Contents

1 Single Variable 3
1.1 The Limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.1 Numerical Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.2 Analytical Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 The Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2.1 Continuity in intervals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2.2 Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2.3 Nice functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3 The Derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3.1 Differentiability in intervals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3.2 Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3.3 Best functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.4 The Antiderivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.4.1 Direct Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.4.2 Integration by substitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.4.3 Integration by parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.4.4 Integration of quadratic trinomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.4.5 Integrating rational functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.4.6 Integrating certain irrational functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.4.7 Integrating trigonometric functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.4.8 One special form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.4.9 Using reduction formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.4.10 Integrating non-continuous functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.5 The Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.5.1 Informal definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.5.2 Formal definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.5.3 The fundamental theorem of calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.5.4 Extension of Riemann integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.5.5 Properties of Riemann integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

2 Multi Variable 8
2.1 The Limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.1.1 Numerical Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.1.2 Analytical Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.2 The Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.2.1 Continuity in intervals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.2.2 Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.2.3 Nice functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.3 The Derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

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 2.3.1 Partial and Directional Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.3.2 Differentiability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.3.3 Theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.3.4 Best functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.4 The Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.4.1 Formal definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.4.2 Informal definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.4.3 Fubini’s theorem for Riemann integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.4.4 Extension of Riemann integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.4.5 Properties of Riemann integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

2
Chapter 1

Single Variable

1.1 The Limit

The limit of a function, written as lim f (x) = L, and read as the limit of f (x) as x approaches a
x→a
is L, means that the function f (x) can be made arbitrarily close to L by taking x to be sufficiently
close to the point x = a but not equal to it. The limits can be calculated in following ways.

1.1.1 Numerical Methods

We try to estimate or guess if a limit exists and what its value is by looking at a table of values as
following.
sin(x) x 0.0235 0.0073 0.0009
ˆ lim
x→0 x f (x) 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999
The table of values just gives an indication what the limit might be but does not prove it for
sure as there are many possibilities to consider.
π x 0.1000 0.0100 0.0010
 
ˆ lim sin
x→0 x f (x) 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
This is a pitfall in guessing the limit since the limit does not equal to zero.

1.1.2 Analytical Methods

The analytical methods include computing limits using limit rules and theorems.
1. One sided limits:
To write that, lim+ f (x) = L (or lim f (x) = L), means that the function f (x) can be made
x→a x→a−
arbitrarily close to L by taking x to be sufficiently close to the point x = a while x is strictly
on the right (or the left) of it.
Then, x→a
lim f (x) = L if and only if lim+ f (x) = lim− f (x) = L
x→a x→a

2. Limit laws
(a) Basic Operations: If x→a
lim f (x) and x→a
lim g(x) exist then,

ˆ lim (f (x) + g(x)) = lim f (x) + lim g(x)

x→a x→a x→a

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 ˆ lim (f (x) · g(x)) = lim f (x) · lim g(x)
x→a x→a x→a

ˆ lim (f (x) / g(x)) = lim f (x) / lim g(x) provided that lim g(x) 6= 0
x→a x→a x→a x→a

(b) Sandwich theorem: Let the functions f (x), g(x), h(x), satisfy the following condition:

f (x) ≤ g(x) ≤ h(x)

on an open interval containing the point x = a but not necessarily at the point itself and
if x→a
lim f (x) = x→a
lim h(x) = L then x→a
lim g(x) = L

(c) Squeeze theorem: Let the functions f (x) and g(x) satisfy the following condition:

|f (x) − L| ≤ g(x)

on an open interval containing the point x = a but not necessarily at the point itself and
if lim g(x) = 0 then lim f (x) = L
x→a x→a

1.2 The Continuity

A function f (x) is said to be continuous at a point x = a if

lim = f (x)
x→a

The following are the types of discontinuities:

ˆ Removable discontinuity (a hole or isolated point): lim f (x) 6= f (a)
x→a

ˆ Jump discontinuity (a sudden jump): lim+ f (x 6= lim− f (x)

x→a x→a

ˆ Infinity discontinuity (a vertical asymptote): lim f (x) = ∞

x→a

1.2.1 Continuity in intervals

1. Open interval: A function is said to be continuous on an open interval (a, b) if it is continuous
at every point in the interval.
2. Closed interval: A function is said to be continuous on a closed interval [a, b] if it is
(a) continuous in (a, b)
(b) right Antonio’s at x = a lim+ f (x) = f (a)and left-continuous at x = b lim− f (x) = f (b)
x→a x→b

