eectnca’ Measurements 1-16 Measuring Instrut iments rT Disadvantages ren ‘i | The various disadvantages of PMMC instruments are, 1) Suitable for d.c. measurements only. 2) Ageing of permanent magnet and the control springs introduces the errors, 3) The cost is high due to delicate construction and accurate machining, 4) The friction due to jewel-pivot suspension. KH Taut Band Instrument The friction due to jewel-pivot suspension can be eliminated by using taut band movement. The working principle of taut band instrument is same based on D'Arsonval's principle. The main difference is the method of mounting the coil. Scale In the taut band instrument the movable coil is suspended by means of two torsion ribbons. The ribbons are placed ~—_ under sufficient tension to eliminate any sag. This tension is provided by the tension string. The coil is mounted in a cradle and surrounded by ring bar magnet. The construction is shown in the Fig. 1.7.3 The taut band instrument can be used in any position while jewel-pivot instrument should be used vertically. The sensitivity of the taut band instruments is higher than jewel-pivot instruments. The taut band instruments are relatively insensitive to shocks and temperature and are capable of withstanding overloads. Ringbar magnet Cradle Coil Fig. 1.7.3 Taut band instrument Temperature Compensation The basic PMMC instrument is sensitive to the temperature.The magnetic field strength and spring tension decrease with increase in temperature. The coil resistance increases with increase in the temperature. Thus pointer reads low for a given current. The meter tends to read low by approximately 0.2 % per ‘C rise in the temperature. Hence the temperature compensation is provided by appropriate use of series and shunt resistances of copper and manganin.The simple compensation circuit uses a yesistance in series with the movable coil, as shown in the 1,74, The resistor is called a swamping, resistor, It is made up ically zero of manganin having — pra temperature coefficient, combined with copper in the ratio of 20/1 or 30/1. The resultant resistance of coil and the slightly as , just enough to swamping, resistor increases Swamping resistor [copper + manganin] temperature — increases, + compensate the change in springs and Fig. 1.7.4 Simple temperature compensation magnet due to temperature, Thus the effect of temperature is compensated. More complicated but complete cancellation of temperature effects can be obtained by “using the swamping resistors in series and parallel combination as shown in the | Fig, 1.7.5, Coil (copper) ‘Swamping resistors Manganin | Manganin Fig. 1.7.5 Improved temperature compensation In this circuit, by correct proportioning of copper and manganin parts, complete cancellation of the temperature effects can be achieved. : Errors in PMMC Instrument ‘The basic sources of errors in PMMC instruments are friction, temperature and aging of various parts, To reduce the frictional errors ratio of torque to weight is made very high. The most serious errors are produced by the heat generated or by changes in the temperature. This changes the resistance of the working coil, causing large errors. In case of voltmeters, a large series resistance of very low temperature coefficient is used. This teduces the temperature errors.The aging of permanent magnet and control springs also cause errors. The weakening of magnet and springs cause opposite errors. The weakening of magnet cause less deflection while weakening of the control springs cause large deflection, for a particular value of current. The proper use of material and preageing during manufacturing can, reduce the errors due to weakening of the control springs. EB Moving Iron Instruments Cee AAC A The moving iron instruments are classified as : i) Moving iron attraction type instruments and ii) Moving iron repulsion type instruments Moving Iron Attraction Type Instruments ta The basic working principle of these instruments is very simple that a soft iron piece if brought near the magnet gets attracted by the magnet. The construction of the attraction type instrument is shown in the Fig. 1.8.1, Piston <— Air damping chamber Moving iron 0 Balance weight Ws Wy Control weight Fig. 1.8.1 Moving iron attraction type instrument It consists of a fixed coil C and moving iron piece D. The coil is flat and has a narrow slot like opening. The moving iron is a flat disc which is eccentrically mounted on the spindle. The spindle is supported between the jewel bearings. The spindle carries a pointer which moves over a graduated scale. The number of turns of the fixed coil are dependent on the range of the instrument. For passing large current through the coil only few tums are required. e TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS”. An up thrust for kewnasaactrenERE! Disadvantages The various disadvanta of moving iron instruments are, 1) The scale of the moving iron instruments is not uniform and is cramped at the lower end. Hence accurate readings are not possible at this end. 2) There are serious errors due to hysteres fields. , frequency changes and stray magnetic 3) The increase in temperature increases the resistance of coil, decreases stiffness of the springs, decreases the permeability and hence affect the reading severely. 4) Due to the non linearity of _B-H curve, the deflecting torque is not exactly proportional to the square of the current. 5) There is a difference between a.c. and d.c. calibrations on account of the effect of inductance of the meter. Hence these meters must always be calibrated at the frequency at which they are to be used. The usual commercial moving iron instrument may be used within its specified accuracy from 25 to 125 Hz frequency range. 6) Power consumption is on higher side. ESE Errors in Moving Iron Instruments Lana The various errors in the moving iron instruments are, 1) Hysteresis errors : Due to hysteresis effect, the flux density for the same current while ascending and descending values is different. While descending, the flux density is higher and while ascending it is lesser. So meter reads higher for descending values of current or voltage. So remedy for this is to use smaller iron parts which can demagnetise quickly or to work with lower flux densities. 