2

Applied Linguistics
LANE 423
Introduction
 While we all exhibit inherently human traits of learning, every
individual approaches a problem or learns a set of facts or
organizes a combination of feelings from a unique
Styles and Strategies
perspective

 This chapter deals with cognitive variations in learning a

second language, i.e. variation in

 learning styles that differ across individuals,

 strategies used by individuals to attack particular problems

1 in particular contexts.

Lecturer: Haifa Alroqi

3 4

Process:
Process, Styles, and Strategy
 All human beings engage in certain universal processes.

 Just as we all need air, water, and food for our survival, so do

 In SLA, what do we mean by the terms: all humans of normal intelligence engage in certain levels or
types of learning.
 Process?
 Human beings universally engage in association, transfer,
 Style?
and generalization.
 Strategy?  We all make stimulus-response connections and are driven
by reinforcement.

 Process is characteristic of every human being.

5 6

Style: Style:
 It is a term that refers to consistent tendencies or preferences For example:
within an individual. you might be:
 Styles are those general characteristics of intellectual  more visually oriented,
functioning (and personality type, as well) that
 more tolerant of ambiguity,
 are directly related to a person as an individual,
 more reflective than someone else
 differentiate him/her from someone else.

 these would be the styles that characterize a general or

dominant pattern in your thinking or feeling.

 So styles vary across individuals.

1
 7 8
Strategies:
 They are:
 specific methods of approaching a problem or task,
 modes of operation for achieving a particular end,
 planned designs for controlling and manipulating certain
information.
 They might vary from moment to moment, or from one situation
to another, or even from one culture to another.
 They vary within an individual
 each of us has a number of possible options for solving a particular
problem, and we choose one—or several in sequence—for a given
problem.
9 10
Learning Styles
 It happened to Brown (2007)! As he tells it:
 With a style that tends to be generally tolerant of ambiguity, I first told myself
not to get flustered, and to remain calm in spite of my fatigue and frustration.
 My left-brain style told me to take practical, logical steps and to focus only
on the important details of the moment.
 Simultaneously, my sometimes equally strong natural tendency to use a right-
brain approach allowed me to empathize with airport personnel and to use
numerous alternative communicative strategies to get messages across.
 I was reflective enough to be patient with miscommunications and my
inability to communicate well,
 yet impulsive to the extent that I needed to insist on some action as soon as
possible.
11
Learning Styles
 The way we learn things in general and the way we attack a
problem seem to depend on a rather vague link between
personality and cognition.
 This link is refereed to as Cognitive style
 When cognitive styles are specifically related to an
educational context, where affective and physiological
factors are mixed, they are usually more generally referred to
as learning styles.
Learning Styles
 Suppose you are visiting a foreign country whose
language you don't speak or read.
 You have landed at the airport and your contact
person, whose name you don't know, is not there to
meet you.
 To top it off, your luggage is missing.
 It's 3:00 a.m. and no one in the airport staff speaks
English or Arabic.
 What would you do?
Learning Styles
 There is obviously no single solution to this complex problem
 Your solution will be based to a great extent on the styles you
happen to have(e.g. tolerant of ambiguity, reflective, field
independent, etc.)
 If you are tolerant of ambiguity, you will not easily get flustered or
nervous by your unfortunate circumstances.
 If you are reflective, you will exercise patience and not jump quickly
to a conclusion about how to approach the situation.
 If you are field independent, you will focus on the necessary and
relevant details and not be distracted by surrounding but irrelevant
details.
12
Learning Styles
 So, what are learning styles?
 According to Keefe (1979):
They are the ―cognitive, affective, and physiological traits
that are relatively stable indicators of how learners perceive,
interact with, and respond to the learning environment.‖
 According to Skehan (199):
A learning style is "a general predisposition, voluntary or not,
toward processing information in a particular way."
2
 13 14

Learning Styles Learning Styles

Learning styles mediate between:

 Emotion
 People's styles are determined by the way they
 Cognition
internalize their total environment.
EXAMPLE:
 A reflective style always grows out of a reflective personality
 However, the internalization process is not strictly
or a reflective mood.
cognitive; it is also physical & affective.
 An impulsive style usually arises out of an impulsive emotional
state.

