term "motivation" mentioned above directly points to the “semantic
transparency" referred to by Irujo. As observed by Kovecses and Szabo (1996), the
precise nature of what semantic transparency is is not discussed by Irujo. Therefore,
they suggest that "the transparency, or motivation of idioms, arises from knowledge of
the cognitive mechanisms (metaphor, metonymy, conventional knowledge)...and that
these link idiomatic meanings to literal ones" (Kovecses and Szabo, 1996, p.345). The
present study speculates that the proposed PBLM is able to provide the metaphorical
motivation for learning phrasal verbs on a basis that it is theoretically founded on the
claimed cognitive mechanisms — conceptual metaphors and image schemas.
4.3 Research questions and hypotheses
Quite a number of linguists have focused on the semantic importance of particles
for learning phrasal verbs. Among these, some mention merely the gist of this
approach and its potential to make phrasal verbs seem more systematic to ESL/EFL
students (e.g. Sansome, 2000; Side, 1990; Sawyer, 2000; Boers and Demecheleer,
1998) whereas some provide a thorough treatment of the meaning of phrasal verbs
based on the cognitive schemas supplied by the particles (Lindstromberg, 1998; Tyler
and Evans, 2003; Hampe, 2000; Kurtyka, 2001; Rudzka-Ostyn, 2003). However, none
has provided empirical support for the effectiveness of such an approach to ESL/EFL
students learning phrasal verbs. Based on this research gap, the following research
questions are raised:
1. Does the particle-based learning (PBL) of phrasal verbs better motivate and
facilitate the learning of figurative phrasal verbs than the traditional learning
of phrasal verbs?
2. Does the particle-based learning (PBL) of phrasal verbs advance learners'

understanding of the figurative meaning of particles and hence help them
anticipate the particles and the meanings of untaught phrasal verbs?
3. Are there any differences in the feedback given by learners receiving the
particle-based learning (PBL) of phrasal verbs and those receiving the
traditional learning of phrasal verbs?
Three null hypotheses with respect to the captioned research questions are
formulated as follows:
Hypothesis 1:
The particle-based learning (PBL) of phrasal verbs does not facilitate the
learning of figurative phrasal verbs compared to the traditional learning of
phrasal verbs.
Hypothesis 2:
The particle-based learning (PBL) of phrasal verbs does not help learners
anticipate the particles and the meanings of the untaught phrasal verbs.
Hypothesis 3:
The particle-based learning (PBL) of phrasal verbs should not be considered by
ESL/EFL practitioners, such as teachers and publishers, as a more effective
method for learning/teaching phrasal verbs.
4.4 Research methodology
4.4.1 Subjects
The subjects of the study were 70 Chinese ESL learners whose LI is Cantonese.
All of them were advanced L2 learners of English since they had received formal
English education for at least 13 years starting from primary one. At the time when
the experiment was conducted, all of them were undergraduate students majoring in
English in the Department of English at CUHK for the first and second year. The
subjects were divided into two groups: Group 1 (control group) and Group 2
(experimental group), each with 35 students. The control group was treated with the
traditional learning of phrasal verbs whereas the experimental group with the PBL.
4.4.2 Materials
4.4.2.1 Elicitation of phrasal verbs for test
The first and foremost step of the study was to elicit a set of figurative phrasal
verbs for the experimental test. In order to do so, the author consulted the Particle
Index listed at the end of the Collins COBULD Dictionary of Phrasal Verbs (2002).
The Particle Index explains the way in which particles are used and patterned in
English phrasal verbs. There is an entry for each of the 48 particles which are found in
the phrasal verb headwords. Phrasal verbs with that particular particle are listed
alphabetically according to the given semantic categories. For example, phrasal verbs
such as carry o f f , round off and work off are listed in the entry of the particle off under
the semantic category of "finishing and completing" (see Appendix 14 for details).
The phrasal verbs chosen for the test must fulfill all the three criteria listed below:
1. The phrasal verbs have those particles occurring in a large number of different
phrasal verbs.
2. The phrasal verbs are by nature figurative to a certain degree.
3. The phrasal verbs and their figurative meanings are generally unknown to
advanced L2 learners of English.
In order to fulfill Criterion (1)，the author checked the introductory section of the
Particle Index in the Collins COBUILD Dictionary of Phrasal Verbs (2002). It is
stated there that "the commonest particles are up, out, o f f , in, on, down, in descending
order of frequency. Up and out, in particular, are extremely common: 28% of the
phrasal verbs listed here include either up or out" {Particle Index, p.l). According to
the frequency stated, the present study chose phrasal verbs with the particles up, out，
off，on and down. The reason for choosing these frequently-occurring particles is that
the immense number of combinations of the frequently-occurring particles with verbs
in different phrasal verbs shows clearly that phrasal verbs are not just arbitrary
combinations of verbs and particles. Instead, they fit into broad patterns of choice and
selection from which novel combinations are coined.
As for Criterion (2)，although no clear-cut classification distinguishes the
figurative phrasal verbs from the literal ones, there were still ways for the present
study to decide whether or not a phrasal verb chosen is figurative. First, we consulted
the Particle Index again and only those phrasal verbs under the semantic categories of
which the particles are said to be used metaphorically were selected. Second,
according to the Longman Dictionary of Phrasal Verbs (1998), phrasal verbs with
idiomatic meaning are marked by the dictionary with an asterisk. The phrasal verbs
chosen for the test were, therefore, double checked with the dictionary for their
figurativeness by making sure that they all have an asterisk. Last but not least, the
supervisor of this study was consulted for the confirmation of the figurativeness of the
phrasal verbs chosen.
To make sure that the phrasal verbs elicited fit into Criterion (3), a test entitled
"English Phrasal Verbs: Particle Test" was administered to 25 students: half of which
were postgraduate students, including both Ph.D. and M.Phil, students, studying
English in the Department of English at CUHK whereas the other half were the Year 3
undergraduate students majoring in English. Compared to the Year 1 and Year 2
subjects in the control and experimental groups, the postgraduate and final year
students in this test should have been more proficient in English and hence possess a
better knowledge of phrasal verbs. Thus, there is good reason for presuming that the
Years 1 and 2 subjects should have had a poor or even no mastery of those phrasal
verbs which got a poor facility value in this test.
A total number of 45 phrasal verbs fulfilling both Criteria (I) and (2) were listed
in this test. Only the verb component and the figurative meaning of the phrasal verb
were given to the students for each phrasal verb. What they were then asked to do was
to insert the particle which seemed to them to best complete the figurative meaning
given (see Appendix 2 for the test paper). After checking and calculation, phrasal
verbs with a facility value (i.e. percentage of correct answers) of less than 40% were
adopted for the test. Finally, 26 phrasal verbs were chosen for the test and these were
(see Appendix 1 for the complete list of the phrasal verbs elicited and their figurative
meanings):
run up play up break up bum up boil down

slap down knock down shake down strike down put down
run out drag out string out fill out fell on
turn on set on start on pass off sleep off
fall off round off drop off carry off go off
take off
4.4.2.2 Materials Design
There were altogether 5 sets of materials used in this study; they were: 1)
Pre-test paper; 2) Teaching and learning paper; 3) Post-test paper; 4) Questionnaire;
and 5) One-week delay test paper. The following subsections will be devoted to the
explanation of each of these in detail.
4.4.2.2.1 Pre-test paper
Students in both of the groups (Group 1: control; Group 2: experimental) were
given the same pre-test paper. There were 16 phrasal verbs out of the previously
chosen 26 included in this test. Sixteen sentences were listed on the test paper in
which the 16 phrasal verbs were incorporated. All the sentences were based on the
example sentences given in the Collins COBUILD Dictionary of Phrasal Verbs (2002).
For each phrasal verb, only the verb component was given whereas the particle was
missing. Guided by the example given, students were asked to complete all the 16
sentences by filling in the blank with the particle which best completed the meaning
of the phrasal verb in particular and that of the sentence as a whole. After filling in the
particle, they also had to write down the meaning of the phrasal verb on the line
provided (see Appendix 3 for the full version of this paper).

4.4.2.2.2 Teaching and learning paper
There were two versions of this paper: Version One was designed for the control
group with the traditional presentation of phrasal verbs in textbooks and exercise
books whereas Version Two was designed for the experimental group based on the
PBL discussed in the previous chapter. The differences of the two versions are
illustrated as follows:
Version One: Traditional learnins (control ^roup):
The 16 phrasal verbs in the pre-test paper were organized into 4 semantic
categories, namely "increasing", "decreasing", "completing" and "attacking." The
semantic categories were based on the ones listed in the Collins COBUILD Dictionary
of Phrasal Verbs (2002). There were 4 phrasal verbs in each category with each
category consisting of phrasal verbs with two different particles. The figurative
meaning of the phrasal verbs was given under each of them. Such a presentation and
organization of phrasal verbs greatly resembles the one adopted by most textbooks
and exercise books. They usually group phrasal verbs with similar meaning under a
semantic topic and merely state the meaning without highlighting anything about the
particles. This is how Version One given to the control group was organized (see
Appendix 5 for the full version of this paper).

Version Two: PBL learnins (experimental sroup):
Instead of being organized by semantic categories, the same 16 phrasal verbs in
Version One were organized into 5 different image schemas in Version Two. The 5
image schemas originated from the 5 corresponding particles {up, down, out, o f f , on).
The headings for the five groups of phrasal verbs were:
POSITIVE VERTICALITY (UP) MOVING ON TO (ON)

NEGATIVE VERTICALITY (DOWN) CONTAINMENT (OUT)
MOVING OFF FROM (OFF)
A visual representation of each image schema was presented together with its
heading so as to facilitate the learning of the primary spatial as well as the
metaphorical senses of the particles. For each phrasal verb containing the same
particle organized under the same image schema, its figurative meaning was given.
One more thing in Version Two which was different from Version One was that the
metaphorical understanding of the verb and particle was motivated by conceptual
metaphors. Therefore, both constituent parts of the phrasal verbs were given their own
conceptual metaphor. The following is excerpted from the paper for exemplification
(see Appendix 6 for the full version of this paper):

Image Schema: POSITIVE VERTICALITY (UP)

广 N 广 N
Run up
關
V J \ /
Figurative meaning: If someone runs up bills or debts, they start to owe a lot of
money because they fail to pay their bills.
Run: Accumulating Is Running
Up: What Increases Goes U P
Play up
Figurative meaning: If you play up a fact or feature, you emphasize it and try to
make people think that it is more important than it really is.
Play: Emphasizing Is Playing

4.4.2.2.3 Post-test paper
The control group and the experimental group shared the same paper. The design
of this paper was exactly the same as the pre-test paper except 10 more phrasal verbs
were added to the original 16 at the end. These 10 phrasal verbs were presented to the
students who were asked to deal with them in the same way as the previous 16. These
10 however had not been taught and discussed in the teaching and learning paper.
That is why they will be referred to in this study from now on as the "unseen items”
and the previous 16 as the "seen items." There were altogether 26 phrasal verbs in the
post-test paper (see Appendix 4 for the full version of this paper).
4.4.2.2.4 Questionnaire
This questionnaire was designed for students in both groups to reflect on how
they felt about the teaching and learning of phrasal verbs carried out in the experiment.
There were altogether 6 statements about the teaching and learning session. Students
were required to circle a number ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 6 (strongly
agree) to describe their feeling about the statement (see Appendix 8 for the full
version of this questionnaire).
4.4.2.2.5 One-week delay test paper
This test paper was a duplication of the post-test paper (see Appendix 7 for the
full version of this paper).
4.4.3 Procedures
Since all the subjects in this study were students from the Department of English
at CUHK, the experimental tests were administered during time borrowed from
tutorial sessions of English major courses with the approval of the course professor in
advance. The researcher went to a total of 8 tutorial sessions from late March to early
April. Among them, 4 were treated as the control group and the remaining 4 as the
experimental group. Students from both groups were all taken through the following 5
steps (adapted from Li, 2002):

Step 1: Pre-test (10 min)

Step 2: Teaching and learning (25 min)
Step 3: Post-test (15 min)
Step 4: Questionnaire (5 min)
One week after learning
Step5: One-week delay test (15 min)
As can be seen, the researcher went to each tutorial group twice with the first
time (55 minutes in total) devoted to Steps 1 to 4 and the second to Step 5 (15
minutes). The following table summarizes the teaching and testing procedures for
both groups:
p
Table 4.1: Summary of teaching and testing procedures for both swiips
^ ^ t T e ， i n g a n d p^st-testQuestionnaire One-week delay

(15- S ( 一（5— 二( 、
-Conducting of - Distribution of -Distribution of - Distribution of - Distribution of

pre-test by teaching and post-test paper questionnaire one-week delay to si
distributing the learning paper paper
pre-test paper - Conducting of
-Discussion of the post-test - Conducting of - Conducting of test
-Collection of semantic categories questionnaire
Grou 1 Pre-test papers and the meaning of - Collection of - Collection of
the phrasal verbs post-test papers - Collection of papers
Control (20 min) questionnaire
- Self-revision and
, memorization
(5 min)
-Collection of
teaching and
learning papers
-Brief discussion of
the concepts of
conceptual
metaphor and image
schema
(5 min)
Distribution of
teaching and
learning paper
Group 2
-Discussion of
Exp. phrasal verb
Group Same as the above meaning based on Same as the above Same as the above Same as the above
conceptual
(35) metaphors and
image schemas
.‘ (15 min)
-Self-revision and
, memorization
(5 min)
-Collection of
teaching and
learning papers
The time spent on each step for both groups was the same. Moreover, materials
used for each step for both groups were also the same except for the teaching and
learning part (Step 2). In the control group, the phrasal verbs were organized into four
different semantic categories. The researcher used 5 minutes to discuss the semantic
categories with the students. In the following 15 minutes, the students were taken
through the phrasal verbs and their meanings one by one. The researcher then asked
the students to revise and memorize the phrasal verbs and their meanings. They were
given 5 minutes for this part.
In the 25-minute teaching and learning part for the experimental group, a
5-minute discussion of the concepts of conceptual metaphor and image schema was
held. Following this there was a 15-minute explanation of how phrasal verbs and their
meanings could be understood based on the image schemas and conceptual metaphors
listed in the teaching and learning paper. The last 5 minutes, as with the control group,
were given to the students to revise and memorize the phrasal verbs and their
meanings. During the time, the students were continually reminded to try to
understand the phrasal verbs and their meanings by making congruent reference to the
conceptual metaphors and image schemas given.

Neither group was informed that there would be a one-week delay test one week
after learning.
4.4.4 Scoring system
All the test papers (pre-test, post-test, one-week delay test) were collected right
after the experiment. They were then marked and scored according to the marking
scheme.
In the case of the 16 "seen" phrasal verbs in the pre-test paper, the first half of
the post-test and one-week delay test papers, the scores were converted to a 100-score
system. Therefore, the allocation of marks was that 3.25 points were awarded to a
correct particle given and a maximum of 3 points to the meaning written. The criteria
for awarding points were as follows: If the particle filled in was correct, the marker
would then look at the meaning and award a maximum of 3 points (the scale was 1，2
and 3) to the meaning depending on the quality of the answer given (see Table 4.2 for
scoring rationale). Otherwise, no points would be given to the meaning nor the
particle since students, in the case of only the meaning being given, may have guessed
the meaning from the context of the sentences, and, in the case of only the particle
being written, may have got the right particle by luck.

In the case of the 10 "unseen" phrasal verbs in the second half of the post-test
and one-week delay test papers, the scores were also transformed into a 100-score
system. However, the allocation of marks this time was that 5 points were awarded for
a correct particle being given and a maximum of 5 points to the meaning (the scale
was 1，3 and 5) depending on the quality of the answer given (also see Table 4.2 for
scoring rationale). The criteria for awarding points were the same as with the “seen”
part.
Table 4.2: Rationale for scorins the meaning written by students
Score (16 seen PVs) Score (unseen PVs) Standard Criteria

- T h e meaning given is a correct one
1 1 Satisfactory which shows the student's
understanding of the phrasal verb.
which shows the student's
^ ^ . understanding of the phrasal verb.
2 3 Fair
- T h e answer written resembles
partially the wordings used in the
model answer.
which shows the student's
^ ^ 广 , understanding of the phrasal verb.
‘ 5 5 CJOOQ
- T h e answer written contains

word(s) which is/are highlighted as
keyword(s) in the model answer.
CHAPTER FIVE
GENERAL RESULTS FROM SPSS
5.1 Introduction
This chapter includes a general discussion of all the results obtained in the tests
mentioned in the methodology. All the data from the tests were fed into SPSS (11.5)
and analyzed using the independent sample T-test as well as the paired sample test.
The aim of this chapter is to provide empirical evidence to test each hypothesis stated
in the previous chapter. Due to time constraints and relevance to the hypotheses, only
the selected output from SPSS will be presented in the discussion with the help of
tables and bar charts whereas the full version of the SPSS output will be given in the
appendices. In the SPSS analysis, the confidence value is set at 95%, which means the
results being compared are statistically significant if the P value is less than 0.05 (P <
0.05). Sections 5.2 to 5.5 will report the results of the tests and discuss the three
hypotheses. This chapter will close with Section 5.6 which highlights the general
conclusions across the three hypotheses.

5.2 Results of pre-test and post-test
5.2.1 The output of SPSS
The first result to be shown compares the difference of the results in the pre-test
and post-test of the two individual groups. Generally speaking, there is a sharp
increase in the result of post-test compared to pre-test for both groups. The following
table illustrates the selected data from the output of SPSS in which the means and p
values are obtained from the paired sample test (see Appendix 10 for detailed output
data):
Table 5.1 Comparison of the differences between results in pre-test and post-test for
both groups
Pre-test (Mean) Post-test (Mean) P value (sig 2-tailed)

Group 1 10.73 51.48 .000
Group 2 ^ 6；^ .m
The following figure also provides a bar chart which graphically represents the
means comparison of Group 1 and Group 2:

Figure 5.1: Means comparison between pre-test and post-test for Group 1 and Group 2
广 \
I 一
io / 1
60Z
I I , ! .
\ 50-{ J ：
；：
；：
；：
；>： . . .x：；：；：；；：；.
i/ i ：
：；
：：
：：
：：
：：
： ::::::::::::
I 40 ( I •：•：•：•：•：；•
I I ：
：：：
：：；
；：：；：；
：：：
：：•
；• ：：；- - 1
I1 对I 丨：::::::::,,::：
— - •. » -
：::::::::::： .“
• I .:•:.:.:.: :•:•:.:•:
I 2 0 ' J :::::::::::: ；
/^?^丨鐘_:::: 幽難::」
& ijfflBiTiigtJl^lSK^STrr"^^^
； Givup 1 Qvup 2
• /'/t-^r 9.82
�Post-test i 51.48 6159 _
5.2.3 General description
It can be seen from the above data that both Group 1 and Group 2 manifest much
better results in the post-test than in the pre-test after the teaching and learning session.
According to the P value obtained, the differences shown by both groups between the
means of the pre-test and post-test are statistically significant (P value < 0.05).
Therefore, it is quite clear that both the traditional learning and the PBL of phrasal
verbs show a positive effect on students' learning of phrasal verbs. This, however, is
not sufficient to empirically test Hypothesis 1. The next section is thus devoted to
providing results for Hypothesis 1.

