chapter

trigonometric
functions
3 of angles

In Chapter 2, we developed the concept cf the circular functio'

of directed arcs, Each function has for its domain a set of arc lengths
and for its range a set of real numbers. For example, we said that sine is
a function because it associates with each real number (a value of 1)
exactly one other real number (a value for sin t). Thus the circular
functions are functions defined from real numbers to real numbers. In
this chapter, we shall study another type of function which has for its
domain a set of angles and for its range a set of real numbers.

3.1 THE TRIGONOMETRIC ANGLE

You will probably recall from your study of geometry how the
angle concept was developed. Ordinarily, it is defined in terms of rays
or halflines. A half-line is that part of a line which extends indefinitely
in one direction froma point on the line. An angle is a geometric figure
formed by two half-lines emansating from a common point. The two
half-lines are called the sides of the angle and the common point is
called the vertex of the angle.
In fig, 3.1, the halflines are denoted by Li and L2, the vertex by
O and the angle is the "opening" between the half-lines.

angle

0
FIG. 3.1

namodern development of geometry, the word "line" is taken to be undefined

x c e p t that it is to be considered as a set of points and of unlimited extet in
either direction.
TRIGONOMETRIC
FUNCTIONS OF ANGLES
53
ot an angle by associatine t
We wish to extend this concept
an amount of rotation. In other words, for trigonometric purmoe
0ses,
intend to regard the angle as
the figure rotating a give
that results irom
ziven
half-line about its end point.
OEFINITION 3.1:. A,trigonometric angle is an' amount of rotation
of a half-line about its end point from one
position to another.
The end point is called the vertex of the angle. The original half-line is
called the initial side and the final position of the half-line at the end of
a rotation is called the terminal side of the angle. An angle is measured
by the amount of rotation required to move its initial side to its
terminal side. To specify the direction of rotation, a curved arrow
drawn from the initial side to the terminal side is used. A
counterclock-
wise rotation generates a positive angle; a clockwise rotation generates a
negative angle. (See fig. 3.2)
Positive Angle
Initial Side
Vertex
Terminal Side
Negative Angle
FIG. 3.2
For our
purpose,
letters to identify we will use
angles: frequently the following Greek
Alpha
Beta
Gamma- Y
Phi
A
Theta
three-letter
also be used designation
angles. The(letters from the
to name
the angle. In
LBOA fig. 3.3, the letter isEnglish
middle sh alphabet) may
always alphabet)
or
where the angle denoted the maof
symbol L means by a may also be
angle. namedvertex
Ad OB
 54 MODERN TRIGONOMETRY
B
A
FIG. 3.3
ANGLE IN STANDARD POSITION
Angles for which the rotation is considered are called directed
angles. In fig. 3.4, several directed angles are drawn such that each has
its vertex at the origin and its initial side extending along the positive
X-axis of coordinate system. Such angles are said to be in standard
a
position.
DEFINITION 3.2: An angle is in standard position, when its vertex
is at the arigin and its
initial side is along the
positive X-axis of a coordinate system.
Y
X- x X- X
FIG. 3.4
An angle is said to be in the
quadrant in which its terminal side
es. Thus in fig. 3.4,tand ¢ are in Quadrant I, ais in Quadrant
Pin Quadrant II, and
II. Angles tand p have the same terminal side. They are
sa1d to be coterminal. The terminal side of y lies along the Y-axis and y
SnOuld not be identified as an angle of the first,
quadrant. Such an angle is called a quadrantalsecond, From our
third or fourth
cuSs1on above, we have the following definitions: angle. dis-
DEFINITION 3.3: Coterminal angles are angles whose
terminal
sides coincide when the
angles are in standard
position.
.
 FUNCTIONS OF ANGLES
TRIGONOMETRIC
A quadrantal angle is an angle whose tetmi
DEFINITION 3.4:
side coincides with one o1 the axes
termina
when the
angle is in starndard position.
Recall also from geometry that the length of each side of an angje
does not determine the magnitude of the angle. Thus in fig. 3.5, L AO
OA. In general, we state tha
L COD although OD OB and OC
two angles are equal in magnitude if the same amount of rotation
necessary to go from the initial side to the terminal side of each angle
Y
D
B
X
O AC
FIG. 3.5
.3 MEASURES OF ANGLES
There are three units of
degree, the radian, and the measures used for angles, namely:
monly used are those of therevolution, However, the units most coo*
measure is degree and radian measures. The
dep
while for extensively used in astronomy, surveying
and
branches of theoreticalengie
use in calculus and in many
radian measure is
employed almost exclusively
work,
Y by the mathematiCI
Y
X
X
al 1 rev
(6) %rev (c) %rev
FIG. 3.6
S6 MODERN TRIGONOMETRY