15 16

Learning Styles Learning Styles

Ehrman and Leaver (2003) listed the following Learning styles to SLA:
Are styles stable traits in adults?
1. Field independence-dependence
It would appear that:
2. Random (non-linear) vs. sequential (linear)
3. Global vs. particular
 Individuals show general tendencies toward one style or
4. Inductive vs. deductive
another
5. Synthetic vs. analytic
6. Analogue vs. digital

 However, differing contexts will evoke differing styles in the 7. Concrete vs. abstract
8. Leveling vs. sharpening
same individual.
9. Impulsive vs. reflective

17 18

Field Independence Field Independence

Field Independent(FI) Style:

 It is a person’s ability to perceive a particular,

relevant item or factor in a "field" of distracting
items.

3
 19 20

Field Independence Field Independence

An FI style enables a person to:

Field Independent Style:
 distinguish parts from a whole (Monkey coloring book)

 concentrates on something (like reading a book in a noisy

In general psychological terms,
train station)
 that ―field‖ may be perceptual,
 analyzes separate variables without the contamination of
 or it may be more abstract and refer to a set of neighboring variables
thoughts, ideas, or feelings from which your task
is to perceive specific relevant subsets.

21 22

Field Independence Field Independence

Too much FI may result in:

Field Dependent (FD) Style :
 cognitive "tunnel vision":

you see only the parts and not their relationship to the
 you perceive the whole picture, the larger view,
whole.
the general configuration of a problem or idea or
 ―You can't see the forest for the trees" .
event.

23 24

Field Independence Field Independence

FI/FD Styles
FI/FD Styles
FI/D literature has shown:

It is clear, then, that both FI and FD are necessary for

 FI increases as a child matures to adulthood
most of the cognitive and affective problems people
 A person tends to be dominant in one mode or the other
face.
 FI/D is a relatively stable trait in adulthood.

4
 25 26

Field Independence Field Independence

FI/FD Styles
FI/FD Styles
A democratic, industrialized, competitive society with
Cross-culturally, the extent of the development of a 

freer raising norms = (FI)

FI/D style as children mature is a factor of the type
of society and home in which the child is raised.
 Authoritarian or agrarian societies, which are usually
highly socialized and utilize strict raising practices = (FD)

27 28

Field Independence Field Independence

Persons who are FI tend to be generally more Persons who are FD tend to be:
 more socialized

 Independent  derive their self-identity from persons around them

 are usually more empathic (being able to understand

 Competitive
other’s feelings and problems) and perceptive of the
 Self-confident
feelings and thoughts of others

29 30

Field Independence Field Independence

FI Student Characteristics
 They have no problem concentrating amid noise and confusion.
 They enjoy analyzing grammatical structures.
 They feel they must understand every word of what they read or
hear.
 They think classroom study is the key to effective language learning.
 They prefer working alone to working with other people.
 Receiving feedback from other people really doesn't affect their
learning at all.
FD Student Characteristics
 They need a quiet environment in order to concentrate well.
 They find grammar analysis tedious and boring.
 They don't mind reading or listening in the L2 without understanding
every single word as long as they 'catch' the main idea.
 They think communication is the key to effective language learning.
 They really enjoy working with other people in pairs or groups.
 They find feedback useful as a means of understanding their
problem areas.

5
 31 32

Field Independence Field Independence

The 1st Hypothesis:

FI is closely related to classroom learning that
 How does all this relate to SLA?
involves:

 analysis,
 Two conflicting hypotheses emerged.
 attention to details,

 and mastering of exercises, drills, and other

focused activities.