5.3 Results of Hypothesis 1
In this section, selected data from SPSS are illustrated in order to test Hypothesis
1. One important point is that Hypothesis 1 is formulated to specifically deal with the
first 16 phrasal verbs, which are the seen and taught ones in the post-test and
one-week delay test papers. The 10 unseen phrasal verbs will be dealt with in Section
5.4 when we are testifying Hypothesis 2.
The following table aims at comparing the differences between Group 1 and
Group 2 in the 16 "seen" phrasal verbs results of 1) pre-test; 2) post-test; and 3)
one-week delay test (see Appendix 11 for detailed output data):
Table 5.2: Comparison of means and P values for Hypothesis 1
Group 1 Group 2 P value

(Mean) (Mean) (sig. 2-tailed)
Pre-test 10.73 9.82 .675
Post-test 51.48 67.59 .000
One-week delay test 32.66 .000
The following figure provides a bar chart which graphically represents the
comparisons of the means for the two groups in different tests:

Fisure 5.2: Comparison of means and P values for Hypothesis 1
厂；^ . . / T - - - - - - ！、
i I
i “ i^ H ：；—•：•：•：：•~t
40�i … I ffl ::::::::
I 3 0 、 ^ H 5
^ fftHHI . pffpff - - - •.
10 • ^n
i n n One-week
Pis-test Post-test 丨 , ,
I I I I delay test
I 卯ipupJ 丨 W.73 I 51.48 I 32.66
丨 'mGivuD2 . 9.82 ‘ 67.59 52.62
V — J
There is no significant difference (as P value > 0.05) shown in the pre-test results
of Group 1 and Group 2. It can be proven that the phrasal verbs chosen for the test
were generally unknown to the subjects. This is also in line with the assumption made
in Section 4.4.2.1 which states that phrasal verbs unknown to higher level students in
the particle test will not be generally known to the subjects, who were lower level
students, in this test. Moreover, the insignificant difference between the two groups in
the pre-test also confirms that both groups started at the same or a similar level before
learning. In both post-test and one-week delay test, on the other hand, Group 2, after
learning phrasal verbs with the PBL, sharply outscored Group 1 which leamt phrasal
verbs based on the traditional method. The P values (< 0.05) shown in both tests are
statistically significant.
5.3.3 Conclusion
If it was only memorization that played a positive role in helping students
complete the tests, the students in both groups would have shown a fairly high and
roughly the same score, since the step of self-revision and memorization was included
for both groups. If, however, metaphorical motivation embedded in the PBL also
plays a positive role, Group 2 should have performed better than Group 1. According
to the results obtained from SPSS, Group 2 did indeed do much better than Group 1
and the difference is statistically significant. Hypothesis 1，which states that the
particle-based learning (PBL) of phrasal verbs does not facilitate the learning of
phrasal verbs compared to the traditional learning of phrasal verbs, is therefore
falsified empirically.
This section is specifically tailor made for empirically testing Hypothesis 2 in
which the 10 "unseen" phrasal verbs in the post-test and one-week delay test are
manipulated.
The following table shows the comparison of differences in the results of the 10
"unseen" phrasal verbs in 1) post-test and 2) one-week delay test for both groups (see
• P B L of Phrasal Verbs ill
Appendix 12 for detailed output data):

Post-test 16.80 28.43 .001
One-week delay test 27.86 ^
The following figure provides a bar chart which graphically represents the
comparisons of the means for the two groups in the two tests:
Figure 5.3: Comparison of means and P values for Hypothesis 2
f • ‘ \
30 f ^ ^ ‘
25: —
^；
；：：
：；：
；：：
• ：
；
：：
：；
；
；：
： _ ；
丨 ’•^^：議一 _ .
I 丨 ---H
„ I One-week delay
Post-test 丨，
： test
I !• Givup 1 I _ 16.8 1 16.03 ,
i . \^GimD2 \ “ 28.43 丨 27.86 ,
� J
The data shows that the scores of Group 2 for the "unseen" phrasal verbs in both
the post-test and one-week delay test were better than those of Group 1. There is a
sharp difference between the mean scores of Group 1 and Group 2 and the difference
is statistically significant as the two P values are both < 0.05.

• PBL of Phrasal Verbs ill
5.4.3 Conclusion
If only memorization played a positive role in helping students to complete the
tests, the scores of both groups should be low and near random since memorization is
eliminated in the "unseen" part. If, however, metaphorical motivation plays a positive
role in helping students anticipate the particles and meanings of phrasal verbs, Group
2 should have a higher score in this part than Group 1 as the PBL is based on the
metaphorical motivation of particles in the overall meaning of phrasal verbs. As can
be seen, Group 2 did indeed get a higher mean score than Group 1. The difference is
also statistically significant according to the P value (< 0.05). Hypothesis 2，which
states that the particle-based learning (PBL) of phrasal verbs does not help
learners anticipate the particles and the meanings of the untaught phrasal verbs,
is therefore falsified empirically.
In this section, the subjects' feedbacks on how they felt about the teaching and
learning of the two sets of materials (i.e. Group 1: traditional semantic category
method; Group 2: PBL method) are compared and briefly discussed.
严
5.5.1 The mean score for each question
As will be recalled, there are six questions in the questionnaire. The scale ranges
from 1 (strongly disagree) to 6 (strongly agree). The following table shows the
comparison of the mean scores for each question:
Table 5.4: Comparison of the mean score of each question in Questionnaire
strongly slightly Slightly strongly

agree disagree
agree agree disagree disagree
6 5 4 3 2 1
0 1 : The learning
5 Gp.l 4.94
material is
informative.
Gp.2 丨 5.p6 I
0 2 : The learning
. � Gp.l I 4.69
material is new.
Gp.2 5j03
0 3 : The learning
^ Gp.l 3.94
material is
interesting.
Gp.2 |4.80
0 4 : The teaching
5 Gp.l 3.54 i
method is new.
. . � � Gp.2 丨丨 4.83 I I I I
0 5 : The teaching
5 Gp.l 13.83
method makes
things easier to
Gp.2 i i 4.71
memorize. j | j | |
Q6: This method |
can be a good Gp.l 4.37 1
methpd to enhance
phrasal verb Gp.2 4.89
p ：： '：：： •
learning.
Following the data illustrated in Table 5.4, the table below aims at comparing the
mean scores of each of the six questions by highlighting the P value obtained from the
SPSS (see Appendix 13 for detailed output data).

Ql 1% ^
Q2 4.69 5.03 .114
Q3 3.94 4.8 .000
Q4 3.54 4.83 .000
Q5 3.83 4.71 .000
Q6 ^ m .022
As shown by the comparisons above, the mean scores shown for Group 2 in all
the questions are higher than those for Group 1. It can generally be concluded that the
PBL of phrasal verbs is more appealing to students than the traditional method of
learning phrasal verbs. Specifically, Group 2's mean scores for Questions 3，4 and 5
greatly surpass Group 1，s and the difference is statistically significant (as all P values
= 0 . 0 0 0 ) In other words, the PBL of phrasal verbs, when compared to the traditional
one, is considered by students as a newer and more interesting method of learning
phrasal verbs. More importantly, it makes the supposedly random and difficult phrasal
verbs easier to memorize. Taking the mean scores of Question 6 into comparison,
Group 2 shows a much higher mean score (4.89) than that of Group 1 (4.37).
Although the difference here is not as great as those in the previous three questions,
the P value obtained, which is 0.022 (i.e. < 0.05), proves the statistical significance of
the difference. It is, therefore, sufficient enough for us to say that the PBL for phrasal
verbs is a better way to enhance phrasal verb learning than the traditional one.
5.5.4 Conclusion
As Hypotheses 1 and 2 have been empirically falsified, the present research can
assert that the PBL for phrasal verbs points to a better method for students' learning
of phrasal verbs. The mean scores for all the six questions obtained from Group 2
surpass those from Group 1, signaling a general tendency that students find PBL more
appealing to them. The statistically significant differences in the mean scores for
Questions 3, 4, 5 and 6 further suggest that students find PBL as a newer and more
interesting phrasal verb learning method which makes things easier to memorize and,
as a whole, enhances phrasal verb learning. Combining what is claimed in Hypotheses
1 and 2 and the results in the questionnaires discussed just now, Hypothesis 3, which
states that the particle-based learning (PBL) of phrasal verbs should not be
considered by ESL/EFL practitioners, such as teachers and publishers, as a more
effective method for learning/teaching phrasal verbs, is falsified empirically.

5.6 Summary
To summarize, it can be seen that all three null hypotheses have been empirically
falsified. Before we go into any detailed discussion of the results in the next chapter,
the author would like to take this opportunity to sum up the general conclusions
obtained in this chapter:
1. The PBL for phrasal verbs is a better method for learning phrasal verbs than
the traditional one in terms of its ability to metaphorically motivate students'
understanding of figurative phrasal verbs.
2. The PBL for phrasal verbs can advance students' understanding of figurative
phrasal verbs as a whole since students are equipped with the knowledge of
particles being metaphorically and systematically extended which enables
them to anticipate the particles and the meanings of newly-encountered
phrasal verbs.
3. The PBL of phrasal verbs shows a general tendency to be preferred by
students to the traditional learning method for phrasal verbs. This points the
way to a brand new presentation of phrasal verbs in textbooks which students
may find more interesting and teachers easier to use in learning and teaching
, phrasal verbs.
CHAPTER SIX
GENERAL DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
6.1 Introduction
Continuing with the SPSS results presented in Chapter 5, this chapter aims at
providing, on the one hand, a thorough discussion of the results of the three
hypotheses and, on the other hand, answers for each of the three research questions. In
order to do so, discussion will frequently refer back to the theories mentioned in
Chapters 2 and 3. More importantly, additional theoretical implications will be
introduced to supplement the previously mentioned theories in evaluating each of the
three hypotheses. Sections 6.2 to 6.4 are the three major sections in this chapter with
each of them structured into, first, a general evaluation of the hypothesis and, second,
a detailed discussion based on the theoretical implications.
6.2 Discussion of Hypothesis 1
6.2.1 General evaluation of Hypothesis 1
To recall, Hypothesis 1，which states that the particle-based learning (PBL) of
phrasal verbs does not facilitate the learning of figurative phrasal verbs
compared to the traditional learning of phrasal verbs, was empirically falsified in
the light of the SPSS results presented in Chapter 5. Due to the rejection of
Hypothesis 1, a positive answer is to be given to Research Question 1; that is: PBL
better motivates and facilitates the learning of phrasal verbs than the traditional
learning. In other words, conceptual metaphors and image schemas, which are two
promising constituting elements in the PBL, point the way to aiding and enhancing
the phrasal verb learning of Chinese L2 learners of English.
As claimed in Section 4.2, what is hypothesized to be unique to and promising in
the PBL is the metaphorical motivation contributed by conceptual metaphors and
image schemas. Learners using the PBL to leam phrasal verbs (e.g. Group 2:
experimental group) are made aware of the existence of conceptual metaphors and
image schemas, which in turn motivates the understanding and provides the semantic
transparency of the figurative phrasal verbs. In contrast, learners exposed to the
traditional forms of learning phrasal verbs (e.g. Group 1: control group) lack
reminders and awareness of their metaphorical competence (cf. Section 4.2) in
relating the figurative sense of phrasal verbs to conceptual metaphors and image
schemas. Phrasal verbs in traditional teaching material are simply organized and
presented according to different semantic categories together with the dictionary
meaning listed below each phrasal verb. This is no more than what we call
"rote-leaming." The understanding of figurative phrasal verbs is therefore not
motivated. That is why in all the three experimental tests, the results of students in
Group 2 were superior to those of students in Group 1.
Up to this point, however, there has not been any theoretical support for and
discussion of how the PBL in general and conceptual metaphors and image schemas
in particular are able to motivate the understanding of figurative phrasal verbs and
hence better facilitate phrasal verb learning (i.e. longer retention of the tested items)
than the traditional "rote-leaming" of phrasal verbs. The following discussion,
therefore, is devoted to such an explanation by making congruent reference to four
theories. They are:
1) Section 6.2.2 —conceptual metaphor and image schema theory (Lakoff, 1987,
1993; Johnson, 1987，Gibbs, 1999);
2) Section 6.2.3 —English as a satellite-framed language theory (Talmy, 1985,
1991; Ungerer and Schmid, 1996);
3) Section 6 . 2 . 4 - d u a l coding theory (Paivio, 1969, 1981, 1986, 1991); and
4) Section 6.2.5 —vocabulary acquisition theory (Anderson, 1983; Beheydt, 1987;
, M o n d r i a , 1996; Stein et al.，1982; Verspoor and Lowie, 2003).
6.2.2 Conceptual metaphors and image schemas as embodied motivation
In Chapter 4, the basic theories concerning conceptual metaphors, image

schemas and their theoretical soundness in the PBLM were discussed. The question
raised at this moment is: how can they motivate figurative phrasal verb learning? The
author in the present study speculates that it is because of the experiential and
embodied nature of conceptual metaphors and image schemas. A great deal of
linguistic evidence suggests that much metaphorical thinking arises from our
embodied experiences in the world (Johnson, 1987; Lakoff, 1991). For example,
central to people's understanding of the conceptual metaphor HAPPY IS UP and SAD
IS DOWN is the embodied experience of verticality. People have various strong
kinesthetic experiences of this bodily verticality. In the case of positive verticality, we
have erect postures typically associated with positive emotion of states and good
health and higher states of consciousness. In the case of negative verticality, in
contrast, we have drooping postures going along with sadness, depression and
ill-health. To recall, image schemas, which were defined in Section 3.7.1，emerge
throughout sensorimotor activity as people manipulate objects, orient themselves
spatially and temporally, or direct their perceptual focus for various purposes. The
concept of happiness, as mentioned before, is understood in terms of being "spatially
up" whereas sadness is "spatially down", since we orient ourselves spatially in such a
way that we, for example, jump up when we are happy whereas we droop down when
we are sad. In this way, image schemas cover a wide range of experiential structures
(e.g. jumping up when being happy, drooping down when being sad) which can be
metaphorically elaborated to provide our understanding of more abstract domains.
Let us take two phrasal verbs in the present study to see how their associated
conceptual metaphors and image schemas fit into the theory mentioned just now. The
two phrasal verbs for exemplification are:
Run up: If someone runs up bills or debts, they start to owe a lot of money
because they fail to pay their bills.
Play up: If you play up a fact or feature, you emphasize it and try to make people
think that it is more important than it really is.
Both phrasal verbs have the sense of "increase" as realized in "accumulating"
and "emphasizing." Something increasing designates the sense of "more." The
conceptual metaphor MORE IS UP is grounded in basic experience — in the common
experiences of, as exemplified by Lakoff (1993)，pouring more fluid into a container
and seeing the level go up, or adding more things to a pile and seeing the pile get
higher. These experiential examples, by the same token, offer the experiential ground
for the conceptual metaphor WHAT INCREASES GOES UP of the particle up under
the image schema POSITIVE VERTICALITY in the teaching and learning material
for the experimental group. The conceptual metaphors associated with the verbs run
and play seem image schematically much less central. For run, the conceptual
metaphor seems to be ACCUMULATING IS RUNNING, and play EMPHASIZING
IS PLAYING. Both of the source domains involve forms of energetic activity. The
effect seems to increase the overall vividness of the phrasal verbs run up and play up
and to give them their cognitive salience. This is clearly a significant contribution, but
not fundamental in the manner of the POSITIVE VERTICALITY associated with up.
Relating to the present study, how can the figurative meaning of our tested items
like run up and play up be motivated? Two points have to be mentioned before
addressing the question: First, as suggested by Gibbs (1999), the embodied motivation
for metaphor provides a natural and non-arbitrary reason for people to construct
asymmetrical metaphorical mappings to understand abstract concepts. People do not
leam to form metaphorical representations, but tacitly infer them from the bodily
experience with the language itself via generalizations. That it is to say, the advanced
Chinese L2 learners of English in the present study have the knowledge of conceptual
metaphors and image schemas. Second, according to the hierarchical framework (Li,
2002; cf. Section3.7.4), conceptual metaphors and image schemas constitute two
indispensable levels which serve as a bridge linking everyday experience to linguistic
expression. Looking at the two points jointly, we can see that the emphasis on
conceptual metaphors and image schemas in the PBL of phrasal verbs make learners
aware of the tacit knowledge in their conceptual system. In other words, passive
knowledge of conceptual metaphors and image schemas is not alone sufficient for
truly effective phrasal verb learning. Learners, therefore, need to be taught about and
made aware of these notions explicitly in order to make use of the strategy of
employing conceptual metaphors and image schemas to, as explained in the second
point above, link their everyday experience to the linguistic expressions.
6.2.3 English as a satellite-framed language
As already discussed in Section 3.8.2, English is a satellite-framed language in
which the expression of MOTION and MANNER is canonically designated by verbs
whereas that of PATH is rendered by particles. More importantly, PATH performs the
framing function for the motion event since it establishes a relation between FIGURE,
GROUND and MOTION. These findings help to show why the emphasis on particles
in the'PBL provides a clearer frame for learners to understand the overall motion
event designated by the whole phrasal verbs. It is also because of such an emphasis
that learners are able to understand better the relation between FIGURE, GROUND
and MOTION in the sentences. Moreover, there are some cases of phrasal verbs in
which the verb components have virtually no meaning over and above the MOTION
component. Phrasal verbs of this kind in the experimental tests are, for example, start
on, go ojf, set on and put down. Although these verbs seemingly have little semantic
content at their first sight, they have an enormous potential for PATH descriptions,
and so to contributing to the semantics of the overall motion event, once they are
connected with the particles. Thus, the PBL offers learners a better understanding of
the particles, which in turn contributes to a better understanding of the motion event
and the whole sentence.
6.2.4 Visualization and dual coding theory
Referring to the two sets of teaching and learning materials separately used for
the control group and experimental group, two conditions for phrasal verb learning
were generated. In the control group where the traditional method was used, the
condition for learning involved only the verbal one. That is, the researcher went
through the phrasal verbs one by one by reading out aloud the phrasal verbs and their
meanings. In the experimental group, in contrast, the condition comprised not only the
verbal one found in the control group, but also a visual one. The researcher in the
experimental group explained each graphical representation of an image schema
drawn in the teaching material (refer to Appendix 6 for details). Students were then
asked to map the source domain onto the target domain based on the image schema.
Together with the verbal input, the experimental group was thus provided with a
learning condition with dual input —verbal and visual. Compared to the control group
receiving only the verbal input, the experimental group receiving both verbal and
visual input performed superiorly.
In order to explain the superior test results achieved by the experimental group,
two theories have to be introduced here; they are: 1) visualization theory; and 2)
dual coding theory.
First and foremost, visualization is "the ability to form mental representations of
verbal and non-verbal input" (Kurtyka, 2001, p.33). It is suggested by Kurtyka that of
all kinds of mental images, such as visual, auditory, olfactory, tactile, kinesthetic, etc.,
that can be created in the human mind, visual ones are the most important ones as
they are said to constitute the majority: from 80% to 97% (after Shone, 1984). It can
be seen that visualization is indispensable in learning. In order to support this claim
empirically, Stevick (1986, 1996) has conducted experiments in which subjects were
provided with rich imagery throughout the learning process. It was found that rich
imagery did really facilitate the learning process.

