Physiology chapter 2 – Cells and its Function - Intracellular Filaments – form

Microtubules that provide the

Cell’s two major parts:
Nucleus – is separated from the cytoplasm by a
nuclear membrane
Cytoplasm – is separated from the surrounding
fluids by a cell membrane, called the Plasma
membrane
cytoskeletons of such cellular organelles
as cilia and nerve axons
- Fibrillar proteins are found outside the
cell especially in the collagen and
elastin fibers of connective tissues and
in blood vessel walls, tendons,
ligaments, and so forth

- Cilia – which helps to move substances

Protoplasm – substances within the cell about
- Mitotic spindles – which involves in
Five basic substances
mitosis (is a structure composed of
- Water microtubules which segregates
- Electrolytes chromosomes into the daughter cells
- Proteins during mitosis. A microtubule is a rope-
- Lipid like component of the cytoskeleton.
- Carbohydrates The centrosome is an organelle that
serves as a microtubule organizing
Water – involves in cellular reactions center during cell division)
- 70 to 85% of the cells are water - Structural proteins form these this Thin
Filaments
Most important Ions - Filaments – hold the cytoplasm
- Potassium – appears to be relatively together
abundant Functional Proteins
- Magnesium
- Phosphate - Mainly Enzymes which function to
- Sulfate breakdown different products and are
- Bicarbonate involved in all the chemical reaction

There are small quantities of Sodium Chloride Lipid – as a group is a substance which is
and Calcium which are more prevalent in the Soluble in fat solvent
extracellular fluid The most important ones in the cells is the
2 types of Protein Phospholipids and Cholesterol

