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PRODUCTS AND Anand - Mari 16

THEIR ELIMINATION
= 8 MARKS *

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19.1 INTRODUCTION Excretory TYPES OF EXCRETORY STRUCTURE
By ingestion or by metabolic activities, products like ammonia, urea, uric structure
Protonephridia are excretory structures
acid, carbon dioxide, water, and ions like Na+, K+, Cl–, phosphate, and sulphate that helps in ionic and fluid volume regulation
accumulate in the body.
(osmoregulation) Capsule Outer Inner
Simple and Complex Protonephridia or flame cells are found in platyhelminthes
(Outer layer) cortex medulla
tubular called tubular organ (flatworms, e.g., Planaria), rotifers, and the
COMMON NITROGENOUS WASTE cephalochordate – Amphioxus
nephridia called kidney
Nephridia are the tubular
Ammonia Urea Uric acid Found in Found in excretory structure of
invertebrates vertebrates
• Most toxic • Less toxic compared to • Least toxic earthworms and other annelids
The layer of kidney from outside to inside
• Requires large amount ammonia • Require least amount of Malpighian tubules are the
of water for elimination • Requires moderate water for elimination excretory structure of insects The medulla is divided into a few conical masses (medullary pyramids) that
• Ammonotelism is the amount of water for • Uric acid is removed in including cockroaches
process of excreting elimination the form of pellet or protrude into the calyces (sing.: calyx).
ammonia. • Ammonia produced by paste to minimize the Antennal glands or green glands
• Ammonia is excreted by metabolism is converted use of water perform the excretory function in Cortex
diffusion across body crustaceans, example: Prawns
into urea in the liver • Organisms which remove
surfaces or through which is filtered and uric acid are called Medulla
gill surfaces (in fish) as excreted out by the
ammonium ions kidney (AIPMT 2010)
uricotelic HUMAN EXCRETORY SYSTEM
• Organisms which remove • Example: Reptiles, birds, HUMAN EXCRETORY SYSTEM HAS Renal
ammonia are called • Organisms which remove land snails and insects
ammonotelic urea are called ureotelic capsule
(AIPMT 2011, 2012)
• Example: Bony fishes, • Example: Terrestrial
aquatic amphibians and amphibians and marine Renal
aquatic insects fishes artery
(AIPMT 2012) (Karnataka NEET 2013) Calyx
A pair of A pair of Urinary Urethra
kidneys ureters bladder
Ammonia → UREA ( Liver )*
t Renal vein
Ornithine cycle Kidneys are reddish-brown bean-shaped structures.
AMMONIA It is situated between the last thoracic and third lumbar vertebra near the Renal
(waste nitrogen) dorsal inner wall of the abdominal cavity. columns
Carbamoyl
phosphate Mitochondria Each kidney weighs 120-170 g, it is 10-12 cm in length, 5-7 cm in width, Ureter
synthase
Citrulline
of liver cells 2-3 cm in thickness.
The hilum is a notch present at the centre of kidney’s inner concave surface Longitudinal section of Kidney
Carbamoyl Aspartate
phosphate Arg through which the ureter, blood vessels, and nerves enter. (NEET 2013)
ine ferase in
The cortex extends in between the medullary pyramids as renal columns called
th trans Sy in
yl n Inner to the hilum is a funnel-shaped space called the renal pelvis that has
m i

os has
ba rn
o
Car O

t
uc e

projections called calyces. Columns of Bertini.

cina

Dorsal aorta
Arginino-
te

Ornithine UREA CYCLE Each kidney has one million tubular structures called nephron (functional unit
Succinate
ate

of the kidney).
s e ccin

m C) Kidney
Ar

UREA of
rea @
u column
na
os
gi

st se nin Ly a Bertini Each nephron has two parts– Glomerulus and the renal tubule.
A r gi
od
Blo