Nevertheless, visualization on its own does not account for the facilitation.
Paivio (1969, 1981，1986, 1991) suggests the dual coding theory to explain why
learning processes can be facilitated by rich imagery. Dual coding theory claims that
cognition, comprehension and memory are indeed distinguished into two separate
representational systems: the verbal system (V) and the imagery system (Im)
composed of nonverbal objects and events. The two systems are functionally
independent, yet representations in one system can also activate those in the other
since dually coded items (coded verbally and nonverbally) are linked by referential
connections. According to Paivio's model of dual coding theory, information stored
mentally in two codes is better comprehended and remembered than information
stored in only one code. It is suggested that the presence of two codes rather than one
enhances storage and retention (Bransford, 1979; Stevick, 1996).
Relating visualization theory and dual coding theory, the superior test results of
the experimental group using the PBL of phrasal verbs can be explained. In the
teaching and learning material of the experimental group, graphical representations of
the image schemas of the particles, which are a form of visualization, were given and
presented to the students. Image schemas are embodied knowledge and inherited in
everyone's conceptual system. They are more abstract than any diagrams or figures.
However, if these images are actually perceived rather than merely created in the
mind, the retention and storage of these images can be, as suggested by Gehring and
Toglia (1989)，enhanced. It is believed that due to the presentation of both visual input
(i.e. diagrams) and verbal input (i.e. explanation of diagrams and meanings of phrasal
verbs), the experimental group, having the information dually coded, gained an
advantage in storing the information and hence performed much better than the
control group which, on the other hand, received only the verbal input. It is proven
therefore that the PBL for phrasal verbs, as compared to the traditional method with
only verbal input, provides information dually coded with verbal input and rich
imagery, which assists learners in phrasal verb storage and retention.
6.2.5 Consolidation and elaboration in vocabulary acquisition
Accoring to Beheydt (1987) and Mondria (1996), the process of vocabulary
acquisition can be simplified into recursive stages that are usually referred to as
"semantization" and "categorization." The stage of "semantization" is not directly
relevant to the explanation of the superior results of the experimental group in
Hypothesis 1, and will therefore be defined here briefly as the stage in which the
formal characteristics of a word are matched with semantic content. The stage of
"consolidation", in which a newly acquired word is incorporated into the learner's
permanent memory, points its way to providing further theoretical support for the
empirical soundness of the PBL and therefore will be discussed in what follows.
Verspoor and Lowie (2003) explains the gist of Anderson's influential semantic
network theory (Anderson, 1983, 1990; Anderson and Reder, 1979) in their work on
vocabulary acquisition in ESL/EFL students. All of an individual's declarative
knowledge is, in the stage of consolidation, represented in the shape of a network
consisting of nodes (cognitive entities) and paths (relations among these nodes).
Within the network, there are a great number of "retrieval paths." The more retrieval
paths are linked to a particular unit of information, the better the recall of information
will be. The process through which the learners recall information via different
retrieval paths and through which the information is connected is called "elaboration."
According to Verspoor and Lowie (2003), elaboration is particularly relevant for the
consolidation stage in vocabulary acquisition in the sense that the more active
processing and association is involved during this stage, the more elaboration takes
place, and the more likely it is that a word is retained in and then retrieved from the
mental lexicon.
The present study speculates that the notions of "retrieval paths" and
"elaboration" in the semantic network theory may help explain the superior results
achieved by the students using the PBL of phrasal verbs. According to Anderson
，（1983，1990), elaboration in the stage of consolidation can be in the form of an

inference, a continuation, an example or an image. In the PBL, the graphical
representations of the image schemas of the particles provide the image for
elaboration. The conceptual metaphors accompanying the verb and the particle of
each phrasal verb, on the other hand, function as elaboration in the form of an
inference which helps learners map the concrete source domain onto the abstract
target domain. The phrasal verbs having the same particle being metaphorically
extended from the same image schema are grouped together and presented to learners
as an integrated module. This can be seen as a continuation of the same image schema
(e.g. POSITIVE VERTICALITY) with different examples (e.g. run up, play up, break
up, burn up). It is believed that what are mentioned above provide a "precise
elaboration" for the phrasal verb consolidation stage. According to Stein et al. (1982)
and supported by their experimental study, a precise elaboration is indeed more likely
to help learners recall the words correctly than an imprecise one. Since the students in
the experimental group using the PBL were provided with a more precise elaboration
of phrasal verbs primarily via conceptual metaphors and image schemas than those in
the control group, a greater number of retrieval paths connecting the nodes of the
semantic network is established for students in the experimental group. As discussed,
the more retrieval paths are linked to particular unit of information, the better the
recall of information will be. By the same token, conceptual metaphors and image
schemas in the PBL serve as a tool for the more active processing and association of
information stored in the semantic network. As mentioned before, again, more active
processing and motivation induce more elaboration to take place, and the more likely
a word is, therefore, retained in the lexicon.
As with Hypothesis 1，Hypothesis 2, which states that the particle-based
learning (PBL) of phrasal verbs does not help learners anticipate the particles
and the meanings of the untaught phrasal verbs, was empirically falsified in the
light of the SPSS output. Because of this, the answer for Research Question 2 is that
the PBL advances learners' understanding of the figurative meaning of particles
and hence helps them anticipate the particle and the meanings of the untaught
phrasal verbs.
To start the discussion of Hypothesis 2，it is important to state that memorization
does not play a role in the superior results achieved by Group 2. This is because none
of the 10 phrasal verbs in the unseen part of the post-test and one-week delay tests
were taught in the teaching and learning paper. The author of this study suggests that
the notion of metaphorical motivation, as mentioned in 6.2.1 for Hypothesis 1, comes
into play. Metaphorical motivation was the only element that was not commonly
shared by the control group and the experimental group in the unseen part when
responding to the 10 untaught phrasal verbs. To account for the better results of the
experimental group in the unseen part, the rationale for explaining Hypothesis 1 is
adopted here. It is stated in Section 6.2.1 that students need to be made aware of the
existence of the conceptual metaphors and image schemas in their conceptual system
in order to motivate the understanding of the figurative phrasal verbs. Pertaining to
this, the superior results of the experimental group for the untaught phrasal verbs can
be explained by the fact that the students in the experimental group, having been
made aware of the existence of conceptual metaphors, continued to use the strategy of
reasoning in terms of conceptual metaphors and image schemas for the 10 untaught
phrasal verbs. Although they did not have specific conceptual metaphors for the verbs
and particles of the untaught phrasal verbs, the strategy of employing metaphorical
mappings based on cognitive image schemas was available to them. A kind of
creative thinking must have been used by the students in both the control and
experimental groups. Unlike the creative thinking, which was, if not wild, baseless,
employed by the control group, the one employed by the experimental group however
was more strategic and precise since they could rely on conceptual metaphors and
r
image schemas which they had been made aware of by the PBL. In Kovecses and
Szabo ’s words (1996), the use of such a strategy to employ metaphors in guessing the
particles and the meanings of novel phrasal verbs seems to be an extension, or special
case, of metaphorical motivation.
A prime question raised here is: in what ways are learners able to anticipate the
meanings of figurative phrasal verbs correctly? In other words, how do conceptual
metaphors, and image schemas in particular, help learners correctly guess the
meanings of the particles and the verbs of the novel phrasal verbs? Two theories will
be discussed in order to shed light on the question. The two theories are:
1) Section 6.3.2-polysemy theory (Lakoff, 1987; Langacker, 1987); and
2) Section 6.3.3 —guessing based on core meaning theory (Verspoor and Lowie,
2003)
6.3.2 The cognitive linguistic view on polysemous words
In cognitive linguistic theory, founded by Lakoff (1987) and Langacker (1987),
linguistic structures are seen as reflections of general conceptual organization,
categorization principles, and processing mechanisms. A great deal of cognitive
linguistic research has gone into discovering the cognitive links and conceptual
principles that underlie the connections between different senses of words (Geeraerts,
Grondelaers, & Bakema, 1994). Research of this kind is subject to prototypicality
effects with central or "core" members and peripheral members.
What is meant by the "core" meaning of a word? Does it mean the "most
frequent meaning" or the "most concrete meaning?" The New Oxford Dictionary of
English (1998) gives a definition of "core meaning", which is very much in line with
general cognitive thought:
The core meaning is the one that represents the most literal sense that the word
has in modem language. This is not necessarily the same as the oldest meaning,
because word meanings change over time. Nor is it necessarily the most frequent
meaning, because figurative senses are sometimes the most frequent. It is the
meaning accepted by native speakers as the one that is most established as literal
and central (forward).
Lakoff (1987) proposes that the related meanings of a polysemous word form a
category that consists of one or more central senses and peripheral senses that are
related via structured cognitive links such as metaphors and metonymy. The core
senses are grounded in experiential and physically embodied knowledge that is

严
non-propositional in form. The peripheral senses are then motivated in so far as they
are extensions of the core sense(s). More importantly, metaphorical extensions from
core to peripheral (i.e. literal to figurative in the case of the particles in the present
study) can be, as suggested by Lakoff (1987), based on image-schema transformation.
The organization of phrasal verbs and their subsequent presentation in the PBL
teaching and learning material echoes the cognitive linguistic views on core and
peripheral senses of words mentioned above. The graphical representations of the
image schemas illustrate the core sense of the particles. The core senses (literal senses)
are then metaphorically extended to the peripheral senses (figurative senses) via the
conceptual metaphors and image-schema transformations.
To summarize briefly, it can be seen that a cognitive linguistic approach to the
sense of a polysemous word involves determining a core sense. In the next section, we
are going to see how the strategy of providing a core sense of a particle may assist
learners in guessing the peripheral senses of the particle. In other words, we are going
to look at how provision of the literal senses of particles in the teaching and learning
paper helps learners anticipate the figurative senses of particles in the unseen phrasal
verb tests.
6.3.3 Effective guessing based on core meaning
The essence of the guessing based on core meaning theory is the combination of
the insights of Anderson's cognitive semantic network (cf. Section 6.2.5) and Stein's
observation of the effectiveness of precise elaboration (cf. Section 6.2.5). In the
cognitive semantic network, different senses of polysemous words are by nature
related to each other, with a core sense giving rise to the more figurative senses.
Conceptual metaphors and image schemas in the PBL provide the precise elaboration
for the core senses to be metaphorically extended and connected to the figurative
senses. In line with the empirical results shown in Verspoor and Lowie's work (2003),
the superior results of the experimental group in the all the unseen tests can be
explained by the point suggested by Verspoor and Lowie that the core sense of a
particle provides the students in the experimental group with an opportunity for
precise elaboration. The precise elaboration in the present study is believed to be
established via conceptual metaphors and image schemas. It is suggested that precise
elaboration enables students to incorporate the figurative senses into the cognitive
semantic network more effectively and recall it later more easily. In our test, when the
students in the experimental group encountered the untaught phrasal verbs, they were
more able to guess the correct particle and then the figurative sense of the phrasal
verb since the figurative senses of the particles are connected to the core sense in the
cognitive semantic network through precise elaboration. In other words, the figurative
senses are easier to be retrieved when linked to the core sense by conceptual
metaphors and image schemas.
The author of the present study concludes that the notions mentioned above
contribute to a "well-structured" cognitive semantic network of the core and
figurative senses of particles for the students in the experimental group. It is also
because of this network that the experimental group showed a better guessing
performance and result in all the unseen tests than the control group.
Hypothesis 3 is related to the comments concerning the teaching and learning of
phrasal verbs given by students. Table 5.4 in Chapter 5 shows that the scores for all
the six" questions shown by the experimental group are higher than those shown by the
control group. In addition, Table 5.5 illustrates the P values obtained from the SPSS
that the mean score differences of four questions (Q3, 4, 5 & 6) out of a total number
of six are statistically significant. Combining the promising positive effectiveness in
bettering students' learning of phrasal verbs obtained in Hypotheses 1 and 2 with the
general fondness for the PBL shown in the questionnaires, Hypothesis 3, which states
that the particle-based learning (PBL) of phrasal verbs should not be considered
by ESL/EFL practitioners, such as teachers and publishers, as a more effective
method for learning/teaching phrasal verbs, was empirically falsified. In order to
answer Research Question 3，we can say, based on the rejection of Hypothesis 3，that
there are differences in the feedbacks given by the two groups of students. It can
be generally said that students prefer the PBL of phrasal verbs to the traditional
semantic category approach.
6.4.2 Discussion of six questions of questionnaire
The following discussion will be devoted to the explanation of the students'
fondness for PBL in general and to the mean scores for each question in the
questionnaire in particular. To facilitate the discussion, Table 6.1 below summarizes
how the two groups differ in the mean score for each question in the questionnaire:
Table 6.1: Comparison of the mean score of each question in questionnaire
ll.The |2. The 3. The 4. The 5. The 6. This

learning learning learning teaching teaching method can
material is material is material is method is method be a good
informative, new. interesting, new. makes things method to
easier to enhance
memorize, phrasal
verb
learning.
Group 1 4.94 4.69 3.94 3.54 3.83 4.37
Group 2 5.06 5.03 4.80 4.83 4.71 4.89
Each question was provided with a 6-point scale with "1" denoting "strongly disagree" whereas ‘‘6”
"strongly agree."
There is not a big difference between the mean scores of Question 1 (Gp.l: 4.94;
Gp.2: 5.06). Nor is the difference statistically significant (P value = 0.353). This can
be explained by the fact that the learning materials used for both groups contain the
basic information needed for learning a phrasal verb; that is, the phrasal verb itself
and its meaning. A bigger difference of mean score is shown between the two groups
in Question 2, though the difference is still not statistically significant (P value =
0.114). The author here speculates that the graphical representations of the image
schemas and the conceptual metaphors accompanying the verb and the particle of
each phrasal verb add interest to the learning material through visual images. By
contrast, the semantic category listed at the top of each group of phrasal verbs does
not appear to be new to Group 1.
Indicated by the P values (<0.05)，Questions 3 and 4 show significant differences
of mean scores between Group 1 and Group 2. It is believed that these two questions
are indeed related to each other in the sense that the result of Question 3 can be
explained by that of Question 4. In the teaching and learning session for Group 2,
students were first introduced to the essence of conceptual metaphors and image
schemas. They were then briefed on how ordinary everyday language, phrasal verbs
for instance, is structured by conceptual metaphors and image schemas. With this in
mind, the students were then taken through all the 16 phrasal verbs by applying to
each of them the theory just discussed. In this way, students in Group 2 received a
new teaching point; that is, the theories of conceptual metaphors and image schemas.
The new teaching method enabled them to understand the phrasal verbs in the
teaching and learning paper in a different but vivid and interesting way. That is why
the high mean score in Question 4 results in the high mean score in Question 3.
Students in Group 1，on the contrary, did not receive any new teaching points. Nor did
they enjoy any chance to apply what is theoretically new to assist them in the practical
learning. They were just taken through the phrasal verbs one by one by having the
researcher reading to them the phrasal verbs and their meanings. Therefore, the low
mean score in Question 3 is owed to the low mean score in Question 4.
Although the differences in the mean scores between the two groups in the two
last questions are not as big as those in the previous two, the differences are still
significant and worth noting. The reasons for higher mean scores shown by Group 2
in Questions 5 and 6 are believed to be in direct relation to all the theoretical supports
brought forth to account for Hypotheses 1 and 2. To highlight the gist, conceptual
metaphors and image schemas provide precise elaboration and then enhance retention
of phrasal verbs in cognitive semantic network. It can then be concluded that the PBL
makes phrasal verbs easier to memorize in particular and enhances phrasal verb
learning as a whole.
6.4.3 Fallacies in traditional phrasal verb learning
In "order to further account for the overall higher mean scores of Group 2 for all
the six questions, we need to introduce the views of some linguists in the field on the
traditional teaching and learning of phrasal verbs. Based on his study, Side (1990)
criticized most of the phrasal verb textbooks and exercise books for advising students
to simply memorize a list of phrasal verbs according to the verbs. Worse still, students
are always asked by teachers to "[leam phrasal verbs] by heart" (Side, 1990, p. 144).
According to what he has observed in students receiving the traditional teaching and
learning of phrasal verbs, Side summarizes eight attitudes of students towards phrasal
verbs. But due to the relatedness to explaining the overall higher mean scores of
Group 2，only the first five points will be listed below and discussed later on. The five
attitudes of students towards phrasal verbs are:
1. There are a confusing number of combinations of verb and particle.
2. Many phrasal verbs have more than one meaning.
3. The meaning of the idiomatic phrasal verbs does not appear to be the sum of
the two parts.
4. Students will stick to and use the latinate one-word verbs rather than the
Anglo-Saxon phrasal verbs since the latinate one-word verbs are given as
definitions in dictionaries and course books.
5. The particle seems random in combination with the verb.
, O n the one hand, it is clear from the above that students' attitudes towards the
traditional teaching and learning of phrasal verbs are generally negative. The attitudes,
on the other hand, reflect the fallacies of the traditional phrasal verb learning. Relating
to the comparison of mean scores in the questionnaire, it is not surprising that Group 1
did not rank the questions as high as Group 2 since the organization and presentation
of phrasal verbs for Group 1 fall into the trap of the fallacies above. On the contrary,
the PBL offered Group 2 a newer and more interesting method of learning phrasal
verbs in which the fallacies found in the traditional approach are all avoided. In other
words, the PBL in general, and conceptual metaphors and image schemas in particular,
contribute to a more effective phrasal verb learning than the traditional one in the
sense that it can provide a cognitive semantic network in which phrasal verbs with the
same particle but different meanings are interconnected systematically.
6.4.4 Metaphoric triangle for phrasal verb learning
To support the falsification of Hypothesis 3 and explain the overall higher mean
scores of Group 2 in the questionnaire, the present study has incorporated Holme's
(1999) model of metaphor in relation to second language learning. The model is
entitled "metaphoric triangle for phrasal verb learning." The author speculates that the
PBL used in Group 2 resembles very much the notion of the model and therefore, as
suggested by Holme in explaining the effectiveness of the model, betters the phrasal
verb acquisition in second language learning. The following figure illustrates the
model:
Figure 6.1: Metaphoric triangle for phrasal verb learning
Phrasal verb meaning construction (1)
/ PBL X
^r •
；' *>-'.：‘ with
Z .
^ conceptual metaphors
Z and
Z image schemas : \
. . . . ^ ^
Learning (2) Affect (3)
(adapted from Holme, 1999，p.5)
Through the introduction of the theories of conceptual metaphors and image
schemas at the beginning of the lesson, the classroom of Group 2 receiving the PBL
was set up as a zone of conceptual networking in which students were to develop
chains of associations of the phrasal verbs they were to leam. When they were
presented with phrasal verbs, they discovered the coincidence between the
mechanisms through which meaning was built in the phrasal verb and those through
which" the construct was acquired. The coincidence, as suggested by Holme, is due to
the metaphorical nature of language and learning. The "metaphoric triangle for
phrasal verb learning" depicts how the three elements, which are crucial in and
indispensable to phrasal verb learning, are conjoined by the conceptual metaphors and
image schemas in the PBL. It is believed that the classroom of Group 2 has been
successfully set up according to the triangle. It should be highlighted here that a new,
interesting and interactive learning atmosphere (i.e. affect) contribute a lot to phrasal
verb learning since it is, according to Holme, essential in second language learning
and it is conjoined to meaning and learning by the existence of the PBL in successful
phrasal verb learning.
6.5 Summary
To recall, the author has successfully established on the one hand congruent
references to the well-known linguistic theories in accounting for the falsification of
the three null hypotheses. On the other hand, the author has emphasized how
promising are the linguistic theories from different aspects in contributing to the
practical soundness of the PBL of phrasal verbs. The following eight points serve as a
summary of all the discussions mentioned above. More importantly, they are
presented as a highlight of how PBL of phrasal verbs is both theoretically and
practically sound in terms of vocabulary learning in second language acquisition.
1. Conceptual metaphors and image schemas are experiential and embodied in nature.
Linguistic expressions are full of metaphorical thinking which arises from our
embodied experiences in the world. Therefore, both conceptual metaphors and

image schemas are tacitly known to everybody. PBL of phrasal verbs make
learners aware of this tacit knowledge in their conceptual system. Through
teaching of phrasal verbs with PBL, learners are made aware of what are stored
there passively in their conceptual system. They are then able to actively utilize
conceptual metaphors and image schemas and employ them as strategies for
understanding figurative phrasal verbs.
2. English is a satellite-framed language in which expression of MOTION and
MANNER is canonically designated by verbs whereas that of PATH is rendered
by particles. PBL utilizes the image schema denoted by the particle as the
backbone of learning. It helps learners better understand first the spatial sense of
the particle and then its expression of PATH which performs the framing function
of the overall motion event of the phrasal verb.
3. Visual images are indispensable in learning since they constitute the majority of
all kinds of mental images created in the human mind. The graphical
representations of image schemas presented in PBL serve as the imagery codes
, (Im). These visual inputs together with the verbal inputs (V) create the
information which is dually coded and hence, according to the dual coding theory,
gains an advantage in the long term retention.