1. Structural Proteins Lipids – Insoluble to water, so that’s why they

- Provides the structure to the cell and
that does through microtubule that
provides cytoskeleton (Microtubules
are polymers of tubulin that form part
of the cytoskeleton and provide
structure and shape to eukaryotic cells)
- Cytoskeleton – provides support to the
cell
actually helped with the membranes so they
can actually compartmentalize the cell
Some cells contain large quantities of
Triglycerides, also called Neutral Fat
Carbohydrates – provide the nutrition of the
cell mainly through glucose
If glucose doesn’t need to be used right away
then it’s stored as glycogen which is a polymer
of glucose
Cell Membrane (plasma membrane) envelops
the cell and is thin, pliable, elastic structure only
7.5 to 10 nanometers thick.
- Composed almost of entirely of
proteins and lipids
- Protein 55%
- Phospholipids 25%
- Cholesterol 13%
- Other lipids 4%
- Carbohydrates 3%
Physical structure of the cell
Intracellular Organelles – contains highly
organized physical structure
Membranous structure of the cell
Organelles are covered by membranes
composed primarily by lipids and protein
Membranous structure of the cells
Cell membrane/Plasma membrane – envelops
the cell and is a thin pliable, elastic structures
only 7.5 to 10 nanometers thick
The cell membrane lipid barrier impedes
penetration by Water-Soluble Substances
Cell membranes – basic structure is Lipid
Bilayer
Lipid Bilayer Consists of:
- Phospholipids – must abundant of the
cell membranes
- main structure
- Sphingolipids
- Cholesterol
Two parts of Phospholipids
Each phospholipid molecule has a head and
two tails. The head “loves” water (hydrophilic)
and the tails “hate” water (hydrophobic)
Phosphate End – Hydrophilic (it attracts water)
soluble in water
Hydrophobic – soluble in fats
Hydrophilic Phosphate portions – constitute
the two surfaces of the complete cell
membrane, in contact with Intracellular water
on the side of the membrane and Extracellular
water on the outside Surface
Lipid bilayers in the middle of the membrane is
impermeable to the usual water soluble
substances such as:
- Ions
- Glucose
- Urea
Fat soluble substances can penetrate this
portion such as:
- Alcohol
- Oxygen
- Carbon dioxide
Sphingolipids – small amounts in the cell
membrane especially in nerve cells
- They protect the cell against harmful
environmental factors, signal
transmission, and also adhesion sites
for extracellular proteins
Cholesterol – steroid nuclei are highly fat
soluble
- Main role is to determine the
permeability and fluidity of the
membrane
Integral and Peripheral Cell Membrane
Proteins
- Globular mass floating in the lipid
bilayer
 - These membrane proteins are maily
Glycogen proteins
Peripheral Proteins – are attached only to one
surface of the membrane and do not penetrate
all the way
Integral Proteins
- Protrude all the way through the
membrane
- Have channels or pores
- Act like a gate through the membrane
itself
- There’s different types of integral which
may allow passive diffusion through the
membrane or act as Carrier protein and
act more like a gate, they can also serve
as receptors for water soluble
chemicals
- Carriers proteins even transport
substances in the direction opposite to
their electrochemical gradient for
diffusion which is also called “Active
Transport”
Peripheral Proteins
- Act more like enzymes or control of the
transport of substances across the cell
membranes
Membrane Carbohydrates – The Cell
GLYCOCALYX
- Membrane carbohydrates occur almost
invariably in combination with proteins
or lipids in the form of Glycoprotein or
Glycolipids
- Most integral proteins are
glycoproteins
- Proteoglycans – carbohydrate
substances bound to small proteins
cores
Functions
- Provide a negative charge to the cell
membrane, that negative charge then
repels negatively charge objects
- The glycocalyx also attaches to other
glycocalyxes of other cells so they can
provide some structure between cells
- It can also acts as a receptor for
hormones and then also has some
immune functions
Cytoplasm and Its Organelles
Cytoplasm – filled large dispersed particles and
organelles
- Jelly like fluid portion of the cytoplasm
in which the particles are dispersed are
called Cytosol and mainly dissolved
proteins, electrolytes and glucose
Endoplastic reticulum
The space inside the tubules and vesicles is
filled with Endoplasmic Matrix
Function
- Is to produce and process substances
but those substances are produced
depends on the type of ER
- There are two types of ER
1. Granular ER, which is covered with
ribosomes
- Ribosomes – are mixture of RNA and
proteins
- Produce proteins , because of the
ribosomes which are protein
membranes manufacturers
2. Smooth ER/ Agranular
- Produce lipids
Golgi Apparatus
Once these substances are produced, they then
pinch off little Vesicles which then gets
transported to the Golgi Apparatus, here the
substances are further process to either form a
Lysosome, Secretory Vesicles or other
Cytoplasmic Component.
Golgi Apparatus – is more of the processor as
well as manufacturer properties for producing
carbohydrates but it mainly processes
substances produced by the ER and of those
substances is Lysosomes
Lysosomes
- Stomach of the cells
- Are vesicular organelles that form by
breaking off from the Golgi Apparatus
and the dispersing throughout the
cytoplasm
- Provide an intercellular digestive
system that allows the cells to digestive
system that allows the cells to digest,
go to damaged cellular structures, food
particles or unwanted matter such as
bacteria and actually break those
components down into your substrates
or just to destroy the bacteria itself
- They mainly contains Hydrolase, a
digestive enzyme, breakdown protein
into amino acids, glycogen into glucose
and lipids into fatty acids and glycerol
Peroxisomes
- Formed by self-replication by budding
off from the smooth ER
- It contains Oxidase rather than
hydrolase
Oxidases –combines oxygen with hydrogen
and form hydrogen peroxide
Hydrogen Peroxide – is highly oxidizing
substance which allows it to actually
destroy substances that are poisonous to
the cells
- It can also catalyze long chain fatty
Secretory Vesicles
Almost all such secretory substances are