33 34

Field Independence Field Independence

Support for the 1st hypothesis:

 Naiman et al. (1978) found in a study of English-speaking 8th, The 2nd Hypothesis:
10th , and 12th graders who were learning French in Toronto
that FI correlated positively and significantly with language
success in the classroom. FD persons will, by virtue of their empathy, social
 Other studies (Hansen 1984, Hansen & Stansfield 1983, Hansen outreach, and perception of other people, be
& Stansfield 1981) found relatively strong evidence of a successful in learning the communicative aspects
relationship between FI and cloze test performance, which
of a second language.
requires analytical abilities.

35 36

Field Independence Field Independence

Weaknesses with the 2nd Hypothesis:

 Very little empirical evidence has been gathered to  Which one is important? FD? FI?
support it.

 Why?
 Both
There are no standardized means of measuring FD.

 This hypothesis has largely been confirmed through

anecdotal or observational evidence.

6
 37 38

Field Independence Field Independence

The two hypotheses deal with two different kinds of language
learning:
 The1st kind of learning involves the familiar classroom
activities: drills, exercises, tests, and so forth. Takes place
 In second language learning it may be incorrect to assume
that learners should be either FI or FD as there is no evidence
to prove otherwise.
 It is more likely that persons have general inclinations

within the constraints of the classroom (FI). (tendency to one of the two styles),

 The 2nd kind of learning implies natural, face-to-face  but, given certain contexts, can exercise a sufficient degree

communication, the kind of communication that does not of an appropriate style.

occur in the average language classroom (FD).

39 40

Field Independence Field Independence

 The responsibility of the learner is to use the

 In a review of several decades of research on FI/D,
appropriate style for the context.
Hoffman (1997) concluded that further research
should be pursued before the hypothesis that
 The responsibility of the teacher is to understand there is a relationship between FD/I and SLA is
the preferred styles of each learner and to sow abandoned.
the seeds for flexibility.

41 42

Left- and Right- Brain Dominance Left- and Right- Brain Dominance

 As the child's brain matures, various functions  The left hemisphere is associated with logical, analytical thought,
with mathematical and linear processing of information.
become lateralized to the left or right hemisphere

of the brain.  The right hemisphere perceives and remembers visual, tactile, and
auditory images; it is more efficient in processing holistic,
integrative, and emotional information.

 Torrance (1980) lists several characteristics of left- and right-brain

dominance. (See Table 5.1., p. 125)

7
 43 44

Left- and Right- Brain Dominance Left- and Right- Brain Dominance

 Although there are many differences between left-  The left-/right-brain construct helps to define
and right-brain characteristics, it is important to another useful learning style continuum, with
remember that the left and right hemispheres implications for second language learning and
operate together as a ―team‖. teaching.

45 46

Left- and Right- Brain Dominance Left- and Right- Brain Dominance
Stevick (1982) concluded that:
Studies in 2nd Language Acquisition:

 left-brain-dominant second language learners

Krashen, Seliger, and Hartnett (1974) found support for the are better at producing separate words, gathering the specifics of

hypothesis that : language, carrying out sequences of operations, and dealing with
abstraction, classification, labeling, and reorganization.
 left-brain-dominant second language learners preferred a
 right-brain-dominant learners
deductive style of teaching
appear to deal better with whole images , with generalizations, with
 right-brain-dominant learners appeared to be more
metaphors, and with emotional reactions and artistic expressions.
successful in an inductive classroom environment

47 48

Left- and Right- Brain Dominance Left- and Right- Brain Dominance

 It can be suggested that there could be a greater need to  So how do left- and right-brain functioning differs
perceive the whole meaning in the early stages of learning
from FI and FD?
the second language, and to analyze and monitor oneself
more in the later stages.

8
 49 50

Left- and Right- Brain Dominance Ambiguity Tolerance

 While few studies have set out explicitly to correlate the two
factors, intuitive observation of learners and conclusions from
studies of both hemispheric preference and FI/D show a A third style concerns the degree to which you are
strong relationship. cognitively willing to tolerate ideas and
 SO, conclusions that were drawn for FI and FD generally propositions that run counter to your own belief
apply well for left- and right-brain functioning, respectively.
system or structure of knowledge.
 FI ------ Left brain dominant

 FD----- Right brain dominant

51 52

Ambiguity Tolerance Ambiguity Tolerance

 The1st Style (Ambiguity Tolerance):

Some people are relatively open-minded in accepting

ideologies and events and facts that contradict their own
 Advantages and disadvantages are present in
views

 The 2nd Style (Ambiguity Intolerance): each style.