4. Words are stored in different nodes which are connected to each other by various
retrieval paths in the cognitive semantic network. During the consolidation stage
of vocabulary acquisition, the more precise elaborations take place, the more
retrieval paths are connected to different nodes and hence the easier it is for words
in the nodes to be recalled. In PBL, precise elaboration is in the form of an
inference, a continuation, an example and an image. These forms of precise
elaboration are presented to learners via conceptual metaphors and image schemas.
As more retrieval paths are linked to the information unit, the phrasal verbs stored
there can be better retained and recalled.
5. Peripheral senses of particles can be better understood by students if they are
provided with the corresponding core senses. In PBL, the graphical
representations of the image schemas illustrate the core sense of the particles. The
core senses are then metaphorically extended to the peripheral senses via
conceptual metaphors and image-schema transformations. In this way, the
figurative meanings of particles are systematically motivated and thus better
comprehended and stored.
6. Related to (4) and (5), core senses enable students to have precise elaboration
which incorporates the figurative senses of the particles into the cognitive
semantic network more effectively. As incorporated more effectively, the
figurative senses can be recalled more easily.
7. PBL of phrasal verbs adds interest to phrasal verb learning by presenting to
students conceptual metaphors and graphical representations of image schemas.
Students find it more interesting and, more importantly, systematic than the
traditional "rote-leaming" of phrasal verbs.
8. PBL of phrasal verbs create a special learning atmosphere for the phrasal verb
lesson. This atmosphere is brought by the "metaphoric triangle for phrasal verb
learning" in which conceptual metaphors and image schemas serve as the
centering elements linking the three factors, namely "phrasal verb meaning
construction", "learning" and "affect", together. Due to metaphoric nature of
language and learning, students can discover, as led through the metaphoric
triangle, the coincidence between the mechanisms through which meaning is built
in the phrasal verb and those through which construct is acquired.
In the light of the discussions in this chapter and all the points mentioned above,
the next chapter will be devoted to the pedagogical implications of PBL on phrasal
verb learning in ESL/EFL students. Applications of PBL will also be explicated with
various sample material designs for teaching and learning of phrasal verbs. Following
this, the next chapter will end with a conclusion which focuses not only on the
concluding remarks of this study, but also on some limitations of the present study
and suggestions for further research.

CHAPTER SEVEN
PEDAGOGICAL IMPLICATIONS AND CONCLUSION
7.1 Introduction
This chapter focuses specifically on the pedagogical soundness of PBL of
phrasal verbs for ESL students in Hong Kong. It is speculated that PBL sheds light on
a more systematic and interesting phrasal verb learning than the traditional approach.
Before discussing the practical implementation of PBL in ESL classrooms, there will
be, in Section 7.2, an informal examination of the traditional approach to phrasal verb
teaching and learning in various English textbooks and exercise books in Hong Kong.
It aims at highlighting the inadequacies and fallacies in the traditional treatment of
phrasal verbs adopted in the books, which in turn cause the avoidance of phrasal verbs
in ESL students in Hong Kong. Following this is Section 7.3 in which there will be a
thorough discussion of how PBL can be practically implemented in ESL phrasal verb
learning. Accompanying the implementation are two sets of sample materials
(Sections 7.3.2.1 and 7.3.2.2) designed for two groups of students at different English
proficiency levels. After a conclusion made for the pedagogical implications in
Section 7.3, Section 7.4 will be an overall conclusion of present study. This section
will explain some limitations found in this study and suggestions for future research.
The whole study will then close with the author's expectation of PBL on bettering the
overall phrasal verb learning in ESL students of Hong Kong.
7.2 Traditional approach to phrasal verbs in Hong Kong English textbooks
As mentioned in Chapter 2 of this paper, phrasal verbs create special problems
for many ESL/EFL students. Avoidance behaviour has been found in all the
experimental studies concerning ESL/EFL students' knowledge and usage of English
phrasal verbs (Dagut and Laufer, 1985; Hulstijn and Marchena, 1989; Laufer and
Eliasson, 1993; Liao and Fukuya, 2002). Focusing on ESL students in Hong Kong,
although there are not any empirical studies carried out so far to investigate the
avoidance behaviour of phrasal verbs in ESL students of Hong Kong, there are
reasons to speculate that students here manifest more or less the same degree of
avoidance compared to those ESL/EFL students in the studies mentioned above.
First, as stated by Lam (2003), grammar teaching receives more attention and is
therefore treated as a more important element which consumes more teaching time in
the English teaching syllabus implemented in many Hong Kong's ESL classrooms.
Generally speaking, a larger proportion of time and effort is spent on grammar rather
than vocabulary items. The difference is even bigger in the syllabus designed for
intermediate to advanced level ESL students. In other words, vocabulary learning in

general receives little attention while phrasal verbs in particular are not found to be an
important vocabulary items in the ESL classrooms of Hong Kong. It is therefore not
surprising that a general avoidance tendency of phrasal verbs is found among ESL
students in Hong Kong due to the lack of emphasis on such a vocabulary item in the
syllabus.
Another reason accounting for the avoidance of phrasal verbs in many local ESL
students is the traditional treatment of phrasal verbs in textbooks. According to Side
(1990), phrasal verbs in many textbooks are presented to students in a list where a
definition and an example are given for each entry in the phrasal verb list. Students
are recommended to leam the whole list of phrasal verbs by heart. Such a learning
method is by and large rote learning and what is required is nothing more than
memorization. This kind of traditional treatment of phrasal verbs is, unfortunately
enough, found in many English textbooks which are commonly used in many Hong
Kong's secondary schools. Based on what Lam (2003) has observed in a quick and
informal survey of some primary and secondary English textbooks, the author of the
present study has taken another library research of the current primary and secondary
English textbooks as well as the grammar exercise books. In line with Lam's
observation, no explicit teaching of phrasal verbs is found in the primary level English
textbooks, though some exercise books at this level include several simple
fill-in-the-blank exercises of phrasal verbs. As for the secondary level, two most
commonly-used textbooks were examined, they were: Longman s Target English and
Longman ’s English Express. The author also examined two grammar exercise books
which are used by most teachers as supplementary to their textbooks. The following
table, which has incorporated what Lam (2003) has observed in Longman ’s Target
English, serves as a summary of the phrasal verb presentation methods adopted in the
captioned textbooks and exercise books:
I'
Table 7.1: Summary of phrasal verb presentation methods adopted in Hons Kong
English textbooks and exercise books
Series Nature Book Title Presentation methods

- phrasal verb listing
- exercises
4 Phrasal verbs
Target English Textbook - students are asked to consult dictionary
for help.
Phrasal verbs - phrasal verb listing
for traveling - exercises
- definitions of prepositional verbs and
phrasal verbs
- illustrations of transitivity and
Prepositional verbs . . ,
intransitivity of phrasal verbs
English Express Textbook 5 and .
- exercises (cloze passages in which
phrasal verbs
students are asked to replace phrases
with suitable phrasal verbs)
(see Appendix 15 for details)
- illustrations of separable and inseparable
phrasal verbs
- phrasal verb listing according to
semantic fields (e.g. daily activities.
Easy Grammar Exercise book 3 Phrasal verbs , • 厂」 �
traveling, work, education, friends, etc.)
- exercises (fill in the blanks with and
without choices)
- definition of phrasal verbs
- illustrations of transitivity and
separability of phrasal verbs
- students are suggested to look up
2 Phrasal verbs
dictionaries for checking how to use
• other phrasal verbs
Exercise book - exercises (fill in the blanks)
Grammar Explained , . �.，，r � . ， �
__ (see Appendix 17 for details)
- verb-based listing of phrasal verbs
- illustrations of transitive and intransitive
For phrasal verbs
Phrasal verbs
HKCEE - exercises (multiple-choice cloze
passages)
An overview of the presentation methods adopted by the English textbooks and
exercise books reveals that phrasal verbs are treated as purely opaque lexical items
which have to be learnt by heart. Vocabulary listing is the most popular presentation
method adopted. As can be seen, the bases for arranging the phrasal verbs in the list
are verb sameness and categorical similarity. Worse still, some list phrasal verbs
randomly in the sense that there are no bases for listing and selection. All in all, it is
quite obvious that the decomposability of the figurative nature of the phrasal verbs is
by and large ignored. On the one hand, teachers can do nothing more than reading
students the phrasal verbs and their meanings while students, on the other hand, can
adopt no strategies for learning the phrasal verbs but just by rote memorization. There
is not any systematic arrangement and presentation of the underlying pattern of verb
and particle in phrasal verbs, thus making students feel difficult to understand the
meaning. In such a condition, any illustrations of transitivity and separability of
phrasal verbs do nothing but bewilder the students. Unfortunately, this kind of
unsystematic way of phrasal verb learning is widely used in almost all English books
in Hong Kong and, worse still, is being adopted as a trend and tradition in phrasal
verb learning. Since teachers and students still find no way out of it, they have to stick
to using the traditional method regardless of its ineffectiveness in genuinely teaching
students phrasal verbs.

7.3 Pedagogical implications of PBL on phrasal verb learning
The inadequacies and fallacies in the traditional treatment of phrasal verbs cause
avoidance of using the L2 form in question in many ESL students in Hong Kong. It is
also because of such an unsystematic presentation of phrasal verbs in textbooks,
teachers are frustrated whereas students feel astray on the path of phrasal verb
learning. It is hence not surprising to hear teachers always tell students that the
combinations of verbs and particles in phrasal verbs are random. Nor is it rare that
students are instructed to leam phrasal verbs by heart, thereby implying that there is
no system. It seems that there is a pressing need to find our way out.
The encouraging results obtained from the experimental group receiving the PBL
of phrasal verbs in this study shed light on the practical soundness of the PBL of
phrasal verbs. The notions of conceptual metaphors and image schemas embedded in
PBL appear to have strong implications on and break new ground for ESL/EFL
phrasal verb learning. Based on the claimed theoretical and empirical rationales, the
author will, in the following discussion, attempt to explore the possible applications of
PBL (cf. Figure 3.10: Particle-based learning model "PBLM" in Section 3.8.3) in
assisting ESL/EFL students in learning phrasal verbs more systematically and
interestingly.
7.3.1 Forewords to pedagogical application of PBL
There are several important points which should be made clear before going into
details of the pedagogical applications of PBL. It is noted that the following points are
specifically crucial for the in-service teachers to bear in mind before implementing
PBL in any ESL/EFL classrooms.
1. The sample designs of PBL illustrated later is based on the principles of
pedagogical grammar (PG). According to Dirven (1989), PG is based on
descriptive grammar (DG) which must be presented in a learner-accessible way. In
other words, the sample learning materials of PBL are designed in the light of
containing the best possible illustration, presentation and gradation of the learning
problems of ESL/EFL phrasal verb learning. Any theoretical assumptions
underlying PBL should be of no interest to students and hence should not be
presented to students.
2. As empirically proven by Lam (2003)，a lot of learner errors in phrasal verb usage
are LI-induced. This finding corresponds to what is claimed in Chapter 2 of this
study that avoidance of phrasal verbs in L2 learners of English may be due to
either L1-L2 similarities or L1-L2 differences. Since many errors are made due to
incorrect transfer from LI to L2, teachers are recommended to compare and

contrast explicitly in the lessons the particle senses in LI and L2. In this way,
students can be made aware and then grasp the active knowledge of, in the case of
L1-L2 similarities, how LI can transfer and then help them overcome the problem
more easily, and, in the case of L1-L2 differences, how LI can interfere the
understanding of the particle sense inherited only in L2. In other words, both
similar and dissimilar senses of particles in LI and L2 should be mentioned by
teachers.
3. When teaching phrasal verbs with PBL, teachers should keep on reminding
students that the new learning method is to encourage them to get an
understanding and a mastery of the phrasal verb structures, but not to actively
produce the structures and coin new phrasal verbs by themselves. There is a trap
that students may, upon being made aware of and clear about the underlying
pattern of the combinations of verbs and particles in phrasal verbs, think that the
direction from underlying concepts to surface linguistic forms obeys simple rules
of transformation. According to Lam (2003)，students have to be clarified that not
all concepts are "reflexivized" (i.e. surfaced to become a certain structure or fixed
strings of words) to become acceptable usages of a language. Instead, the accepted
surface linguistic forms of a language are a much smaller subset than the set of all
surface forms generalizable by the underlying conceptual system. .

4. Although PBL is advocated and proven in the previous chapters as a more
systematic, effective and interesting way of learning phrasal verbs, it should not
be thought as a substitute for any established vocabulary learning methods (e.g.
Carter and McCarthy, 1988; McCarthy, 1990; Hatch and Brown, 1995; Huckin
and Coady, 1993; Schmidt and McCarthy, 1997). On the contrary, it should be
taken as a complementary technique which is used in conjunction with other
existing methods and approaches, such as Sansome’s (2000) cloze procedures and
games and Side's (1990) contextualization.
7.3.2 Sample learning materials
To recall, Section 7.2 has mentioned that explicit teaching of phrasal verbs does
not come about until Secondary 2 to Secondary 4. Although it is not written black and
white, the English syllabus, as most of the English textbooks and grammar exercise
book surveyed help manifest, seems to favour to start introducing phrasal verbs to
��
Hong" Kong ESL students at their lower intermediate level (Secondary 2) to
intermediate level (Secondary 4). The sample learning materials illustrated below will
be designed according to two groups of target students. The first set of sample
learning materials is designed for students at the lower intermediate to intermediate
level mentioned above. The second set is tailor made for students at the upper
p
intermediate to advanced level. It is believed that students studying in Secondary 6 or
above (including the university level) are suitable for this latter set of sample
materials. The details of and differences between the two sets of materials will be
delineated in the following two subsections.
7.3.2.1 Sample one (lower intermediate to intermediate level)
As suggested in the PBLM in Section 3.8.3, the particle of a phrasal verb serves
as a backbone for the understanding of the meaning of the whole phrasal verb.
Therefore, the first and foremost step in the PBL of phrasal verb is to group together a
set of phrasal verbs to be leamt based on the particle in common. In this sample
material, a set of phrasal verbs with the particle out is listed:
Step One:
Phrasal verbs: Verb + O U T
throw o u t jump o u t send o u t sort o u t pick o u t