Medullary
Fumarate pyramid
→

unsaturation Nephron
Pip
→
Arginine
→
LOOP OF HENIE

Kidneys Glomerulus (tuft of

→
DISTAL CONVOLUTED
capillaries) Renal tubule TUBULE
Nephron →
Collecting duet
Urine Urea Cycle ↓ thick
Formed by thin
Renal papilla
↓
Afferent arteriole (renal Efferent arteriole
Minor Calyces artery carries blood (carries blood away
↓
Major Calyces
.
towards glomerulus) from the glomerulus)
↓
Renal pelvis Forms Peritubular This network’s minute vessel forms
capillaries around the a ‘U’ shaped vasa recta by running
renal tubule parallel to the Henle’s loop
Human Urinary system

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 /
Malpighian corpuscle
GLOMERULAR FILTRATION → 125mL min → 1804
trc/da_y
it
Filtration of blood through 3 layers
• Endothelium of glomerular blood vessels FR = GHP -
( CHPTBCOP)
Cortical PCT it
• Basement membrane slit UP°ʳˢ- Gnp _
Glomerular Hydrostatic
,
Pressure

Nephron is located in
• Epithelium of Bowman’s capsule (podocytes)
CHP -

Capsular Hydrostatic
DCT if pressure
After filtration all the
The epithelial cells of BCOP Blood colloidal osmotic
constituents of the -

Bowman’s capsule called *

plasma except the pressure
podocytes have minute Blood is filtered proteins pass into the
spaces called filtration through slit pores
Diagrammatic representation of a nephron showing blood vessels, tubule and duct lumen of the Bowman’s
slits or slit pores
Medulla Loop of Henle ✓ capsule, thus it is called
(AIPMT 2011)
ultrafiltration
Malpighian
Glomerulus Bowman’s body or renal
capsule Cellular modifications in the distal convoluted tubule and cellular modifications
corpuscle
Types of nephrons =

Juxta glomerular apparatus (JGA).

I
in afferent arteriole at the location of their contact lead to the formation of

Malpighian body Cortical nephron Juxta medullary nephron

=
-

Cellular modifications in the distal convoluted tubule are more dense and come
Proximal convoluted tubule (PCT)
More in number 80.1 .
Very less in number Is -20-1 . in contact with efferent and afferent arterioles forming macula densa cell.
Descending limb of the loop of henle
Cellular modifications in afferent arteriole are known as juxta glomerular cells.
Ascending limb of the loop of henle The loop of Henle is too short The loop of Henle is very long it m Renin_

=
Juxta glomerular apparatus (JGA) = Macula densa cell + Juxta glomerular cell
Distal convoluted tubule (DCT) + Mesangial cell. NO
Extension in the medulla is very short -
Extension in the medulla is long
- ↳
Vasodilator *
→

Collecting duct A fall in GFR can activate the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS)
Medullary pyramids Vasa recta absent or highly reduced Vasa recta present
_
mechanism that helps bring glomerular blood flow back to normal.
Calyces Extraglomerular mesangial cells

Renal pelvis Efferent arteriole Bowman’s space

URINE FORMATION
Bowman’s capsule: Proximal tubule
↓ t.IE
Three steps of urine formation are

ULTRAFILTRATION Macula densa

Parietal layer ,

Glomerular filtration it
Capsular space
Visceral layer:
Podocyte
Pedicels

Efferent Reabsorption it
arteriole
Podocytes

Juxtaglomerular (granular) cells

Afferent it
Proximal arteriole Secretion
convoluted tubule Distal tubule

Afferent arteriole

Juxta glomerular apparatus (JGA)

Malpighian body (renal corpuscle)

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 Tubular secretion

IF
"

Reabsorption
Ultrafiltration
.