 Some people are closed-minded and dogmatic (someone who
is dogmatic is completely certain of their beliefs and expects
other people to accept them without arguing);

 they tend to reject items that are contradictory or slightly

incongruent with their existing system

53 54

Ambiguity Tolerance Ambiguity Tolerance

Advantages  In second language learning, a great amount of apparently

A person who is tolerant of ambiguity is:
 free to entertain a number of innovative and creative
possibilities
 Successful language learning necessitates tolerance of such
 not cognitively or affectively disturbed by ambiguity
and uncertainty.
contradictory information is encountered: words that differ
from the native language, exceptions when it comes to rules,
etc.
ambiguities, at least for temporary periods or stages, during
which time ambiguous items are given a chance to become
resolved.

9
 55 56

Ambiguity Tolerance Ambiguity Tolerance

Disadvantages:
Too much tolerance of ambiguity can have a damaging effect.
 People can become "wishy-washy," (someone who is wishy-washy does
not have firm or clear ideas and seems unable to decide what they want)
accepting virtually every proposition before them, not efficiently  Intolerance of ambiguity also has its advantages
subsuming necessary facts into their cognitive organizational structure.
and disadvantages.
 Such excess tolerance has the effect of hampering or preventing
meaningful inclusion of ideas.
 Linguistic rules, for example, might not be effectively integrated into a
whole system; rather, they may be gulped down in meaningless chunks
learned by rote.

57 58

Ambiguity Tolerance Ambiguity Tolerance

Advantages
 A certain intolerance at an optimal level enables one to:
 close off avenues of hopeless possibilities,
 reject entirely contradictory material, A few research findings are available on ambiguity
 deal with the reality of the system that one has built. intolerance in second language learning.
Disadvantages
 If ambiguity is perceived as a threat; the result is a rigid,
dogmatic, stiff mind that is too narrow to be creative.
(This may be particularly harmful in second language
learning)

59 60

Ambiguity Tolerance Ambiguity Tolerance

 Naiman et al. (1978) found that ambiguity tolerance was

one of only two significant factors in predicting the success
of their high school learners of French in Toronto.
These findings suggest that ambiguity tolerance
may be an important factor in second language
 Chapelle and Roberts (1986)
learning.
 measured tolerance of ambiguity in learners of English as a second
language in Illinois.

 They found that learners with a high tolerance for ambiguity were
slightly more successful in certain language tasks.

10
 61 62

Reflectivity and Impulsivity Reflectivity and Impulsivity

 Psychological studies have been conducted to

 It is common for people to show in their personalities determine the degree to which, in the cognitive
certain tendencies toward domain, a person tends to make either
 reflectivity sometimes  a quick or gambling (impulsive) guess at an
 and impulsivity at other times. answer to a problem

 or a slower, more calculated (reflective) decision.

63 64

Reflectivity and Impulsivity Reflectivity and Impulsivity

David Ewing (1977) refers to two styles that are
closely related to the reflectivity/impulsivity (R/I)
dimension:
 Systematic Style: Systematic thinkers tend to weigh all the
considerations in a problem, work out all the loopholes, and
then, after extensive reflection, venture a solution.

 Intuitive styles: An intuitive thinker makes a number of

 Systematic Style different gambles on the basis of ―hunches/ guesses‖, with
possibly several successive gambles before a solution is
 Intuitive styles
achieved.

65 66

Reflectivity and Impulsivity Reflectivity and Impulsivity

Studies:
 It has been found that children who are conceptually

 The implications for language acquisition are reflective tend to make fewer errors in reading than
impulsive children (Kagan, 1965).
numerous.
 Impulsive persons are usually faster readers, and
eventually master the "psycholinguistic guessing game"
(Goodman, 1970) of reading so that their impulsive style of
reading may not necessarily deter comprehension.