cross o u t wipe o u t hammer o u t knock o u t
In Step One, although students are not sure of the meaning of the phrasal verbs,
they have been deeply rooted with an impression by the list of phrasal verbs presented
above that to leam the phrasal verbs must have a great deal to do with the particle out.
This is a milestone for all the procedures coming along since students have been made
aware at the doorstep of their phrasal verb learning of the important role played by the
particle out.
The next step is to guide students to draw a picture which shows their
understanding of the particle out either when it is standing alone or in combination
with a verb. In order to do so, teachers may ask questions such as, in the case of literal
out, "can you draw a man who is walking out of a house?", ‘‘where is the tiger which
is sleeping out of its cage?" or "can you draw a picture in which a teacher is giving
out handouts to her students?" In the case of figurative out, teacher may ask: "how to
draw a boy who is able to find out the answer of a difficult mathematical question?"
or "can you draw a person who is out of his mind at this moment?"
Step Two:
1. Can you draw in the following box the description of the sentence?
"A man is walking out of his house."
2. How can you draw a man who is out of his mind at this moment?
After students have finished drawing their pictures, teachers can pick out several
pictures and point out the commonality — something is moving out of a container—
shared among pictures from different students for Question 1 as well as between
pictures drawn by the same student for Questions 1 and 2. At this stage, teachers
highlight the notion of container shown in all the pictures and relate it to the particle
out in the questions "can you draw a man walking out of his house" and "how can
you draw a person who is out of his mind at this moment?" Students at this time will
be surprised and more importantly impressed by the coincidence between the particle
out in all the questions and the drawings of a container in all the pictures. It is then a
good time to introduce to students the CONTAINMENT schema of the particle out
and its relation to the phrasal verbs with the particle out.
Step Three:
CONTAINMENT Schema (OUT)
f “ \ f ‘ \
隱 … … > •
V J V J
Set 1: Concrete Entity Is A Container
1. Throw out: They decided to throw out most of their old clothes.
2. Jump out: As the fire was spreading, we opened a window and jumped out.
3. Send out: Mother sent the boy out to buy something to eat.
Set 2: Groups Are Containers
4. Sort out: Begin to sort out the problems you can do something about now.
5. Pick out: She picked out the most expensive dress in the shop.
6. Cross out: Cross out the word that does not fit in each series.
Set 3: States/Situations Are Containers
7. Wipe out: During WWII the Nazis nearly wiped out the Jews.
8. Hammer out. It is high time for the two parties to hammer out their differences.
9. Knock out: In the third round the heavyweight champion was knocked out.
(The phrasal verbs chosen and the sentences in which they are incorporated
are based on Rudzka-Ostyn, 2003，pp. 15-23).
The presentation of phrasal verbs with particle out above is in line with the notions
advocated in PBLM in which the image schemas (CONTAINMENT Schema) serves as the
source for the understanding of the conceptual metaphors (e.g. Groups Are Containers).
Unlike the PBLM in Section 3.8.3, there is not a particular conceptual metaphor for the
verb and the particle components separately. The reason is that this set of material is
designed for students with lower intermediate to intermediate English level. It is speculated
that a separate conceptual metaphor for the verb and the particle of each phrasal verb may
overload the learning tasks and, worse still, confuse students' comprehension of the particle
and the phrasal verbs. Therefore, the criterion for designing this set of material is to give
students at this level an adequate amount of metaphors which are sufficient enough to
motivate their understanding of the phrasal verbs.
The rationale for the arrangement of phrasal verbs in Step Three is also based on what
are suggested by 1) Rudzka-Ostyn (2003), 2) Boers and Demecheleer (1998), and 3) Side
(1990).
1. In the sample design, the graphical representation of the image schema of the particle
out appears on the top of everything. Based on the theoretical rationale for PBLM,
image schemas play the framing role for the metaphorical mappings and the overall
understanding of phrasal verbs. It is important to put it first so that students are aware
that all the things coming along, such as the phrasal verbs and conceptual metaphors,
are organized under the same image schema. According to Rudzka-Ostyn (2003),
moreover, the image schema will help students to visualize their own schemas when
going through completely different phrasal verbs incorporated into different sentences.
2. In their implications for teaching phrasal verbs, Boers and Demecheleer (1998) suggest
that the conceptual links between spatial sense of particle and its figurative extension
could be clarified by means of an appropriate sequence of examples with graded levels
of abstraction. Following this suggestion, phrasal verbs in Step Three are classified into
three sets with each of them entailing phrasal verbs with a similar level of
figurativeness. For example, Set 1 is the least figurative (literal) and is therefore put at
first. Following is Set 2 in which the particle out of the phrasal verbs is more figurative.
Set 3 is composed of phrasal verbs with both of the components being figurative. From
the cognitive semantic point of view, arrangement of phrasal verbs based on gradation
of figurativeness (from the least to the most) helps students pay more attention to the
literal spatial sense of the particle presented earlier and then better comprehend the
unfamiliar figurative sense coming later.
3. It has long been recognized that vocabulary learning is far more effective with the
words to be leamt being contextualized. According to Side (1990)，contextualization

helps students leam phrasal verbs in a meaningful manner. One way to contextualize
the phrasal verbs in Step Three is to incorporate the phrasal verbs into sentences. By
doing so, the information provided by the sentences serves as a context for students to
understand the meaning of the phrasal verbs. Another way to contextualize the phrasal
verbs is to make a list of related words which are grouped into semantic fields. In order
to do so, phrasal verbs are grouped together according to the particles designating
similar/same cognitive semantic properties. Throw out, jump 'out and send out are
grouped into a set as the particle out denotes a physical movement, probably, as seen in
the three sentences, from the inside of a house to its outside. The concrete entity (e.g.
house) involved in the three sentences is , on the one hand, highlighted by the
conceptual metaphor and, on the other hand, semantically linking the three phrasal
verbs together to provide a context for learning.
7.3.2.2 Sample two (upper-intermediate to advanced level)
This sample material is designed for students ranging from upper-intermediate level to
advanced level. Roughly speaking, ESL students in Hong Kong studying in secondary 6 or
above (including university level) fall into this level. Both Steps One and Two used in
Sample One are applicable to students using this sample. Nevertheless, teachers may save
the time used in Step Two by simply asking questions and brainstorming students about the
container instead of asking them to draw the pictures out. What is different from Sample
One in this sample is Step Three where a conceptual metaphor is given to the verb and the
particle separately for each phrasal verb to be leamt. This presentation method resembles
the one implemented in the teaching and learning material designed for the experimental
group in this study. Step Three in Sample Two is illustrated as follows:
Step Three:
CONTAINMENT Schema (OUT)
r ‘ \ / ‘ \
m——> Ez：^ •
V ) \ )
Set 1: Concrete Entity Is A Container
(Both the verb and the particle are interpreted literally, so no individual metaphors are
involved.)
1. Throw out: They decided to throw out most of their old clothes.
2. Jump out: As the fire was spreading, we opened a window and jumped out.
3. Send out: Mother sent the boy out to buy something to eat.
Set 2: Groups Are Containers
(Only the particle is interpreted figuratively and hence provided with its metaphor.)
4. Sort out: Begin to sort out the problems you can do something about now.
Out: What Is Solved Goes OUT
5. Pick out: She picked out the most expensive dress in the shop.
Out: What Is Chosen Goes OUT
6. Cross out: Cross out the word that does not fit in each series.
Out: What Is Deleted Goes OUT
Set 3: States/Situations Are Containers
(Both the verb and the particle are figurative in meaning, so they are provided with a
conceptual metaphor separately.)
7. Wipe out: During WWII the Nazis nearly wiped out the Jews.
Wipe: Destroying Is Wiping
Out: What Is Destroyed Goes OUT
8. Hammer out: It is high time for the two parties to hammer out an agreement.
Hammer: Hammering Is Achieving
Out: What Is Achieved Goes OUT
9. Knock out: In the third round the heavyweight champion was knocked out.
Knock: Being Knocked Is Being Defeated
Out: What Is Defeated Goes OUT
It can be seen from the sample material above that students at the upper-intermediate
to advanced level are provided with more conceptual metaphors accompanying the verbs
and the particles of the phrasal verbs, which may, at their first sight, be seen as extra work
overloading and confusing both students and teachers. However, it is suggested in the
vocabulary acquisition theory mentioned in Section 6.2.5 that metaphorical mappings
motivate the understanding of phrasal verbs as well as enhance their retention and retrieval
since they provide a precise elaboration in the stage of vocabulary consolidation. The more
precise the elaboration is, the more retrieval paths are linked to the cognitive node of the
vocabulary item and hence the easier for the item to be recalled and retrieved.
Another reason for introducing more conceptual metaphors is that students at this
level are exposed to a wider scope of the English language. In other words, they have more
chances to come across words which are polysemous in nature. As mentioned in Section
6,3.2 regarding the cognitive linguistic view on polysemous words, peripheral senses of a
word are motivated in so far as they are extensions of the core sense(s). Conceptual
metaphors play an important and indispensable role in motivating the understanding of the
peripheral/figurative senses from the core one(s). Therefore, it is speculated that an
adequate amount of conceptual metaphors provided in Step Three above assist students in
understanding the polysemous nature of words. That is to say, they are more able to relate
the core sense to the peripheral sense, which is a crucial step in vocabulary learning in
general and phrasal verb learning in particular.
r
If some of the students still find it difficult to understand the figurative phrasal verbs
in Set 3, teachers may introduce a table which highlights the conceptual mapping of a
concrete container onto an abstract state/situation. The table is as follow:
Step Four:
The STATE of with OUT
EXISTENCE CEASES TO EXIST

BEING CONSCIOUS IZ^ CEASES TO BE CONSCIOUS
BEING KNOWN CEASES TO BE KNOWN
BEING VISIBLE CEASES TO BE VISIBLE
BEING POSSIBLE CEASES TO BE POSSIBLE
(adapted from Rudzka-Ostyn, 2003, p.22)
The table above explains how we talk about abstract entities or relations in concrete
terms. Teachers need to explain to students that we always conceptualize abstract things as
if we make a container of state and situation (abstract things) in which an object (person or
thing) may be. Therefore, states of existence, consciousness, knowledge, visibility and
possibility, which are illustrated in the table, are conceptualized as entities with boundaries
around them, that is, as containers. Therefore, the table serves as a general principle for
establishing the understanding of abstract states based on concrete boundaries of
containers.
Coming to the last step, Step Five, of the sample material, teachers are suggested to
make a summary of all the different senses (including both literal and figurative) of the
particle out. Below is a graphical synthesis of the related meanings, from core (literal) to
peripheral (figurative), of the particle out. It corresponds to the notion of PBL in the way
that the literal senses of particles can be extended metaphorically to cover all the figurative
occurrences. The extension is not arbitrary but systematic in nature. In other words, it is
possible for us to trace the route of extension from the literal sense to the figurative one.
That is to say, if teachers are to help students trace the route of extension, students can be
benefited a lot as they are made aware of the systematic and related meanings of the
particles.
t
Step Five:
Basic meaning i Movement out of a container
Literal/spatial
I out of / out of \ out ot
—
Extended/
I
out of
T out of
V growing
metaphorical | states/situations states/situations states/situations
containers | e.g. e.g. e.g
I existence non-existence expanding
I knowledge ignorance to
I consciousness invisibility maximal
j possibility boundaries
(adapted from Rudzka-Ostyn, 2003, p. 41)
7.3 Conclusion to pedagogical implications
A quick survey on the local textbooks and grammar exercise books reveals that the
English syllabus here in Hong Kong does not put emphasis on phrasal verbs. Nor is there a
thorough and well-planned curriculum for teaching phrasal verbs. Although some
textbooks and exercise books examined contain phrasal verb teaching, they fail to explain
the underlying system patterning phrasal verbs adequately. Students are just told to leam
phrasal verbs by heart. This is no more than rote memorization. Therefore, it is not
surprising to find a general tendency of avoiding using phrasal verb among ESL students in
Hong Kong.
As the most important element missing in phrasal verb teaching is the explanation of
the underlying pattern of phrasal verbs, the previous section ends by making practical
suggestions for teaching the underlying pattern of phrasal verbs explicitly in the light of
PBL. Based on conceptual metaphors and image schemas, PBL offers students a promising
line for learning phrasal verbs systematically and interestingly. Though it is so, PBL should
not be thought of any substitute which can replace the existing vocabulary learning method.
Instead, it should be treated as a complimentary method assisting students in understanding
the logic of phrasal verbs before going into any extensive drilling exercises.
Presented next is the last section of this study. It will open with some limitations of the
present study and, more importantly, how they can be overcome in future studies.
Following this will be some suggestions for future research. The suggestions will be based
on mainly the unexplored areas of phrasal verbs in relation to cognitive semantics. The next
section will then close with an overall conclusion to the present study.
7.4 An overall conclusion of the present study
7.4.1 Limitations
There are several limitations to the present study. These limitations can be roughly
classified into two aspects: 1) the methodological aspect and 2) the theoretical aspect.
Concerning the methodological aspect, a larger sample size should be considered in
future research. In this study, there were 70 subjects altogether with each group (control
and experimental) having 35 only. It is believed that a larger sample size, say at least 50
subjects in each group, does not only enhance the significance of the results but also assure
the overall credibility of the study.
Another limitation regarding the methodology is time constraint. To recall the amount
of time allocated to the explanation of teaching material in Table 4.1 in Section 4.4.3, it is
no wonder that discussion of phrasal verbs in the experimental group was a bit rush since
researcher had to, on the one hand, go through each phrasal verb as well as its motivating
conceptual metaphor and image schema with the subjects in 15-minutes time and, on the
other hand, make sure that the whole experiment can be finished in the 55-minute tutorial
session. Although everything was right on schedule, it is hard to say that subjects were
really able to understand all of them and were given time to ask for clarification.
Also related to methodology is that the experiment is hard to be carried out in a
naturalistic way. Reasons for this difficulty are twofold. The first reason is related to the
subjects' involvement in the test. As one can recall, the experimental tests were
administered during time borrowed from tutorial sessions of English major courses. As
subjects were not bound to any requirements laid down by the courses to fully participate in
the test, motivation in participation varied from subject to subject, thus affecting the
significance of the results obtained. Another reason is that the experimental teaching of
phrasal verbs was detached from the normal vocabulary learning. As mentioned in Section
7.3.1 of this chapter, conceptual metaphors and image schemas should be treated as a
complementary technique used in conjunction with the existing vocabulary learning
methods. However, subjects in this study were not provided with any accompanying
vocabulary learning tasks such as cloze passages or filling in the blanks. They were simply
taken through half the way of the vocabulary learning process and then assumed to have the
phrasal verbs leamt.
Concerning the theoretical aspect, the present study has only taken into consideration
one of the many issues in phrasal verb learning, that is, the semantic issue. Although
semantics of phrasal verbs is an important issue to be addressed in phrasal verb learning,
other issues such as syntax and collocation are also indispensable for the sake of an
all-round understanding of phrasal verbs. For example, one has to understand the syntax of
a phrasal verb, such as its separability and transitivity, in order to use the phrasal verb
correctly.
Also, the present study simply took the universality of conceptual metaphors for
granted. However, it seems that there are quite a number of differences between the
conceptual metaphors in the Chinese and English languages. The advanced L2 learners of
English in this study may be less affected by the variation of the conceptual metaphors
underlying their LI and L2 due to their long immersion in English. However, if the same
study is replicated by having subjects with lower English proficiency, deviation in the
conceptual metaphors across L1 and L2 may hinder their understanding and consequently
their performance in the test.
7.4.2 Suggestions for future research
Based on the question of the universality of conceptual metaphors mentioned above,
one promising line for future research to pursue is to examine the universality of
conceptual metaphors motivating the understanding of figurative phrasal verbs by eliciting
mental images of verbs and particles in phrasal verbs from ESL/EFL students whose LI
may be Chinese, Japanese, Korean, etc.

It is also possible for future research to further investigate the avoidance behaviour of
phrasal verbs in ESL students of Hong Kong. Similar to the previous studies, there can be
examination of whether the avoidance is caused by 1) L1-L2 similarities, 2) L1-L2
differences, 3) L2 complexity or 4) interlanguage development. The reasons for avoiding
using phrasal verbs are worth investigating since they help, on the one hand, teachers
foresee the potential problems which may be encountered by students in learning phrasal
verbs. On the other hand, they provide guidance for ESL/EFL practitioners, textbook and
exercise book publishers, in designing teaching and learning materials which are suitable
for students in Hong Kong.
7.4.3 Author's expectation of PBL on phrasal verb learning
To end this thesis, the author would like to adapt a point mentioned by Kurtyka (2001)
into the use of a concluding remark: "the cognitive approach to phrasal verbs (exemplified
with PBL in the present study) is a combination of tradition and novelty in foreign
language teaching" (p.49). As stated, traditional are the techniques used in the practising
and testing of phrasal verbs. The novelty lies in the presentation. A quick review of PBL
shows that the employment of conceptual metaphors and image schemas makes use of our
underlying embodied knowledge and experience to facilitate the understanding of the
surface linguistic expressions. Moreover, it also makes use of the natural tendency that
human memory responds more actively to visual imagery to enhance retention and recall of
phrasal verbs. PBL seems to be an improvement which may have a positive effect on
teaching English phrasal verbs in the future. Yet, regardless of how positive it is, the quality
of ESL/EFL phrasal verb teaching and the way in which this cognitive approach is
implemented depends largely on: 1) a larger proportion of time given to vocabulary
acquisition in general and phrasal verb learning in particular in the curriculum; 2) the
adoption of PBL in the commonly-used textbooks and exercise books among secondary
schools in Hong Kong; and 3) the willingness of ESL/EFL practitioners, teachers for
instance, to experiment with this new approach.

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F
P B L o f Phrasal Verbs 194
Appendix 1: Phrasal verbs elicited and their meanings
Run up
Figurative meaning: If someone runs up bills or debts, they start to owe a lot of money
Play up
Figurative meaning: If you play up a fact or feature, you emphasize it and try to make
people think that it is more important than it really is.
Drag out
Figurative meaning: If you drag something out, you make it last for longer than is
necessary.
Fill out
Figurative meaning: If thin people fill out, they become fatter.
Boil down
Figurative meaning: If someone boils down an account of something, they make it
shorter by giving only the basic, most important facts.
Knock down
Figurative meaning: If you get someone to knock the price down when they are selling
you something, you persuade them to reduce the price.
Sleep off
Figurative meaning: If you sleep off the effects of drinking and eating too much, you
recover from the effects by sleeping.
Fall off
Figurative meaning: If the degree, amount, or standard of something falls off, it becomes
‘less or lower.
Carry off
Figurative meaning: If you carry off something that is difficult to do, you succeed in
doing it.
r
Go off
Figurative meaning: If an event or arrangement goes off well, smoothly, or without
problems, it is successful or happens without any problems.
Break up
Figurative meaning: When schools or schoolchildren break up, the school term ends and
the children start their holidays.
Burn up
Figurative meaning: If you say that an engine burns up fuel, you mean that it uses a lot
of fuel.
Set on
Figurative meaning: If animals or people set on you they make a sudden and unexpected
physical attack on you.
Start on
Figurative meaning: If you start on someone, you treat them severely or unfairly, for
example by criticizing them, teasing them, or hitting them.
Shake down
Figurative meaning: If someone shakes you down, they use threats or search you
physically in order to obtain something from you.
Strike down
Figurative meaning: If someone is struck down by an illness, it kills or disables them.
Run out
Figurative meaning: If you run out a length of rope, you unwind some of it and let it
pass away from you.
Pass off
‘Figurative meaning: If an event passes off in a particular way, especially in a satisfactory
way, it happens and ends in that way.
Take off
Figurative meaning: If you take off something such as an amount of money or a mark,
you subtract it from a total.
Turn on
Figurative meaning: If someone turns on you, they suddenly attack you.
Round off
Figurative meaning: If you round something off, you do something to complete it in a
satisfactory way.
Drop off
Figurative meaning: If something drops off, it decreases in amount.
String out
Figurative meaning: If things are strung out, they are spread out in a long line.
Slap down
Figurative meaning: If you slap someone down, you speak to them unkindly or harshly,
usually in order to prevent them from doing or saying something.
Fall on
Figurative meaning: If someone falls on you, they attack you suddenly and violently.
Put down
Figurative meaning: If a vet puts down an animal, he or she kills it.
Appendix 2: English phrasal verbs: Particle test
English Phrasal Verbs: Particle Test
Name: Year of Study:
Instructions:
• There are 45 English phrasal verbs below of which the verb element is given
whereas the particle (e.g. up, in, etc) is missing.
• By referring to the meaning of the phmsal verb (the underlined part), choose from
the box below a suitable particle which best completes the meaning given.
參 Please indicate your choice by writing down the particle in the bracket.
off on down out over up in around at away
1. Carry ( ): to succeed in doing something difficult
2. Boil ( ): to make something shorter by giving only the basic most important Facrs
3. Live ( )： to lead a very enjoyable and exciting time
4. Slap ( ): to speak to someone unkindly or harshly
5. Talk ( ): to make you stop talking by talking louder and longer than you do
6. Cheer ( ): to stop feeling depressed and become more cheerful
7. Tail ( ): to become less in amount
8. Sum ( ): to state briefly and clearly the main points as a conclusion
9. Run ( ): to unwind something and let it pass away from you
10. P u m p ( ): to prepare oneself for something mentally
‘11. Put ( ): to kill an animal because it is old or dangerous
12. Ease ( ): to become slower or less intense
13. Break ( ): the school term ends and the children start their holidays
14. Fall ( ): to attack suddenly or violently

产
15. Wind ( ): to Finish an activity

16. Take ( ): to subtract an amount of money or a mark from its rornl
17. Play ( ): to overemphasize something
18. Go ( ): to happen and then end
19. Burn ( ): to use a lot of fuel
20. Drop ( ): support or interest becomes less strong
21. Pick ( ): to treat someone badly in a repeated manner
22. Round ( ): to complete something in a satisfactory way
23. Pass ( ): to happen and end in a satisfactory way
24. Set ( ): to attack you suddenly and unexpectedly
25. Turn ( ): to suddenly attack you
26. Slim ( ): to employ fewer people in order to save money
27. Knock ( ): to persuade the seller to reduce the price
28. Cast ( ): to lose one's social status
29. Play ( ): to compete to decide which one is the winner
30. Stick ( ); to extend beyond something else
31. Dress ( ): to put on something to make oneself look less smart
32. Strike ( ): to be badly injured or killed
33. Spring ( ): to attack
34. String ( ): to spread out in a long line
35. Sleep ( ): to recover from the effects of drinking too much by sleeping
36. Go ( ): to be defeated in a match or contest
37. Fall ( ): to become less or lower
38. Tear ( ): to destroy something completely

39. Drag ( ): to make something last for longer than is necessary
40. Play ( ): to make people think that something is less important than it really is
41. Run ( ): to fail to pay the bills and to start to owe a lot of money
42. Fill ( ): to become fatter
43. Wind ( ): to work more slowly and eventually stop completely
44. Shake ( ): to pose threat to someone
45. Start ( ): to treat someone severely and unfairly
Thank you for the time being!

