Chapter 1 – Crime, Criminal Justice and Scientific Inquiry

Sexual Assault in Jails and Prisons (pgs. 3-4)

Prison Rape Elimination Act (2003)
Enhanced penalties for sexual violence in most detention facilities and required the
Department of Justice to collect systematic data on the problem
County Misreports Data about Sexual Violence in Juvenile Jails
Sexual assault continues to be a problem in San Diego, CA
Allen Beck and Associates (2010)
Report describing data collected by DOJ
4% of prison inmates, 3% of jail inmates were victims of sexual assault in
previous 12 or since being admitted to facility
3% of prison inmates, 2% of jailed had sex with staff, often willingly
Nancy La Vigne et all from Urban Institute (2011)
Research on how to prevent assault in jails
Improve supervision of inmates and correctional officers
Install surveillance cameras
Train officers in crisis intervention

National Criminal Justice Reference Service established in 1972 (pg. 4)

Archive and distribute research reports to criminal justice professionals and researchers around
the world
Center for Problem Oriented Policing
Created to share applied research on a variety of law enforcement problems

Home Detention (pg. 5)

ELMO – home detention with electronic monitoring
Adopted as an alternative punishment in 1980s
Comprehensive evaluations done in Marion County, IN, studied 3 groups of
people: convicted adult offenders, adults charged with a crime awaiting trial,
juveniles convicted of burglary or theft.
Two Realities (pg. 6)
Experiential reality – things we know from direct experience
Ex. Research projects that produce alternative views about law enforcement practice
Agreement reality – things we consider real because we’ve been told they were real and
everyone agrees they are real
Ex. Preventive police patrol – traditional beliefs about police effectiveness, response
time and detective work
O.W. Wilson
Patrol was indispensable in preventing crime by eliminating incentives and opportunities
for misconduct
1967 Report – President Lyndon Johnson’s President’s Commission on Law Enforcement and
Administrations of Justice
Heart of police effort against crime is patrol
Police Foundation – Kansas City Preventive Patrol Experiment
Compared police beats with 3 levels of preventive patrol: control beats (one car),
proactive beats (2-3 cars) and reactive beats (no routine patrol)
 No difference in crime rates, citizen satisfaction with police, fear of crime or
other measures of police performance after 1 year
Empirical research – production of knowledge based on experience or observation; way
of learning about a crime and criminal justice (pg. 7)

Role of Science (pg. 7)

Assertion must have both logical and empirical support - must make sense and must agree with
actual observations
Epistemology – the science of knowing
Methodology – the science of finding out; how social science methods can be used to
better understand crime and criminal justice problems

Personal Human Inquiry

Everyday human inquiry draws on personal experience and secondhand authority
Using casual and probabilistic reasoning to predict future circumstances
Recognize that future circumstances are caused or conditioned by present ones
Such patterns of cause and effect are probabilistic in nature: effect occurs when causes
occur
Tradition (pg. 9)
Clear advantage for human inquiry
By accepting what everyone already knows, we’re spared the task of starting from
scratch
Also, may hinder human inquiry, may be marked as fools for seeking a newer
understanding
Authority
Can both help and hurt human inquiry
Trust judgement of those with special training, expertise and credentials when
questioned
But also hindered by legitimate authorities who err in their own judgement
Ex. Arrest and Domestic Violence (pg. 8)
1983 study on deterrent effects of arrest om domestic violence cases –
Minneapolis Domestic Violence Experiment
Empirical evidence to support an effective policy in combating domestic
assaults
Study was conducted carefully by highly respected researchers
Results were widely publicized in newspapers, professional
journals and TV
Officials could understand the study and believe it made sense
Mandating arrest was straightforward and politically attractive
approach
Within 5 years more than 80% of law enforcement agencies adopted
arrest as the preferred way of responding to assaults
US National Institute of Justice wanted experiments in other cities (replications)
3 cities no deterrent was found; Other cities, no deterrent for longer
periods (6-12 months); 3 cities, violence escalated when offender was
arrested
Errors in Personal Human Inquiry (pg. 10)
Inaccurate Observations
Keystone of inquiry is observation; have to know the what before we can explain the why
Scientific observation, carefully directed activity
Overgeneralization
Tendency to overgeneralize is greatest when there is pressure to reach a general understanding
Also occurs in absence of pressure
Guard against overgeneralization when committing in advance to a large sample of observations
and by being attentive to how representative those observations are
Replication – repeating a study and checking to see whether similar results are obtained after
time; can be repeated under slightly different conditions and locations
Selective Observation
Once concluded that a particular pattern exists and have a general understanding of why, we
focus on future events that correspond with the pattern and ignore others that do not
Illogical Reasoning
“the exception that proves the rule”
Exception can draw attention to a rule but no system of logic can it prove the rule it
contradicts
“gambler’s fallacy”
Consistent run of either good or bad luck is presumed to foreshadow its opposite. Ex. “A
winning had is just around the corner” during a losing streak
Ideology and Politics
Ideology or political views can undermine objectivity in the research process
Samuel Walker
“the basic problem is that faith triumphs over facts”
To Err is Human
Social science differs from casual day-to-day inquiry in 2 important respects
Social science inquiry is a conscious activity; make a conscious effort to observe and stay
alert while doing so
Social science inquiry is a more careful process than our casual efforts; we are warier of
making mistakes and take special precautions to avoid doing so