REABSORPTION Absorbed passively MECHANISM OF CONCENTRATION OF THE FILTRATE

99% of the filtrate is reabsorbed by the renal tubules by the process called Lined by squamous epithelium. Human urine gets concentrated by the counter current mechanism operated by
reabsorption. (AIPMT 2010) Counter current
Present at the thin segment of ascending limb of the loop of Henle. limbs of Henle’s loop and vasa recta.
↳ Counter current
/
Filtrate formed per day is 180 litres whereas urine released is only 1.5 litres multiplier exchange*
per day. DISTAL CONVOLUTED TUBULE (DCT) The Henle’s loop

Active or passive mechanisms are used by tubular epithelial cells in different DCT reabsorbs HCO–3 ions and secretes hydrogen, potassium, and NH3 to maintain (ascending limb)
and vasa recta

of

of vasa re limb
cta
the pH and sodium-potassium balance in the blood.

Henle’s loop
Descending limb
regions of the nephron to accomplish reabsorption. (descending limb)

limb
Cortex

loop
300

Descending
has flow in opposite
Conditional reabsorption of Na+ and water takes place in DCT.

Ascending
Ascendin cta

of Henle’s
g limb
direction 600

re
Reabsorption by active mechanism Reabsorption by passive mechanism OH

of vasa
• Reabsorption of the filtrate by • Reabsorption of the filtrate by Reabsorption In the presence of IM 900
the use of ATP simple diffusion of Na+ aldosterone
• Example:+ Glucose, amino acids • Example: Nitrogenous waste and ME 1200

DCT
and Na water (only in initial segments
of nephron) Picture showing the flow of filtrate in the opposite direction (counter current) in
Reabsorption of Henle’s loop (shown in blue) and vasa recta (shown in magenta)
SECRETION In the presence of ADH
water
Tubular cells secrete H+, K+, and ammonia into the filtrate.
Tubular secretion helps in the maintenance of the ionic and acid-base balance COLLECTING DUCT Flowchart depicting counter current mechanism
of body fluids.
This long duct connects the cortex of the kidney to the medulla’s inner parts.
FUNCTION OF THE TUBULES Large amounts of water are reabsorbed to form concentrated urine. Close proximity of Henle’s loop and vasa recta helps to increase osmolarity of the fluid
PROXIMAL CONVOLUTED TUBULE (PCT) The collecting duct allows the passage of small amounts of urea into the
PCT is lined by simple cuboidal brush border epithelium, which increases the medullary interstitium to maintain osmolarity.
surface area for reabsorption. 100% Glucose & Amino acid Reabsorb Osmolarity increases from 300 mOsmolL-1 (in cortex) to 1200 mOsmolL-1 (in inner

÷:⑧÷
-

:
PCT By secretion of H+ and K+ ions, it plays an important role in the maintenance of medulla)
70-80% of electrolytes, water, and nutrients are reabsorbed by PCT. Its removal pH and ionic balance of the blood.
will cause dilution of urine. (AIPMT 2012, AIPMT 2015 Cancelled)
Proximal convoluted tubule Distal convoluted tubule
PCT secretes hydrogen ions, ammonia, and potassium ions into the filtrate and NaCl and urea are mainly responsible for creating this gradient ""
NaCl Nutrients
absorbs HCO3 ions to maintain the pH and ionic balance of the body fluids. HCO3- H 2O NaCl
H2O HCO3-
K+
HENLE’S LOOP → Concern tattoo of URINE Loop of Henle maintains the gradient of NaCl; it is transported by the ascending limb of
Reabsorption is minimum in its ascending limb. the Henle’s loop and exchanged with the descending limb of the vasa recta
K+ NH3 K+ H+
Plays a role in the maintenance of high osmolarity of medullary interstitial fluid. Cortex
The exchanged NaCl is then returned to the interstitium (interstitial fluid) by the ascending
Descending limb of the loop of Henle limb of the vasa recta
Descending Thick segment of
Concentrates the filtrate as it moves down. (NEET 2017) limb of loop of ascending limb
Henle
Permeable to water but impermeable to electrolytes. NaCl Collecting Urea entering the ascending limb (by diffusion) of the Henle’s loop is also transported back
H 2O duct
Lined by simple squamous epithelium. to the interstitium by the collecting tubule