Appendix 3: Pre-test paper
English Phrasal Verbs Test (Pre-test)
Name: Year of Study: Code:
Instructions:
- There are 16 sentences below in which 16 English phrasal verbs are incorporated.
- For each phrasal verb, the verb part is given whereas the particle (i.e. up, on) is
missing.
- Complete all the 16 sentences by filling in the blank with an appropriate particlc
which best completes the meaning of the phrasal verb in particular and the sentence ...
as a whole. ..
- After filling in the blank, also write down the meaning of the phrasal verb on the line
provided.
r \
Example:
When my turn came to wind — u p _ the debate, I felt very nervous. ‘::•
Meaning: tofinishdoing something
V y..:.
1. Residents complain about being harassed, roughed up, sometimes even shaken
for their money.
Meaning:
2. We did not know how to prevent them from dragging the talks.
Meaning:
3. We knew that the number of overseas students would fall drastically.

Meaning:
4. He has filled a lot since I last saw him.

Meaning:
5. I was being set by older boys and beaten every morning.

• Meaning:
6. My old car really burns fuel.

Meaning:
7. Everyone felt relieved as the wedding went as planned.

Meaning:
8. We managed to knock the price quite a lot because it was damaged.

Meaning:
9. She ran a telephone bill of two thousand dollars.

Meaning:
10. Our school breaks quite early this year.

Meaning:
11. They started him and he got so embarrassed.

Meaning:
12. He boiled it to a short simple statement of facts.

Meaning:
13. It was a daring attempt but he carried it .

Meaning:
14. She was struck by AIDS.

Meaning:
15. He claimed that he was drunk and was looking for somewhere to sleep it .
Meaning:
/
16. Advertisers always play the good qualities of the house for sale and fail to
‘ mention its disadvantages.
Meaning:
~ End of test �
Appendix 4: Post-test paper
English Phrasal Verbs Test (Post-test)
Instructions:
missing.
- Complete all the 26 sentences by filling in the blank with an appropriate particle
which best completes the meaning of the phrasal verb in particular and the sentence
as a whole.
provided.
f \
Example:
When my turn came to wind — u p _ the debate, I felt very nervous.
Meaning: to finish doing something ：
〒
for their money.
Meaning:
Meaning:

‘ Meaning:

Meaning:
5. ‘ I was being set by older boys and beaten every morning.

Meaning: ‘

Meaning:

Meaning:

Meaning:

Meaning:
10. Our school breaks quite early this year.

Meaning:

Meaning:

Meaning:

Meaning:
Meaning:
15. He claimed that he was drunk and was looking for somewhere to sleep it
Meaning:
‘16. Advertisers always play the good qualities of the house for sale and fail
to mention its disadvantages.
Meaning:
F
17. The fishing line ran until it hits the bottom.

Meaning:
18. Most of the situations pass without mishap.

Meaning:
19. Half a point would be taken for a mistake in spelling.

Meaning:
20. Fred's dogs turned their master and tore him to pieces.
Meaning:
21. We will round it with some observations on Indian history.

Meaning:
22. Student numbers have been dropping recently.

Meaning:
23. She strung twelve pairs of socks along the washing line.
Meaning:
24. Rather than slapping newcomers, we ought to be encouraging them.

Meaning:
25. They fell one another like wolves.

Meaning:
26. The vet would not put the dog .

Meaning:
. � E n dof test �
Appendix 5: Teaching and learning material for control group

English Phrasal Verbs Test (Teaching and Learning)
Instructions:
- There are 16 English phrasal verbs below organized under 4 topics.
- The figurative meaning of each phrasal verb is given below the phrasal verb.
- Study and memorize each phrasal verb and its figurative meaning carefully.
Topic: Increasing p
Run up
Play up
Drag out
necessary.
Fill out
Topic: Decreasing |
Boil down
Figurative meaning: If someone boils down an account of something, they make it
Knock down
‘Sleep off
Fall off
less or lower.
Topic: Completing |
I i
Carry off
doing it.
Go off
Figurative meaning: If an event or arrangement goes off well, smoothly, or without
Break up
Burn up
of fuel
Topic: Attacking |
Set on
Start on
Shake down
‘Strike down
Appendix 6: Teaching and learning material for experimental group

English Phrasal Verbs Test (Teaching and Learning)
Instructions:
- There are 16 English phrasal verbs below organized in 5 image schemas (IS).
- The figurative meaning of each phrasal verb is given below the phrasal verb.
- For each phrasal verb, the figurative meaning of the constituent parts (i.e. verb +
particle) is motivated by the conceptual metaphors (CM).
- By referring to the IS and CM, study and memorize each phrasal verb and its
figurative meaning carefully.
Image Schema: POSITIVE VERTICALITY fUP)

f N f \
V J \ /
Run up
Run: Accumulating Is Running
Play up
Play: Emphasizing Is Playing
Break up
Break: When Something E n d s It Breaks
Up: Completion Is U P
Burn up
of fuel.
Burn: Consumption Is Combustion
Up: Completing Is Going U P
F
Image Schema: NEGATIVE VERTICALITY (DOWN)
Boil down
關
V y \ y
Figurative meaning: If someone boils down an account of something, they make k

Boil: Summarizing An Account Is Boiling Liquid

Down: What Decreases Goes D O W N
Knock down
Knock: Reducing Something Is Striking It

Down: What Decreases Goes D O W N
Shake down
Shake: T h r e a t e n i n g Is Shaking
Down: What Is Extracted Goes D O W N
Strike down
Strike: Catching A Disease Is Being Hit

Down: Being D e a d Or Disabled Is Being D O W N
Image Schema: CONTAINMENT (OUT)

/ ^ f \
• > ^ I
V y \ J
Drag out
necessary.
Drag: Lengthening Is Pulling With Effort
Out: What Increases Goes O U T
/ \ 广、
I ^ •
• M • • •
V J V J
Fill out
Fill: Growing Fat Is Filling Something
Out: What Increases Goes O U T
Image Schema: MOVING O N TO fON；^
广 \ r \
I 一I I _ 1 _ 1
i ^
V ) \ )
Set on
Set: Nil
‘On: (Physically Attacking Someone) Is Moving O N To T h e m
Start on
Start: Nil
On: (Verbally Attacking Someone) Is Moving O N To T h e m
Image Schema: MOVING OFF FROM rOFF)

f f ^
X
i EZlC)
i i L_iJ
Sleep off
Sleep: Nil .
Off: What Decreases Moves O F F
Fall off
less or lower.
Fall: Becoming Less Is Falling

Off: What Decreases Moves O F F
Carry off
doing it.
Carry: Succeeding Is Carrying Something

Off: Completing Something Is Moving It O F F
Go off
‘Figurative meaning: If an event or arrangement goes off well, smoothly, or without
Go: H a p p e n i n g Is Moving
Off: Completion Is Moving O F F
Appendix 7: One-week delay test paper
English Phrasal Verbs Test (One-week delay test)
Instructions:
missing.
- Complete all the 26 sentences by filling in the blank with an appropriate particle
which best completes the meaning of the phrasal verb in particular and the sentence
as a whole.
provided. :.:.
Example:
When my turn came to wind —up— the debate, I felt very nervous. ："•：
Meaning: to finish doing something .>：
for their money.
Meaning:
Meaning:

Meaning:

Meaning:
5. ‘ I was being set by older boys and beaten every morning.

Meaning: ：

Meaning:

Meaning:

Meaning:

Meaning:
10. Our school breaks quite early this year. ..

Meaning:

Meaning:

Meaning:

Meaning:
Meaning:
15. He claimed that he was drunk and was looking for somewhere to sleep it
Meaning:
‘16. Advertisers always play the good qualities of the house for sale and fail
to mention its disadvantages.
Meaning:
p
17. The fishing line ran until it hits the bottom.

Meaning:
18. Most of the situations pass without mishap.

Meaning:
19. Half a point would be taken for a mistake in spelling.

Meaning:
20. Fred's dogs turned their master and tore him to pieces.
Meaning:
21. We will round it with some observations on Indian history.

Meaning:
22. Student numbers have been dropping recently.

Meaning:
23. She strung twelve pairs of socks along the washing line.
Meaning:
24. Rather than slapping newcomers, we ought to be encouraging them.

Meaning:
25. They fell one another like wolves.

Meaning:
26. The vet would not put the dog .

Meaning:
' � E n dof test �

Appendix 8: Questionnaire
English Phrasal Verbs Test (Questionnaire)
Instructions:
- This is a questionnaire designed for the researcher to gain feedback on how you feel
about the teaching and learning of English phrasal verbs carried out just now.
- Please circle the number which best describes your feeling about the statement.
strongly agree slightly slightly disagree strongly

agree agree disagree disagree
1. The learning 6 5 4 3 2 1
material is
informative
material is new
material is
interesting
4. The teaching 6 5 4 3 2 1
method is new
5. The teaching 6 5 4 3 2 1
method makes
things easier to
memorize
6. The method can 6 5 4 3 2 1
be a good method
to enhance
phrasal verb
learning
Appendix 9: Teaching and learning of conceptual metaphors and image schemas
Part One: What are Metaphors?
Your claims are indefensible. War Argument

His criticisms are right on target. War Argument
H e shot down all of my arguments. War 今 Argument
(Lakoff and Johnson, 1980)
ARGUMENT IS WAR I
Conceptual Metaphor: A cross domain mapping which links the

concrete source domain to abstract target domain.
WAR I [argument
Source Domain Target Domain
Part Two: Application of conceptual metaphor in understanding phrasal verbs
W h e n my t u r n c a m e to wind up the debate, I felt very nervous.
C o n c e p t u a l m e t a p h o r of "wind": Finishing I s Winding
Winding Finishing
How about the particle “Up，，？
Part Three: Image Schemas
W h a t is your p e r c e p t i o n of the particle " U P " ?
O u r p e r c e p t i o n of " U P " as • is based on our b o d i l y e x p e r i e n c e such as:
One will stand U P and yell because of excitement
HAPPY IS UP I
Image schemas: T h e recurring abstract structures of o u r b o d i l y e x p e r i e n c e

conceptualized in o u r c o n c e p t u a l system.
(Johnson, 1987)
W h e n my t u r n c a m e to w i n d u p the debate, I felt very nervous.
C o n c e p t u a l m e t a p h o r of "wind": Finishing Is Winding
C o n c e p t u a l m e t a p h o r of " u p " : Completing I s U p

Appendix 10: Detailed SPSS output for Table 5.2
Difference between pre test and post test (Control group)
Paired Samples Statistics
Mean N Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean
" p ^ ^ 10.7286 35 9.34694 1.57992
POST_S 51.4786 35 20.67477 3.49467
Paired Samples Correlations
N Correlation Sig.
Pair 1 PRE& 。 …
35 .320 .061
POST_S
Paired Samples Test
Paired Differences
95% Confidence Interval of

I
the Difference |
Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean Lower Upper 丨 t df Sig. (2-ta丨led)
Pairl PRE- .40.7500 19.77381 ‘ 3.34238 -47.5425 -33.9575 I -12.192 34 .000

P〇ST_S I ;
Difference between pre test and post test (experimental group)
Paired Samples Statistics
Mean N Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean
™ 9.8214 35 7.54900 1.27601
POST_S 67.5929 35 14.88881 2.51667
Paired Samples Correlations
N Correlation Sig.
Pair 1 PRE& _ •
35 .275 .109
P〇ST_S
Paired Samples Test
Paired Differences
the Difference ，
Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean Lower ‘ Upper t df Sig. (2-tailed)
(
Pairl PRE- _57.77丨4 1^ 72235 2.48853 -62.8287 , -52.7141 -23.215 34 .000

POST_S ：
Appendix 11: Detailed SPSS output for Table 5.2
Pre test
Group Statistics
GROUP N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean
PRE control group 35 10.7286 9.34694 1-57992
experimental 产一 ,
35 9.8214 7.54900 1.27601
group
Independent Samples Test
Levene's Test for Equality
of Variances t-test for Equality of Means

i
I Std. Error the Difference

I I —r
! I
p Sig I t df Sig. (2-tailed) i Mean Difference Difference Lower Upper
：~I 1
PRE Equal variances 2.366 .129 I .447 68 .657 | .9071 2.03085 -3.14536 ； 4.95965
, assumed 1 j
: I 1
Equal variances not | 447 65.116 .657 | .9071: 2.0.^085 -3.14861 j 4.96290
assumed ' ！ •
PBL ofPbrasal Verbs 220
Post test,(Seen)
Group Statistics
POST_S control group 35 51.4786 20.67477 3.49467
experimental
35 67.5929 14.88881 2.51667
group
、

「 ‘
I 95% Confidence Interval of
Std. Error the Difference
p Sig. t 1 df Sig. (2-tailed) Mean Difference Difference Lower Upper
POST_S Equal variances 2.724 .103 -3.742 ‘ 68 .000 -16.1143 4.30655 -24.70787 -7.52070
assumed ！
Equal variances not .3 742 61.791 .000 -16.1143 4.30655 -24.72354 -7.50504
assumed ；
One week delay test (Seen)
Group Statistics
ONE_S control group 35 32.6643 18.41873 3.11333
experimental ^ „ o一广
35 52.6214 17.15279 2.89935
group

,
p Sig. t df Sig. (2-tailed) Mean Difference Difference Lower ！ Upper
^^^M^HMi^BMM^^^HBI^H
ONE_S Equal variances ^^^ 681 -4.691 68 .000 '-19.9571 I 4.25430 -28.44647 ! -11.46781
assumed 丨；
Equal variances not 67.658 .000 -19.9571 ^ 4.25430 -28.44725 ； -11.46704
assumed ！
Appendix222:Detailed SPSS output for Table 5.2
Post test (Unseen)

Group Statistics
POST_U control group 35 16.8000 11.98234 2.02539
exf^nmemal 33 28.4286 15.30722 2.58739

group
p sig t df Sig. (2-tailed) Mean Difference Difference Lower Upper
POST—U Equal variances ^221 .212 ！ -3.539 68 .001 ‘ -11.6286 3.28585 -18.18537 -5.07177
assumed
!
Equal variances not | ,3 339 54 293 .001 -11.6286 3.28585 -18.19223 -5.06492
assumed | L
One-week delay test (unseen)
Group Statistics
ONE_U control group 35 16.0286 14.02621 2.37086
33 27.8571 13.65573 2.30824

group
p Sig. t df Sig. (2-tailed) Mean Difference Difference Lower Upper
ONE_U Equal variances 圓今？丨仍 68 .001 -11.8286 3.30892 -18.43142 -5.22572
assumed “ i
I I
I I
Equal variances not 3 5^5 67.951 .001 -11.8286 3.30892 I -18.43151 i -5.22564
assumed — —1
Appendix 13: Detailed SPSS output f o r Table 5.5

Question 1
Group Statistics
“GROUP N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean
Q1 control group “ 4.9429 .48159 .08140
expenmental 33 50571 .53922 .09114
group
、 Independent Samples Test
of Variances t-test for Equality of M e ^
F 95% Confidence Interval of
P Sig t df Sig. (2-iailed) Mean Difference Difference Lower Upper
Q1 Equal variances ^98 .587 -.935 68 | .353 -.1143 .12220 -.35814 .丨2957
assumed i
！ I
Equal variances not _ 巧 67.150 | .353 -.1143 .12220 | -.35820! .12963
i i I
assumed ！ [ [ ‘ L
Question 2
Group Statistics
Q2 control group 35 4.6857 1.07844 .18229
experimental ^ ^
35 5.0286 .66358 .11217
group

I J 1 T I
‘ S t d . Error the Difference

丨 —
p Sig t 丨 df Sig. (2-tailed) Mean Difference 丨 Difference Lower Upper
： 1 =
Q2 Equal variances ^ ； 031 -1.602 | 68 .114 -3429 i .21403 -.76995 -08424
assumed ！！ | ,
！ I I ；
Equal variances not | i 602 I 56.518 .115 -.3429 ： .21403 | -.77153 .08582
assumed | J j I
Question 3
Group Statistics
Q3 control group 35 3.9429 1.16171 .19637
exP^nmental 33 4誦？测 ,2161
group

— 1

I f
p Sig. t df Sig. (2-tailed) Mean Difference Ditference j Lower | Upper
Q3 Equal variances ^.qqi .088 -3.711 68 .000 -.8571 .23097 -1.31805: -39624
assumed ！ !
I ！ :
Equal variances not 3 7,, 55 737 .000; -.8571 | .23097 -1.31971 -.39458
assumed '
Question 4 •
Group Statistics
Q4 control group 35 3.5429 1.29121 .21825
experimental
35 4.8286 .78537 .13275
group
F Sig. t df Sig. (2-tailed) Mean Difference Difference Lower Upper
Q4 Equal variances
13.331 .001 -5.033 68 .000 -1.2857 .25546 -1.79547 -.77596
assumed |
Equal variances not i ；

-5.033 56.129 .OCX) i -1.2857 .25546 -1.79743 | -.77400
assumed I ;
i l l 丨 i'.
Question 5
Group Statistics
Q5 control group 35 3.8286 1.09774 .18555
experimental
35 4.7143 .85994 .14536
group