Purposes of Research (pg. 12)

Exploration
Exploratory research – research is conducted to explore a specific problem such as policy issue
little is known about, innovative approach to policing, court management or corrections
Studies focus more on developing a preliminary understanding about a problem (pg. 12)
Data collection, exploratory questions asked
Can be simple or complex using a variety of methods
Description
Describe the scope of the crime problem or policy responses to the problem
Descriptive research – researcher/public official observes and then describes what was
observed (pg. 13)
Descriptive studies are often concerned with counting or documenting observations
Ex. FBI compiled UCR (Uniform Crime Report) since the 1930s; depicts crime in the US
 Ex. Since 1850, federal government conducted annual census of prisoners in state and
local correctional facilities
Basic characteristics of a population
Ex. Heith Copes, Andy Hochstetler and Michael Cherbonneau (2012) – described how
carjackers use different techniques to overcome victim resistance
Explanation
Explanatory research – reporting the why (pg. 13)
Application
Applied research – stems from a need for specific facts ad findings with policy implications (pg.
13)
Two types
Evaluation
Evaluate the effects; comparing the goals of a program with the results
Evaluation research uses social science methods to test the results of
some program on policy change
Problem analysis
What-if questions; focus on future events; tries to anticipate the future
consequences of alternative actions
Ron Clark and John Eck (2005)
Comprehensive guide for applied research
How to Design a Research Project
The Research Process
Interests, ideas, theories and new programs – possible beginning points for a line of research
Getting Started
What is your objective
Conceptualization (pg. 17)
Specify all the concepts you wish to study
Choice of Research Method
Variety of methods are available with their own strengths and weaknesses
Often the best study design is one that uses more than one research method
Operationalization
Concrete steps, or operations, used to measure specific concepts; Measurement procedures
Population and Sampling
Whom or what to study, draw conclusions
Observations
Collect empirical data
Analysis
Manipulate the collected data for the purpose of drawing conclusions that reflect upon on the
interests, ideas and theories that initiated the inquiry
Feedback may initiate another cycle of inquiry
Application
Final stage; using the research conducted and conclusions reached
Communicate findings; prepare written report
Thinking about Research Problems
 Difficult part of research involves specifying and framing your interest in a particular problem or
question
What are you interested in understanding
Getting Ideas about Research Topics (pg. 20)
Do an Internet Search, Use Specialized Tools
Google Scholar vs. Google
Replicate an Existing Study
Jacqueline Berenson and Paul Appelbaum (2010) replicated sex offender distance study
Follow up on Recommendations for Further Research
Norman White and Rolf Loeber (2008)
Ask you Professor

Reviewing the Literature

Organize search around key concepts you wish to study
General Strategies
Process of accumulating, sorting through and synthesizing information
Build on previous studies
Getting Started
Book/article that deals with topic (source document)
Expanding – consulting readings from source or find later research based on source document
Reference Google Scholar
Being Selective
Google Scholar can limit you to academic journals
Branch out to other material types such as government reports or studies by other organizations
Ronald Clarke and Phyllis Schultze (2005)
Critical of information found on the web
Meriam Library at California State University Chico (2010)
CRAAP test – currency, relevance, authority, accuracy, purpose
Using a Library
Critical resources for research
Ronald Clarke and Phyllis Schultze (2005)
Research on crime and justice, Don M. Gottfredson Library of Criminal Justice at Rutgers
Single best library resource available anywhere