11
 67 68

Reflectivity and Impulsivity Reflectivity and Impulsivity

Studies:
 In another study (Kagan, Pearson & Welch, 1966),
inductive reasoning was found to be more effective with  Most of the research to date on this cognitive
reflective persons, suggesting that generally reflective
style has looked at American, monolingual,
persons could benefit more from inductive learning
English-speaking children.
situations.

 Matching Familiar Figures Test

69 70

Reflectivity and Impulsivity Reflectivity and Impulsivity

A few studies have related R/I to second language

learning.  Jamieson (1992), who conducted a study on adult ESL
learners, found that "fast-accurate" learners, or good
 Doron (1973) found that among her sample of adult
guessers, were better language learners as measured by
learners of ESL in the USA, reflective students were slower
the standardized Test of English as a Foreign Language.
but more accurate than impulsive students in reading.

 In another study of adult ESL students, Abraham (1981)

concluded that reflection was weakly related to  However, Jamieson warned against assuming that

performance on a proofreading task. impulsivity always implies accuracy. Some of her subjects
were fast and inaccurate.

71 72

Reflectivity and Impulsivity Reflectivity and Impulsivity

 Teachers tend to judge mistakes too harshly, especially in

the case of a learner with an impulsive style who may be
 R/I has some important considerations for more willing than a reflective person to gamble at an

classroom second language learning and answer.

teaching.
 On the other hand, a reflective person may require
patience from the teacher, who must allow more time for
the student to struggle with responses.

12
 73 74

Reflectivity and Impulsivity Visual, Auditory, and Kinesthetic Styles

 It is also conceivable that those with impulsive styles may  Visual learners tend to prefer reading and studying
go through a number of rapid transitions of charts, drawings, and other graphic information.
semigrammatical stages of SLA.

 Auditory learners prefer listening to lectures and

 Reflective persons tend to remain longer at a particular audiotapes.
stage with "larger" leaps from stage to stage.

 Kinesthetic learners will show a preference for

demonstrations and physical activity involving bodily
movement.

75 76

Visual and Auditory Styles Visual and Auditory Styles

Joy Reid (1987), who conducted a study of adult learners of
 when learners are given some freedom to choose their
ESL, found a number of significant cross-cultural differences in
preferred way of learning, they will do better than those who
visual and auditory styles.
find themselves forced to learn in environments where a
learning style which does not suit them is imposed as the  By means of a self-reporting questionnaire, the subjects

only way to learn rated their own preferences.

 Most successful learners utilize both visual and auditory input,  The students rated statements like:

but slight preferences one way or the other may distinguish  "When I read instructions, I learn them better"

one learner from another  "I learn more when I make drawings as I study"

on a five-point scale ranging from "strongly agree" to "strongly

disagree."

77 78

Visual and Auditory Styles Visual and Auditory Styles

Joy Reid’s findings

Joy Reid’s findings
 Korean students were significantly more visually  Some of the preferences of her subjects were a factor of:
oriented than native English-speaking Americans.  gender

 length of time in the US

 academic field of study

 Japanese students were the least auditory
 level of education.
students, significantly less auditory than Chinese
and Arabic students.

13
 79 80

Strategies Strategies

The field of SLA has distinguished between

What are strategies?
 If styles are general characteristics that differentiate one two types of strategies:
individual from another, then strategies are those specific
"attacks" that we make on a given problem, and that vary  Learning strategies
considerably within each individual.
 Communication strategies
 They are the moment-by-moment techniques that we
employ to solve ―problems‖ posed by second language
input and output.