、 of Variances t-test for Equality of Means
F j Sig. t df Sig. (2-tailed) Mean Difference Difference Lower Upper
05 Equal variances
I
i
. 8 9 6 ： . 3 4 7 - 3 . 7 5 8 6 8 . 0 0 0 - . 8 8 5 7 . 2 3 5 7 1 - 1 . 3 5 6 0 6 - . 4 1 5 3 7
assumed |
I
I
Equal variances not i i
- 3 . 7 5 8 6 4 . 3 1 4 . 0 0 0 - . 8 8 5 7 . 2 3 5 7 1 - 1 . 3 5 6 5 5 | - . 4 1 4 8 8
assumed ‘
Question 6
Group Statistics
Q6 control gro叩 35 4.3714 .87735 .14830
experimental ^ „
3 5 4 . 8 8 5 7 . 9 6 3 1 9 . 1 6 2 8 1 .
group
of Variances t-tesl for Equality of Means

1
I

[
F Sig t df Sig. (2-tailed) Mean Difference Difference ； Lower i Upper
1 1
Q6 Equal variances ^^^ 顶 .2.335 68 .022 . -.5143 I .22023 I -.95374: -.07483
assumed 丨丨；
i ： • .
Equal variances not .2335 67 416 .023 | -.5143 , .22023 -.95381 -.07476
• I
assumed ！ j
Appendix 14: Particle Index in the Collins COBUILD Dictionary of Phrasal Verbs
Particles Index
The Particles I n d e x is an extensive guide to t h e way in w h i c h particles are used in

English phrasal verbs. It acts as a n i n d e x to t h e dictionary； listing phrasal verb
h e a d w o r d s alphabetically w i t h i n given categories of m e a n i n g . It also gives t h e
actual n u m b e r of occurrences of e a c h particle, w h i c h will be of interest to teachers,
w h o m a y use this i n f o r m a t i o n t o d e t e r m i n e w h i c h phrasal verbs to focus o n . There
is a n e n t r y for each of t h e forty-eight particles w h i c h are f o u n d in t h e p h r a s a l verb
h e a d w o r d s . Some of t h e h e a d w o r d s c o n t a i n m o r e t h a n o n e particle. In m o s t cases,
t h e first particle is a n adverb a n d t h e s e c o n d o n e a preposition. T h e i n d e x deals
w i t h two-particle c o m b i n a t i o n s u n d e r t h e first of t h e particles.
Some particles occur in a large number of different phrasal verbs. Eighteen of them
occur in fifty or more c o m b i n a t i o n s . The c o m m o n e s t particles are u p , o u t , o f f , i n ,
o n , and d o w n , in d e s c e n d i n g order of frequency. U p and o u t , in particular, are
extremely common: 28% of the phrasal verbs listed here include either u p or out.
In contrast, some of the particles such as aback and across occur in very few
phrasal verbs: fifteen of them occur in fewer than ten combinations. The index lists
groups of phrasal verbs which share particular meanings, and thus the patterns of
m e a n i n g of t h e particles t h e m s e l v e s c a n be seen. S o m e of these m e a n i n g s are
'literal': t h a t is, t h e y are t h e m a i n m e a n i n g s of t h e particle in q u e s t i o n . T h e s e literal
m e a n i n g s are usually to d o w i t h physical p o s i t i o n or direction of m o v e m e n t . We d o
n o t give lists of c o m b i n a t i o n s w h i c h h a v e these purely literal m e a n i n g s .
The lists c o n t a i n all t h e c e n t r a l a n d typical examples of phrasal verbs w h i c h include

a particular particle. S o m e t i m e s a p h r a s a l verb fits i n t o m o r e t h a n o n e category of
particle m e a n i n g , as t h e m e a n i n g s m a y overlap, or o n e m a y be a m e t a p h o r i c a l
e x t e n s i o n of a n o t h e r , a n d s o m e t i m e s it is difficult to say exactly w h a t m e a n i n g is
c o n t r i b u t e d b y t h e particle t o t h e p h r a s a l verb. O n l y t h e clearest-cut cases therefore
appear i n t h e lists. In a d d i t i o n , m a n y phrasal verbs h a v e m o r e t h a n o n e sense.
O f t e n t h e particle has t h e s a m e m e a n i n g i n all these senses, b u t s o m e t i m e s it has
different m e a n i n g s . In t h e s e cases, w e i n c l u d e t h e p h r a s a l verb i n m o r e t h a n o n e
list, b u t w e a d d a sense n u m b e r w h e r e this avoids c o n f u s i o n . T h e m e a n i n g s of
English p h r a s a l verbs are n o t always obvious. Yet t h e Particles I n d e x s h o w s very
clearly h o w phrasal verbs are n o t just arbitrary c o m b i n a t i o n s of verbs a n d particles.
Instead, t h e y fit i n t o t h e b r o a d p a t t e r n s of choice a n d selection i n English. W h e n a
new c o m b i n a t i o n occurs, it t o o fits i n t o t h e s e p a t t e r n s . T h e Particles I n d e x will help
you t o deal w i t h these n e w combinations； a n d phrasal verbs as a w h o l e will b e c o m e
a m o r e m a n a g e a b l e part of t h e v o c a b u l a r y of English.
Particles Index 16
2] Decreasing, lowering, and reducing

D o w n occurs as an adverb in combinations which refer to a decrease in size, degree, standard,
intensity, and so on. For example, if the cost of something goes d o w n , it becomes less
expensive; if you t u r n d o w n a television, radio, or record player, you make it quieter; and If
you w a t e r d o w n food or drink, you make it weaker.
Some of the combinations describe processes of reducing the physical size of something,
perhaps by cutting or removing part of it. For example, if you g r i n d something down, you
make it smoother and smaller by rubbing it against a hard surface or on a machine. A few
combinations refer to complete changes in state or shape. For example, if you m e l t something
d o w n , you melt it until it melts completely, and if a substance b r e a k s d o w n , it separates
into the parts from which it is made.
Other combinations include verbs which are also adjectives, in particular adjectives describing
qualities which are low in intensity or amount； such as cool, narrow, and quiet. These
combinations express ideas of something becoming even lower in intensity or amount. For
example, if something cools d o w n , it becomes cooler, and if you n a r r o w d o w n a choice or
subject, you make it narrower or more selective.
beat down 3 boil down 1,2 boil down to break down 3,4
bring down 2 calm down 1,2 change down come down 6,7,14
come down to cool down 1,2 count down cut down 1
cut down on damp down 1,2 dampen down 1 die down
dress down 1 drive down dumb down go down 8,9,10,12
grind down 2 knock down 5 let down 3,4 mark down 2,3
melt down move down 3,4 narrow down pare down
pipe down plane down play down quiet down
quieten down ratchet down render down round down
run down 3,4,5 scale down settle down 3,4 simmer down
slim down
.»
slow down 1,2 thin down throttle down
tone down turn down 2,3 warm down water down 1,2
whittle down wind down 2,3
[3l Fastening a n d f i x i n g
You use d o w n as an adverb in combinations where you are describing processes of fastening
or fixing something to the ground, or making it secure. For example, if you n a i l something
d o w n , you use nails to fasten it to a lower surface, and when something b e d s d o w n , it settles
firmly into position so that it cannot be shaken loose. Some of these combinations have
metaphorical meanings. For example, you talk about n a i l i n g people d o w n when you mean
that you are forcing them to state clearly their opinions or intentions.
, batten down bed down 3 lash down 1 lay down 5,6

nail down 1,2,3 pin down 1,2 put down 3 screw down
stamp down stick down 2 tack down tamp down
tie down 1,2 weight down
(U Collapsing, attacking, a n d destroying

You use d o w n as an adverb in combinations which contain ideas of collapsing, cutting, and
- d e s t r u c t i o n . D o w n helps to give the idea that something falls to the ground or is forced to the
ground during the process. For example, if you c h o p d o w n a tree, you cut through its trunk
: until it falls, and if a building b u r n s d o w n , it is completely destroyed by fire and collapses
onto the ground.
17 Particles
Other _ _ _ — 二 - 二二二二二二二二二
— / _ 2 二0=12,3 go down Z,16

cutd_2 二 = hew down kick down
gun down hack down down 4,14
knock down U , 3 = c i : Sofdown I slip down 1
二二 1 3W00P down 2 take 一 4
tear down . tumble down
= 二；二二 ^ ^ ^ ^
k e p t d o w n , they are kept in a state of p o w e r l e s s :

：； back down 一 bow down 3 break down 5
argue down back down clamD down climb down
bring down 1,5 cast down 1,2 down do down
come down on come down with c = down ^^^^ ^ n
_ down 1,2 7 ; o w n 17,18,19 go down with
fight down get d o w n » ^ howl down
一 d 二二二二： 3 pull down 3
keep down 1,3 knock down 4 y s down 2
P - down 9,10 二 2 1,4 tie . o w n 3
.[6l Completing or f a i l i n g thoroughness or completeness, and usually

二二二二 t 職二二二
二：二 = 二二二二舞一 ― ^ ^ ^
if a machine b r e a k s d o w n , it stops operating.
• — — - ： r ：； — — ； h a s e down d ^ ^ w n 1,2
P b r ^ down 1,2 chase down hunt down
‘ fall down 4,5 flag down � 2 2
lay down 7,8,9 let down 1,2 o 二！：？细纟 , o w n 1,2
run down 7 send down 1,2 二： throw down 3
. 二： 1'2 二： 1 二 1
wind down 4 “
HI E a t i n g a n d d r i n k i n g ^Hnn. which refer to eating and drinking, and the action

• D o w n occurs as an adverb in combinations which reter to ea s bolt down
Appendix 15: Semantic category "finishing and completing" of particle o f f m Particle

Index
Particles Index 30
回 Decreasing
Off is frequently used to show that something decreases. For example, if a feeling passes off
or eases off, it decreases. Off sometimes combines with verbs formed from adjectives to
indicate that something gradually has less of a quality. So if a hot object cools o f f , it loses heat
and becomes cooler, and if a wet object dries off, it loses some of its moisture and becomes
drier. Some combinations, such, as sleep o f f and w o r k off, refer to an activity which you do
in order to reduce the effect of something unpleasant.
cool off 1,2 die off drop off 3 dry off ease off 1
fall off 2 get off 12 knock off 2 let off 2 level off 1,3
lop off 2 pass off 3 set off against slack off 1 • slacken off
sleep off tail off 1,2 take off 10 taper off walk off
wear off work off 1
図 Finishing and c o m p l e t i n g
people often use off to indicate that an activity or process is completed. For example, if you
polish off a piece of work, you finish it, and if an event passes o f f in a particular way, it
happens and ends that way.
bring off carry off 1,2 come off 3,4 dash off 2 finish off 1,2,3
go off 5 knock off 6 pass off 1 pay off 1 play off
polish off print off rattle off reel off round off 1
run off 5 see off 3 sign off 4 top off toss off 2
work off 2 write off 4
园 Consuming
Phrasal verbs with off as a preposition sometimes indicate that something is being consumed
or used. For example； if someone lives o f f a particular kind of food, they eat only that kind
of food, and if a machine runs o f f a particular supply of power, it uses that power in order to
make it work. You can also use some of these verbs in a pejorative way. For example, if you say
that a person is sponging o f f someone, it means that the person is taking advantage of their
generosity. On can often be used with a similar meaning.
dine off feed off live off 2 run off 8

sponge off toss off 1 work off 3
回 Falling asleep
There are a few phrasal verbs with o f f which refer to falling asleep. For example, if you doze
o f f or n o d off, you fall asleep.
doze off drift off drop off 1

get off 14 go off 10 nod off
Appendix 16: P h r a s a l verb teaching in English Express
Prepositional verbs and phrasal verbs

t
Many verbs in English consist of two parts: a base verb and a preposition (like 'off',
‘into'’ ‘from’). These verb combinations are either called 'prepositional verbs' or
‘phrasal verbs'.
Prepositional verbs
Examples of prepositional verbs include the following. 门 |j=n[^—^ trî^

She wanted to make the criminal pay for his crime. —V j J //
She used drugs to try and escape from her problems. Q "LJL/
The naughty boy s t a r e d a t me.
Prepositional verbs always have a direct object. ^^vWffi^^^l

He was sent t o prison for fourteen years. ^
He crashed into a bus.
The police l o o k e d t h r o u g h t h e i r bags after the theft.
Phrasal verbs
Phrasal verbs are verbs followed by a preposition in which the combination of

Verb + preposition’ takes on a new meaning.
I didn't expect things to turn out this way. (I never imagined it would end this way.)
Mary met up with her friends in Malaysia. (Mary joined her friends in Malaysia.)
Billy jumped a t the chance to join the police force. (Billy readily accepted the chance to
join the police force.)
Tony f e l l o u t w i t h me for no reason. (Tony quarrelled w i t h me for. no reason.)
Phrasal verbs can be transitive (followed by a direct object) or intransitive (not

followed by a direct object).
He threw away his money oh drugs；'' .• ...‘: - ;-'--A year later, the stolen documents turned up.
(He wasted his money on drugs.) - .‘ • 、二工:J::..二(A year later, the stolen documents appeared.)
f *"" •、、. . ，.，‘.. • ... . ‘ . : . : : •• •.• ••/. “ I t \ - .,
: W e put my cousin up in our spare room. ) ,:;：;:’ : There's no need to get up.
二、
....(We allowed my cousin to stay in'our spare room.) y " ' " ! (There's no need to stand up.)
•i VThey broke the deal off. . -. . , " ::、->:'I vvas late because my car broke down.
. — — .
" (They cancelled the deal.) (1 was late because my car stopped working.)
The thieves b r o k e i n t o the shop after midnight. Most runners stopped but I w e n t o n .
(The thieves entered the shop by force after midnight.) (Most runners stopped but I continued.)
When a phrasal verb has a direct object, the two parts can usually be separated.
Carol turned the offer down. (Carol refused the offer.)
He put the arrest off until he had enough evidence. (He delayed the arrest until he had
enough evidence.)
‘ . . . • • ‘
Dana brought the subject of mongy up. (Dana mentioned the subject of money.)
Sally said t h a t she had to work some p<5r50H3l pi-obl<^m5 out. (Sally said that she had
some personal problems to solve.)
Can 1 t r y the dress on? (Can I wear the dress once to see if I like it?)
Suggested p r o c e d u r e s 内
You may want to go through the prepositional verbs and phrasal verbs in CXrtTf 么
the word box to check that students understand them before they
Exercise 5 attempt the exercise.
^ Replace the underlined words in the article below with prepositional and
phrasal verbs from the word box. Each verb can be used only once. Remember
to use the correct form of the verbs. Write your answers in the spaces provided.
The first one has been done for you.
cut off get caught up get on go out grow up

let down meet up with pick up put up with rely on
take part in turn out ‘ turn to work out
Get Real! By Alice Chan, Form 5
.It's very sad that so many young people � become involved 1 get caught up
in crime. I know students � who leave their flats every 2 卯卯 :
•• • • . . ... • ... •
..evening and never spend time at home.. As a result, they

:don't (3) have a good relationship with their parents. If their 3 鄉 ^^
. . ..... . • ‘ .• -
parents refuse to � accept their behaviour, there will be 4 put up with

.many family arguments. I suppose it isn't surprising that
some young people choose to (，) stop communicating with 5
. • _. their families arid, i n s t e a d , �
joiii their friends in shopping 6 mggt up with
centres or noodle.shops. •, ； •. . . … .
.：..:....;"^,说.A ;�-:.� . .•• V ...� . ..•.、、.:：....、
.V -îThe senous problems begin when these young people start
'•；.；• to:(乃 collect bad habits' and it may not be long before they 7 EIEILHE —
•.：..' begin to (号〉participate in crime in order to earn quick money. 8 t:alog part in
This is dangerous. To � develop into an adult properly, we 9 押㈧叩
.••..:....• •、., • • ； . . . . ,
：：：：c
a
nn
ot (；。) give our trust to people who encourage this kind 10 吻
� : of
i behayiou'r. :We will almost certainly be (i” disappointed 11
：.；by.them； V • ： ,.. ：. :
• . , , • •
、..， . .
.. .. . • ; . . � .
.
.
.
Since most of us want our lives to ( �develop well, 12 turn out

-. we should always try to � ) s o l v our
e serious problems by 13 worK ouz
asking fc^hdp From our families. : 14 如�ning
t o _ _ .
. i
I
Appendix 17: P h r a s a l verb teaching in Easy G r a m m a r
H i U p M m m m i m ^ .
A LEARNING POINT "衫)‘

Look at the pictures below. Fill in each blank with the correct form of one ^
of the verbs in the box. Use each verb once only.
The plane Dora Tom always

ten minutes ago. her room yesterday. the meaning of words in
the dictionary.
4 5 6
• Leo The printer Can you

his application form now. of paper every afternoon. the lights, please?
B GRAMMAR POINT
1 You use p h r a s a l v e r b s the same way as you use regular verbs.
Subject Verb Object

I took off my coat.
Daniel switched o n the TV.
Phrasal verbs are made up of a verb and a preposition.
2 You use phrasal verbs to talk about a lot of things. For example：
a daily activities.
take off your shoes put on new clothes

疆
try on new fashions
b travelling.
quevLe up for the bus pick up somebody drop off somebody
c c o n t r o l of e q u i p m e n t .
switch/turn on the TV turn up the heat turn down the volume

Exercise 1 ^^wy
Alex is a taxi driver. He goes to work every morning. Look at the picture below. / J
Fill in each blank with a phrasal verb. Remember to use the correct tense.
When Alex gets up in the morning, he usually (1) [he TV to

watch the news. His mother always asks him to (2) the volume because
it disturbs his family. After breakfast, he (3) his clothes and goes to
work. He (4) his girlfriend on the way to work and (5)
her (6) outside her office building.
.NOTES - TALKING ABOUT WORK AND FRIENDS V ^

You can also use phrasal verbs to talk about： ^ ^
1 work. ^
• ^ ^ ^
call off 2. meeting hand in a report

catch up on work keep up with work
clean up the office look into a problem
„ come up with a solution point out the mistake
figure out the reason put off the meeting
fill in/out a form run out of paper
‘ go over the points think over the problem
2 education.
drop out of school get through an exam
3 friends.
call up somebody ^ get together

come across somebody pi^t up with somebody
drop by some place run into/across somebody
get along with somebody
Exercise 2 广广
Below is a conversation between Ernest and Tammy. Fill in the blanks / f
losing the following phrasal verbs in the correct tense. Use each phrasal
verb once only.
觀 f i i p p ^ ^ s ^ l l 麵
k l ^ L ^ 、 ,
r — \ 广 \
Hi, Tammy. How are you? 丨 am fine, Ernest. How are you?
^ ^ 」、 ) : 乂 ,
广 X 广 \
I have just returned from a holiday and You sound as if you are very busy. 1
1 am (1) catching up 。。work. I (4) Julia last Monday.
have just (2) a report She also said that she was
this morning. My boss (3) (5) with her work. Do
tomorrow's meeting so I can rest. you think we can (6)
^ ~^、 sometime?
, 、 V J
Sure. I just moved to a new flat. Why , “
don't you (7) this That's a good idea. I'll (8)
weekend? Judy this afternoon to see if she has time
〉 ^ to come too. ^
OK. I'll talk to you later. I've got ] [ Goodbye. Thanks for your
to go. Goodbye. invitation.
V J V y
Appendix 18: Phrasal verb teaching in G r a m m a r Explained (Book 2)
= 二 : - rniGrammar robot ^ ^
phrasal verbs. The hZîT r ^ ^
main grammatical J t ^ l L ； ^
poincs are presented ^'UTTTTY^ »

here and before each ^ ^ R
exercise is a lisc of The verbs in.Section A are called phrased verbs. Most verbs hove |
common phrasal only one main part, but phrasal verbs hove at least two. The
二 for to adverb or preposition in a phrasal verb is colled a particle. Phrasal
‘ verbs usually follow one of these patterns： ?
Not all verbs + ！
prepositions are verb + adverb verb + preposition '
p h r 巧 I verbs. W e J wTote down her message. Please hand in your homework.
say go to school,
二 fS = verb + adverb + preposition

it does not have a Y o u con't get owoy with cheating! [
special meaning. ‘
However, 'write The meaning of a phrasal verb is often different from the meanings i
down, is a phrasal of the verb and particle by themselves,
verb since it has a
special meaning. Some phrosol verbs are intransitive. They do not need cm object.
Compare： 'I wrote However, vou ccm usG OH adverb or a prepositional phrase after ,
down the message ,, ,
(i.e. 'I noted it down；) these verbs.
with ‘I w r o t e the
message' (i.e. ‘I ‘
created it.').
INTRANSITIVE P H R A S A L VERBS
intran^tive^verbs we Intransitive phrasal verbs cannot be followed by a n object. You

cannot use an object con use adverbs oi prepositional phrases after these verbs. Study
after intransitive the following sentences. K
phrasal verbs. 接
I can't hear you. Please, speak up! fi
Did you go out last night? 1
_ _
^ SEPARABLE PHRASAL VERBS I

A common error is V^qP^ B
putting an object Separable phrasal verbs cue transitive: they are T* i
� : � 二 U f a ^ i ^ a 二 f o l l o wby
e da n object. You c a n put the object after ,, ^ ^ ^ |
^lîclTed^^her；).^ ^ porticle or between the verb a n d the particle. I
Henry took off his iackRt I
Henry took his jacket o f f . ^^^ttt/^
n the object is a pronoun, you must separate the phrased verb.