How to Read Scholarly Research

Reading a Journal Article
Read the abstract – it tells you the purpose of the research, the methods used and the findings
and serves two functions:
Good ideas whether you will want to read the rest of the article
Establishes a framework within which to read the rest of the article, creates an agenda
After the abstract you might go to summary and/or conclusions; more detailed picture of the
article
Skim the article, note the headings, tables and graphs (should be familiar with the article at this
point
Read the whole, takes notes and skim again once finished
Reading a Book-Length Report (pg. 23)
Research monograph aka book length report
Read preface (more informally than an abstract) and opening chapter lay out the purpose,
methods and main findings
Skim the book, note the chapter headings, tables and graphs (should be familiar with the article
at this point
Read the whole, for each chapter read the opening and concluding paragraphs, skim the chapter
to familiarize yourself and then read entire chapter carefully; repeat process for each

Research Proposal
Describe planned activities and include budget and timeline
Elements of a Research Proposal
Problem or Objective
What do want to study, why is it worth studying, does it contribute to our general
understanding, does it have practical significance
If an evaluation study, this information may already be specified to you
Literature Review
Reviewing what others have said about your topic
Research Questions
What specific questions will your research try to answer, what new information do you
expect to find
Subjects for the Study
Identify subjects and their availability and the impact of the study on them
Possible consent form needed
Measurement
What are the key variables in the study and how will you define and measure them
Data Collection Methods
How will you collect data, will you observe behavior directly or conduct a survey?
Field research or reanalysis of data collected by others
Analysis
Describe kind of analysis; spell out purpose and logic of analysis
References
List all materials consulted and cited in proposal
Schedule
Provide schedule for various stages of research
Timeline for accomplishments to keep self on track
Budget
Will need to provide a budget if asking for others to support
Categories include personnel, equipment, supplies, expenses, office supplies,
photocopying, transportation, etc.
Chapter 2 – Foundations of Criminal Research
Foundations of Social Science (pg. 31)
Science sometimes characterized as logicoempirical
Two pillars of science: logic/rationality and observation
Scientific understanding of the world - Must make sense and must agree with what we observe
Essential to social science and relate to three key aspects of overall scientific enterprise
Theory, data collection and analysis
Scientific theory deals with the logical aspect of science
data collection deals with observational aspect
data analysis looks for patterns in what was observed
Theory, not a Philosophy or Belief
Cannot settle debates on value or worth
Can only assist in what is and why
Regularities
Social science - find patterns of regularity in social life, assuming life is regular and not chaotic
Vast number of norms and rules create regularity
What About Exceptions
Objection that there are always exceptions to any social regularity does not mean that the
regularity itself is unimportant
Social regularities represent probabilistic patterns and a general pattern does not have to be
reflected in 100% of the observable cases to be a pattern
Aggregates, not Individuals
Social scientists study social pattern rather than individual patterns
All regular patterns reflect the aggregate or combined actions and situations of many individuals
Focus on aggregate rather than individual distinguishers CJ researchers from daily
routines of most CJ practitioners.
Purpose is to explain why aggregate patterns of behavior are so regular even
when individuals change over time
Seeks not to explain people but the systems within which people operate
Variable Language
Natural instincts to understand take place at the concrete, idiosyncratic level
Try to understand the thoughts of a particular concrete individual
Social science goes beyond and tries to seek insight into classes or types of individuals
Attempt to make sense out of more than just one person
Variables and Attributes (pg. 34)
Social scientific theories are written in variable language, people are carriers of these variables
Attributes – characteristics or qualities that describe some object such as a person; any quality
we use to describe someone or ourselves is an attribute; ex. Male/female, dentist, professor
Variables – logical grouping of attributes; ex. Gender, occupation
Variables and Relationships
Notion of causation – a person’s attributes on one variable are expected to cause or encourage a
particular attribute on another variable; ex. Having an attorney = sentenced to probation vs.
public defender = sentenced to prison
Dependent variable – variable caused by another variable
Independent variable – cause or determine a dependent variable
Differing Avenues for Inquiry (pg. 37)
Idiographic and Nomothetic Explanations
Idio - unique, separate, peculiar, distinct
Idiographic – mode of casual reasoning that seeks detailed understanding of all factors
that contribute to a particular phenomenon; more specific cases
Nomothetic – seeks to explain a class of situations rather than a single one; broad, less
detailed universals
Rick Brown and Ron Clarke (2004) – studied thefts of a particular Nissan truck
Pierre Tremblay, Bernard Talon and Doug Hurley (2001) – theory of offending people
helped explain different types of offender networks
Inductive and Deductive Reasoning
Inductive reasoning (induction) – moves from the specific to the general, form as set of
particular observations to the discovery of a pattern that represents some degree of
order among the varied events under examination
Deductive reasoning (deduction) – moves from the general to the specific, moves from
a pattern that might be logically or theoretically expected to observations that test
whether the expected pattern actually occurs in the real world
Quantitative and Qualitative Data
Quantitative – numerical data; quantitative makes observations more explicit, easier to
aggregate and summarize data
Requires focusing energy on specifying meaning
Qualitative – nonnumerical data; most observations are qualitative at the outset