81 82

Strategies Strategies

Learning strategies: relate to:

History on the study of second language learners' strategies
 input
 We saw that many learners seemed to be successful
 processing, storage, and retrieval
regardless of methods or techniques of teaching.
 taking in messages from others
 We begun to see the importance of individual variation in
language learning
Communication strategies: relate to:
 Certain people appeared to be endowed with abilities to
 output
succeed; others lacked those abilities.
 how we productively express meaning
 Researchers started to describe ―good‖ language learners in
 how we deliver messages to others.
terms of personal characteristics, styles, strategies.

83 84

Strategies Strategies

Rubin (Rubin & Thompson, 1982) later summarized fourteen Good language learners:
6. Use mnemonics and other memory strategies to recall what has
such characteristics. been learned
Good language learners: 7. Make errors work for them and not against them
1. find their own way, taking charge of their learning. 8. Use linguistic knowledge, including knowledge of their first
language, in learning a second language
2. organize information about language. 9. Use contextual cues to help them in comprehension
10. Learn to make intelligent guesses
3. are creative, developing a "feel" for the language by experimenting
11. Learn chunks of language as wholes and formalized routines to
with its grammar and words. help them perform "beyond their competence"
4. Make their own opportunities for practice in using the language 12. Learn certain tricks that help to keep conversations going
13. Learn certain production strategies to fill in gaps in their own
inside and outside the classroom
competence
5. Learn to live with uncertainty by not getting flustered and by 14. Learn different styles of speech and writing and learn to vary their
language according to the formality of the situation
continuing to talk or listen without understanding every word.

14
 85 86

Learning Strategies Learning Strategies

 One of the most comprehensive research of this kind was

They divided strategies into three main categories:
conducted by Michael O'Malley and Anna Chamot and
colleagues.  Metacognitive

 Cognitive

 They studied the use of strategies by learners of ESL in the

 Socioaffective
United States.

87 88

Learning Strategies Learning Strategies

Metacognitive strategies : Metacognitive strategies (p. 134)

These strategies involve:  Advanced organizers

 planning for learning,  Directed attention

 Selective attention
 thinking about the learning process as it is taking place,
 Self-management
 monitoring of one's production or comprehension,
 Functional planning
 and evaluating learning after an activity is completed
 Self-monitoring

 Delayed production

 Self evaluation

89 90

Learning Strategies Learning Strategies

Cognitive Strategies (134-135):

Cognitive strategies :  Repetition

These strategies are more limited to specific  Resourcing

 Translation
learning tasks and involve more direct
 Grouping
manipulation of the learning material itself.
 Note taking

 Deduction

 Imagery

 Keyword

15
 91 92

Learning Strategies Learning Strategies

Socioaffective Socioaffective (p. 135):

These strategies have to do with social-mediating  Cooperation

activity and interacting with others.  Question for clarification

(Note that this is actually a communication strategy)

93 94

Communication Strategies Communication Strategies

 While learning strategies deal with the receptive domain of  Research of the last decade focused largely on the

intake, memory, storage, and recall, compensatory nature of communication strategies.

 communication strategies pertain to the employment of  More recent approaches seem to take a more positive view

verbal or nonverbal mechanisms for the productive of communication strategies as elements of an overall

communication of information. strategic competence in which learners bring to bear all the
possible facets of their growing competence in order to send
clear messages in the second language.

95 96

Communication Strategies Communication Strategies

1.
 Perhaps the best way to understand what is meant by
communication strategy is to look at two examples of
such strategies:
Avoidance Strategies
A voidance is a common communication
strategy that can be broken down into several
subcategories and thus distinguished from other

 Avoidance Strategies types of strategies:

 Compensatory Strategies  Syntactic or lexical avoidance

 Phonological avoidance

 Topic avoidance

16
 97 98

Communication Strategies Communication Strategies

Syntactic or lexical avoidance Phonological avoidance:
Example:
L: I lost my road. Example:
N: What?
L: I lost my road A Japanese learner who wanted to say ―He’s a liar,‖ but with
N: you lost your road?
the difficulty of the initial /l/ sound in English, chose instead
L: Ahh, … uh, … I lost myself, … I got lost …
N: Oh, you lost your way. to say ―He did not speak the truth.‖
L: Oh, yeas, … I lost my way.
 When a learner could not think of ―I lost my way,‖ he
paraphrased the sentence ―I got lost‖