Ascending limb of the loop of Henle Thin segment of

Medulla ascending limb
As the filtrate passes upward, it gets diluted due to the passage of electrolytes. Creation of these gradients supports an easy passage of water from the collecting duct
NaCl
Impermeable to water but allows the transport of electrolytes.
Urea
Active H 2O
Absorbed actively Na€ →
As the filtrate moves down the collecting duct, more and more water moves out from it
transport making the filtrate hypertonic and urine concentrated
Lined by cuboidal epithelium.
Present at the thick segment of ascending limb of the loop of Henle.
(NEET 2016) Reabsorption and secretion of major substances at different parts of the nephron

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 Catkin / Tobacco / Alcohol → ADH Suppress *

Afferent
arteriole
Bowman’s
capsule
CONTROL BY ANF (ATRIAL NATRIURETIC FACTOR)
Glomerulus
ANF released by the heart (atrial wall) in response to an increase in blood volume
Released into the
Efferent H 2O and pressure to the atria. (NEET 2017)
arteriole NaCl Hypothalamus ADH (antidiuretic blood from the
secreted hormone) posterior lobe of ANF keeps a check on RAAS mechanism and inhibits the release of renin from JGA.
Cortex pituitary gland
300 200 ANF promotes vasodilation, that is the dilation of blood vessels leading to a
300 mOsmolL-1
300
300
decrease in blood pressure. It also inhibits aldosterone secretion from adrenal
400
NaCl 300 Outer medulla glands, thereby decreasing reabsorption of NaCl from DCT.
NaCl NaCl
NaCl H 2O
Decrease in blood volume, body fluid volume triggers osmoreceptors; receptors stimulate the
600 mOsmolL -1
NaCl 400 400
600 H 2O
NaCl

NaCl
400 hypothalamus to secrete ADH (anti-diuretic hormone) that is released into blood by posterior pituitary
(AIPMT 2011)
MICTURITION
H2 O H2O
NaCl
Micturition is the process of release of urine by the human body. It is a voluntary
800 600 600
600
900 mOsmolL-1
H 2O Inner medulla ADH released into blood; promotes water reabsorption in the DCT and collecting duct process to some extent in the human body.
NaCl 800 800
H2O
1000 Urea The neural mechanism of control of micturition is called the micturition reflex.
1000 900
1000 Detruss or muscle
1200 mOsmolL -1 1200
ADH also prevents diuresis (body filtering too much fluid); ultimately increasing the body fluid volume Urine gets stored in the urinary bladder before its release out of the body.
1200 H2O

Vasa recta Nephron

Control and coordination of the micturition
Fluid volume increases, switche off osmoreceptors; suppressing the release of ADH completing feedback

REGULATION OF KIDNEY FUNCTION ADH also stimulates constriction of blood vessels thereby increasing the blood pressure; it increases blood As the urinary bladder gets
filled, it stretches the walls CNS sends motor messages to:
Kidney functions are regulated by hormonal feedback mechanisms that involve flow to the glomerulus and resulting GFR 1. Bladder for contraction of Simultaneous contraction
of the bladder; stimulating and release of muscles
the hypothalamus (ADH), JGA and the heart (Atrial natriuretic factor- ANF). stretch receptors that
the smooth muscles and;
Flowchart and diagram showing regulation of kidney function by ADH 2. Urethral sphincter for its result in release of urine
send signals to the CNS
Osmoreceptors help to detect the changes in the blood volume, fluid volume and (AIPMT 2009)
relaxation
ionic concentration of the body. CONTROL BY JGA (JUXTAGLOMERULAR APPARATUS)
JGA is the adjoining region formed by modified cells of DCT and afferent arteriole Glycosuria is the condition of the presence of glucose in the urea, and ketonuria
CONTROL BY ADH (VASOPRESSIN)
Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System

is the condition of the presence of ketone bodies in the urea. Traces of glucose
JGA operates RAAS (renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system)
and ketone bodies in the urine indicates the condition of diabetes mellitus.
(RAAS) Mechanism