2) Temperature error : The temperature error arises due to the effect of temperature on the temperature coefficient of the spring. This error is of the order of 0.02 % per °C change in temperature. Errors can cause due to self heating of the coil and due to which change in resistance of the coil. So coil and series resistance must have low temperature coefficient. Hence manganin is generally used for the series resistances. 3) Stray magnetic field error : The operating magnetic field in case of moving iron instruments is very low. Hence effect of external ie. stray magnetic field can cause error. This effect depends on the direction of the stray magnetic field with respect to the operating field of the instrument. 4) Frequency error : These are related to a.c. operation of the instrument. The change in frequency affects the reactance of the working coil and also affects the magnitude of the eddy currents. This causes errors in the instrument. TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS”. An up thrust for knowledge5) Eddy current error : When instrument is used for a.c. measurements the eddy currents are produced in the iron parts of the instrument. The eddy current affects the instrument current causing the change in the deflecting torque. This produces the error in the meter reading. As eddy currents are frequency dependent, frequency changes cause eddy current error. GERORERD The inductance of a moving iron instrument is given by L = (10+50-07) wH where 0 is the deflection in radians from zero position. The spring constant is 12x10-© Nm/rad. Estimate the deflection for a current of 5 A. Solution : The rate of change of inductance is, = (6-20) wH/rad = (5-26)x10- © H/rad 1P db_1, ©)? -6 = > — = =x >=x(5- 10 9=3u 2 Gpqqre 0-20 9 0 1.04166 (5-20) © = 1.6891 rad = 96.782° 1 4.9 | Basic D.C. Ammeter The basic dic. ammeter is nothing but a D'Arsonval galvanometer. The coil winding of a basic movement is very small and light and hence it can carry very small currents. So as mentioned earlier, for large currents, the major part of current is required to be bypassed using a resistance called shunt. It is shown in the Fig. 1.9.1 Fig. 1.9.1 Basic d.c. ammeter The shunt resistance can be calculated as : Let Rm = Internal resistance of coil Ry, = Shunt resistance Im = Full scale deflection current I, = Shunt current 1 = Total current Now Ls ay +m . TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS”. An up thust for knowledge3) These instruments can be used on both a.c. and dic. They are also use das, transfer instruments. a 4) Electrodynamometer voltmeters are very useful where accurate r.m, values voltage, irrespective of waveforms, are required 5) Free from hysteresis errors. 6) Low power consumption. 7) Light in weight. EEZ¥ Disadvantages of Electrodynamic Instruments 1) These instruments have a low sensitivity due to a low torque to weight ratio. Alsy it introduces increased frictional losses. To get accurate results, these errors must be minimized. 2) They are more expensive than other type of instruments. 3) These instruments are sensitive to overloads and mechanical impacts. Therefore care must be taken while handling them. 4) They have a non-uniform scale. 5) The operating current of these instruments is large due to the fact that they have weak magnetic field. [E226] Errors in Electrodynamometer Instruments The various errors in electrodynamometer instruments are, 1. Torque to weight ratio : To have reasonable deflecting torque, m.m.f. of the moving coil must be large enough. Thus m.m.f. = NI hence current through moving coil should be high or number of turns should be large. The current cannot be made very high because it may cause excessive heating of springs. Large number of turns hence § the only option but it increases weight of the coil. This makes the system hea\y reducing torque to weight ratio. This can cause frictional errors in the reading. 2. Frequency errors : The changes in the frequency causes to change self inductances of moving coil and fixed coil. This causes the error in the reading. The frequency ert" can be reduced by having equal time constants for both fixed and moving coil circuits. 3. Eddy current errors : In metal parts of the instrument the eddy currents 8 produced. The eddy currents interact with the instrument current, to cause change in the deflecting torque, to cause error. Hence metal parts should be kept as minimum possible. Also the resistivity of the metal parts used must be high, to reduce the eddy currents.Electrical measurenrens 3-17 Measurement of Power 4, Stray magnetic field error : Similar to moving iron instruments the operating field in electrodynamometer instrument is very weak. Hence external magnetic field can interact with the operating field to cause change in the deflection, causing the error. To reduce the effect of stray magnetic field, the shields must be used for the instruments. 5, Temperature error : The temperature errors are caused due to the self heating of the coil, which causes change in the resistance of the coil. Thus temperature compensating resistors can be used in the precise instrument to eliminate the temperature errors. EE) Comparison of Various Types of Instruments The comparison of PMMC, moving iron and electrodynamometer type instruments is summarized in the Table 3.2.1. Meter type Control Damping Suitability Application PMMC Spring Eddy Dc. Widely used for d.c. current and current voltage measurements in low ab and medium impedance circuits. Moving Iron Spring or Air friction D.C. and Used for rough indication of Gravity AC. currents and voltages. Widely used for the indicator type instruments on panels. Electrodynamometer Spring Air friction D.C. and Used mainly as wattmeter. Also AC may be used as ammeter or voltmeter. Widely used as a calibration instrument and as a & transfer instrument. ‘| Table 3.2.1 ingle Phase Dynamometer Wattmeter DE An electrodynamometer type wattmeter is used to measure power. It has two coils, fixed coil which is current coil and moving coil which is pressure coil or voltage coil. The current coil carries the current of the circuit while pressure coil carries current Proportional to the voltage in the circuit. This is achieved by connecting a series Tesistance in voltage circuit. The connections of an electrodynamometer wattmeter in the circuit are shown in the Fig. 33.1, Current through current coil = Current through pressure coil R = Series resistance