99 100

Communication Strategies Communication Strategies

Topic Avoidance: 2. Compensatory Strategies

A more direct type of avoidance is topic avoidance, in which a topic
of conversation (say talking about what happened yesterday if the  There are many types of strategies under this
past tense is unfamiliar) might be avoided entirely:
category (see Brown, 2007, Table 5.3, p. 138)
 changing the subject,

 pretending not to understand (a classical means for avoiding

including the following:
answering a question),

 simply not responding at all,

 or noticeably abandoning a message when a thought

becomes too difficult to continue expressing.

101 102

Communication Strategies Communication Strategies

 Circumlocution: Describing or exemplifying the target object  Literal translation: Translating literally a lexical item, idiom,
of action (e.g., the thing you open bottles with = corkscrew) compound word, or structure from L1 to L2 (e.g. open doors

 Approximation: Using an alternative term which expresses to many problem‖

the meaning of the target lexical item as closely as possible  Stalling or time-gaining strategies: Using fillers or hesitation
(e.g., monkey for chimpanzee, gorilla, etc) devices to fill pauses and to gain time to think (e.g., well,

 Use of all-purpose words: Extending a general, empty lexical now let's see, uh, as a matter of fact)

item to contexts where specific words are lacking (e.g., the

overuse of thing, stuff, what-do-you-call-it, thingie)

17
 103 104

Communication Strategies Communication Strategies

Prefabricated patterns: Appeal for help:

 Using memorized stock phrases or chunks of language,  Asking for aid from the interlocutor
which are often found in pocket bilingual phrase books,
 either directly (e.g. what do you call …?)
without internalized knowledge of their components.
 or indirectly (e.g. rising intonation, pause, eye contact,
 Such phrases are memorized by rote to fit their appropriate
puzzled expression).
context
 Using this strategy, learners may also venture a possible
Examples: ―how much does this cost‖ ―where is the toilet‖ ―I
guess and then ask for verification from the native speaker
don’t speak English‖
of the correctness of the attempt or appeal to a bilingual
dictionary for help.

105 106

Communication Strategies
Strategies-Based Instruction
Code-switching:
 Often code-switching subconsciously occurs between two
 Much of the work of researchers and teachers on
advanced learners with a common first language, but in such a
case, usually not a compensatory strategy. the application of both learning and
 Learners in the early stages of acquisition, however, might code- communication strategies to classroom learning
switch to- use their native language to fill in missing knowledge.
has come to be known as :
 When it all else fails, when strategies are all incapable of producing
a meaningful utterance – a learner may resort to language switch.
 Strategies-based instruction (SBI)
That is, he may simply use his native language whether the hearer
knows the native language or not.

 Sometimes just a word or two are slipped in, in the hope that the
hearer will get the gist of what is being communicated.

107 108

Strategies-Based Instruction Strategies-Based Instruction

 As we seek to make the language classroom an

Wenden (1985) was among the first to assert that:
effective environment for learning, it has become
increasingly apparent that ―teaching learners  learner strategies are the key to learner autonomy
how to learn‖ is crucial. (independence),

 one of the most important goals of language

teaching should be the facilitation of that
autonomy.

18
 109 110

Strategies-Based Instruction Strategies-Based Instruction

 Teachers can benefit from an understanding of

It has been found that students will benefit from SBI
what makes learners successful and unsuccessful,
and establish in the classroom an environment for if they:

the realization of successful strategies.

1. understand the strategy itself
 Teachers cannot always expect instant success in
that effort since students often bring with them 2. perceive it to be effective

certain preconceived notions of what "ought" to 3. do not consider its implementation to be overly
go on in the classroom. difficult

111 112

Strategies-Based Instruction Strategies-Based Instruction

 Several different models of SBI are now being

 SO, it is recommended that we teach students
practiced in language classes around the
some technical know-how about how to
world.
tackle a language.

113

Thank You

19