Decrease in GFR activates JGA cells to secrete renin (AIPMT 2012) PROPERTIES OF HUMAN URINE
Renin converts angiotensinogen (secreted from the liver) in blood to angiotensin
I and then to angiotensin II which is a vasoconstrictor Average human can excrete upto pH is 6 (slightly acidic, due to active secretion of
Hormone angiotensin II constricts the blood vessels and increases the blood 1-1.5 litres of urine/day hydrogen ions into the filtrate) (NEET 2015)
volume; thereby increasing the blood pressure and GFR
Characteristic odour Urea excreted/day
Pale yellow in colour
Angiotensin II also stimulates the adrenal cortex to secrete aldosterone ⇐
= 25-30 gram
Aldosterone promotes reabsorption of water and NaCl from DCT that further
increases the blood pressure and GFR (NEET 2020)

Liver
Angiotensin II acts on the
adrenal gland for stimulate
release of Aldosterone
ROLE OF OTHER ORGANS IN EXCRETION AND DISORDERS OF EXCRETORY
SYSTEM
Excretes approximately 200 ml per minute of CO2 every
Angiotensinogen Lungs ACE Angiotensin II Aldosterone
minute along with a high amount of H2O daily

Angiotensinogen Angiotensin I Angiotensin II Aldosterone Secretes substances containing bile juice, such as
Organs for biliverdin, bilirubin, cholesterol, degraded steroid
Renin Angiotensin II Aldosterone
excretion hormones, vitamins and drugs which are excreted
other than out with digestive waste
Blood vessel
kidneys
Elimination of substances by sweat and sebaceous glands
I t
F -

in the form of sweat (NaCl, lactic acid and urea) and

Kidneys Angiotensin II is a constrictor Stimulate reabsorption
sebum (sterols, hydrocarbons and waxes) *
-
- _
of all blood vessels. It acts of sodium and water
on the smooth muscle

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DISORDERS OF EXCRETORY SYSTEM ADDITIONAL POINTS
The most prevalent disorders of kidneys include uremia and renal failure.
UREMIA
Uremia results by the accumulation of the urea in the bloodstream of an Haemudiahe_
individual due to the malfunctioning of the kidneys.
If not treated on time, it may lead to kidney failure.
Artery → Blood →
Anticoagulant
The urea from the blood is removed by the process named hemodialysis.
↓
t o

The process of hemodialysis involves the following steps:

↳
dialysistluidfeUREA-isotonic.to
1 3 5 7 9

Dialysis fluid has Since dialysis unit Blood is pumped

Blood drained from Mixture pumped into similar composition lacks nitrogenous back to the body
artery dialysis unit as plasma but lacks
nitrogenous wastes
wastes, they move
out of blood
by a vein plasma
except urea
=

Porous
Dialysis unit has

2
Heparin, an cellophane allows Anti-heparin is added
coiled cellophane the movement of
anticoagulant molecules as per to the cleared
tube surrounding the
is added concentration blood
dialysis fluid gradient
2 4 6 8 Blood
Dialyzer inflow ↓
pressure monitor
Clean blood
returned to
warm →
Coagulant
body t

ruins
Air trap
Dialysis
fluid in
Dialyzer

Arterial
Dialysis
pressure
fluid removed
monitor
Blood
Inflow pressure
removed for
monitor
cleaning
Heparin
Blood pump
infusion
Diagrammatic representation of the process of hemodialysis in uremic patient
RENAL FAILURE AND KIDNEY TRANSPLANTATION
Decrease or cessation of glomerular filtration leads to renal failure.

Usually close
Only method Functioning kidney relative’s kidney is
Kidney to correct the is taken from taken to minimize
transplantation acute renal donor the chances of
failure rejection

There are some other kidney disorders which a person may suffer, like:
Renal calculi: Accumulation of insoluble mass or stone of crystallized salts like __

oxalate in kidney.
=

Glomerulonephritis: Inflammation of glomeruli of kidney.

The painful urination is called dysuria, and polyuria is the condition of a large
amount of urine. less urine
NO Urine → Anuria
to

Oligo uriah

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