1.2.2 Properties
1. Algebra: If the functions f (x) and g(x) are continuous at a point x = a then the following
functions:
ˆ f (x) + g(x)
ˆ f (x) · g(x)
ˆ f (x) / g(x)
are continuous at the point x = a

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 2. Composition: If a function g(x) is continuous at a point x = a and the function f (x) is
continuous at the point x = g(a) then the composite function
f og(x) or f (g(x))
is continuous at the point x = a
3. Pay-back: If lim f (x) = L and the function g(x) is continuous at the point x = L then
x→a
 
lim g(f (x)) = g lim f (x) = g(L)
x→a x→a

1.2.3 Nice functions

The following are the nice functions which are continuous on the closed interval of their domain.
1. Polynomials
2. Rational powers
3. Trigonometric and their inverses
4. Hyperbolic and their inverses
5. Exponentials and Logarithms
6. Absolute valued

1.3 The Derivative


df 
The derivative of a function f (x) at a point x = a denoted by  is defined as
dx x=a

df  f (x + ∆x) − f (x)
 = lim
dx x=a ∆x→0 ∆x

if the limit exists, and is said the function f (x) is differentiable at the point x = a.
which can also be written as 
df  f (x) − f (a)
= lim
x−a

dx x=a
 x→a

If a function f (x) has derivative at every point in its domain then we can define a function that
maps every point x in the domain to the derivative of the function f (x) at the same point. This
df
function is denoted by and is called derivative function (or simply derivative) of the function
dx
f (x).
df f (x + ∆x) − f (x)
= lim
dx ∆x→0 ∆x
Other notations of derivatives are as follows:

d d dn d 
ˆ Leibniz’s notation: f∼ y∼ f∼ 
dx dx dx dx x=a
ˆ Lagrange’s notation: f 0 ∼ y 0 ∼ f n ∼ f n (a)
ˆ Newton’s notation: f˙ ∼ ẏ ∼ f¨ ∼ f˙(a)

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 ˆ Euler’s notation: Dx f ∼ Dx y ∼ Dxn f ∼ Dx f (a)

THEOREM: If a function f (x) has a derivative (or is differentiable at a point x = a then it is

certainly continuous at the same point but vice-versa is not true.

1.3.1 Differentiability in intervals

1. Open interval: A function is said to differentiable on an open interval (a, b) if it is continuous
at every point in the interval.
2. Closed interval: The differentiability of a function f (x) cannot be defined (or is ill-defined)
on a closed interval [a, b] since it is problematic to define the derivative of a function at the
endpoints of an interval

1.3.2 Properties
1. Algebra: If the functions f (x) and g(x) are differentiable at a point x = a then the deriva-
tivesunctions f (x) ± g(x), f (x) · g(x)
  
d  df  dg 
ˆ (f ± g) = ±

 
dx 
x=a
dx x=a dx x=a
are continuous at the point x = a
2. Composition: If a function g(x) is differentiable at a point x = a and the function f (x) is
continuous at the point x = g(a) then the derivative of the composite function
f og(x) or f (g(x))
is continuous at the point x = a
3. Pay-back: If x→a
lim f (x) = L and the function g(x) is continuous at the point x = L then
 
lim g(f (x)) = g x→a
x→a
lim f (x) = g(L)

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1.3.3 Best functions

1.4 The Antiderivative

1.4.1 Direct Integration
1.4.2 Integration by substitution
1.4.3 Integration by parts
1.4.4 Integration of quadratic trinomials
1.4.5 Integrating rational functions
1.4.6 Integrating certain irrational functions
1.4.7 Integrating trigonometric functions
1.4.8 One special form
1.4.9 Using reduction formulas
1.4.10 Integrating non-continuous functions

1.5 The Integral

1.5.1 Informal definition
1.5.2 Formal definitions
1.5.3 The fundamental theorem of calculus
1.5.4 Extension of Riemann integrals
1.5.5 Properties of Riemann integrals

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Chapter 2

Multi Variable

2.1 The Limit

2.1.1 Numerical Methods
2.1.2 Analytical Methods

2.2 The Continuity

2.2.1 Continuity in intervals
2.2.2 Properties
2.2.3 Nice functions

2.3 The Derivative

2.3.1 Partial and Directional Derivatives
2.3.2 Differentiability
2.3.3 Theorems
2.3.4 Best functions

2.4 The Integral

2.4.1 Formal definition
2.4.2 Informal definition
2.4.3 Fubini’s theorem for Riemann integrals
2.4.4 Extension of Riemann integrals
2.4.5 Properties of Riemann integrals