We said that the measure of an angle is the amount of rotation

from the initial to the terminal side of the angle. If a rotation is made
such as in fig. 3.6a, then we have one revolution (written 1 rev) as a
unit.

Let us now consider the problem of assigning a degree measure to

an angle. Place the center of a circle at the origin of a coordinate
system,We may divide the circumference of the circle into any number
of equal parts. For our purpose, we shall divide it into 360 equal parts
and call these parts degrees. It follows that one revolution is equivalent
to 360 degrees (360 ). In short, we write
1 rev = 360° or 360 rev
90 is what part of a revolution? If a= rev, then & would contain
how many degrees?
We may further diyide each degree into 60 equal parts called
minutes and each minute into 60 equal parts called seconds. Thus, we
have the following equivalents:
1 degree 60 minutes (written 1= 60)
1 minute s 60 seconds (written 1 = 60")

It should be noted that if x ER, the notation x ER. It isa

geometric entity, not a number. Thus although 30 is a number, 30° is
not a number.

To express the angle measure as a real number, the radian

measure is used. A radian is defined as follows.

DEFINITION 3.5: ATaAnthemeasure ofcentral angleWhichs

terceptinarc.onihe cfraln
ua nengthtO
the . the radinusofthe-crele,
.

Fig. 3.7 shows a circle of radius r with its certer at the origin of a

Y Y

-X X
A
A
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS OF ANGLES

coordinate system. The central angle t intercepts an are s. From

3.5,s= r if t=1 radian.

The radian measure of an angle can be found by using the c

of any radius. Consider the cirele of radius r as shown in fig. 3.8. Ifas
the angle measure of LAOB, then a=l radian (written rad). Ler*e the
measure of L AOC which intercepts an arc s. From geometry, we bave

the relation

measure of L AOC = length of are AC

measure of L AOBB length of are AB

Ifa = 1 to
rad, then the equztion above reduces
E(3.1)
Since the radian measure is the ratio of two lengths, then it is a re
number. It must be observed that s and r are in the same linezr meusa
circumferea*
If werotate the radius OA (fig. 3.8) through the entire
of the circle, the radian measure of the angle formed is

or = 2 7rad
Since I rev = 360, then we have the following equivalents:
2 T rad = 360 or Trad 180
Irad (19 57.295° (approx)
1 8 0 rad = 0.01745 rad (approx)
We can now easily change from one measure to another. The pr
involved will be illustrated by the following examples:

EXAMPLE 1: Express 120 in radians.

sOLUTION: Let t be the equivalent measure of 120. The ratis
tto 27 will be equal to the ratio of 120 to 5ev
Hence
J20°
360

- 0 ) 2r rad
It s proved in
geometry that the are lensth is nronndin
 2: Express rad in degrees.
EXAMPLE:
SOLUTION: Using the same argument in example 1, we have

tin rad 4 in deg

2T 360

then 37T/4 t
27 360
and solving for t
360360(=135°
2T
120
From Example 1, you would note that 360) 27= 1200
where 120 stands for that was given to be converted to rad. We
120
can deduce from here, that if A denotes an angle in degrees, ve just
it by
multiply. to obtain an angle A' in radians. In short, our
scheme will be

A50=A
we can deduce that
Similarly, from Example 2,

a central
EXAMPLE 3: Find the length of the arc subtended by
inches.
angle of 30 in a circle of radius 10
means: Given t 30 and
SOLUTION: The problem in short
r = 10 in., find s.

in rad:Since
From E(3.1), we haves = *twhere t must be
= 30 = 30( )= rad, then the length of the arc is
1 0 ) =5.2 in.