formed by the endoplasmic reticulum, golgi
apparatus system and then release form the
golgi to the cytoplasm in the form of storage
vesicles called secretory vesicles or secretory
granules
Mitochondria
- Power house of the cell
- It produces energy
- Produces ATP (energy currency within
the cell)
- Self-replicative
Cell cytoskeleton – Filament and Tubular
Structures
- A network of fibrillar proteins
organized into filaments and tubules
- The primary function functions of
microtubules is to act as a cytoskeleton
Nucleus
- Brain and control center of the cells
- Contains DNA, genes, which contains
the code to tell the cell what to do and
what cell proteins to form and it also
determines the cell should grow,
mature or replicate or even die
- During Mitosis, the chromatin material
which can then be easily identified
using the light microscope
Nuclear membrane
- Two separate bilayer membranes
- Outer and the inner
- Penetrated by several thou-sand
nuclear pores
Nuclei and Formation of Ribosomes
- Largely represent RNA and proteins
typically found in ribosomes
Nucleolus – is large in cells which are producing
of high quantity of protein molecules
Comparison of the animal cell with precellular
forms of life
Small virus – 15nm
Large virus – 150 nm
Ricketssia – 350 nm
Bacterium – 1 micrometer
Cell – 5-10 micrometer
The essential life-giving constituent of the small
virus is Nucleic Acid
Functional Systems of the Cell
Ingestion by the cells – Endocytosis
- Cell membranes collapses in on itself,
forms a circle and then pinches itself off
to form a vesicle containing those
substances within the outside world
- Most substances pass through the cell
membrane by Diffusion and Active
Transport
Two types of Endocytosis
1. Pinocytosis – is the endocytosis process
of liquid or small substances like protein
2. Phagocytosis - – is the endocytosis
process of larger molecules such as
bacteria, whole cells, or portions of
degenerating tissue
Pinocytotic and Phagocytic foreign substances
are digested inside the cell by Lysosomes
The lysosome contains bactericidal agents that
can kill phagocytized bacteria before they can
caused cellular damage
1. Lysosomes – dissolves the bacterial cell
membrane
2. Lysoferrin – binds the iron making it
unavailable to the bacteria which is
needed for their growth
3. Acidic pH – about 5.0 , disrupts their
function altogether
Autolysis – entire cell is digested
Autophagy – recycling of cell organelles
- Housekeeping process from removing
whole organelles or large protein which
then get degraded and recycled , so any
malfunctioning portions are recycled
within the cells
Specific function of the ER
- Also produce enzymes which control
the breakdown of Glycogen , which
release the glucose then used it for
energy
- Produces enzymes which are capable of
detoxifying harmful substances
Specific functions of Golgi Apparatus
- They process substances formed by the
body endoplasmic reticulum
- Synthesize carbohydrates
- Some of these carbohydrates include
Hyaluronic Acid and Chondroitin Sulfate
which has several functions including
providing structure to mucus and other
glandular secretions, providing to the
extracellular matrix, being part of the
structure of cartilage and bone and also
for various cell activities such as
migration and proliferations
Figure 2-14, p 22.
Granular ER forming proteins, Smooth ER,
forming lipids, which then produce the vesicles
to be processed within the actual Golgi
apparatus which also produces Carbohydrates
and also Lysosomes, which then inform their
own secretory vesicles to then be sent out or
secreted into the nearby environment or use
within the cell
The Mitochondria Extract Energy from the
Nutrients
Glucose or Fatty acids and Amino acids – are
used within the system to produce ATP or the
energy currency of the cell and CO2 and water
as by products
Functional Characteristics of ATP
Made up of 3 main components
a. Nitrogenous Base – Adenine
b. Pentose Sugar Ribose
c. Phosphate Groups - which contains the
high energy bonds, which get broken to
form energy
ATP as a structure, its main components are
these phosphates regions, and when a system
needs to use some energy, it will break the
phosphate bond releasing energy to be used for
specific function and then ATP turned into ADP
if another bond is broken again then it will form
ATP then molecule go to wherever energy is
required
Chemical process in the Formation of ATP –
Role of Mitochondria
Upon entry to the cells, the glucose is subjected
to enzymes in the cytoplasm that convert it into
Pyruvate acid or Glycolysis
About 95% of the cell’s ATP formation occurs in
the Mitochondria
The Pyruvic acid derived from carbohydrates,
fatty acids, from lipids, and amino acids from
protein is converted to Acetyl-Coenzymes in
the matrix of Mitochondria
Citric Acid Cycle – Acetyl-Coa is split into its
component parts, hydrogen atoms and carbon
dioxide
Chemiosmotic Mechanism – overall process for
formation of ATP
Uses of ATP for Cellular Function
1. Transport of substances across the
membranes
2. Synthesizing chemical compounds
throughout the cell
3. Mechanical work
Use of Adenosine Triphosphate
- Membrane transport
- Protein synthesis
- Muscle contractions
Locomotion of Cells
The most obvious example is
- Contraction of muscles in skeletal,
cardiac, and smooth muscles, which
requires ATP
Ameboid Movement
- Is movement of an entire cell in relation
to its surroundings, such as movement
of WBC cells through tissue
- Typically, ameboid locomotion begins
with protrusion of Pseudopodium from
one end of the cell.
Types of cells that exhibit ameboid locomotion
WBC – when they move out of the blood into
the tissues to form macrophages
Control of Ameboid Locomotion-Chemotaxis
Chemotaxis – the most important initiator of
ameboid locomotion
Chemotatic Substance – any chemical
substance that causes chemotaxis to occur
Positive Chemotaxis – cells that exhibit ameloid
locomotion forward the source of a chemotactic
substance, that is from an area of lower
concentration toward higher concentration
Cilia and Ciliary Movement
- 2nd type of ciliary movement
- Whip like movement
- Move in a beating motion
Occurs in two places of the human body: Epidermis – outermost layer