/ Hemy took off it / Heniy took it o f f .
1 I _ . I
Not all transitive I N S E P A R A B L E P H R A S A L VERBS ！

phrasal verbs are ^
separable! Inseparable phiasal verbs c a n also b e transitive. You must always :
Unfortunately, there put the Object after the particle. ^ ^ (
is no rule that says Ej^^^^ ；
which phrasal verbs Lastnight Q thief broke into our flat. ESpjfll m S
are separable and Someone broke into it. I k L i R k l F
which aren t. ^
Students will just TTie thief made off with some computer files. \
have to learn them! He made off with them. p ^ T B j V
V^M ~~~i Phrasal verbs with two or more particles 1 (

8 (like made-off with) a r e always inseparable. \ \
m 1
厂 —
IMow y o u t r y J
In Exercise I, Fyprricrp 1
students show they L A C / L/:>C I
v^bs.^the^ partdes Each of these sentences has a phrasal verb. See if you can find it. Circle the
and prepositions. uerfc. The first two have been done for you. •
a) (Cook ou^here's a car coming.

You may also ask ^ 乂 fJ^^T^^fllflU
二= SJ^r^l b) Mr C h a r K ^ t h e b u s and paid his fare. ^ ^

verb is transitive or 广 ~ V — ^ H I M 丨 II11
noL If it.is transitive, c) If vou don't understand that word, ther(look) itfup) LX- U 4
you may want to ask ^ ^
j ) The price of mobile p h o n e s ( i s ^ i n g d ^ ^ .
e) Mrs W o n g ( ^ r o u g h t ^ ^ seven children on her own.
f) P l e a s e ( g ^ t h a t k m f e ( d o ^ ; you'll hurt yourself.
g) That paper can still be used, d o n ' t ^ ^ i t ( a w ^ .
h) Can a n y o n d ^ ^ k a f ^ m y pets while I'm on holiday?
i) i C ^ b o W n g f o r w ^ d ^ y o u r visit at Christmas,
j) You s h o u l d ( ^ k M the bill.
F
二=r。f ^ ^ S M M E p h r a s a l verbs
phrasal verbs are
used (see page 26). ^ ^ ^ ^ common Separable phrasal verbs include:
meanings - one of .薄•鄉鄉Tjt；今过JK：;讲叔贼饼喊

二二 b a c k u p " ^ o r t put on wear (clothing)
bring up introduce (a topic put off delay
separable. Compare: in conversation)
'John couldn't win “ “ ； 7 7
Che game so he gave call off _ Cancel (an event) put out extinguish
smoWng was" fill in • write information take off remove (clothing)

unhealthy so he gave (on a form)
it up.'. —
give away give (something throw away dispose (of
for free: a gift, etc.) something useless)
give up stop (doing try on put on (clothing)
something) to see if it fits
look up find (a fact) write down write (usually) notes

in a book w h e n listening or
reading
put away put (something) in write up write (usually notes)
a safe place or in in a complete and
its original place finished form
( \ The best w a y to m a k e sure you

�
r know how to use phiasal verbs is J
i、J
4 ^ I to check in a good dictionary! �
F
= 二二 r f W M M l ^ — l e phrasal verbs
phrasal verbs are
used (see page 27). Common inseparable phrasal verbs include:
vPhrasal verbs.- - M e a n i n g s 场isPhrasal-verbs：- rMeanmgs:喪略矛务
break into enter illegally look after take care of

call on visit socially look forward wait for (something)
‘ to eagerly
come across meet or discover look into investigate
come up with think of (a plan, put u p with tolerate
an idea, etc.)
get off leave (a large run after chase
vehicle like a bus,
a train, an
aeroplane, etc.)
get on board (a large run into meet (by accident)
vehicle)
keep u p with go at the same run out of have no more
speed (as (supplies)
somebody else)
go on continue (doing see to take care of or
something) handle (something)
go over revise stand by help or support
keep off not walk or stand stand u p for defend
(on something)
八 I Its difficult to guess which phrasal \

[Xî^ \ verbs are intransitive, separable, 1
f I or inseparable. Remember the J
. ^ y\ I verbs given here a n d use a (
8 ^.fexj^ dictionary to check how to use ]
sH Z
) ^ other phrasal verbs. J
^ ~ 八
/
[Mow you tryj
In Exercise 2. Exercise 2
choose a phrasal Fill in the blanks in the following sentences with suitable phrasal verbs from
verb that suiu the 亡“"己卯 paê 28, Make sure you use the correct form of the verb!
meaning of the 厂 o ；
sentence. They will
need to be careful to The price of fresh vegetables usually in the winter.
use the correct verb ^ ‘
form too. b) vvhat time do you S^lHE in the morning?
(I c) The thief ran very fast, but he didn't ——_ 歸、——；the policeman
d) Look out ！ xhat bus is going to hit you!
e) Mr Wong is not at his desk at the moment. Would you like to

^ ^ ^ ^ h 網 ori or call again later?
f) I know it's difficult to l e a m to play the piano, but don't

gj'vg up ！
门 g) I don't like Benny — he always shows off——in class w h e n the

principal visits us.
h) Speak up ！ The telephone line is bad and I can't hear you clearly.
h ^ ^ i) Please don't — 叩 , I want to talk to you.
j) They were losing 3 - 0, b u t refused to — and accept defeat.
k) I'm very busy during the week — I only 3 � • on Saturday
d r ^ evening.
^ ^ ^ 1) It's so nice of you to visit. Please • in
‘ m) Those noisy children are still fighting and shouting — I wish they would
shut up
Appendix 19: Phrasal verb teaching in Grammar Explained (HKCEE)
This section can only serve as an introduction to the whole

.best CO refer to the - . a r e a of phrasal verbs. Several examples have been given.
— - d as a ©igbrasa I verbs 二 p r ^ r e s s if Che, lea. new
rticle.
e words c a l l e d 了 .1 . .
rticies' are eicher Like prepositional verbs, phrasal verbs also consist of more than one word
:poskions or adverbs. 一 a verb + a particle. They are very common in English.
1 phrasal verb, the
rtherjsuti n � t A good Way to leam phrasal verbs is to keep a list of basic verbs in a
(Ction: instead of going
notebook and then add extra words and meanings to them as you come
:h the words chat across them. Look at the following examples.
•ne after them, they go
:h che verb before
！m and are part of that jg h_
J" ^ L . bring + about = cause :
the three-part phrasal “
•bs that come up later + back = restore
ige 34), Che third word + off = s u c c e e d in d o i n e
I preposition that links . 」 , , . ° .
wo-part verb to what + round = help regain consciousness
mes next, + up = raise a family
You should also use a good dictionary, as this will show you both the
meanings of the w o r d s and how to use them.
J learn the phrasal verbs you come across as if they were 5\na\s words. This i s ^
" j very important, because sometimes their meaning isn't clear from the
^ ^ ^ •I individual words.
级 I n this exercise, students only have to pick out the phrasal verbs. However, ask
PyP r r i c R Q [hem to guess their meanings. Note chat some are transitive ('set off'puc'out'),
LACI LIdC O while others are intransitive ('got up', 'broke down"). ’
Look at the passage below. Underline the phrasal verbs and write them in the
Make it dear that the spaces provided. The first one has been done for you.
meanings of phrasal r ~
I f b s must be learned. \ 、
Their meanings \
be When I got up yesterday 丨 had no idea that it was
Au'V u going to be such a stressful day: before I had even
P lot of phrasal verbs . . , , . , . a � 卯 t up
have more than one 「eached school, the bus I was on broke down. Then. ^^
二?JJ'ng. Sometimes / during our English class, the fire alarm went off. A fire b) broke down
^hey have'^ti^nsitive broken out in the corridor outside our classroom. . went off
intransitive use. We were trapped inside the room. However, the smoke
th'e^j/some'^'^' ！£L2£the Water sprinklers. This 匹 t h e fire but-, d) _ b r o k e n o u t _
common phraLi a'so made us wet through! — | e) set off
丨二erbs With more than I 八 ût out
meaning are: | f ) — — P ^ t out
.b 喊 off', 'come off,, — ‘ �
器 ' p u l l off'set Better students might note the different Note the tense of ‘had broken o u t ' —
. w o r d order pattern of 'sgLSff the water past perfect because it is an earlier action
sprinklers' and ' r u j the fire qus：. than 'the fire alarm went off..
INTRANSITIVE P H R A S A L VERBS
Some phrasal verbs are intransitive — they cannot be followed by an object.

Look at the examples below.
l?khe�"J�:cr二二二 break out (begin suddenly) A fight has broken out in the playground.
see if students can catch on (become popular) I don't think these new shoes will catch on
write different tt^^^
sentences. Ask them m Hong Kong.
what else might： give in (surrender) . I'm right! I'm not going to give in!
'catch on'? Ask if ,% . , /, ，-
anyone knows the g。away (depart) . • Why don t you go azuay?
opposite of 'touch Kg jj, (stav in b e d ) . I think I'll lie in tomorrow morning.
down' — 'cake o f f . 、 ^ , ^ ^ , ,
mess about (be silly) Stop messing about and do your work.
Ask students if they , , _ , , , , ^ • t -o
can chink of any Stay u p (not g o to b e d ) Can I stay up late tonight?.
other examples to touch down (land) ：：： . - What time does the plane touch down?'
add to the list. .。、： .........、 - ’ . . ..• .-•.•—
- w a t c h out : (be careful) Watch out! The Principal s coming...
wind down (relax) ^'^''-J-Ifs nice to wind down after the exams.：
Excrcisc 4
The examples given Decide which of the choices given below would best complete the dialogue if
noftLtedlntre^'' inserted in the blanks. Use a dictionary to help you. Circle the best answer.
exercise. This is
deliberate, as the ( 、
exercises are Amy: Hello, Alex, I'm just calling to see h o w you're � in your new job.
intended to make
students think about Alex: Hello, Amy. r m fine, thanks, except that I'm really busy because
phrasal verbs, and \
also to give them
there's too much work to do. I thought I was going to last week!
more examples. / \
_ , Amy： I'm sure you'll …）once you get used to things around the office.
This exercise should •‘ -‘ “ o 。
be done with a Alex: I hope SO. I'm sorry, Amy, but there's another call � . I have to
dictionary, but first ^ " 乂
let students cry to (s) nOW.
w o r k out the .
answers for Amy: OK, bye. I'll to see you soon,
themselves. A lot of
phrasal verbs, e.g. Alex: Yes, please do. Bye, Amy.
'crack up', do have
clues as to their
meanings. a) A getting u p b) A crack on c) (A) get by
� getting on � crack u p B go on
‘ C getting off C crack d o w n C get u p
d) A coming u p e) A ring u p f) @ d r o p in
B coming on B ring out B d r o p off
@ coming in © ring off C d r o p out
Give an alternative if chere is one, e.g. another way of
saying 'ring off • is 'hang up'.
F
TRANSITIVE P H R A S A L VERBS
Some phrasal verbs are transitive — they can be followed by an object. These
verbs can be used in different ways.
If the object is a noun, the verb and the particle can either go together or be
separated by the object. There is no difference in meaning.
verb + particle + object Get out your books.
verb + object + particle Get your books out
However, if the object is long, the verb and particle must go together.
Scress the point Get out all the books that we need for today's lesson.
that a pronoun
betweeâverb If the object is a proTioun, the verb and particle are always separated.
and its particle. It , ,
is a common / Put your books away.
mistake to forget / Put them away. NOT X Put away them.
this.
Expressions to b e l e a m t
Look at the following phrasal verbs that can be followed by an object. How
many of them do you know? Use your dictionary to look up the ones you don't
know.
In this list of m-f.'r' ‘ ：‘'«. 、”：‘‘.、/ , „、
transitive phrasal Cca]! back � 、丨 . ;^' (retum a telephone caU)
verbs examples of - call off . . (cancel)
the verbs in use v:,.、-• .、-,，::：.:..•- • ,• , • ' , r \
are deliberately .“:�coverup , , (conceal, make an excuse tor)
not given Make MmimlouiJ ‘ tj-：； (complete a form)
sure students hd- ：. . ；- ‘ .!_、.：
understand their •、！lold u p — � 、.： v (delay,.rob).,..：；
meanings and ；；、让“’口！ ^ ？ � “ � ( m a i n t a i n continue)
,
then get them to ；斤 ^ ^ ^ •‘
write their own {；I. let off ‘ (not punish):
examples. \ : ‘ : h o o k \ i p “ ‘ • (seaxdi for information in a book)
:make u p ’ ’ - (invent a s t o r y ) . . . ‘
i?putfoff ‘ - (postpone) " • .
feort outy€；' 广(organise).丨:：
'-' take in ‘：* “ (deceive someone)
� . . . t a k out
e (take someone for a meal or to the cinema)
Ask stud 、： tear u p ‘ (destroy a piece of paper or an agreement)
remember that in ：: tell off . ". . (talk angrily to someone)
•；二.. • S ; t r y on , (put on clothes to see if they fit)
We do not ‘open, ~ — t u m on/off :... - (switch o n / o f f a light or a machine)
or ‘close, them! ‘ … .
.. - .
,:
-‘ .
..
.. • ... .
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.. ."「？. • / i- .
.
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The Particle-based Learning of English Phrasal Verbs:

A Conceptual Metaphor and Image Schema Based Approach

A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment

of the Requirements for the Degree of

Applied English Linguistics

The Chinese University of Hong Kong

Upon completion of this thesis and the accomplishment in my M.Phil, study, I

English phrasal verbs, a phraseological component which has recently attracted

ABSTRACT (English version) ii

ABSTRACT (Chinese version) iii

LIST OF APPENDICES xii

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1

1.2 Phraseology and second language acquisition 1

1.3 Phrasal verbs in ESL/EFL students 3

1.4 The proposed particle-based learning (PBL) of phrasal verbs 5

1.5 Cognitive semantic framework for PBL 6

1.5.1 The theory of conceptual metaphors 6

1.5.2 The theory of image schemas 7

1 ;5.3 A cognitive semantic approach to teaching phrasal verbs 8

1.6 Research gaps and research implications 9

1.7 Organization of this thesis 10

CHAPTER TWO: ESL/EFL LEARNING OF ENGLISH PHRASAL VERBS 13

2.2 General views on phrasal verbs in ESL/EFL learning 14

2.2.1 Phrasal verbs in SLA research 14

2.2.2 ESL/EFL learners' phraseological incompetence and ignorance 15

2.3 Avoidance behaviour of phrasal verbs in ESL/EFL learners 17

2.3.1 Definition of avoidance 18

2.3.2 Causes of avoidance 20

2.3.3 Four previous studies on avoidance of phrasal verbs 22

2.3.3.1 Dagut and Laufer's study (1985) 24

2.3.3.2 Hulstijn and Marchena's study (1989) . 25

2.3.3.3 Laufer and Eliasson's study (1993) 26

2.3.3.4 Liao and Fukuya's study (2002) 27

2.4 Avoidance of figurative phrasal verbs 28

CHAPTER THREE: PHRASAL VERBS, CONCEPTUAL METAPHORS AND IMAGE

3.2 Phrasal verbs as a category of multi-word verbs 34

3.3 Multi-word verbs 34

3.3.1 The syntactic frame of multi-word verbs 36

3.3.2 The semantic frame of multi-word verbs 37

3.4 Defining phrasal verbs ^^

3.4.1 "VPC and literal + figurative" as phrasal verbs 41

3.4.2 "VPC + VPP and literal + figurative" as phrasal verbs 46

3.5 A cognitive approach to the understanding of phrasal verbs (Part I) 49

3.5.1 The meaning of the particles in phrasal verbs 50

3.5.2 The metaphorical extension of the spatial, prototypical particles 51

3.5.3 A cognitive schematic representation of particles in phrasal verbs 54

3.6 The theory of conceptual metaphors 59

3.6.1 Metaphor as ordinary everyday language 59

3.6.2 Conceptual metaphor as a cross-domain mapping 61

3.7 The theory of image schemas 64

3.7.1 Image schemas as the basis for thought and understanding 65

3.7.2 Examples of image schemas 66

3.7.2.1 The PATH schema 66

3.7.2.2 The CONTAINER schema 68

3.7.3 Image schemas as the underlying logic of conceptual metaphors 69

3.7.4 Image schemas in relation to words 71

3.7.5 Summary: A hierarchical framework 72

3.8 A cognitive approach to the understanding of phrasal verbs (Part II) 74

3.8.1 A new classification of phrasal verbs based on the cognitive semantic

3.8.2 Rationale for the particle-based learning (PBL) 77

3.8.3 The particle-based learning model (PBLM) 80

CHAPTER FOUR: RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND METHODOLOGY 87

4.2 Metaphorical competence and motivation 87