Theory 101
Theory
Systematic explanation for the observed facts and laws that relate to a particular aspect
of life
Joseph Maxwell (2005) – theory as a set pf concepts and the proposed relationship
among these. A structure that is intended to represent or model something about the
world
Objectivity and Subjectivity
Objectivity (intersubjective agreement) – independent of mind; norm of science
whereby different researchers studying the same problem arrive at the same conclusion
Hypotheses
Specified expectation about empirical reality, derived from propositions
Tentative answer to a research question
Paradigms
Fundamental model or scheme that organizes our view of something; structured but
broader way of viewing things that affect how we approach research problems
Tell us where and how often to look for answers
Thomas Kuhn (1996) – “normal science”, important specific progress takes the form of
paradigm shifts, as established agreed-on paradigms are discarded in favor of new ones
The Traditional Model of Science (pg. 42)
Theory plays a critical role
Conceptualization
Ernest Burgess and Robert Park – Chicago’s growth as a pattern of concentric zones, five
on total – 1, 2 were inner core and transition; 3 were homes of working class families; 4
was middle-income residential; 5 was suburban/outer area
Operationalization
Specifying steps, procedures or operations for actually identifying and measuring the
variables we want to observe
Clifford Shaw and Henry McKay – studies that tested the social disorganization
explanation for crime in transition zones
Chose 3 indicators of delinquency
Social disorganizations were measured; indicators pulled from census data and
local agencies
Study illustrates deductive model of scientific research, more realistic and
contemporary research in CJ builds on theoretical view of the relationship
between crime and urban environment
Observation
Looking at the world and making measurements of what is seen
May be structured around the testing of specific hypotheses or the inquiry may be less
structured
In the operationalization process, general concepts are translated into specific indicators
Hypothesis testing – observations aimed at finding out

An Inductive Illustration
Barney Glaser and Anselm Strauss (1967)
Grounded theory – inductive method of theory instruction, based on (grounded in) field
observations
Crime Concentration
Much crime is concentrated among offenders, places, victims, even things that’re stolen
Wolfgang, Figlio, Sellin (1972) – Philadelphia study of youths
Sherman, Gartin and Buerger (1989) -hot spots, area where crime is concentrated
Ken Pease (1998) England – 2% of victims of property crime account for 40% of property
crime victimization
Michael Townsley, Ross Homel and Janet Chaseling (2003)
Two different mechanisms for repeat burglary victimization
Risk heterogeneity – people are repeatedly victimized because of
inherently unequal risks
Event dependency - Offenders learn something about individual homes
after breaking into them
Inductive Theory in Practice
Theory of action – practitioners engage in theory building as they interpret experience
Scientific model of logical reasoning provides a bridge (2-way) between theory and
research

Theory, Research and Public Policy

Theory, research and criminal justice policy linked in two ways
Theory is used to guide basic research
Policies take the form of if-then statements which implies that they are subject
to empirical tests