1. Surface of the respiratory airways - keratinized, stratified squamous

2. Inside surface of the uterine tube epithelial cells
(fallopian tubes) - avascular
- Each cilium is an outgrowth of a - protection and control water loss
structure that lies immediately between Layers of Epidermis
the cell membrane, called the Basal
body of the cilium Stratum Corneum
- 20-30 layers of flattened, keratinized,
Flagellum/sperm – is similar to cilium
anucleated cells
- Much longer and moves in quasi-
Stratum Lucidum – thick skin
sinusoidal waves instead of whiplike
movements Stratum Granulosum

Mechanism of Ciliary Movement - 4-6 layers thick, beginning of

keratinzation
Axoneme: The central strand of a cilium or
flagellum. It is composed of an array of Stratum Spinosum
microtubules, typically in nine pairs around two - Several layers thick
single central ones - Melanosomes that produce melanin
Requires two conditions Stratum Basale
1. ATP – the energy currency to provide - Single layer
the energy to move - Mitotic cells
2. Appropriate Ionic Conditions,
especially appropriate concentrations
of magnesium and calcium Dermis

Dynein - is a family of cytoskeletal motor - Vascularized

proteins that move along microtubules in - Fibrous connective tissues
cells. They convert the chemical energy - Contains the:
Accessory Glands:
stored in ATP to mechanical work
 Meissner’s corpuscles
 Sudoriferous (sweat) glands
 Sebaceous (oil) gland
The Integumentary  Hair follicles
- largest organ in the body Hypodermis
- forms a barrier between the external
and internal environment of the body - Subcutaneous tissues
- skin - Made mostly of fat
- hair - Anchors skin to deeper structures
- nails
Functions
- accessory glands
- nerves Protection
Layers of the skin - Environmental conditions
 - Pathogens
- Melanocytes – UV light
Vitamin D Synthesis
- Epidermis
- Sunlight/UV radiation
- Essential for normal absorption of
calcium and phosphorous
- General immunity against infection
- Insufficiency causes Rickets and
Osteomalacia and is linked to cancer
Sensory Functions
Merkel’s Disks – light touch
Meissner’s Corpuscles – fine touch and
pressure; vibration
Pacnician Corpuscles – deep, transient pressure
Ruffini Endings – detect skin stretch, position
and movement, warmth
Thermoregulation
- Vasodilation or vasoconstriction